UNIVERSITY OF NOVI SAD

FACULTY OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES

ADEKO ASSOCIATION FOR DESIGN, ELEMENTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS
CEEPUS CiI-RS-0304 / CEEPUS CII-PL-0033

machine design
2010
the editor IN CHIEF: prof. phd. sinia kuzmanovi

novi sad, 2010

Publication: Machine Design 2010

Publicher: University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences

Printed by: Faculty of Technical Sciences, Graphic Center GRID, Novi Sad

CIP
,

62-11:658.512.2 (082)

MACHINE Design / editor in chief Sinia Kuzmanovi. - 2010 - Novi Sad :

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 2010. - 30 cm

Godinje. / Annual.
ISSN 1821-1259

COBISS.SR-ID 239401991
 the editor IN CHIEF
Prof. Ph.D. Sinia KUZMANOVI

SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY committee

Kyrill ARNAUDOW Sofia Zoran MARINKOVI Ni
Ilare BORDEAU Timioara Athanassios MIHAILIDIS Thessaloniki
Juraj BUKOVECZKY Bratislava Radivoje MITROVI Belgrade
Rado BULATOVI Podgorica Slobodan NAVALUI Novi Sad
Ilija OSI Novi Sad Peter NENOV Rousse
Vlastimir OKI Ni Vera NIKOLI-STANOJEVI Kragujevac
Milosav GEORGIJEVI Novi Sad Alexandru-Viorel PELE Oradea
Ladislav GULAN Bratislava Momir ARENAC E. Sarajevo
Janko HODOLI Novi Sad Victor E. STARZHINSKY Gomel
Miodrag JANKOVI Belgrade Slobodan TANASIJEVI Kragujevac
Dragoslav JANOEVI Ni Wiktor TARANENKO Lublin
Miomir JOVANOVI Ni Radivoje TOPI Belgrade
Svetislav JOVII Kragujevac Lucian TUDOSE Cluj-Napoca
Imre KISS Hunedoara Miroslav VERE Bratislava
Kosta KRSMANOVI Belgrade Jovan VLADI Novi Sad
Sergey A. LAGUTIN Moscow Aleksandar VULI Ni
Nenad MARJANOVI Kragujevac Miodrag ZLOKOLICA Novi Sad
tefan MEDVECKY ilina Istvan ZOBORY Budapest

ceepus committee
Carmen ALIC Hunedoara Stanislaw LEGUTKO Poznan
Vojtech ANNA Koice Vojislav MILTENOVI Ni
Jaroslav BERAN Liberec Miroslava NEMCEKOVA Bratislava
George DOBRE Bucharest Milosav OGNJANOVI Belgrade
Milosav UREVI Banjaluka Marin TOLNAY Bratislava
Dezso GERGELY Nyregyhza Krasimir TUJAROV Rousse
Csaba GYENGE Cluj-Napoca Karol VELISEK Trnava
Sava IANICI Resita Simon VILMOS Budapest
Juliana JAVOROVA Sofia Tomislav ZLATANOVSKI Skopje

reviewers
Prof. Ph.D. Milosav UREVI, Banjaluka
Prof. Ph.D. Sava IANICI, Resita
Prof. Ph.D. Sinia KUZMANOVI, Novi Sad
Prof. Ph.D. Vojislav MILTENOVI, Ni
Prof. Ph.D. Miroslav VERE, Bratislava

technical secretary
Ass. M.Sc. Milan RACKOV, Eng.
Dear Ladies and Gentlemen, Authors and Readers of this publication,
We are celebrating the 50th anniversary of our Faculty and I would like to greet You and to thank You on Your
participation and scientific papers submitted.
The Faculty of Technical Sciences is a part of the University of Novi Sad, the second largest university centre in Serbia.
It was founded on 18th May 1960, as the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of Novi Sad and was originally a part of
the University of Belgrade. With the establishment of the Department of Electrical Engineering and the Department of
Civil Engineering the Faculty changed its name into the Faculty of Technical Sciences on 22nd April 1974. During the
last five decades, the Faculty has gained reputation as a high quality institution with world recognition.
Today, the Faculty of Technical Sciences is the biggest faculty of the University of Novi Sad and a leader in education
and research as well as in the implementation of the Bologna declaration reforms. It covers an area of 30,000 m2
occupying the central position at the University campus on the river Danube.
The activities of the Faculty are oriented towards three fields: education, research and technology transfer.
The educational activities are conducted on the undergraduate level for obtaining a Bachelors degree in engineering
and on the graduate level as Masters degree studies and Doctoral degree studies.

