Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Regionalism in Omani Architecture
During the Petroleum Era
A Muscat Case-Study
Jamal Alzeedi
The University of Queensland
Bachelor of Architecture Thesis
Supervised by Dr. Paul Memmott,
19.Nov.2007
Figure 1: Entrance of the Ministry of Finance and Economy
Source: Damluji 1998, 63.
Abstract
which have been caused by adopting Regionalism as an
This thesis aims to explore the Regionalism architectural architectural trend. The author attempts to present the basic
movement experienced in the Sultanate of Oman in the last knowledge and the necessary associated theories needed to
three decades. Through field investigations and analysis of mediate the paradox between localism and internationalism
legislative governmental building codes the dissertation experienced in Oman. It is proposed that a successful
explores the reasons and forces that established this mediation could reveal a possible resolution for modern
architectural trend, and the factors that maintained it to architecture that acknowledges the essence of the place and
present day,2007. The thesis also presents the architectural its inherited historical and cultural values without conflicting
consequences caused by the rapid transformation in the with globalization, or committing to complete adherence to
i
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge, thank and show his Cowi&Partners L.L.C.
appreciation to the listed individuals and organisations for Hilal Salim Alzeedi
their invaluable time, assistance, support, encouragement and Khalid Alyahmadi
corporation. I am indebted to you for your guidance, effort and Nasser Salim Alzeedi
invaluable time without which this thesis might not have come Nigel Craven
to fruition. Salim Nasser Alzeedi
The Helpful librarians at
Brisbane: the Sultan Qaboos University
Annie Yen
DesignInc Brisbane A special thanks to my thesis advisor Dr. Paul Memmott for
James Davidson his time, wisdom and patience. Finally I send a warm thanks
John Giles to my lovely parents for their love and continuous support.
Paul Memmott
Philip Collins
Stephen Long
The Supportive Librarians at
the University of Queensland
Oman: Peace Be Upon You All
[Islamic Greeting]
Amjad Project Management
Anwar Alshiyady
Bader Abdullah Alzeedi
ii
Statement of Authentication
iii
Urban Planning Proposals of Makiya and Harris in the
Contents 1970s ............................................................................... 24
Building Regulation Manuals and Guidelines ................... 26
Chapter Summary ............................................................ 37
Abstract.................................................................................. i Chapter Three Heritage Structures and Influential
Acknowledgments ...................................................................ii Districts. ......... 39
Statement of Authentication ................................................... iii Introduction....................................................................... 40
Contents.................................................................................iv Vernacular Structures in Muscat ...................................... 40
Figures ................................................................................... v Influential Precincts in Muscat ......................................... 44
Authors Preface.....................................................................vi a. Old Muscat District 44
Terminology ........................................................................ viii b. Ministries District. ...................................................... 48
Chapter One Introduction .............................................. 01 Chapter Summary ............................................................ 55
Aims.................................................................................. 02 Chapter Four Oman between Traditions and
Specific Aims................................................................. 02 Modernity.. ...... 57
Secondary Aims ............................................................ 02 Introduction....................................................................... 58
Methodology and Literature Sources ................................ 03 Traditional Regionalism .................................................... 58
Outline of the Argument.................................................... 05 Regionalism of the Building Codes................................... 59
The Sultanate of Oman..................................................... 06 Critical Regionalism .......................................................... 64
Location, Geography and Climate.......................... 06 Chapter Summary ............................................................ 68
Vernacular Architecture ......................................... 09 Conclusion.......................................................................... 70
History.................................................................... 10 Bibliography.73
The Omani Renaissance........................................ 16 Appendix 1 Vernacular Structures in Muscat .................... 83
People, Culture and Religion Beliefs...................... 17 Appendix 2: State Administrative Buildings in the Ministries
Summary .......................................................................... 19 Precinct ................................................................................ 88
Chapter Two The Birth of Omani Regionalism.............. 20 Appendix 3 Contemporary Buildings in Old Muscat Precinct
Introduction ....................................................................... 21 ............................................................................................. 91
The Enlightened Speeches and Commands of Sultan
Qaboos bin Saeed ............................................................ 21
iv
Figures
v
Authors Preface
vii
after personal matters related to His Majesty Sultan Qaboos.
*1
Terminology They also have a sound voice on other governmental parties
regarding national issues.
woven palm-tree leaves, perforated to allow for cross at the foot of a mountain and channelled underground to a
ventilation (see fig 42 in Chapter 4). nearby village. It was one of the principal water resources for
traditional Omani settlements (see fig 3).
Bin (as in Ahmed Bin Said) : means "the Son of". It is the
naming method in Oman and most Arabian countries. Gulf States or Arabian States: Arabian countries located at
the shore of the Arabian Gulf water. They consist of Oman,
Crenellation: a rampart built around the top of defensive UAE, Qatar, Bahrian, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait and they
structures with regular gaps which was originally used for formed the Gulf Countries Cooperation (GCC). Even though
firing arrows or guns. It is a prominent architectural feature on Yemen is geographically within the Arabian Peninsula, it is not
the traditional Omani skyline. considered one of the Gulf States, yet it recently joined the
GCC. Thus, the architectural discussions concerning the Gulf
Diwan of the Royal Court : could be translated as the Royal States presented in this thesis exclude Yemen.
1
The ( * ) refers to terminologies proposed by the author.
viii
Fig 3, Left, Schematic plan and section of a Falaj. Source: Damluji 1998, 44.
Fig 4, Left Bottom, Plan and section of a traditional house in Sohar showing
the Majlis space. The house has two separate Majlises and courtyards it is
expected to be inhabited by two inter-related families. modified by author.
Source: Al-Lawati 2005, 21.
ix
Mihrab: is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the was purely the decision of the architect (depending on his/her
qibla, i.e. the direction of Kaaba that Muslims should face architectural training) to produce either regionally responsive
when praying. The wall is called the qibla wall. architecture or a random global design. The main concern at
that time was to intensify the construction with less emphasis
Post-Renaissance Architecture*: is an architectural on a particular style.
manifestation underpinned by the authorities'
experimentations in tailoring building codes from the early The Petroleum-Era : is the time when oil was discovered and
1980s. It is characterised by direct incorporation of derived extracted in large quantities in Oman. Even though oil was
elements from Arab/Islamic architecture. It also terminated the first discovered in Oman around mid 1920s, the utilisation of
use of Modernism or Post-Modernism building treatments in oil revenues were modest and not reflective on the national
Muscat. economy until the accession of Sultan Qaboos to power in
1970. The oil-era is thus 1970 to present.
Regionalism: in this thesis refers to a contemporary
architecture employing new technologies and materials to The Omani Renaissance : a significant shift in the political,
produce regionally responsive buildings. economical, educational and in most aspects of Omanis life
underpinned by the accession of Sultan Qaboos to power in
Renaissance Architecture*: architecture established in the 1970.
1970s during the intensive development programs and the
introduction of new materials, mass transportation and new Traditional Regionalism: is in this thesis referring to the
construction methods. It has no defined characteristics as it vernacular architecture of the Omani region.
x
Wadi : a rocky and dry riverbed that contains water only Liberation of Oman". The war ended with victory to Sultan
during rainy seasons, although flash flooding is normally Qaboos against the communists in 1975.
experienced in wadis. The base of Wadi normally has sub-
surface water which is a major source of water for traditional Qaboosian Architecture*: an outstanding contemporary
settlements. architecture that implements traditional Omani-Arab features
harmoniously. It is recognisable style in private and public
Walayat or Wilayah: an administrative division or a province. buildings accomplish by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos.
In this thesis refers to a town.
Sultan: ruler or sovereign of an Islamic country.
Wali: a governor who has the political responsibility over his
Walayat. He represents his Walayats needs and issues in
front of the government.
xi
Introduction
1
Introduction
2
Introduction
Methodology and Literature Sources written and edited mostly by Western educated scholars who
have been working in Oman for governmental or non-
A large body of literature related to the case study was governmental bodies. It was first established in 1975 and it
gathered from public and private libraries in Oman. With few explores issues ranging from the Omani culture, history,
exceptions, many of those literature items were produced or heritage, arts and crafts, traditional buildings and settlements,
edited by scholars with Western oriented education and with archaeology, geography, nature, wild animal species, and
particular interests in the traditions of the country. Despite this habitats. The several volumes of the journal were not used by
relatively small, but important, body of architectural literature, the author for the written part of the thesis, rather, they were
gathered mainly from the libraries of the Sultan Qaboos utilised to gain an informed understanding of the architectural
1
University and the Petroleum Development Oman , almost traditions in Oman, which assisted in briefly discussing the
none is dedicated to exploring the contemporary architectural vernacular architecture of Oman. 2
trends in Oman. Rather, most scholars have investigated
Omans architectural heritage and traditional structures. An important source for the thesis is the book, The
Architecture of Oman, by Salma Damluji (1998). Damluji
For example, the Journal of Oman Studies is an invaluable spent about four years studying and documenting the
source of literature on the heritage of Oman. It is produced traditional architecture of selected towns across all regions in
with cooperation of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture and
2
Detailed discussion of the Omani vernacular is out of the scope of this
1
They are the only two public libraries in Muscat that have Omani thesis. For more detail about the traditional Omani architecture refer to
architectural literature. Related books were also purchased from Damluji (1998), Al Harthy (2005), the architectural articles published in the
bookshops in Muscat and relevant articles were ordered from other Journal of Oman. Several other relevant articles are also listed in the
institutes via the University of Queensland. Bibliography.
