THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEEL

How these are determined, and the factors which influence their values

by David P. Rowlands, BSC Eng (Witwatersrand), MIM, CENG.

Stainless Steels are primarily utilized on Steel relative to the more common mate- As the increasing tensile load is
account of their corrosion resistance. rials of construction. applied, a diagram (graph) is plotted to
However, the scope of excellent show the progressive relationship
mechanical properties offered by the between the STRESS and STRAIN.
various classifications and grades within
the FAMILY of STAINLESS STEEL MECHANICAL
render them extremely versatile mate-
rials.
PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties are a
In this article the significance of these measure of the metals response to an
different properties will be covered with a
applied force.
view to enabling a fuller and better
appreciation of the vast amount of pub- (1) Yield Strength and
lished data which is available. Tensile Strength
Throughout this article Nominal, The most common mechanical property
Resentative or Typical values will be used for comparison, reference and
used to illustrate the different properties design purposes is that of strength, both
being discussed (unless noted otherwise) the Yield Strength and the Tensile
and will be referred to as nominal values. Strength.
The nominal values are those which are To determine both these strengths, stan-
the norm for the various properties, but it dard test specimens, which are
is STRESSED that these must NOT be schematically shown in Fig 1, are
regarded as minimum, nor for some pro- machined from the material and then
perties maximum values for specification subjected to an increasing measured load
purposes. in tension until rupture (breakage) occurs.
The nominal values inevitably vary,
depending on the reference or source of
the publication, eg Grade 304 Hot Rolled
and Annealed Plate at Room Tempera
ture. Tensile Yield
Strength Strength
Source "A" 565 MPa 241 MPa
Source "B" 600 MPa 310 MPa
Specification 500 MPa 205 MPa
ASTM A240 (min) (min)
As may be seen from this example, it is
usually the case that the specified values
are of a lower (more "conservative") value
than the nominal values.
Therefore, if guaranteed values are
required, reference must be made to the
actual Code or Specification. Different
Specification and Codes stipulate diffe-
rent values, and this can lead to either
less or more cost-effective utilization of The Stress-Strain Curve is typified by various
material, a factor which is of importance regions. Refer to Fig 2.
considering the higher price of Stainless From O to E the strain produced is elastic.
On removal of the stress the specimen (or the
material in actual use)
will revert to its original dimensions. The
stress value corresponding to E is
termed the Elastic Limit.
As the stress is raised above the Elas-
tic Limit (E), the material will start to
deform in a plastic manner, ie the mate-
rial undergoes a permanent strain,
deformation or increased dimensions.
Many metals {mild steel included) show
a pronounced Yield Point, as indicated in
Fig 3. This occurs at slightly higher
stress levels than the elastic limit. At the
Yield Point the material shows a sudden
increase of strain for no increase in
stress. For such steels this is reported as
the Yield Strength or the Yield Stress.
Stainless Steels do not typically show
this clearly demarked Yield Point, and
the change from elastic behaviour to
permanent plastic deformation is not
usually easy to detect.
This has led to the Yield Strength of
Stainless Steels being reported using
different terminology, a factor which
often causes confusion. In the initial
stages of plastic deformation, only a
small amount of permanent strain occurs
for relatively large increases in stress.
The Yield Strength for Stainless Steels
is usually taken as the stress which will
produce a 0,2% permanent strain (off-
set).
Referring to Fig 2, this is obtained by a
line drawn parallel to OE from 0,2%
strain to intersect the curve at Y. The
stress value corresponding to Y is taken
as the Yield Strength.
The Yield Strength for Stainless Steels is
therefore reported as 0,2% Proof Stress
(Rp 0,2), Proof Stress (0,2% offset),
Proof Stress (0,2% strain), Yield
Strength (offset 0,2%), 0,2% Yield
Strength, etc. All these different terms
may be taken to be equivalent.
(Note: Occasionally the Yield Strength is
determined and reported at different
amounts of strain or offset eg 0,1% or
0,5%. This factor should be taken into
account when comparing reported
figures or if designing to minimum
specified values).
With further tensile loading the Dlas-
amount of increased stress required to
induce permanent strain decreases, as
indicated by the flattening of the curve
between Y and T in Fig 2. In this region
the deformation is uniform within the
reduced cross-section of the tensile test
specimen, until the resistance of the
material for stress to produce permanent
strain reaches a maximum at T.