Educational activities are carried out through academic and professional studies in the following areas:
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Production Engineering, Mechanization and Construction Mechanics, Energy and
Process Engineering, Technical Mechanics and Technical Design), ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
(Power, Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering, Computing and Control Engineering), CIVIL
ENGINEERING, TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Traffic and Transportation, Postal Traffic and Telecommunications),
ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING, INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGAMENT (Industrial
Engineering, Engineering Management), GRAPHIC ENGINEERING AND DESIGN, ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING, WORKPLACE SAFETY & HEALTH, MECHATRONICS and GEODEZY AND GEOINFORMATICS.

The Facultys research and development activities are conducted in modern laboratories and computer centres. The members
of the faculty are the authors of numerous papers which appear in the leading national and international journals, and
at the international conferences in the country and abroad. The research activities are directed towards the realization of
research projects or sub-projects within fundamental research, innovation projects and technology development projects. The
Faculty also elaborates research projects on request of the industry sector.
The Faculty and its 13 departments organize 16 permanent scientific conferences in Serbia and publish three international
journals in English. The professors of the Faculty have been invited to give lectures at many renowned universities around the
world.
The funds of the Faculty library comprise over 160,000 books. The facilities available to its users include a well developed
service of national and international interlibrary loan and exchange.
Several student associations are involved in taking care of students interests, not only in the field of education, but also in
relation to social life, arts and entertainment. Local committees of several international student associations organize student
exchange programmes and offer professional practise.
The Faculty of Technical Sciences has been issued the certificate EN ISO 9001:2000 as a form of recognition of the high
quality of its work by the International Certification House RWTV from Essen (Germany) and the Institute for
Standardization.
REALIZATION OF HIGH POSITION AMONG THE BEST IS THE VISION OF THE FACULTY OF TECHNICAL
SCIENCES.

Dean of the Faculty of Technical Sciences

In Novi Sad, 18th May 2010 Prof. Ph.D. Ilija osi
Dear Reader,

In this year 2010, the Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad celebrates its significant jubilee 50th birthday. For our
conditions it is a great jubilee and a wonderful chance to celebrate its first fifty years of existence. On that occasion our
Faculty wants to represent researching results of the leader researchers and scientists in the field of Machine design
from these regions, in order to obtain insight in the present situation of this important scientific discipline. As a result of
collective efforts, we have published the annual publication Machine Design 2010 with almost 400 pages that
comprehends 78 papers from 12 countries:
- Belarus, 1 paper - Poland, 4 papers
- Bulgaria, 4 papers - Romania, 18 papers
- Croatia, 3 papers - Russia, 1 paper
- Czech Republic, 1 paper - Serbia, 26 papers
- Finland, 2 papers - Slovakia, 16 papers
- Hungary, 1 paper - Ukraine, 1 paper
Of course, this classification is not so strict, because there are several papers with authors from different countries,
which we greet and want to encourage more in the future.
Certainly, this edition could be larger and some papers maybe more quality, but the reviewers decided just like this.
The papers are sorted according the similar researching topics in four great field: construction and design,
manufacturing and producing technologies, testing and researching and materials and their characteristics.
Machine Design is on the IndexCopernicus international journals master list and its editorial board will try further to
develop this publication in order to achieve and maintain a high quality of publications, so we can receive an Impact
factor. Our goals are to be referred in international publication databases, to provide an international medium for
scientific contribution and participation to mechanical engineers and to create a platform for the communication
between science and industry in the filed of technical sciences.
Machine Design is published regularly every year on May 18th in the occasion of celebrating the Day of Faculty of
Technical Sciences in Novi Sad. The call for papers is opened the whole year and the authors are able to send their
papers during whole year for the next edition of Machine Design. Authors can get all information about the journal on
the web page www.ftn.uns.ac.rs/m_design. Also, all published papers are available on this web address.
Furthermore, we support CEEPUS II program and other programs of international cooperation. Therefore, in this
edition CEEPUS Committee is separated from Scientific Advisory Committee and its members are coordinators of
CEEPUS networks CII-RS-0304 and CII-PL-0033. In that way we would like to promote CEEPUS II program and to
encourage international cooperation, mutual researchings, projects and publishing papers between partners
institutions the members of CEEPUS networks. Thus, we want to help better understanding and knowing about work
and researchings of our colleagues from abroad, not only from CEEPUS countries, but from all over the world.
I believe that all accepted papers treat analyzed topics explicitly and systematically on a high scientific and
professional level, and thus they deserved to be published in this publication.
I hope You will often read this publication with a great pleasure, as like as I do it when creating its contents.