3
Introduction
Oman. She produced a comprehensive study and analysis of b. Regulations for Organizing Building compiled by Omans
traditional buildings and vernacular structures in the Sultanate Ministry of Regional Municipality, Environment and Water
as well as a brief study on contemporary buildings in Muscat. Resources (MRMEW 2000) ; and
Damluji dedicated an introductory portion of Chapter Two to c. Omans Developmental Planning Guidelines produced by
the Oil-era architecture. She discusses new buildings and the Supreme Committee of Town Planning (2000).
urban proposals for Muscat advanced by international Other older building guidelines were not available but were
architects in 1970, as well as outlining some of the pervious summarised by both Building Regulation for Muscat (1992)
governmental building regulatory guidelines, which were of and by Dumluji (1998).
high relevance to the thesis. A number of short articles
published throughout the last three decades concerning Most of the photographic images and literature resources
developmental changes in Muscat and their effects on were gathered during a field trip to Muscat in the fall of 2006.
architecture were also of relevance, the most recent of which Photographic analysis of new and old buildings was employed
is which is Smith (1983). to gain an understanding of the contemporary architectural
trends in Muscat. Post-trip analysis then allowed for the
Further investigations of the building regulation guidelines consolidation of initial arguments and the formulation of new
were taken from the guidelines produced by several opinions.
governmental agents. The three building codes obtained by
the author are: Even though the literature was first reviewed by the author at
a. Building Regulation for Muscat produced by Muscat the initial stages of formulating the thesis aims, it is essential
Municipality (1992); to note that the critical discussion of these architectural
4
Introduction
theories has been positioned last in this dissertation as it is Chapter 2 focuses on analysing the direct reasons behind the
more crucial to begin with a thorough examination of the emergence of the current regional architectural trend in
current architectural trends in Oman. Therefore, discussing Oman. It analyses the Royal and governmental emphasis on
the theory of localism and its paradoxical dilemma with preserving the traditions while allowing for modernisation. It
internationalism was derived from papers in the subject of also provides a thorough examination of the processes that
Regionalism and Critical Regionalism. The relevant books and the various governmental building codes went through in the
papers from this field of study were prepared by Liane last 37 years with particular interest in the clauses of
Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis architectural preservation policies. References are made to
(1981,1990,1991a,1991b,2003), and Kenneth Frampton the building regulation guidelines produced by the government
(1980,1983a,1983b,1983c,1991), as well as, Ricoeur (1961), (Muscat Municipality 1992, MRMEW 2000) and Salma S.
Guernier (1999), Colquhoun (1997) and others. Damluji (1998) in her summary of the older policies.
5
Introduction
brings to light the strategies used to address traditional The Sultanate of Oman
architectural elements in contemporary buildings.
Location, Geography and Climate
Chapter 4 provides a critical perspective on the discussed Oman is located in the far east side of the Arabian Peninsula
architectural preservation policies and the architecture and is boarded by the Indian Ocean. From the northern,
produced with reference to the values of Regionalism and western and southern sides, Oman is boarded by the United
Critical Regionalism. It critically evaluates the outcomes of Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Yemen, respectively. It is
these policies in the recent architecture of Muscat. Omans the third largest country in the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi
the thesis findings and possible resolutions. of topography, including mountain ranges, arid deserts,
coastal areas and fertile plains. There are five distinct
geographical regions: Musandam peninsula, Albatinah coastal
strip, Alhajjar mountains, Naj desert and Dhofar (Petersen
1996, 212) (see fig 6).
6
Introduction
7
Introduction
Located at the far north part of Oman, Musandam peninsula is Alwahiba sand, Um Asamim the mother of poison and Rub Al
a rough rocky headland with a hot and humid climate. It is Khali Desert the empty quarter. Finally, Dhofar is a
separated from the rest of the Sultanate by a strip of United mountainous region in the far south-eastern part of Oman. It is
Arab Emirates (UAE) land and encompasses the famous characterised by its tropical climate and it is the only area in
Straits of Hormuz where 90% of the Arabian Gulf's oil is the Arabian Peninsula that experiences the summer monsoon
shipped, to all over the world (Omani Ministry of Information (Petersen, 1996, 212).
2007). The Batinah coastal strip is also a hot and humid area
located at the northern part of the country and is framed by With some reflection on the geographic divisions, Oman
the mountain ranges and the Gulf of Oman. The availability of politically consists of nine Governorates and regions. The
water and land fertility, perhaps, were the reasons for making Governorates are: Dhofar, Muscat, Musandam and AlBuraimi,
Batinah the most densely populated region of Oman. The and the Regions are: AlBatinah, A'Dhahira, A'Dakhliyah, Ash-
Alhajjar mountains belt is a prominent topographical feature, Sharqiyah and AlWusta. Each governorate or region consists
starting from Musandam and running parallel to the coast and of several Wilayat (a state or a town), and each Wilayat is
ending at the outer fringes of Sur. Through Falajs and Wadis 3 managed by a Wali (a governor), who represents his Wilayat
the mountains are the main source of Oman's fresh water as part of the Government (see fig 7).
supply (Parry 1998, 38). Furthermore, some villages at these
mountains enjoy a moderate and relatively cold climate with
fertile lands. The Najd desert, however, is a hot and arid area
comprising of mostly desert and sandy dunes such as
3
Refer to terminology for description.
8
Introduction
Vernacular Architecture 4
4
There are overlaps and more complexity in the locality and settings of
traditional Omani buildings. Detailed discussion of the Omani Vernacular is
out of the scope of this thesis. For more details about the traditional Omani
architecture refer to Damluji (1998), Al Harthy (2005), the architectural
related articles published in the Journal of Oman and several other
Fig 7 : Governorates and Regions of Oman. relevant articles listed in the Bibliography.
5
Source: World Atlas 2007, modified by the author This is commonly seen in AlBatinah Region. Other costal areas
developed heavier materials of clay and mud-brick with big balconies to
catch sea breezes.
9
Introduction
rough shelter under an acacia tree. 6 Conversely, the buildings In the fourth century, the Persian Empire occupied Oman and
in the interior and mountainous areas are normally houses remained in control of the country until Oman embraced Islam
constructed of stone and mud-brick. However, despite the in 630 CE. With the unification established by Islam, the
climatic and geographical differences in Oman, the defensive Persians were defeated, and a period of peace, prosperity
and heavy structure fortification is a common element in most and stability prevailed (Petersen 1996, 213). The maritime
of the regions; it is an architecture that evokes stories and trade, therefore, flourished and the Omani sailors reached
past historical events about the country. India, South-East Asia, China, and East Africa. During that
period, several Omani cities thrived, the most important of
History
which were: Muscat, Sohar, Tiwi, Qalhat and Albalid, with
The earliest settlements in Oman have been dated to 3000 Sohar becoming the greatest sea port in the Islamic world at
BCE, and by 2000 BCE copper was being exported to that time (Oman Information Centre 2007).
Mesopotamia (Petersen 1996, 212). Due to its strategic
location and its long coasts overlooking the Indian Ocean,
seafaring was a major expertise of the Omanis. This,
however, led to commercial, political and military contacts with
several empires and civilisations throughout the history of the
country which led to the construction of numerous defensive
structures.
6
The classical black tent, however, is not a common building typology of
the Omani desert architecture. Source: Oman Information Centre 2007.
10
Introduction
Fig 8, Above, Diagrammatic map showing which the route the Portugueses navy took
while controlling over the area. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire
, modified by author.
Fig 9, Right, Major contemporary and historical Walayat in Oman. Source: Enchanted
Learning 2007 (outlines only), modified by author.