The stress corresponding to T, ie the
maximum load divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen, is
taken and reported as the Tensile
Strength. This value is also sometimes
termed the Ultimate Strength or the Ulti-
mate Tensile Strength (UTS).
After this the plastic deformation be
comes localized in a short length of the
test specimen. Rapid decrease of the
cross-sectional area occurs (NECKING),
and therefore the stress required to pro
duce strain decreases, as shown in Fig 2
by the falling portion of the curve TF.
The final fracture (breakage) of the
specimen occurs at F.
(2)
Elongation and
Reduction of Area (RA)
Concurrent with the determination of the
Yield and Tensile Strengths, the
mechanical properties of Elongation and
Reduction of Area (RA) are also
determined.
ELONGATION is determined as follows:
Before the tensile test specimens are
subjected to the load, a standard length is
marked on the reduced section of the test
specimen. This is known as the Gauge
(Gage) Length, and is indicated by "G" in
Figs 1(a) and 1(b).
Different specifications lay down different
Gauge Lengths, eg 50 mm (2"), 200 mm
(8") or sometimes as a formula: Gauge
Length - 5,65 So (ie. 5,65 x Square Root
of the Original cross-sectional area).
Eg for a round tensile specimen of 12,5
mm diameter in the reduced section the
gauge length would be
5,65 x (6,25)2 = 62,6 mm (2,5").
After fracture the two pieces are carefully
put together and the increased distance
between the marks is taken.
The Elongation is calculated by:
(Distance between marks after fracture-
Original Gauge Length) x 100
Original Gauge Length and is thus
reported as a percentage, with the gauge
length specified.
eg Elongation in 50 mm = 28%.
Note: Elongation taken over different
gauge lengths can vary. The elongations
determined on shorter gauge lengths,
because of the influence of necking,
tend to show slightly higher values than
the elongation measured in longer gauge
lengths. This should be taken into account
when comparing reported val-ues.
REDUCTION OF AREA (RA) is deter-
mined as follows:
After fracture the two pieces of the
specimen are carefully fitted together, and
the average diameter, or the width and
thickness, of the smallest cross section to
which the specimen has been reduced by
necking is measured.
The RA is calculated by:
(Original cross sectional area
- Smallest cross sectional area
_______ after fracture) _______ x 100
Original cross sectional area
and is thus reported as a percentage. eg.
RA = 55%.
Both Elongation and RA are a measure of
the DUCTILITY of the material, ie the
ability of the material to deform in a plas-
tic manner without fracturing.
Elongation is the property most often used
in this respect. RA suffers from the
drawback that even at relatively low levels
of ductility the RA has values of 50%. As
the ductility increases RA rapidly
increases to high values 70-75%, which
renders it insensitive to a meaningful
assessment of ductility.
(3) Hardness
Hardness is an often a reported mechan-
ical property, and is useful as a means of
giving an indication of the tensile strength,
and as a non-destructive test for checking
heat treatment and the sorting of material.
Hardness is determined by measuring the
resistance of the material to penetra-tion
(indentation).
-- Brinell Test: A hardened steel ball in-
dentor (10 mm diameter) is forced into
the material by a standard load. The
diameter of the impression gives, from
tables, the Brinnel Hard-ness Number
(BHN).
-- Rockwell Test: Either a hardened steel
ball (Rockwell B - HRB) or a diamond
brale (Rockwell C - HRC) is forced
into the material by standard applied
loads. The depth of penetra-tion is
used to give a Rockwell number
directly from the scale on the
equipment. HRB is used for soft
materials, and HRC for hard mate
rials.
-- Other Hardness tests are also some-
times used.
Vickers Test: Vickers Pyramid
Number (VPN), usually only used in
the laboratory.
Shore Test: Measures the rebound of
a hardened ball up a standard tube.
Used when no indentation can be
tolerated.