With deep respect and gratitude,

The editor in chief,
th
In Novi Sad, 18 May 2010 Prof. Ph.D. Sinia Kuzmanovi
CONTENTS:

1. OPTIMUM DESIGN OF SANDWICH PANELS WITH FOAM CORE

Heikki MARTIKKA, Erkki TAITOKARI ............................................................................................................ 1

2. A BRIEF REVIEW OF FIXTURE DESIGN AND AUTOMATION

Djordje VUKELIC, Branko TADIC, Janko HODOLIC, Nenad SIMEUNOVIC ................................................ 7

3. DESIGN FOR MODERNIZATION A WAY FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF ECO

IMPROVEMENTS OF PORTS CRANES
Nenad ZRNI, Sran BONJAK, Milo OREVI ...................................................................................... 13

4. OPTIMALISATION OF BRIQUETTING MACHINE PRESSING CHAMBER GEOMETRY

Peter KRIAN, ubomr OO, Milo MAT ............................................................................................... 19

5. FEA IMPLEMENTATION IN MOVING LOAD PROBLEM AT BRIDGE CRANES

Vlada GAI, Milorad MILOVANEVI, Zoran PETKOVI ....................................................................... 25

6. REDESIGN OF THE CONNECTING EYE-PLATE OF THE BUCKET WHEEL BOOM HOISTING

SYSTEM
Sran BONJAK, Neboja GNJATOVI, Nenad ZRNI ................................................................................. 31

7. AUTOMATION OF PREFABRICATED REMOVABLE STRUCTURES DESIGNING

PROCEDURES
Jovan VLADI, Rastislav OSTAKOV, Radomir OKI, Dragan IVANI ................................................ 35

8. SIZE VERIFICATION AND DESIGN ANALYSIS OF PULLEY SHAFT AT LONEA MINING

PLANT
Iosif DUMITRESCU, Vilhelm ITU, Mihai Carmelo RIDZI .............................................................................. 39

9. FATIGUE ENDURANCE DIMENSIONING BY STRAIN LIFE METHOD WITH A NOVEL

NOTCH COEFFICIENT
Ilkka PLLNEN, Heikki MARTIKKA ........................................................................................................... 43

10. OPTIMIZATION OF CONTAINER QUAY CRANE LIFE TIME BASED ON NUMERICAL

ANALYSIS
Goran BOJANIC, Nebojsa RALEVIC, Milosav GEORGIJEVIC ...................................................................... 49

11. MECHANISM SYNTHESIS OF MANIPULATOR OF MOBILE MACHINES

Dragoslav JANOEVI, Nikola PETROVI, Vesna NIKOLI ....................................................................... 55

12. DESIGN, SIMULATION AND TEST OF MOBILE HEAVY-DUTY STRUCTURES

Dragan MARINKOVI, Zoran MARINKOVI ............................................................................................... 59

13. IMPROVING THERMAL BALANCE IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE USING THE

TURBOGENERATOR
Sawomir DZIUBASKI, Jerzy JANTOS ......................................................................................................... 65

14. FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS OF THE AUTO COOLING FAN MOTOR
Branislav POPOVI, Dragan MILI, Miroslav MIJAJLOVI ...................................................................... 69

15. A STUDY OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS DAMAGES FROM PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

Nicolae POPA, Cosntantin ONESCU ................................................................................................................. 75

I
16. INFLUENCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PHENOMENON AT CVT OPERATING CONDITIONS
Andrzej BIENIEK ............................................................................................................................................... 79

17. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF THE CONNECTING ROD

Vasile George CIOAT, Imre KISS ................................................................................................................... 83