11
Introduction
During the 16th century, the Portuguese government decided withdrew (Hawley 2005, 41). Perhaps this disgraceful
to control the Eastern sea trade and overthrew Arab sequence of failures led the Portuguese to increase their
commercial supremacy over the Indian Ocean (Hawley 2005, fortifications in Oman by constructing many defensible
41). Their aim was to control the Red Sea and the Arabian structures over the ruins of Omani forts (Barrault 1997, 42). 8
Gulf. After blockading the Red Sea by seizing Socotra in
1506, the Portuguese moved to Oman with the aim of The continuous destructive battles in the coastal areas made
capturing the Strait of Hurmoz. In order to weaken the interior cities of Oman grow stronger. The most important
competition, they destroyed most of the Omanis strong of these were: Nizwa, Bahal, and Rustaq. In 1643, the great
coastal cities such as Qalhat, Muscat, Qurayat, Sohar and and influential Imam Nasir Bin Murshid Alya'rubi succeeded in
Khor Fakkan 7 . Upon arrival at Hurmoz, the Portuguese uniting most of the coastal and interior cities and therefore
defeated the locals, and started building several forts which finally succeeded in driving the Portuguese out of their second
enabled them to control the Arabian Gulf and Mesopotamia stronghold of Sohar and weakening their power in all parts of
sea trade (Hawley 2005, 41). (see fig 8, 9) Oman. However, the Portuguese remained protected in their
very defensible forts in Muscat, until Imam Sultan Bin Saif
In 1517 the Ottoman Turks military supremacy ended the Alya'rubi, successor of Imam Nasir bin Murshid Alya'rubhi,
Portuguese blockade of the Red Sea and in 1550 they captured Muscat in 1649 and finally ended the Portuguese
captured Muscat and temporarily drove the Portuguese away. occupation of the country (Oman Information Centre 2007).
In 1581 the Ottomans seized Muscat again and the Sultan also followed the Portuguese and defeated them in
Portuguese fled to the interior of Oman until the Turks
7 8
Khor Fakkan is now a town belonging to the United Arab Emirates. Examples are, Forts of Jalali, Mirani, Mutrah and many others.
12
Introduction
their settlements in West India and East Africa 9 , and this The civil wars, however, were reduced by the efforts of
established the Ya'rubi Dynasty as a ruling family in Oman. Ahmed bin Said who gained a reputation when he got rid of
the Persians who occupied Sohar for nine months in 1747. He
A period of peace and prosperity prevailed and lasted for a re-united the country and was elected as Imam in 1748. This
century. With the stronghold of many coastal and interior ended the one century long Ya'rubi Dynasty in Oman and
cities, Oman rapidly advanced in its military and economic established the Al bu Said Dynasty, of which the ruling family
power (Hawley 2005, 45). Several other rulers from the in the current day is a branch.
Ya'rubi family encouraged unity, supported education and built
strong, beautiful and elegant forts 10 . However, the peace was During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the time when the
disturbed by a civil war which started with the death Sultan European merchants were thriving in the Eastern world spices
Bin Saif 11 in 1718. Conflict over who should succeed Sultan trade, Oman had commercial and political contacts with the
as a ruler was the main cause. Tribal wars exploded and British, French and Dutch trading companies. Although the
continued for about 30 years, which further intensified French had plans to seize Muscat and convert it to a French
fortification practices in architecture. colony, these plans were never carried out. Therefore Oman
and France maintained their friendly commercial and political
relationship (Hawley 2005, 44). This friendly relationship with
the Europeans was further enhanced during the Al bu Said
9
Such as Bombay and Gugrat in India and Mombasa, Zanzibar and
Mozambique in East Africa Dynasty under the leadership of Imam Ahmed Bin Said, and
10
Examples are the fort of : Nizwa, Rustaq, Hazim, Jibrin, Barka and many
after that, by his son Imam Sultan Bin Ahmed.
others.
11
Not to be confused with Sultan Bin Saif who drove the Portuguese out of
Oman in 1649.
13
Introduction
Oman reached its political, economical and military apogee during the rule of Imam Said the capital of Oman was moved
during the reign of Imam Said Bin Sultan Al bu Saidi who to Zanzibar. 14
ruled Oman between 1807 and 1856 (Barrault 1997, 42). At
this time, Oman became a kingdom spreading not only from The death of Imam Said marked the beginning of disputes in
Hurmoz to Dhofar but having colonies in Persia (Bandar the kingdom. His two sons divided the country: Zanzibar was
Abbas 12 ) and East Africa, with Muscat as the capital city. ruled by Majid and Oman was ruled by Thuwaini. Tension
13
Zanzibar in East Africa received special attention from Imam between the rulers followed, ending in the declaration of
Said Bin Sultan. This was because Zanzibar was a rich and independence of the two sovereign Imams in 1862. The
fertile island that Imam Said exploited with the clove spice kingdom started to fail and its maritime, military and
trade which guaranteed a third of the kingdom's income commercial power declined as most of the ships happened to
(Barrault, 1997, 42). Zanzibar was also where most of the be anchored in Zanzibar when Imam Said died (Barrault,
ruler's family lived, although it was by no means the richest 1997, p44). Some other reasons for the decline in Omani
part of the Omani kingdom (Barrault, 1997, 42). Therefore, power were: the splitting of the country, its internal instability,
the abolition of slavery 15 , the advancement of steam ships by
the Europeans and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1860
(Barrault 1997, 42).
12
A strategic and wealthy province in southern coast of Iran
13
Zanzibar is an island in Tanzania in East Africa. Its people appealed for
help to Imam Sultan Bin Saif, the second Imam of the Ya'rubi dynasty,
14
after he drove the Portuguese out of Oman. After Imam Sultan destroyed Other historians have explained that the Imam Said declared Zanzibar
the Portuguese force in Zanzibar, he appointed an Omani Wali (governor) as his second capital.
15
over Zanzibar and other adjacent towns and therefore established an Slavery was a prime source of labour for agriculture in Oman and
Omani military force in the area. Source: Hawley, 2005, 62. Zanzibar. Source: Cooper 1947, 183.
14
Introduction
Internal disputes and tribal disturbances slowly cut Oman off This historical 'prcis' is necessary to clarify related issues
from the rest of the world, while also dividing Muscat from the raised in the remaining of this thesis. It reveals cultural and
interior of Oman. Furthermore, while the rest of the world was past historical events that the current government had to
advancing in the industrial revolution that swept through acknowledge in the modernisation developments. In
Europe, Oman was oblivious to such global changes. The summary, this prcis has revealed Oman's association to
First World War isolated Oman ever further (Oman many of the historical events linked to the history of the
Information Centre 2007). The country was closed to foreign European sea trade and exploration. It briefly reveals Oman's
visitors and even the simple accessories of Western culture involvement with Western civilisation in the shaping of the
such as sunglass or the riding of bicycles were outlawed as a history of a number of countries at the shores of the Indian
measure to protect the culture from foreign intrusions. Women Ocean. It also shows the highest and lowest points in Oman's
were not allowed to attend school and Omanis who managed political, economic and social history and their corresponding
to go abroad for work or education were not able to return. impacts on architecture. Thus, it unravels the reasons behind
Everyday, three hours after sunset, Muscat would close its the intensive and widely spread fortifications in Oman. This
gates, and those who came late would have to sleep outside historical review also reveals famous past events that
the city. 16 continue to impose themselves on contemporary Omanis and
demand acknowledgment. This pressure was translated by
the current government through education, via restoration and
conservation of heritage buildings, as well as obliging new
16
This is general knowledge that is normally broadcast in the Omani
buildings to reflect on the older structures, which will be
media during most national celebrations. It has been translated and edited
by the current author. Refer to the author's unpublished research proposal, further detailed in Chapter 2.
(Alzeedi 2006, 3).
15
Introduction
16
Introduction
Even though the new government was inevitability involved in authorities (such as the Public Authority for Craft Industries
a war against the repellents in Dhofar, it still did not stop from and others), a number of women members in Majlis Ash'shura
continuing to construct infrastructure and provide necessary and two female ambassadors (one of which is the
public services. The victory over the communists in 1975 ambassador to the United States). (Omani Ministry of
relieved the government and allowed it to direct all of its Information, 2007)
efforts to intensify the development programs which were
carried out in five-year plans. This review attempts to highlight the significant shift in Oman's
history established by the Omani Renaissance in 1970. The
Today, the Sultanate enjoys a stable government, a constant construction growth was rapid, and the development
and managed growth rate, and good political relationships investments were intense and widely spread. Where
with almost all of the neighbouring Gulf States, Arab countries previously the Omani people were living a very primitive life
and beyond. The Sultanate has a good social welfare with almost no basic services, now each village in the
structure as well as an advanced and free health, and countryside enjoys or has easy access to all necessary,
education system. The government also involves its citizens in modern facilities.
national and international issues through the Majlis Ash'Shura
(Consultative Committee) 17 which is formed by at least one
People, Culture and Religious Beliefs.
periodically elected representative from each Walayat in the
Sultanate. It is one of the few Arab States that has three
According to the 2005 census, Oman's population is just over
ministries lead by women, female presidents of governmental
3 million, of which 16% is expatriate labourers (Omani Ministry
17
Refer to Terminologies.