 Some indicative comparisons (Relative they cannot be converted to energy Most steels suffer from a loss of tough-
Basis of Hardness). values which may be utilized in ness as the temperature drops to freezing
Very Hard 62HRC 688 BHN engineering calculations. point (0C) and below. The actual Impact
Hard 48 HRC 455 BHN Impact testing may also be used to Strength at the DBTT varies for different
Medium Hardness 30 HRC 286 BHN assess the effect of lower temperatures steels. As a general rule if this value is
Soft 90HRB 185 BHN on a material. Impact specimens are less than 35 J, the material is described
Very Soft 72 HRB 130 BHN uniformly heated or cooled to various as "brittle". This does not necessarily
(Note: Brinell Hardness Tests are not temperatures, and quickly tested before preclude the use of the material.
carried out on materials of over 400-450 they lose or gain heat from the surround- However, it does indicate that the
BHN, as the hardened ball indentor would ings. material must be used with due con-
itself tend to suffer distortion). sideration. Applications which involve any
A plot of the energy absorbed is made impact loads or dynamic stress are very
against the testing temperature of the susceptible to the presence of defeats or
specimens. The Ductile to Brittle Transi- imperfections, and are best avoided.
(4) Toughness tion Temperature (DBTT) is taken at the Applications involving static or constant
temperature at which the slope of the loads are generally acceptable.
Toughness is the capacity of a material to curve changes. This is shown schemati-
yield plastically under conditions of highly cally in Fig 5. Some'Steels exhibit Impact Strengths in
localized stress. It is an important
engineering property.
It is determined using a dynamic test. A
standard specimen which is notched to
localize the stress, is struck by a single
blow from a swinging pendulum. The
energy absorbed in deforming or break-
ing the specimen is measured by the loss
of energy in the pendulum.
Tough materials absorb a lot of energy,
whereas brittle materials absorb little
energy.
The most often used test is the CHARPY
"V" NOTCH IMPACT TEST. Similar tests
are and have been used viz The Charpy
Keyhole, and Izod Test.
Fig 4 schematically illustrates the Charpy
"V" Notch Impact Test.
Impact Values are reported as the energy
absorbed, with the type of test and the
temperature noted. The units are Joules
(J).
Eg Impact Strength: Charpy "V" (20C) =
60J.
The values determined are qualitative
comparisons and although often reported,
or specified as acceptance criteria,

excess of 35 J at the DBTT and even at

lower temperatures, and therefore are
considered as "tough" at all tempera-
tures.
General Note: It is usual to take test
specimens in the direction of rolling or
extension (termed Longitudinal). Thus
strain or fracture takes place at right
angles to any directionality which may
exist in the material. Such longitudinal
test specimens generally exhibit higher
values compared to values obtained from
test specimens taken across the rolling
direction (termed Transverse), because
any directionality which may exist now
lies across the cross-section of the test
specimen, which tends to initiate and
cause failure at lower levels of stress.
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS Table 1: Nominal room temperature Yield and Tensile Strengths for annealed
STEELS Austenitic Stainless Steels.
AISI Type 301 304 304L 305 309S 31 OS 316 316L
Yield Strength and
Yield Strength (0,2%
Tensile Strength offset) MPa
275 290 270 262 310 310 290 290

Nominal room temperature Yield Tensile Strength MPa 755 580 560 585 620 655 580 560
Strengths (0,2% offset), and Tensile
Strengths for some annealed Austenitic
Stainless Steels are given in Table 1.
Compared to normal structural plain Table 2: Indicative response to cold working different grades of Austenitic
carbon mild steel (Yield Strength 270 Stainless Steels to varying degrees.
MPa, Tensile Strength 465 MPa), it may Yield Strength (0,2% Tensile Strength
be seen that the Austenitic Stainless Grade % Cold Work
offset) MPa MPa
Steels have superior properties.
10% Cold Work 585 1035
Austenitic Stainless Steels further show
a marked response to cold working. Such 301 30% Cold Work 1035 1275
cold working significantly increases both
the Yield and Tensile Strengths. 50% Cold Work 1310 1445
The degree to which work-hardening 10% Cold Work 480 685
affects the strength levels depends on the
chemical composition of the different 304 30% Cold Work 825 860
Austenitic Stainless Steels, particularly 50% Cold Work 1000 1100
with regard to the content of the elements
which stabilize the Austenitic crystal 10% Cold Work 470 744
structure (especially the Nickel (Ni) 310 30% Cold Work 854 965
content).
For example in Table 2 Grade 301, which 50% Cold Work 1010 1145
does not have a composition necessary
to fully stabilize the Austenitic structure, is
compared with Grade 304 and Grade 310 Such temper rolling is usually confined to - As the temperature increases to elevated
which may be considered to have fully Grade 301 because of its greater (up to 500C) and high (above 500C) levels,
stabilized Austenitic structures at normal response, and other grades of Austenitic the strength properties decrease. This is
room temperature. Lower response to Stainless Steel are not readily obtainable simply because the atoms move around more
work-hardening of these latter grades is in this condition. easily, due to the cohesive bonds between
indicated. them relaxing as the temperature increases.