18. THE INFLUENCE OF THE CAM PROFILE DESIGN ON THE CAM AND TAPPET HERTZ
STRESSES AND WEAR
Constantin ONESCU, Nicolae POPA, Ionel VIERU .......................................................................................... 87

19. THE MODELING AND DESIGNING OF FLEXIBLE SYNCHRONOUS PRODUCTION LINE

WITH REDUNDANT TECHNOLOGICAL CELL
Oleg FILIPOVICH, Victor TARANENKO, Antoni SWIC, Lech MAZUREK .................................................. 91

20. PASSIVE SAFETY OF MOBILE WORKING MACHINE LAMINATE CAB, ACCORDING ISO
3449 AND ISO 3471 STANDARDS
Jn EO, Martin TANEVSKI, Miroslav VERE ............................................................................................ 99

21. VIRTUAL AND REAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODELS QUALITY EVALUATION BY FLOW

VISUALIZATION METHOD IN LOW LEVEL BATH
Markta PETKOV, Miroslav VERE ........................................................................................................ 103

22. DESIGNING COMPUTER FROM MODEL TO FINISHED PRODUCT

Goran NESTOROVI, ivoslav ADAMOVI ................................................................................................ 107

23. GENERATION OF THE APPROXIMATIVE HUMAN KNEE 3D MODEL

BASED ON THE X-RAY
Zoran MILOJEVI, Slobodan NAVALUI, Ratko OBRADOVI .............................................................. 113

24. NEW METHOD FOR RADIAL STIFFNESS OF NODAL POINTS CALCULATION

ubomr OO, Peter KRIAN, Iveta ONDEROV ...................................................................................... 117

25. DIFERENTIAL PLANETARY TRANSMISSION OF WIND TURBINE CONTINUOUSLY

VARIABLE TRANSMISSION
Vojislav MILTENOVI, Miodrag VELIMIROVI, Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI, Milan
BANI .............................................................................................................................................................. 123

26. HYBRID POWERTRAIN FOR LIGHT VEHICLE

Andrzej LECHOWICZ, Jerzy JANTOS ........................................................................................................... 129

27. GRIPPERS FOR INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Peter KOL, Jarmila ORAVCOV, Miriam MATOV ....................................................................... 133

28. GEAR RATIOS OF PLANETARY DOUBLE STEP MULTIPLIERS FOR WIND TURBINES
FROM MINIMUM VOLUME CRITERION
Radu VELICU, Cristina BOZAN ..................................................................................................................... 137

29. ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL METHOD OF CONNECTION OF ELECTRIC MOTOR AND GEAR

UNIT IN THE FRAME OF UNIVERSAL MOTOR GEAR REDUCER
Sinia KUZMANOVI, Sava IANICI, Milan RACKOV ................................................................................ 141

30. THE DETERMINATION OF THE THICKNESS OF TOOTH FACE SURFACE LAYER FROM
THE ASPECT OF WEAR RESISTANCE
Pavol TKLY, Miroslav BOANSK, Attila VANYA ............................................................................... 147

II
31. ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOMETRY OVER THE CONTACT STRESS OF STRAIGHT BEVEL
GEARS
Bianca R. BUTUC, Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN, Radu VELICU ...................................................................... 153

32. LOADS IN THE DISENGAGING PROCESS OF THE SAFETY CLUTCH WITH RADIALLY
DISPOSED BALLS AND DOUBLE PUNCTIFORM CONTACT
Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN, Silviu POPA, Livia HUIDAN .............................................................................. 159

33. ELASTIC AND SAFETY CLUTCH

Ioan STROE ...................................................................................................................................................... 165

34. RISK OF SELECTING A TETRAHEDRON FOR FEM STRUCTURAL MODELING

Miomir JOVANOVI, Predrag MILI, Goran PETROVI ........................................................................... 169

35. BALL BEARINGS STATIC BEHAVIOR AND LIFETIME

Milan ZELJKOVI, Aleksandar IVKOVI, Ljubomir BOROJEV .............................................................. 175

36. BEARING HOOKS MANUFACTURING PROCESS INNOVATION

Miroslava KOTLOV, Svtopluk MEIAR, Mria KAPUSTOV .......................................................... 183

37. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX MECHANISMS WITH HIGH CLASS
KINEMATIC GROUP
Maja AVI, Milan KOSTI, Miodrag ZLOKOLICA .................................................................................. 187

38. CONSTRUCTIONS AND CALCULATIONS RELATED TO NON-CONVENTIONAL

ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR EARTH AND SPACE
Milesa SREKOVI, Mirko DINULOVI, Vasko FOTEV ........................................................................... 193

39. INFLUENCE OF MICROCLIMATE ON THE OPERATIONS TIME STANDARD

Miroslav CAR, Mario PRLJAN ..................................................................................................................... 199

40. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN MANUFACTURING

ENTERPRISES IN POLAND
Boena GAJDZIK ............................................................................................................................................ 203

41. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOOL WEAR CONDITION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM MODEL IN

TURNING
Aco ANTI, Milan ZELJKOVI, Petar B. PETROVI ................................................................................. 207

42. WORK TIME STRUCTURE MEASURING, THE TOOL FOR STATE DETERMINING AND
PROCESSES MANAGEMENT
Goran LULI, Miroslav CAR .......................................................................................................................... 213

43. BASIC DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Miriam MATOV, Erika HRUKOV ..................................................................................................... 217

44. SENSORS APPLICATION IN THE INTELLIGENT ASSEMBLY AND MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS
Nina DANIOV, Karol VELEK ................................................................................................................ 221

45. ULTRASOUND SYSTEMS IN MACHINING TECHNOLOGIES

Frantiek PECHEK, Marcela CHARBULOV, Angela JAVOROV ...................................................... 225

III
46. DESIGN OF PROFILED CUTTING TOOLS BY APPLYING PROGRAMMING SYSTEMS
Bogdan SOVILJ, Sneana RADONJI, Juliana G. JAVOROVA, Ivan SOVILJ-NIKI ................................ 229

47. CUTTING PROCESS AND MACHINE TOOL INTERACTION ANALYZE

Pavel KOVA, Marin GOSTIMIROVI, Milenko SEKULI ........................................................................ 235

48. EXAMPLES OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS AND THEIR USE IN OPTIMIZATION OF

TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Rbert KOHR, Slavomr HREK ................................................................................................................. 241

49. OPTIMIZATION THE PROCESS OF BIMETALS LAMINATION AND THE TABLES PLATING
USING THE ASYMMETRICAL ROLLING
Vasile ALEXA, Erika Monika POPA ............................................................................................................... 247

50. CONTRIBUTION TO THE USE OF CAD/CAE SOFTWARE FOR SOLUTION OF CHOSEN

FORMING TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS
Bohumil TARABA, tefan HAJDU .................................................................................................................. 251

51. STRESS ANALYSIS OF FORMING TOOLS USING CA SYSTEMS

Mria KAPUSTOV, Peter ZEMKO, Jana UGROV ............................................................................... 255

52. A METHOD TO STUDY STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS IN PIECES SUBJECTED TO

HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
Liviu COMAN, Draghita IANICI, Sava IANICI .............................................................................................. 259

53. MACHINING METHODOLOGIES WITH ULTRASONIC SUPPORT

Angela JAVOROV, Frantiek PECHEK .................................................................................................. 265

54. FLEXIBLE ASSEMBLY SYSTEM GENERATION BY CAD AND PPS SYSTEMS

tefan HORVTH, Roman RUAROVSK, Karol VELEK ...................................................................... 269

55. TENSIOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE LOAD CAPACITY OF THE MAIN BEAM OF DOUBLE -
GIRDER OVERHEAD TRAVELING CRANE
Krasimir KRASTANOV ................................................................................................................................... 273

56. POWER TRANSMISSION CONDITION MONITORING

Milo MILOVANEVI, Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI .................................................................... 277

57. A METHOD OF CONTACT ENDURANCE DETERMINATION OF GEARING BY

ACCELERATED GEAR TESTING
Nikolai ISHIN, Arkadi GOMAN, Victor STARZHINSKY ............................................................................. 283

58. NON-DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION OF YIELD STRESS FOR COMPONENT IN MILD STEEL

CONSTRUCTIONS
Alexander POPOV ............................................................................................................................................ 287