17
Introduction
of Foreign Affairs 2007). The Omanis are deeply rooted in Arabic is the principal, and official language in all inner parts
their religion which is the central driver of their culture. The of Oman. English, Swahili 19 and Baluchi 20 are also prominent
culture of Oman is very strongly ordered by Islam which most but mainly in the capital, and other languages such as Urdu,
Omanis accepted and embraced willingly in the sixth century, Indian dialects and South East Asian languages are also
without even meeting the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) 18 spoken but primarily by expatriates.
(Oman Information Centre 2007). Ibadhism is a dominant
doctrine of Islam in Oman consisting of 70% of the total In contrast to the other Gulf States, the Sultanate retained its
population. Suni and Shi'a Muslims make up the majority of name as Oman throughout its history. 21 Furthermore, its
the remaining population percentages. Other religions such as population continues to consist of a diverse collection of tribes
Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and others form a small slice who have inhabited the land for thousands of years. They also
of the population and are mainly formed by foreign labourers. share the same history, cultural values and religious beliefs,
The Omanis are not only tolerant towards the belief of and thus, Omanis generally have a strong sense of belonging
different Muslim divisions but they are also tolerant towards to their land.
other religions, and the followers of different religion are
allowed to go to the temples and churches (Oman Information
Centre 2007).
19
Swahili is spoken in East Africa and it was brought to the country by
Omanis returning from Zanzibar.
20
Similarly Baluchis was brought from west Iran.
18 21
PBUM is an abbreviation for Peace Be Upon Him; a respectable clause The Persian however used to name Oman as Majan which mean the
which is always stated after mentioning the Prophet's name. land of copper.
18
Introduction
19
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
Introduction state, which include His Majesty's commands, and the related
governmental authorities' orders.
Oman is one of many developing countries that have been
going through significant changes, caused by modernisation
Thus, this chapter provides a review of the Royal emphasis on
and globalisation. From the early stages of the Omani
preserving traditions. It also provides an examination of the
Renaissance in 1970, there was a strong tendency to
processes that the various governmental building codes
preserve the inherited Omani traditions while developing the
underwent in the last 37 years, with particular attention to the
nation. The rich cultural heritage, numerous widely spread
clauses of architectural preservation policies.
vernacular structures, and the Omanis conservative way of
living forced authorities to take a central role in preserving the
traditions. As a measure to achieve this, the government The Enlightened Speeches and Commands of Sultan
produced several polices for heritage conservation with a Qaboos bin Saeed
particular emphasis on the preservation of architectural
When Sultan Qaboos bin Saeed came to power in 1970, it
traditions.
was evident that a lot of work had to be done to uphold the
country and develop the nation. Enormous efforts needed to
Chapter 2 focuses on analysing the direct reasons and the
be exerted to provide basic, modern facilities ranging from
main focus for establishing the current regional architectural
housing, electricity and water to education, health, and public
trend in Oman. It draws attention to the role of the state in
amenities as well as the provision of transportation and
creating and maintaining cultural identities. It also highlights
communication services. On the other hand, the rich history
the emphasis on preserving the traditions undertaken by the
21
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
and national heritage was not to be compromised. In his first position among its Arab brothers in the second half of the 20th
anniversary speech in 1970 he stated: Century, and to see the Omani citizen living in happiness and
Our internal plan is to build our country and to provide its dignity in his land." (Qaboos, 2007b)
people with good standard of living We have left open the
doors for our citizens to reach this goal. We shall work in a However, with the exception of His Majesty's speeches, there
serious manner to establish a democratic and just rule in our is no evidence of any formal piece of legislation in terms of
country, within the framework of our Arab Omani reality, our cultural and heritage preservation until 1977. 1 Perhaps this
social traditions and the teachings of Islam [author's was because most of the government's efforts were devoted
emphasis] (Qaboos 2007c). to both the construction of basic modern facilities in the major
Peoples' traditional way of living, being bound and attached to cities across Oman, and to the war against the repellents
their land, and their pride, culture and beliefs were strongly which did not end until 1975. In 1977, Sultan Qaboos bin
evident. Therefore it was of importance to the state to Saeed issued a royal decree (Royal Decree no. 77/20, 1977)
mediate the expected significant changes caused by commanding the creation of the Ministry of National Heritage
modernisation. and Culture which was to start its role in protecting and
safeguarding the heritage and historical remains of the
In the Second National Day celebration, after addressing and Omanis' ancestors. It was also obliged to protect traditional
praising his people, His Majesty commenced his speech with: professions, scientific and intellectual achievements, and all
"Our [original emphasis] principal aim is to restore the past
glories of our country. Our aim is to see that Oman has
restored its past civilization and has occupied its great 1
Author's statement.
22
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
similar tangible or intangible traditional properties (Gugolz the related authorities would start a serious revision of their
1996, 291). tradition preservation policies, through new buildings, which
will be discussed shortly.
On another occasion, His Majesty stated that A nation that
loses its roots and its memory, also loses its soul and its faith Furthermore, His Majesty himself took a personal
in the future (Barrault 1997, 75), which recalls the importance responsibility 2 to preserve the heritage through his own
of preserving and acknowledging the inherited traditions. private and public buildings. It is obvious, through the
Furthermore, in his speech on the 10th National Day treatment of his buildings, that the architectural briefing
Anniversary in 1980 he stated that: outlined the importance of paying respect to traditional
We must bear in mind that our strength does not lie in architecture. This is evident in several of his buildings such as
material prosperity alone. Our strength lies in the great Alalam Palace (Fig 23), AlBaraka Palace, Alshomokh Palace
traditions of our glorious Omani culture, and the teachings and in almost all of the Sultan's privately own residences. This
and laws of our Holy Religion [author's emphasis] (Qaboos is also clearly apparent in most of the mosques and public
2007a). structures that he built under his own expenses.
23
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
Therefore, from the early Omani Renaissance in 1970, Sultan offices in Oman. The first appointment was in 1970 of a British
Qaboos has emphasised the importance of preserving the firm, John R. Harris Architects, who then established an office
national heritage and its inherited traditions. His Majestys in Muscat in 1971 (Smith 1983, 18). The second appointment
emphasis was then translated in Royal Decrees and was in 1973 of Mohammed Makiya Associates, an Iraqi
Ministerial commands that started formulating rules to architectural firm with offices in Muscat and London and which
regulate the modernisation development. was recognised by its distinctive contemporary style based on
traditional Islamic architectural principles (Kultermann, 1999).
Urban Planning Proposals of Makiya and Harris in
The proposals prepared by both architects were slightly
the 1970s 3
different in content, however both shared a similar
In response to His Majesty's speeches and Royal Orders to fundamental concept: "To define the status and role of the old
start the modernisation processes, the government started city of Muscat in the context of national politics and
approaching international architectural firms to submit urban economics; to preserve the [centuries old] walls and traditional
development proposals for Muscat. The government, buildings of the old city; to set out guidelines for buildings in
represented by the Diwan 4 of the Royal Court, appointed at the new districts; and to propose plans for the expanding
two separate times two firms that had recently established metropolitan region" (Damluji 1998, 58). Noticeably, both
proposals allowed for future urban expansion and
development but with a particular emphasis on preserving and
3
This section is exclusively extracted from Damluji (1998) which she got protecting the inherited, traditional, architecture and cultural
the information from various (mostly unpublished or not easily obtainable) heritage.
reports prepared by Harris and Makiya in the 1970s. Refer to bibliography
for their references.
4
Refer to Terminology for description.
24
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
Makiya Associates, with their two-volume report titled Muscat as to create a cultural centre, albeit with very limited
City Planning, viewed the city as a cul-de-sac city, an commercial development. This suggested that Old Muscat
enclave of historic buildings that should be kept intact. Their would be reserved mainly for public squares and buildings
report emphasised the invaluable heritage of Muscat, which with residences for the elite and the royal family. Furthermore,
they proposed to renovate, preserve, and protect from the Harris proposed that old Muscat and the surrounding district
intrusion of future urban developments. They recommended of Sidab be devoted to tourism by retaining as many heritage
old Muscat to house minimal governmental buildings and to buildings as possible, with sympathetic renovation of older
relocate most of the other state administrative departments to buildings and the larger ones being appropriated for hotel
a larger precinct which was capable of withstanding extensive functions Consequently, a new capital with the needed state
developments. They believed that this functional restriction for administrative buildings would be established elsewhere.
old Muscat would assist in retaining the citys original identity Harriss proposal, therefore, was to devote old Muscat to
and its unique characteristics. Therefore, Makiyas approach tourism and public attraction making it a district that would
prescribed minimal impact on the heritage city and proposed display heritage buildings and the countrys established
to relocate the required future developments to alternative culture. (Damluji 1998, 59).
areas with less historical values. (Damluji 1998, 58).