Further, high strength wire is also pro-
The Austenitic Stainless Steels therefore duced by the same principle. Different
have the ability to be work-hardened to tempers are also used: Nevertheless Austenitic Stainless Steels
very high strength levels, exceeding to a possess useful elevated and high temperature
-- Annealed Temper: Soft wire. No strengths.
significant degree those obtainable from drawing takes place after the last
conventional structural steels and heat annealing treatment.
treated tow alloy steels. Elevated and high temperature strengths are
-- Soft Temper: One single light draft reported in two different ways, viz
High strength Austenitic Stainless Steel draw after the last annealing treat-
sheet and strip can be cold rolled to effect + SHORT TIME PROPERTIES. The tensile
ment, to produce properties below a
sufficient reduction in thickness, thus test specimen is heated to the required
specified maximum.
developing the required high strength temperature of the test, and actually tested
properties. No subsequent annealing is -- Intermediate Temper: A draw of pro- at this temperature to obtain the Stress-
carried out. These higher strengths are gressive drafts after annealing to Strain curve and the resultant Yield and
defined according to temper. The produce minimum specified strengths. Tensile Strengths.
process is referred to as temper rolling -- Spring Temper: A draw of several The effect of elevated and high temperatures
to differentiate it from, and prevent any drafts to produce the high tensile on both the Yield and Tensile Strengths in
confusion by simply referring to it as "cold spring wire requirements. MPa, is taken on a Short Time basis, as
rolling". The strength properties
The tensile strengths obtainable in the indicated in Table 5. In general terms it may
associated with the various tempers is
Spring Temper condition are very high, be seen that the "L" Grades suffer a greater
given in Table 3.
especially for small diameter wires. loss of properties with a rise in temperature,
Several standard grades are contained in particularly with regard to their tensile
those normally drawn to wire, viz: 302, strengths.
Table 3: Strength levels for 304, 305, 316, 321, etc. Nominal tensile
various Temper Rolled strength levels are indicated in Table 4. Against the values given in Table 5, it is
sheet/strip. interesting to note the maximum allowable
Yield Strength Tensile stresses in tension for Austenitic Stainless
Table4: Tensile Strength levels Steels in Unfired Pressure Vessels (Section
Temper (0,2% offset) Strength
obtainable for cold drawn wire (Grade
MPa(min) MPa(min) VIII Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
304) American Society for Mechanical Engineers).
1 Wire Tensile strength range
/4 Hard 515 860 As an example the allowable stresses for 304
Diameter (MPa)
0,46-0,51 mm 2070-2275 and 304L are given in Table 6.
1/2 Hard 760 1035
3/4 Hard 930 1205 0,94-1,04 mm 1895-2095

Full Hard 965 1275 2,41-2,67 mm 1600-1805

+ LONG TIME PROPERTIES. At high
Table 5: Indicative short time elevated and high temperature Yield and Tensile
temperatures (ie in excess of
Strengths for various Austenitic Stainless Steels.
500C) the strain is dependent
on the applied stress and time. (Note: YS = Yield Strength, TS = Tensile Strength both in MPa)

The metal undergoes a continuous slow 304 304L 316 316L 321 347
TempC
deformation, which is realistically termed YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS
CREEP. Creep can occur at stresses
150 191 465 180 431 205 510 176 450 156 475 224 480
below the Short Time Yield Strength.
260 166 445 152 409 173 500 149 435 131 468 198 437
There are three stages of creep as indi-
cated in the schematic diagram in Fig 6. 370 150 445 140 400 157 500 134 435 121 468 182 426

1. Primary Creep over a relatively short 480 137 428 130 382 152 475 123 415 116 468 176 426
time during which the creep rate de
595 125 365 116 327 144 407 109 360 112 400 173 402
creases.
2. Secondary Creep at a constant rate 705 112 266 = 245 134 298 = 272 102 276 161 324
over an extended period at a mini- 815 79 145 = 142 112 172 = 168 95 141 113 168
mum creep rate.