59. DESIGNING THE SYSTEM OF CONTROL THE STRAIGHTENING PROCESS

OF LOW-RIGIDITY SHAFTS
Oleg DRACHEV, Wiktor TARANENKO, ntoni SWIC, Jakub SZABELSKI .............................................. 291

60. CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE EVALUATION OF STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS

FOR THE BULB TURBINES SHAFTS
Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU, Ilare BORDEASU, Dragos Marian NOVAC ................................................. 299

IV
61. SERVICE LIFE TESTING OF LARGE SCALE BEARINGS
Slavomr HREK, Rbert KOHR ................................................................................................................. 303

62. INTERLAMINAR STRENGTH-TESTS OF THE SURFACE LAYER BUILT UP WITH COLD

METAL SPRAYING METHODS DURING RENEWALS
Lajos FAZEKAS, Zsolt TIBA .......................................................................................................................... 309

63. SIMULATION OF THE SOLIDIFICATION FRONT AT THE CONTINUOUS CAST HALF-

FINISHED PRODUCT (WITH 3% ADDITION OF MICRO-COOLERS IN CRYSTALLIZER)
Erika Monika POPA, Vasile ALEXA .............................................................................................................. 313

64. ANALSYS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS FACTORS OF SOLID PRINTING AREAS ON FLEXO

PRINTING PLATES
Dragoljub NOVAKOVI, Sandra DEDIJER, Miroslav GOJO,
Sanja MAHOVI POLJAEK ......................................................................................................................... 319

65. INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATES ON QUALITY OF PRINTING PLATES'

WETTING PROCESS
Tomislav CIGULA, Miroslav GOJO, Dragoljub NOVAKOVI, ivko PAVLOVI .................................... 325

66. MATERIAL FLOW IN AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING

Andrea MUDRIKOV, Peter KOL .......................................................................................................... 331

67. FE ANALISIS OF GRAY CAST IRON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Georgi STOYCHEV ......................................................................................................................................... 335

68. COMPARISON SOME THERMO-CHEMICAL TREATMENTS FOR IMPROVEMENT WEAR

RESISTANCE
Jeremija JEVTIC, Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC, Djuro BORAK ......................................................................... 341

69. INCREASING PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY OF HEAT TREATABLE AL-ALLOYS

Aleksandra PATARI, Marija MIHAILOVI, Zvonko GULIIJA ................................................................ 345

70. AN APPROACH FOR PREDICTING FATIGUE LIFE OF NOTCHED SPECIMENS OF AZ91

MAGNESIUM ALLOY
Biliana DIMOVA, Veselin TSONEV ............................................................................................................... 349

71. PLASMA NITRIDING AS A METHOD FOR IMPROVEMENT SURFACE PROPERTIES OF

POWDER METAL STEEL PARTS
Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC, Jeremija JEVTIC, Djuro BORAK ......................................................................... 355

72. SOME APPROACHES UPON THE HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR OF ALLOYED STEELS
DESTINED FOR MACHINE CONSTRUCTIONS
Imre KISS, Vasile George CIOAT ................................................................................................................ 359

73. BASE ELEMENTS FOR DESIGNING GALVANIZED STEEL STRUCTURES

Mihaela POPESCU, Carmen OPRIS ................................................................................................................ 363

74. CERAMICS TOOL MATERIALS WITH ALUMINA MATRIX

Katarina GERIC ................................................................................................................................................ 367

V
75. CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE EFFECTS OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ON STEELS WITH VARIABLE NICKEL CONTENT,
SUBJECTED TO CAVITATION EROSION
Ilare BORDEASU, Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU .......................................................................................... 373

76. THE INFLUENCE OF THE PROCESSING TEMPERATURE ON MASS LOSSES FOR

POLYOXYMETHYLENES (POM), POLYAMIDE 6. 6 (PA 6.6) AND THERMOPLASTIC
POLYURETHANE (TPU)
Gheorghe Radu Emil MRIE, Ioan PANTEA, Simona Diana CHEREGI .................................................... 377

77. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE EFFECT OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF STEELS WITH CONSTANT CHROMIUM CONTENT ON THE
RESISTANCE TO CAVITATION EROSION
Alin Dan JURCHELA, Adrian KARABENCIOV, Nicolae BIRAU ................................................................ 383

78. A NEW CONCEPT, THE STRUCTURE PRECONFIGURATION

Dumitru DASCLU ......................................................................................................................................... 387

INDEX ......................................................................................................................................................................... 391

VI
 This approach is used by Martikka and Pllnen [3-6].
Optimum design of fiber reinforced microstructures for
use in large vessels is studied by Taitokari and Martikka
[7].The basic theory of fibre reinforced materials as
discussed by Agarwal et al. [8] is used in these studies.
The next aim is to verify the optimality of the results
using FEM models [9]. The aim is to explore the
usefulness of this design approach.