Considering the larger scale of Muscat and its fringes, both
John R Harris Architects report, however, although having Harriss and Makiyas proposals emphasised the importance
similar aims, had a slightly different approach. Harris of providing and improving basic, modern facilities such as
considered the possibility of Muscat continuing to hold the educational centres, health centres, public services, and
seat of government as well as constructing public buildings so housing, along with the necessary provisions for electricity,
25
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
drainage, fresh water, roads and car parking. They proposed Even though neither of the two discussed proposals were
to provide all of these facilities without negatively affecting the carried out, their influences clearly prevailed in the later
indigenous architecture. (Damluji 1998, 59) decisions made by the Diwan of the Royal Court and the
Municipality. The regulation manuals produced later by these
Through their urban proposals for Muscat, both architectural authorities clearly addressed several elements of the Makiya
practices encouraged the incorporation of traditional features and Harris proposals. This will be further elaborated shortly.
in contemporary designs, modern approaches and
contemporary interpretations of traditional, regional
architecture. Additionally, both proposals recommended the Building Regulation Manuals and Guidelines
establishment of certain authorities to control and regulate the
upcoming developments by formulating strategic planning Perhaps the most significant factor in generating and
regulations and stylistic restrictions. Makiya Associates went sustaining Omans new regionalism were the policies and
into detail in this section by specifying height restrictions for building codes proposed by the relative authorities. As in the
certain zones and recommending the use of local materials. case of any man-made rules and regulations, the Oman
They also laid down guidelines for particular space layouts to architectural building guidelines have undergone continuous
incorporate the traditional courtyard element in private processes of development, refinement, and evaluation. Rules
dwellings, and to ensure adequate space between buildings. and codes were never written to last but to be evaluated
(Damluji 1998, 59). during application and to be regularly updated after monitoring
their shortcomings. Therefore, these policies went through
26
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
several stages of development and evaluation to reach their These consultant-made rules were mainly concerned with
current state. setbacks, construction floor area percentages, building
heights, numbers of floors, and building usages. At the time,
In the early stages of Omans Renaissance in the early 1970s, the Capital Municipality (currently called the Muscat
there was no written and approved building regulatory Municipality) did not have enough authority, staff, or technical
guideline for Muscat city (Muscat Municipality 1992, 5). equipment to enable it to control the future scope of the large-
Perhaps the unstable political situation in Oman due to the scale developments (Muscat Municipality 1992, 5).
war against the repellents was part of the reason. At that time,
the concerned authorities were also at the stage of gathering The year 1974 marked the production of the first building
information from international architectural firms for urban regulation guidelines in Oman titled The Building Regulations
development. for Muscat. It was compiled by Muscat Municipality and
implemented as the Municipal Local Order No.1/74. This
The Ministry of Lands, however, initiated the first step. Since it Municipal Order led to the transformation of responsibilities for
was responsible for land distribution, the Ministry was also in issuing building permits from the Ministry of Lands to Muscat
charge of reviewing and approving the urban planning Municipality. The local order was issued to reduce the
schemes and their associated building guidelines, which were pressure on the Ministry of Lands caused by the noticeable
produced by design consultants for particular sites. In other construction growth rate experienced at that time. (Muscat
words, architectural firms themselves specified the building Municipality 1992, 6)
regulations that they were proposing to adopt for their building
proposals, which the ministry was to review and approve.
27
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
Since the Local Order No.1 was premature at the time, and is the architecture established during that period, by the
lacked much technical building information, Muscat intensive developments, which lacked the authorities'
Municipality borrowed the same technique employed by the architectural guidance. It had no particular characteristics,
Ministry of Land to issue building permits. In addition, the however it was either conforming rigidly to the tradition, since
Municipality also started to create supplementary building it was a focal point of design inspiration for valued architects,
regulatory rules and distributed them as memos in pamphlets or totally foreign to the country, the climate, and the existing
to all planning and architectural consultancy offices in Muscat. urban fabric.
This technique was developed to continue evaluating the
Local Order No.1, and to try to minimise its negative Moving towards the 1980s, an overview of the construction
outcomes. (Muscat Municipality 1992, 6) processes in Muscat until the mid 1980s reveals that the city
experienced rapid, chaotic developments that threatened the
Therefore, despite the content of His Majestys speeches behavioural, cultural, and architectural traditions of the city
regarding heritage conservation, there were no written or (Smith 1983, 18). In his article in 1983 titled, Desert
approved building regulation guidelines that were concerned Developments, John Alexander Smith 6 , explained that the
with preserving the architectural traditions through overall picture of Alkuwair, an area in Muscat, was "a
contemporary buildings from 1970 to 1980. Thus, this bewildering array of building types, each vying with its
established what I shall call the Renaissance Architecture 5 . It
6
Smith also worked with John R. Harris in the 70s and early 80s. Currently
he is the Professor and Chairman of the Department of Interior Design at
the American University in Dubai. Source: Lecture titled Designing in
5
Refer to Terminology. Dubai given by Smith on 18-07-2007 at RAIA headquarters, Brisbane.
28
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
neighbour in terms of originality and taste, real or imagined". identity by preserving the traditional architectural style
7
Smith also highlighted numerous design faults in several (Muscat Municipality, 1992, p6).
housing developments in Muscat in terms of climatic, cultural,
and technical aspects. Even though Sultan Qabooss speeches appeared to stress
the importance of preserving traditions while allowing for
By that time, it seems that the local authorities, the Ministry of modernisation, indicating a Critical Regionalist approach, the
Housing, and the Muscat Municipality, realised that it was time related authorities might have misinterpreted his speeches.
to initiate serious revisions to, and evaluations of the The consequence was an evolutionary manual that strictly
construction development processes in Muscat, and to limited architectural inventions. The new policy obliged any
properly re-direct them. They formulated building guidelines to new building to fully conform to prescribed Islamic elements
regulate the construction process so as to allow it to move and forms, even if they had to be structurally fake (Damluji
parallel with modernity, but not detach from its roots at the 1998, 67).
same time. The aim was to clean Muscat from the
aggregates and the imported styles and inappropriate
spatial organisation (Muscat Municipality 1992, 6). Therefore,
the major aim of this manual was the emphasis on strictly
following His Majestys commands in maintaining the Omani 7
Even though there is a debate in the literature about who proposed the
discussed aims, it appears that the Ministry of Housing initiated it and
forwarded a proposal to Muscat Municipality with their concerns of the
threat on the heritage buildings caused by modernisation. Then Muscat
Municipality took on the role of studying the building regulation manuals
created by the neighbouring states as to enable them to revise and
evaluate the existing policies.
29
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
30
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
31
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
32
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
certain Islamic architectural values (Muscat Municipality 1992, and walls separating the Majlis 8 space from the living-family
22). spaces. The manual also required the consultant to submit
technical information on this matter.
For the first time, this building regulation manual touched on
alternative elements of the Omani-Islamic architecture other The 1992 regulations manual was not only concerned with
than the facades. For example, it specified in Article 14, that privacy issues in internal treatments, but also external ones. It
internal space layouts in residential buildings should be specified the minimum distance between windows/balconies
planned in such a way that the building conforms with social of different units overlooking one another, or overlooking an
norms of the Arabs (sic) Muslim families. The houses public open-to-sky public courtyard. If this minimum dimension was
9
spaces and their needed circulation routes should not be not achieved, the Mashrabiyyah had to be incorporated.
exposed to, or interfere with, the private family spaces, for Mashrabiyyah do not only allow occupants to see outside and
example the kitchen, living-dining room, and bedrooms. In prevent them from being seen by those outside; they also
other words, a clear visual and acoustical segregation had to allow for natural ventilation and controlled daylight (fig 13).
be maintained between the public and private realms in a Even though the Mashrabiyyah might be considered an
dwelling, which is a fundamental element in Islamic residential
architecture. To achieve the necessary acoustics rating, it
specified a minimum thickness of 200mm for masonry
8
A Majlis is the houses public space dedicated for welcoming and
boundary walls, walls between two residential apartments, entertaining guests. It is almost the most important space in the
Omani/Arab dwelling as it reveals the wealth and social power of the host.
Refer to Terminologies.
9
Mashrabiyyah is a wooden structure that normally encloses balconies so
as to provide inhabitants with visual privacy. Refer to Terminologies.