3. Tertiary Creep over a relatively short
time during which the creep rate in-
creases and the metal finally frac- Table 6: Indicative maximum allowable stresses in tension for use in Unfired Pressure Vessels.
tures. Allowable stress in MPa for temperatures
Long Time Strength Properties are Steel grade 150C 260 C 370 C 480 C 595 C 705 C 815C
generally expressed in two ways: -
304 103 86 74 65 52 17 5
-- The Creep Stress is that which will 304L 90 67 58,5 = = = =
cause a specific rate of deformation in
a given time (ie within the Second-ary
Creep Range) at a specific tem-
perature.
-- The Rupture Stress is that which will
cause rupture (ie encompasses all
stages of Creep) in a given time and
at a specific temperature.
The values are usually presented in a
diagrammatic form. A typical Creep Rate
Rupture Time diagram for Grade 304
Austenitic Stainless Steel is shown in Fig
7.
To obtain Rupture Time; At a con-
stant temperature of 734C (1 350F),
if the stress is 69 MPa (10 000 psi) it
indicates that the material will rup-
ture in approximately 250 hours.
However, if the stress is reduced to 27
MPa (4 000 psi) the material will take
22 000 hours to rupture.
To obtain Creep Rate: At a constant
temperature of 734C (1 350F), if the
stress is 26 MPa (3 750 psi) the Creep
Rate is approximately 0,0001% per
hour. Therefore in 10 000 hours an
original dimension will increase by
(10 000 x 0,0001%) = 1,0% ie an origi-
nal dimension of 100 mm would have
become 101 mm.
In 25 000 hours an original dimension
of 100 mm would have theoretically
become 102,5 mm - BUT this cannot
occur because rupture would have
taken place at 22 000 hours as seen
above.
If the stress is reduced to 14 MPa (2
000 psi) the Creep Rate is approxi-
mately 0,00002% per hour. Therefore
in 10 000 hours an original dimension
will have increased by 0,2% ie. 100
mm would become 100,2 mm.
At any temperature the maximum stress
for the maximum time is given by the
intersection of the Rupture Time and the
Creep Rate.
For example at 734C the maximum is
approximately 24 MPa (3 500 psi) which
will give a Rupture Time of 60 000 hours.
The Creep Rate is approximately
0,00006% per hour, which for 60 000
hours is 3,6%, ie 100 mm original length
would increase to 103,6 mm. Naturally
such an increase in dimensions may not
be tolerable in the application. Long Time
Creep values are sometimes presented in
tabular form as given in Table 7.
The interdependence of Creep Rate and
Rupture Time should be noted.
Thus, the reason for the lower allowable
stress values for Pressure Vessels (Table
6) may be appreciated in comparing the
values in Tables 5,6 and 7.
* Austenitic Stainless Steels increase
their strength progressively as the temp-
erature is lowered, including the
cryogenic temperatures of liquid gases,
viz 200C below freezing point.
The underlying reasons for this are com-
plex, and beyond the scope of this article.
It is sufficient to say that those Austenitic
Stainless Steels which have higher Nickel
(Ni) and/or Nitrogen (N) content
(elements which have a strong influence
on stabilising the Austenitic crystal
structure), ie stable alloys, tend to have a
less pronounced increase in Tensile
Strength, but a marked increase in the
0,2% offset Yield Strength as the
temperature decreases.
Those alloys which have low Ni and N
contents undergo change to the crystal
structure as the temperature drops, ie
metastable alloys. Such alloys have a
more pronounced increase in the Tensile
Strength, but only a slight increase in the
0,2% offset Yield Strength.
Indicative values are given in Table 8 for
304 (metastable) 304N (stabilised with N)
and 310 (stabilised as a result of its high
Ni content).
Ductility. Annealed Austenitic Stainless
Steels have excellent Elongation values
of typically 50-60% and higher.
They therefore possess a superior ability
to be cold formed, pressed, drawn and
spun into deep shapes.
Cold working does bring about a de-
crease in the Ductility. Elongation of
20% are typical for material which has
undergone 30% cold work - still a very
acceptable Ductility by normal engineer-
ing standards.
At sub-zero temperatures the Elongation
decreases only slightly, giving a typical
Elongation value of 40-50%.
Hardness. In the annealed condition
typical Hardness is 150-160 HBN. Small
amounts of cold work can rapidly
increase the Hardness up to levels of
Table 7: Indicative maximum permissible stress values for different Creep Rates for
304 Stainless Steel.
Temperature 538 C 648 C 734 C 815C
Stress for 1% in 10 000 hours 138. MPa 56 MPa 25 MPa 19 MPa
Stress for 1% in 100 000 hours 76 MPa 27,5 MPa 12 MPa 9 MPa
Table 8: Indicative 0,2% offset Yield Strength and Tensile Strengths for different
Austenitic Stainless Steels at temperatures below freezing point.