2. MECHANICS OF SANDWICH PANELS

Basic mechanics is needed to understand and to utilise the

sandwich designs in nature.

OPTIMUM DESIGN OF SANDWICH 2.1. Sandwich structure models

PANELS WITH FOAM CORE Basic models for sandwiches are first reviewed. Typical
ones are shown in Fig.1. Definitions of cellular structures
are shown in Fig.2.
Heikki MARTIKKA
p
Erkki TAITOKARI Ap
N ep ap
ep z
e1 Ak
r1 ak
Abstract: In this study basic mechanics and engineering M a1
A1
principles are applied to design optimally sandwich
panels with foam core. These panels are made up of two
a) r2 dx
P
stiff skins separated by lightweight core. Their
advantages of high bending and buckling load bearing
capacities are widely used in technology and in nature. y P y
The loads and material selections are input by the t
designer. First the psycho-technological goals of the end- c x z
user are identified for low cost and functional t
performance goals. Then they are transformed into a
b) L b c)
common consistent fuzzy form for use in optimisation
algorithm. The optimised results agree with the finite
element method FEM results. Fig. 1. A general model for a sandwich beam. a) Free-
body model. b) Beam model. c) Plate model.
Keywords: Multi-objective optimisation, Sandwich panels
2 W
l

l
1. INTRODUCTION P lsin
a,crack h lcos
h+lsin
Sandwich panels with stiff light cores offer many t 1 h
advantages compared to solid products such as high X2
bending and buckling load bearing capacities and weight Vs
saving without sacrificing reliability. The applications are X1
Vcell
numerous in aircraft panels, yachts, boats, prefabricated
housing walls and portable structures. Face materials are a) b)
typically aluminium or fibre reinforced composites, the Fig. 2. Cell definitions. a) A cell with a crack of half
core is aluminium or paper-resin honeycombs, polymeric length a and definition of density ratio. b) A hexagonal
foams or balsa wood which has cellular structure. The cell loaded in two directions. c) A shell plate having two
conventional analytical optimisation methods are not well laminas with different fibre orientation angles
suitable for engineering design work as discussed by
Gibson and Ashby [1] and Ashby [2]. These structures Basic geometric definitions of a cellular solid consisting
have many failure modes. In this study the same fuzzy of a hexagonal honeycomb are used to derive model for
formulation is used consistently to describe the actual the total density of a cellular solid [1] as a density fraction
goals and constraints of the end user. One of them is times the solid density s.
minimisation of material cost and others are functional
geometric and strength constraints. The total optimum sVs * Rco Vs (1)
* = r = = =
goal is obtained as a trade-off optimum of sub goals. Vcell s Rcs Vcell

1
Table 1. Discrete design variable options moment and Mx (Nm/m) is line moment , b is width of the
plate and Ek is Youngs moduli. Bending stiffness D is
Variable element index 1,2,3 4,5,6, 7,8,9
now
1000 20000 80000
P (iP),
5000 40000 -
load (N) I k = y 2 dAk 2( 12 d ) bt , D = Ek I k = 12 E f td 2b
2
10000 60000 - (4)
0.01 0.025 0.05
c(ic),
0.015 0.03 0.06 Since the sandwich panel stiffness is now mainly due to
core thickness (m)
0.02 0.04 0.08 the faces. The face bending stress for a plate and a beam
0.001 0.003 - at outer surfaces y = d is For the three point bending as
t(it),
0.0015 0.004 -
face thickness (m) in Fig. 1b one obtains
0.002 0.005 -
0.5 1.4 - E f My E My
L(iL),
length of beam (m)
0.7 1.6 - f = = 1 f 2 y = 12 d , d c
1 - - D 2
Ef t d b (5)
0.1 0.25 - M 1 PL
r(ir) ,
density ratio
0.15 0.3 - f = = ,M = 1
B3
PL, B3 = 4
0.2 - - btd B3 btd