33
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
uncommon element to the vernacular Omani architecture, it is areas. Perhaps, due to the dramatic increase in the
still an observable traditional strategy in Islamic architecture. construction rate and the need to bring labourers, mainly men,
from overseas, there was a fear that this might negatively
interfere with families cultural morals which were prominently
based on Islamic values. Therefore, the Municipality outlawed
the construction of any building with a prescribed function of
labour or bachelor accommodation in residential or
residential-commercial areas and any proposals revealing
such mixed used would not be approved (Muscat
Municipality1992, Article 31, 21). Article 31, section D, also
prohibited proposing mixed use buildings of residential units
10
for family and bachelor accommodation.
Fig 13, Left, Example of a Mashrabiyyah at Shati Clearly, the Building Regulation Manual of 1992 contained
Alqurm area.
several elements of preserving the traditions, faith, heritage,
and cultural values from wider perspectives. As well as
34
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
prohibiting imported styles with obvious Western features and conditions. Several new technical rules were introduced which
emphasising the importance of incorporating traditional Omani are beyond the scope of this discussion. Furthermore,
elevations and certain Arab-Islamic architectural elements, the preserving the architectural traditions is still evident as a
manual also introduced the preservation of cultural values fundamental principle in this manual. What is noticeable,
through internal space layouts, external space relationships, however, this time is the language used is slightly flexible and
and urban zoning. seems to lose its previous conservative emphasis. For
example, Article 23 in Chapter 2 Buildings (sic) Architectural
Finally the last building regulation manual was compiled by and Technical Conditions - states: Islamic and Arab
the Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and architectural style shall be considered when preparing
Water Resources in 2000 11 , which conferred the necessity for designs for all buildings (Omani Mins.RMEWR 2000, 9). A
a unity in rules and regulations for the whole country by not more remarkable change in this manual was in article 22 in
being limited to Muscat. This manual did not contain dramatic the same chapter stating: No construction of buildings
changes from the pervious one. It was merely a detailed resembling or similar to the Omani forts and castles is
version of it with more technical rules that filled in the gaps permitted in buildings and fences (Omani Mins.RMEWR
and the shortfalls of the older one. Therefore, it is 2000, 9). Perhaps, the authorities came to the realisation that
characterised as being more specific in most technical globalisation and internationalism were not the biggest threat
to the national heritage anymore; rather that replication and
imitation threatened the authenticity of genuine architectural
11 traditions.
Even though the previous manual was made by Muscat Municipality for
regulating buildings in Muscat, many of its conditions and rules were also
applied in all other cities in Oman.
35
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
36
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
Chapter Summary particular architectural trend, and this established what was
called the Renaissance Architecture. The second phase was
The consistency in the architectural manifestation in Oman in during the 1980s-90s when the related authorities tailored
general and in Muscat in particular has been derived from three manuals at different times introducing strict rules for
several direct and interlinking reasons. These factors were incorporating traditional architectural elements into new
mainly concerned with protecting the heritage, while allowing buildings. This phase will be distinguished as the Post-
for modernisation. Through his speeches and commands, His Renaissance Architecture. The last phase of the building
Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said emphasised the importance codes development was from 2000 to present when the
of preserving the traditions and not compromising them with government loosened the previous restrictions and conversely
the expected urbanisation processes. His commands were started outlawing the construction of new buildings that simply
translated by the relevant authorities by seeking international replicated heritage structures. Even though influences from
architectural firms to submit developmental urban proposals the Post-Renaissance Architecture were still prevailing, this
for the city of Muscat. The influences from these proposals phase also underpinned the construction of new buildings that
prevailed in the decisions made by the government in later attempt to off-set themselves from the usual Regionalism.
stages when compiling the building codes. Due to their functional requirements they tried to implement
Internationalism as a design base; however the building
It was apparent that the process of refining the building codes codes still enforced them to subtlety incorporate regional
went through three phases. Phase one was during the 1970s elements.
when the main concern was only intensifying the construction
of infrastructure and public facilities without submitting to any
37
The Birth of Omani Regionalism
38
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
Fig 16: The Mihrab of the Central Mosque of Manah in A'Dakhliyah prior to
restoration in 1993. Source: ArchNet Digital Library,
http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=9771
39
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
40
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
perhaps take them as a major, if not a central, design and. They captured Muscat and built Jalali and Mirani forts
inspiration for his/her proposed building. next to each other which made the city impregnable; however,
after long wars the Omanis re-captured Muscat and drove the
The uniqueness of Muscat is due to its numerous and widely invaders out in the middle of the 17thcentury. 2
spread centuries-old structures. The city is rich with heritage
buildings that tell a story about the history of the place, its
bright and dark periods, its culture, economy, society,
inhabitants, values, and religious faith. Along with the small
but dense residential houses, larger ones occupy the
mountains and establish themselves as prominent and un-
defeat-able features in Muscat's skyline. The vernacular visual
character of Muscat could start from the Jalali and Mirani forts
(fig17). They are two significant forts crowning two adjacent
mountains, overlooking the sea and providing protections for
the inhabitants occupying the valleys of Old Muscat. They
evoke political and military stories dating to the end of the 16th
Fig 17 , Jalali fort, foreground and Mirani fort at the background.
century, when they were first built. During their empire
Source: Al-Riyami 2006.
expansion, and ambitious to rule the Indian Ocean, the
Portuguese found it essential to conquer the country that
enjoyed the most strategic location in controlling the sea trade 2
Refer to the History section in the Chapter One for further information.
41
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
Oman also had military and non-military contacts with the number of vernacular buildings with astonishing architecture
Persian Empire, the British, Dutch, and the French forces and that were inhabited by notable people such as the royal elite,
also numerous trading companies. Inter-tribal wars were also merchants, ambassadors and other governmental personnel. 3
documented throughout the history of Oman and this perhaps
explains the enormous and intensive defensive structures in
the country.
3
Examples of traditional houses (beit) are: Beit Nadir , Old British Council,
Fig 18 , Right: Mutrah fort. Source: Al-Riyami 2006.
Beit Muzna, Beit Greiza, Beit Zawawi and Bait Nasib and Beit Fransa
which was built in 1896 and became the office and residence of the
French consul in 1906. Refer to Appendix 1 for images.
42
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
Fig 19 , Top: a small fort and a watch tower in Old Muscat. Source:
Al-Riyami 2006.
Fig 20, Top left: : a watch tower at the top of a mountain area Mutrah.
Source: Al-Riyami 2006.
Fig 21 ,Left Watch tower in Hamria 43
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
4 7
Influential Precincts in Muscat a. Old Muscat District: The Qaboosian Architecture
4
Other cities with historical, cultural values and with influential
architectural importance, such as Nizwa, Bahla, Rustaq and Sohar and
others, were excluded as to limit the discussion on Muscat only.
5
Shati Alqurm Area and Madinat Sultan Qaboos, and the Diplomatic
Precinct are also interesting districts in Muscat and each could become by
itself an interesting case study. However, they were excluded for scope
limitation and inadequate gathered information.
6
These two precincts do not represent the overall national architecture,
rather a sample of "modern" architecture that attempts to evoke a cultural
7
architectural identity. Refer to Appendix 3 for more images.
44
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
45
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
46
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
47
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
b. Ministries District.
Since the district function is limited for Ministries and
The Ministries District is located in the Alkuwair area, 25 km governmental administrative buildings, it is highly developed
away from Old Muscat. The construction of this precinct was in termes of infrastructure, landscaping services, and facilities.
influenced by the early 1970s urban proposals to relocate the As this district contains more than 20 governmental buildings,
state administrative buildings from the Old Muscat three selected ones with notable architectural expression and
8
elsewhere. Alkuwair is a new area with less heritage internal layout will also be briefly discussed. These include:
features, and consists of several zones ranging from The Ministry of Housing, Electricity and Water, The Ministry of
residential, to commercial/residential and even governmental Petroleum, and The Ministry of Regional Municipalities,
areas. Environment and Water Resources. A brief photographic
analysis is also of importance to convey the architectural
Noticeably, the Sultan Qaboos Road, that connects the only expression of the area. This, however, is included in
international airport to Old Muscat, bisects the privately- Appendix 2.
owned lands of Alkuwair from the governmentally-owned
ones. This provided the opportunity for the precinct not to be
just a row of new governmental buildings facing a highway,
but rather a deliberate scheme that expresses Omans
regional architectural identity (fig 28),
8
Further information was provided in Chapter 2, section Urban Planning
Proposals of Makiya and Harris in the 1970s. Further Images are provided
in Appendix 2
48
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
49
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
50
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
planter boxes also provide shade for the bellowed openings. clearly conveys a traditional, regional, Islamic, and balanced
Interestingly, the forecourt fighting bastion, commonly used in expression.
most forts, is resembled in the main entry; and the fort-like
towers are clearly expressed in almost all of its external
corners. In this way parapet crenellation is incorporated in the
structure.