Test 304 304N 310
Temperature
0,2% YS TS 0,2% YS TS 0,2% YS TS
C MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
- 50 236 1101 495 940 392 848
-100 223 1280 615 1110 466 950
-140 245 1365 665 1345 557 972
-196 232 1610 850 1620 671 1138
250 HBN. Further cold work results in properties. It is for this reason that they
a slower increase in Hardness. Spring are used virtually exclusively for the
Temper wires and Grade 301 cold rolled manufacture of vessels to contain liquid
to Full Hard Temper have Hardnesses of gases at cryogenic temperatures, Grade
the order of 340-380 HBN. 304N being preferred on account of its
Toughness. The annealed Austeni- superior strength properties.
tic Stainless Steels have excellent Fatigue. If metals are subject to
Toughness, with Charpy V (Room Tem- repeated fluctuating (reversing) loads at
perature) typically in excess of 165 J. stresses below the Tensile Strength,, a
fatigue crack can initiate in the material,
Charpy V values at sub-zero tempera-
which then with increasing cycles of
tures do decrease, but even at tempera-
tures as low as 196C below zero are loading propagates until final failure by
fracture occurs.
typically 90-120 J, ie not approaching
values which are considered as "brittle". The resistance to Fatigue at various
stress levels is therefore required for
Cold work also reduces the impact
many engineering applications.
strength values. The relative reduction
depends on the amount of cold work. Fatigue Resistance is assessed by sub-
Even severely cold work Austenitic jecting polished specimens to simple
Stainless Steels retain a considerable forms of repeated cycles of a fixed
amount of Toughness, and the decrease reversing stress until fracture occurs.
will ordinarily never approach a brittle The higher the stress, the lower the
condition. number of stress cycles required to
Only under two circumstances may bring about failure.
Austenitic Stainless Steels exhibit low The results so obtained at different
Toughness: stress levels against the corresponding
1. If the composition is such that when number of cycles to final failure are plot-
heated to the high temperatures of ted to give a curve termed an S-N CURVE
600-850C for extended periods, the (ie Stress-Number of Cycles), as shown
brittle phase called Sigma develops schematically Fig 8.
within the crystal structure. The em
brittling effect of Sigma is not dele
terious at these high temperatures,
but seriously impairs the Toughness
of steels containing it are cooled and
tested at room temperature, or if
plant operating at high temperatures
cools to ordinary temperatures dur
ing shut down.
2. If Austenitic Stainless Steels are first
cold worked to a significant degree
and then heated in the sensitization
temperature range of 550-850C for
sufficient time to cause carbide preci
pitation, such sensitized steels will
suffer loss of Toughness at tempera
tures lower than 100C below zero.
From the foregoing it may be seen that
Austenitic Stainless Steels have exceed-
ingly good low temperature mechanical
 as the number of stress cycles
increases. The stress to produce failure
in a specific (large) number of stress
cycles is termed the FATIGUE
STRENGTH.
In practical terms, however, the
progressive decrease in stress
becomes so small at large number of
cycles that, provided the number of
cycles is large enough, the FATIGUE
STRENGTH may be taken as a
"Fatigue Limit".
(Note: The term ENDURANCE LIMIT is
also used correctly as the Fatigue Limit,
but often incorrectly as the Fatigue
Strength).
Austenitic Stainless Steels have
nominal Fatigue Strengths as shown in
Table 9.
Table 9: Nominal Fatigue Strength
for various annealed Austenitic
Stainless Steels.
Steel grades Fatigue Strength (MPa)
301 245
304 245
316 265
321 260
Cold working which results in
increased Tensile and Yield
Strengths, also increases the Fatigue
Strengths. Similarly the increased
Tensile and Yield Strengths at sub-
zero temperatures also increases the
Fatigue Strength.
At these higher strength levels,
however, any surface defects or
imperfections adversely affect the
Fatigue Strength, lowering it to a half
or a third of the value obtained with
perfect surface condition.
FERRITIC STAINLESS
STEELS
Yield Strength and
Tensile Strength
Nominal room temperature Yield
Strengths (0,2% offset) and Tensile
Strengths for annealed Ferritic
Stainless Steels are given in Table 10.
* Ferritic Stainless Steels show little
response to cold working. An increase
in both the Yield and Tensile
Strengths takes place, but to a minor
degree only.
* Ferritic Stainless Steels have useful
elevated temperature strengths, but
these strengths tend to fall off rapidly
at high temperatures.
Table 10: Nominal room temperature Yield and Tensile Strengths for annealed
standard and proprietary alloy Ferritic Stainless Steels.
Yield Strength
Steel Grade Tensile Strength
(0,2% offset)
() Proprietary Alloy Grades (MPa)
(MPa)
430 345 510
446 345 550
() 18-2 Cr Mo Super Ferritic 340 515
() 26-1 Cr Mo Super Ferritic 345 480
() 3CR12 320 500
Table 11: Nominal short time elevated and high temperature Tensile Strengths
for standard and proprietary alloy Ferritic Stainless Steels.
Tensile strength (MPa)
Temperature C
430 446 18-2 Super Ferritic 3CR12
200 465 580 480 420
400 395 550 450 360
600 165 240 = 160
700 89 110 = =
800 45 55 =
Some nominal values are given in Table Toughness. The Impact Strengths of
11. Ferritic Stainless Steels vary according
In general Ferritic Stainless Steels are to the chemical composition, parti-
not recommended for use at high temp- cularly with respect to the Ductile to Brit-
eratures, as their creep strengths at tle Transition Temperature (DBTT).
temperatures above 450C are low. The Grade 446, for example, has a DBTT of
standard Ferritic Stainless Steels are 120C ie it may be considered of low
used at high temperatures on account of Toughness at room temperature. The
their oxidation (scaling) resistance standard Ferritic Stainless Steels are
(especially Grade 446), but should not be tough at room temperature, and in gen-
considered for load bearing compo- eral their DBTT is between 20C and 0C,
nents under these conditions. thus below 0C may be considered of
Fatigue. Nominal Fatigue Strengths low Toughness.
for Ferritic Stainless Steels are of the The Super Ferritic Stainless Steels and
order of 310-330 MPa. 3CR12, with specially controlled chemi-
Ductility. Ferritic Stainless Steels cal compositions, particularly with
have nominal Elongation values as indi- respect to specified low levels of both
cated below: Carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N), have a
DBTT of normally between 0C and 20C
430 = 25% below freezing point.
446 = 20% In general, therefore, all the Ferritic
Stainless Steels are not suitable for use
18-2 Super Ferritic = 30%
at low temperatures approaching or
26-1 Super Ferritic = 28% below freezing point.
3CR12 = 22% Note: It is stressed that welding has a
They therefore have a Ductility equiva- marked effect on the toughness of stan-
lent to the usual plain carbon mild steels, dard Ferritic Stainless Steels within the
and are therefore suitable for cold form- weld zone, due to changes to the crystal
ing operations of a moderate degree. structure brought about in the Heat Af-
(Note: In this respect a Deep Drawing fected Zone (HAZ).
Quality (DDQ) Grade 430 has been
developed. Whereas it has drawing
properties superior to standard 430,
these do not approach those exhibited MARTENSITIC STAINLESS
by the Austenitic grades).
STEELS
Hardness. Ferritic Stainless Steels
in the annealed condition have a nomi- Martensitic Stainless Steels are usually
nal hardness of 165 HBN. supplied in the annealed (soft) condition
They are non-hardenable alloys, neither for ease of machining. As such they have
by heat treatment nor by cold work. mechanical properties similar to the
Fer-
 ritic Stainless Steel, because in this condition Yield
they do possess a Ferritic structure. Tempering Tensile Elongation
Grade of Strength Izod "V"
Tempera- Strength in 50 mm Hardness
Steel (0,2% offset) Notch J
To develop their attainable mechanical ture C MPa %
MPa
properties (and their corrosion resistance)
they require to be heat treated by quenching 200 1000 1310 15 41HRC
and tempering, (also sometimes referred to 315 965 1240 15 39HRC 47
as hardening and stress relieving). This 425 1035 1345 17 41HRC 47
410
involves:- 538 790 1000 20 31HRC 102
648 585 758 23 97HRB 136
1. Heating the steel to within a specified 760 415 620 30 89HRB
high temperature range for sufficient 200 1380 1755 10
time to ensure the uniform attainment of 315 1345 1725 10
this temperature throughout the cross- 420 425 1380 1755 10 48HRC 14
section. At this temperature the crystal 538 1000 1170 15
structure becomes fully Austenitic, and 648 585 790 20
therefore it is termed the austenizin
temperature, or sometimes the 200 1070 1415 15 43HRC
hardening tempera-ture. 315 1035 1345 15 41HRC 41
2. Rapidly cooling (quenching) the steel 431 425 1070 1415 15 43HRC 61
from this high temperature, usually in 538 895 1035 18 34HRC 68
oil. (Faster quenching in water is sel- 648 655 860 20 24HRC
dom used-slower quenching by sim- 440A 315 1655 1795 51HRC 5
ply free cooling in air may sometimes 53
440B 315 1860 1930 55HRC 4
be used). This quenching produces 2
440C 315 1895 1965 57HRC 3
within the steel the Martensitic crys-
tal structure, which is highly stressed, *Note: Historically the Izod Impact Test was used. These figures are still quoted in most
hard and strong, but which has low references. It is not possible to convert results from one method of impact testing to
Ductility and Toughness. another.