51
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
52
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
53
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
Fig 36, Above, 1983, 18). Despite these facts, almost all of these buildings
Fig 37, Top: Office for the Representative of His Majesty. have well defined regional characteristics. Perhaps, this is
Note the wooden mashrabiyyah.
9
Refer to Chapter 2, section Building Regulation Manuals and Guidelines
for details on dates and policies.
54
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
either because they were designed by value architects who Chapter Summary
always paid attention to the locality of the place, or simply
Along with the direct reasons discussed in chapter 2 which
because the brief demanded incorporating regional
enforced the creation of Muscat's current regional
architectural traditional features. Evidently, some of these
architectural manifestation, there are two indirect causes that
buildings incorporate traditional internal organising elements,
also made a noticeable contribution. 10 The first indirect
such as the courtyard, with balanced and symmetrical plans
causes are the numerous, prominently located and widely
and elevations. Others use a modern design methodology of
spread vernacular structures. These heritage buildings have
prioritising internal requirements over complete visual external
significantly influenced the architecture during the last three
balance; yet they still incorporate, with new interpretation,
decades and their influential power is expected to continue.
several place defining elements. On the other hand, other
The second indirect cause is the construction of several
buildings just integrate or attach some decorative and un-
districts that were highly influenced by the traditional regional
functional traditional features to achieve the same aim of a
or local architectural language. Due to their prominent
regional looking building.
location, dominant expression, elevated legislative function,
and high construction budgets, these districts have become
Nonetheless, the Ministries District is a well developed area
with delightful and elegant buildings. The overall regional
expression, as well as the high construction budget and rich 10
Some may, arguably, consider these factors as direct causes instead,
due to their high influence and association with the creation of direct
internal materials, possibly justify the reason of this precinct causes discussed in chapter 1. Nevertheless, they were considered as
indirect in this thesis as they carried no legislative power; rather, they only
being a popular tourist destination and an architectural
provide spiritual, ethical and moral architectural influences and even
inspirational area for local and international designers. supremacy.
55
Heritage Structures and Influential Districts
56
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
57
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
58
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
identifiable structures and familiar patterns. These factors in the case of many other nations, the revitalization of past
created an authentic built environment that appealed to the heritage was part of the strategy for resisting universalism.
senses and related to individuals on a psychological and However, the tight regulations not only led to a direct
physical level (Cann 2005, 9). In Oman, traditional replication and reproduction of the past traditions but also
regionalism was a design approach by default in the Pre-Oil rejuvenated overdue historical styles from other parts of the
era. world such as Greek, Roman, Gothic and Classical styles
(Rahman 2003, 107). The stylistic extreme of the
Regionalism of the Building Codes
Renaissance saw buildings that visually mimicked old Omani
structures, but did not reflect them contextually, materially,
The significant growth-rate of construction experienced during
functionally, or in terms of spatial configuration (fig 39).
the Renaissance period introduced the mass-production of
materials, new methods of construction, and the provision for
mass transportation between regions and across borders.
Therefore, global influences, universal norms, and
international ideals started to intrude into the countrys long
established architectural patterns.
59
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
Such architecture not only employs fake materials and architecture rendered consciousness insensible (Tzonis and
craftsmanship, it also fails to articulate its specific social and Lefaivre 1990, 31). Therefore, it became a design
historical circumstances (Guernier 1999, 24). Walter Benjamin methodology that implemented a regressive nostalgia and
explains that even the most perfect reproduction of a work of was an advocate for nationalism, ethnocentric, and
art is lacking in one element: its presence in space and time, chauvinistic regionalism. This might not be appropriate in a
its unique existence at the place where it happens to be world that is rapidly becoming a global village with the
(Benjamin 1973, 222). This confirms that any contemporary advancement of transportation and communication
regionalist design in Oman, regardless of its craftsmanship technologies. Even though such methodology could
perfection, would always struggle to attain the authenticity of accomplish national uniqueness, which may assist in
tradition. achieving some political, economical, or social goals, it
attempts to re-establish a collective set of scenographic
Additionally, this new Regionalism is not only considered as traditions within contemporary structures without reflecting the
an outdated style and an overdue return to the past, but also initial reasons and the contexts that established the former
an inappropriate design approach in most of the contemporary traditional regionalism.
architectural academia. This Regionalism was an architecture
that selected regional elements linked in memory with forlorn Unfortunately, and due to tight building codes, many recent
eras and inserted them into new buildings constructing buildings in Muscat could be easily accused of expressing a
scenographic settings for arousing affinity and sympathy in simplistic evocation of a sentimental vernacular and nostalgia
the viewer, forming familiarized scenes which, although for the collective past. Despite the respectful relationships
contrasting mostly emotionally, with the actual despotic between some new buildings and the vernacular outlined in
60
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
1
the case studies in Chapter 3, it is evident that many still using what was described as "totally inclined roofs" was
employ "familiar" traditional elements. These long-established intended to terminate the construction of any sort of pitched
features were constructed in the past with consideration to roofs, commonly recognised in the domestic architecture of
limited available local resources, pre-industrial labour skills, Western and Asian societies, which were introduced to
and a reflection of climatic and cultural constraints. This is a Muscat through several residential buildings in the late 1970s
subject that is completely missing in the new buildings. (figs 40&41). However by default, this also rejected the
Rather, what has been recently produced is a desire for a traditional Areesh 2 style with its gable roofs that had been
direct experience of the popular vernacular. used extensively by locals occupying the coastal plains in pre-
Renaissance time (fig 42). Thus, the building codes with their
Additionally, and looking from a more detailed perspective, it Regionalism advocacy not only, unintentionally, introduced old
is acknowledgeable that the building codes in Oman foreign styles, they also diminished the significance of some
attempted to respect and enhance the general existing local traditional architectural features.
architectural features by reducing the intrusion of
internationalism. However, the generalisation of the codes
and their inaccurate clauses lead to two main architectural
defects. Firstly, as discussed previously, it led to the
replication and the rejuvenation of past architectural trends. 1
Refer to section Building Regulation Manuals and Guidelines in Chapter
2.
Secondly, and with equal importance, the generalisation in 2
Areesh is fully made of dried palm tree fronds, and it is climatically ideal
for coastal areas in Oman with high temperatures and humidity. The
rejecting some Western architectural features also led to the
permeable character of the palm-tree-leaf-walls and roofs and the pitched
rejecting of local features. For instance the elimination of roof shape provide visual security and increases cross ventilation (which is
a significant element to reach thermal comfort in these climatic conditions).
61
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
Fig 40&41, Above: Example of pitched (gable and pyramid) Fig 42 Above: Traditional Areesh dwellings in the Seeb area in
roofs in residential houses in Muscat. They are suspected to Muscat. The gable roof which is made of permeable palm tree
have been built in Muscat before these types of roof structure leaves, works better than a flat one in catching sea breezes and
were banned in 1980. expelling hot air. Source: Abdulak 1977,19-21.
62
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
3
It should be admitted though that crenellation was , and has become, a
noticeable element in the Omani traditional and contemporary skyline
(Smith 1983, 18 ; Perking 1982, 16).
63
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
Critical Regionalism
64
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
sources, how to revive an old dormant civilization and take Critical Regionalism, however, with its various principles (of
part in universal civilization (Ricoeur 1961, 283). A successful which a full discussion is out of the scope of this thesis) was
mediation of such a paradox suggests an escape from that developed as an attempt to bridge that gap and reconcile
debate in Oman through an architectural resolution that Ricoeur's paradox. One aspect of Critical Regionalism (which
acknowledges the sense of place, the sense of nature, and is one of the main reasons for its emergence) is not only its
the integrity of its history and culture, without conflicting with confrontational attitude towards both regional elements and
universalism and fully adhering to traditionalism. the anomic and atopic modernism, but its confrontation with
itself by self-examining, self-questioning and self-evaluating
As an interpretation of Ricoeur's paradox, Kenneth Frampton (Lefaivre and Tzonis 1990, 29). This is an attitude which was
explains that to enable regional cultures to play a role in the missing in Regionalism, Modernism and Post-Modernism.