3. Immediately tempering the quenched
steel by re-heating to a temperature
necessary to produce the desired sectional area, the quenching medium any surface imperfections or defects.
combination of Strength and Hard- (rate) used, and the austenitizing (har-
The quenched and tempered steels may
ness, Ductility and Toughness. dening) temperature.
be used at elevated temperatures up to
The modification and combination of From both Fig 9 and Table 12 it may be 25-30C below their tempering tem-
properties attained by tempering is noted that the Strength and Hardness of perature. If the tempering temperature is
schematically indicated in Fig 9. these steels is maintained up to a tem- approached or exceeded in use, naturally
pering temperature of approximately the mechanical properties will be
425C. Tempering is usually effected at a consequently affected. Short time
temperature between 260-300C, which strength values at temperatures up to
gives satisfactory Elongation and 350C are approximately 90% that of the
maximum Toughness for the high room temperature strength.
Strength and Hardness maintained at Quenched and tempered Martensitic
these lower tempering temperatures. Stainless Steels show a marked drop in
Note, in particular, the typical drop in Toughness as the temperature is lowered
Toughness between 375C and 600C. to 0C and below.
Tempering in this range is not recom- However, if the steels have been tem-
mended as low and erratic impact prop- pered at the highest tempering tempera-
erties are obtained. tures (650-700C) these initially lowered
Tempering above 600C results in Elon- impact values are of the order of 15-40 J
gation and Toughness improving mar- Izod V. With due care and cognisance,
kedly, but with a major sacrifice of their use may be considered at low temp-
Strength and Hardness. The high carbon eratures. However, their Toughness
grades (440 A, B and C) are mainly used progressively decreases as the tempera-
at the high strength and hardness levels ture falls, and at 150C below freezing
due to their hardness, abrasion and wear they become exceedingly brittle.
resistance, eg as pivot pins, dental and
surgical instruments, cutlery, hardened
balls, needle valves, bushing and
bearings. CONCLUSION
At these levels, the associated mechani- The Mechanical Properties of the three
Nominal values for the Yield Strength cal properties of Elongation and Tough- classifications of the Family of Stainless
(0,2% offset), Tensile Strength, Elonga- ness are relatively inferior. This must be Steel have been covered in a general
tion, Hardness and Toughness for some taken into consideration if they are used manner.
quenched and tempered Martensitic in engineering applications involving How they are measured, and the factors
Stainless Steels are given in Table 12. shock or impact loading, dynamic con- which govern and influence their values
The effect of different chemical compo- ditions, etc. are similar for the other classifications
sitions should be noted, particularly the The Fatigue properties of Martensitic of Stainless Steel, and in fact, for steel
effect of Carbon (C) content (medium to Stainless Steels may be correlated to the in general.
high levels in Grade 420, and Grades 440 quenched and tempered Tensile Strength
A, B, C respectively). The mechanical The range of attainable values for the dif-
level. As a nominal value, the Fatigue ferent mechanical properties is vast, and
properties actually obtained from the Limit may be taken as approximately 45%
various grades in practice will depend this is more particularly so for the
of the Tensile Strength. At such high Austenitic Stainless Steels. This factor is
on the chemical composition, the cross levels, fatigue performance is adversely but one of those which renders Stainless
lowered by the presence of Steel an extremely versatile material.