universal civilization, it is important that they have the capacity Rejecting history as the basis for design which Modernism
"to recreate a rooted tradition while appropriating foreign and Post-Modernism were propagandising is another
influences at the level of both culture and civilization." Hence insensitive principle that Critical Regionalism attempted to
a necessity for cross-fertilisation and reinterpretation between reconcile. However, this appears to not be a major issue in
rooted-cultures and universal civilisation is needed to achieve Oman any more as the Modernism and Post-Modernism
the aim of a "hybrid world culture" (Frampton 1984, 148). Both building treatments were terminated by the building codes in
Regionalism from one side, and Modernism and Post- the 1980s. 4
Modernism from the other fail to reconcile the paradox and
lack cultural cross-fertilisation. Rather, each leaned to one
stream and opposed the other. 4
Refer to Chapter 2, section Building Regulation Manuals and Guidelines
65
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
However, a more relevant principle of Critical Regionalism to long-established patterns through contemporary buildings,
this thesis aim is what Tzonis and Lefaivre highlighted as "its which is a central theme of Critical Regionalism.
self-reflective function through the method of "de-
familiarisation" (Lefaivre and Tzonis 1990, 31). They Furthermore, just as much as Critical Regionalism opposes
explained that Critical Regionalism selects regional elements "the alien occupation army of technocracy and bureaucracy
or place defining features that offer opportunities to advocate, imposing the illegitimate rule of anomie and atopy [of
conceptually or physically, human contact and community and Modernism]"; it also opposes the emancipation of a regional
incorporate them in new buildings "strangely" rather than set of architectural features or prioritising one set against
"familiarly". another (Lefaivre and Tzonis 1990, 31). Therefore, not only
does Critical Regionalism have the potential to resolve the
Since many buildings in Muscat currently oversimplify theoretical defect of oversimplifying architecture in Oman, it
traditional elements and incorporate place defining features in also offers protection from insensitive foreign trends. As each
a familiar way which may compound into more architectural geographical region in Oman differs from the other, Critical
defects, considering Critical Regionalism's approach might Regionalism acknowledges the dissimilarities in traditional
offer potentials and opportunities. Critical Regionalism's architecture.
attitude could fulfil the authorities' requirement by employing
strategies anchored to the specific place, while Conversely, in his writing The Concept of Regionalism, Alan
reappropriating internationalism. In other words, one of the Colquhoun (1997), presented a counter opinion on Critical
main concerns for the relevant authorities is to draw reference Regionalism (and Regionalism in general). He argued that
to the existing heritage building fabric and to acknowledge the Critical Regionalism is another form of Regionalism since both
66
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
advocate for uniqueness and authenticity, attempt to preserve Furthermore, despite his previous opposition of
endangered cultures and oppose the incursions of Regionalism/Critical Regionalism, Colquhoun drew an
universalisation experienced in a rapidly changing world. He exception. He stated that it might be desirable to satisfy the
saw Lefaivre and Tzoniss several definitions of the term demand for traditional forms with their socially embedded
Critical as a contradiction. Colquhoun argued that the [and] allegorical meanings in some of the third world
detachment of regional elements from their natural contexts countries, especially those with ancient cultures such as the
so as to defamiliarise them would eventually result in a sort of Indian and the Islamic, where people are, arguably, living
kitsch. cultural traditions - especially if these traditions are in conflict
with modernisation. (Colquhoun 1997, 21,22. )
Yet, later in his writing, Colquhoun clarifies that he only
opposes the use of the term regionalism as it represents a Thus, this exception granted by Colquhoun may justify the
well-trodden critical tradition that no longer has the relevance regionalism trend in Oman during the pre-oil times and only
that it may have had in the past. Thus, he viewed several the early stages of the Omani Renaissance. That is because
buildings that referred to local materials and typologies as not the extensive modernisation process experienced thereafter
an attempt to convey the spirit of a particular region, rather, a resulted in abandoning the use of old building techniques and,
way of using local features as motifs in a compositional thus, some inherited living patterns which had begun to
process in order to produce original, unique, and context- atrophy. Nevertheless, despite this deterioration of the
relevant architectural ideas. (Colquhoun 1997, 19) traditional built environment, people are still practicing many
of their cultural and behavioural traditions in the present day.
67
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
This positions Oman in a middle ground, neither being a well defined Regionalism movement. Whereas Tradition
authentically traditional nor culturally modern. Regionalism was a trend by default during the Pre-Petroleum
times in Oman, its power continued to dominate the Oil Era
Therefore, with attempts to generate a regional identity architecture. However, replications, oversimplification, and
through building codes, it was decided that Muscat should be over-familiarisation of regional features were evident
expressed as an Arab/Islamic city with strong bounds to the strategies employed in many current buildings in Muscat.
traditions. Even though buildings do not normally use Additionally, the building codes with their tight stylistic rules
traditional materials, they are encouraged to employ local revealed many other theoretical architectural defects
resources and most either conform or refer to regional necessitating a need to reconcile the paradox between the
features. On the other hand, Glass Boxes, which are desired localism and inevitable globalisation.
normally a recognised building typology in
Critical Regionalism as an architectural philosophy has the
Western/International cities, have not been detected in
potential to continue re-examining and re-evaluating itself, and
Muscat. Even the buildings that require extensive glazing,
to produce architecture that acknowledges the cultural,
such as showrooms, have been enforced to incorporate
historical, topographical, and socio-cultural forces bounding a
traditional elements.
particular place, while still negotiating and re-appropriating
globalisation. However, Alan Colquhoun, presented a counter
Chapter Summary opinion by categorising Critical Regionalism as another
branch of Regionalism. He also viewed the attempts of re-
Due to the direct and indirect causes and reasons discussed
establishing regional defining features in a strange and
in Chapters 2 and 3, Oman has been, and still is, undergoing
68
Oman between Traditions and Modernity
unfamiliar way to be tasteless, meaningless and resulting in acceptable by the concerned authorities as it conforms to
kitsch-type architecture. traditional regional features.
69
Conclusion
It should be admitted that the current unified traditional These direct factors might not have evolved without the highly
regional architectural manifestation in Oman has not only influential, prominently located, and widely spread vernacular
generated a national architectural identity distinguished from structures. These indirect caused factors, together with the
the neighbouring Gulf States, but its attempts to enhance and former direct reasons, resulted in the construction of several
enrich the traditions also resulted in attracting and fostering a influential districts with elevated political status, high budget
booming tourist industry, particularly for those who seek to costs and developed services and facilities. These areas
experience remains of an authentic culture and heritage were, perhaps, planned to be models for expressing
vernacular. Muscat has specifically attempted to position itself architecture that attempts to blend, respect, or acknowledge
as an Arab city with minimal insensitive Internationalist the countrys heritage and traditions. Certainly, they lead and
intrusions. evoke the Sultanates regional architectural trend, and are to
be viewed as an inspirational architectural benchmark of
The Regionalism movement experienced in Oman in the last Omans Regionalism.
three decades is the consequence of many direct and indirect
factors. The state legislative rules outlined in building codes Even though, Oman has been, and still is, undergoing a well
form a direct reason for generating the current architectural defined Regionalism movement, the current author does not
identity. The commands and guidance of the creator of submit to any "ism". Yet, he opposes the imitation or
Omans Renaissance, and his view of globalised architecture rejuvenation of past traditions, and equally rejects any
70
Conclusion
insensitive architectural trend that does not respect the long Globalisation is normally viewed as a hidden agenda for
established cultural heritage, vernacular architecture and Westernisation, and creates a fear that it could adversely
living patterns of the area. touch the regional culture; one which is generally resisted by
popular traditions. Therefore, following the steps of the
Yet, several theoretical architectural defects were detected in neighbouring states by 'manufacturing' 'international looking'
many buildings in Muscat caused by the building codes and cities, it is certainly not desired, I believe, and perhaps
the resulted application of the Regionalism trend. This inappropriate for the historically deeply rooted Muscat. On the
necessitated the need to mediate the paradox between other hand, oversimplification and over-familiarisation of the
Internationalism and Localism. Perhaps, this reconciliation heritage is also rejected in most of the recent architectural
could be accomplished if a Post-Critical Regionalism evolved; academia.
one which has the ability to re-examine, re-evaluate, and re-
define itself, along with the capability to offer possibilities for This thesis was not an attempt to problematise an issue, but a
creating architecture bound to the particular site and place, way of questioning architectural matters and evaluating
draw attention to its heritage, history and tradition, run in current available solutions as to achieve best possible or at
parallel with its culture, belief and societal forces and at the least potential resolutions. The paradox between traditions
same time negotiate technology and re-incorporate and modernity is not only valid in Oman, but it is a steaming
internationalism and re-appropriate globalisation, without any architectural issue in most of the Arab countries as well as a
hidden expression of traditional nostalgia. It is proposed that debatable topic in contemporary world architecture. Taking
such an architectural approach be tested in Muscat. Oman as a reference point and a departure benchmark, the
debate between globalisation and localism continues. Do we
71
Conclusion
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