2.2. Material design variables 3. GOAL FORMULATION

Options are shown in Table 2. The core materials are In engineering tasks the optimal definition of goals and
ics= 1, PU polyurethane and ics = 2 epoxy PU2. The constraints is essential to get customer satisfaction on the
ratio r of foamed to solid densities is set to r =0.1. result. Now all goals and constraints are formulated
consistently by one flexible fuzzy function. This is
Table 2: Material properties of sandwiches illustrated in Table 3 and Fig.3.
Property P f = face
ifa=1 ifa=2
Al GRP
Density kg/m3 Rf 2700 1800 H1 H2
Modulus E Ef 70000 10000
Shear modulus G - 20000 3000
Yield strength Sy Syf 200 150
a b c d e H1(1-H2)
fracture strength Sfr Sfrf 250 170
cost Cf 30 20
P(s)
P co = foamed core cs = solid core
ics=1 ics=2 ics=1 ics=2
PU PU2 PU PU2
Rco 120 125 Rcs 1200 1250
E Eco 160 200 Ecs 1600 2000* x1 x2 = 1-x1
G Gco 8 9 Gcs 615 770* 0 smin s smax 1
Sy Syco Sycs 127 140
Sfr Sfrco Sfrcs 130 150
p1= x1max p2=
cost Cco 60 40 Ccs 30 20 a 0.1 5
2
Strain energy release rate is given for cs Gc= 1J/m . The b 1
0.1 0.1
core moduli depend on the density ratio r [1]
c 1 1
R (2)
Eco = C1 Ecs r ,C1 1,Gco = 0.7 Ecs r ,r = co
2 2

Rcs d 5 5
e 5 0.1
2.3. Face stresses
A general sandwich plate has k layers each with own 0 sk,min x1 x2 sk,max 1
elastic modulus, thickness and distance for neutral plane. 1
The bending moment M and normal force N cause a linear
strain distribution. Stresses in each layer are normal and Fig. 3. Principle of modelling of the satisfaction functions
bending stresses
In the design algorithm the satisfaction function is
k = E k ( y ) = E k ( 0 + y ) , defined for each decision variable s by inputting the left
(3) and right limits and two bias parameters p. The left
E k N E k My k
k = n ,k + b,k = + skewed option a is useful to get low cost designs. Flat
EA EI shape allows indifferent choice of s. The location of
maximum can be shifted. The call is CALL pzz(s1, s2, p1,
Here is strain at distance y from neutral plane, A is cross
p2, s, P(s)). The output is the satisfaction function P(s)
sectional area, M= Mx b (Nm/m) (m) = (Nm) is true

2
and it varies in the range 0...1. The decision variables s Decision variable s1: Face yielding stress Syf and face
are changed to an internal dimensionless variable x1 yielding force Pyf are
s s1 (6) 1 PL 1 Pyf L t
x1 = x2 = 1 x1 f = S yf = Pyf = B3bc S yf (12)
s2 s1 B3 btc B3 btc L
The satisfaction function depends on one variable x1
p1 p2 The desired range for the decision variable and
x1 1 x1
P( x1 ) = ( p1 + p 2 ) (7) satisfaction on it are
p1 + p 2
H 12
p1 p 2
Here two step functions are used to define the inner R(s1 ) = s1, min < s1 < s1, max
desired range of the decision variable P (13)
s1 = , Ps (1) = P(s1 )
H12 = H1 ( s)(1 H 2 ( s)) (8) Pyf
H 1 (s ) = 1
[1 + sgn (s s1 )], H 2 (s ) = 12 [1 + sgn (s s 2 )] (9)
2
Decision variable s2: Face wrinkling strength fwrink and
wrinkling force Pfwrink are
Table 3. Skewness parameter values.
1 PL R
a b c d e fwrink = r = co
B3 btc Rcs (14)
p1 0.1 0.1 1 5 5
t 1/ 3 2/3
p2 5 0.1 1 5 0.1 Pfwrink = B3bc 0.57 Ef Ecs r 4 / 3
L
x1max 0.02 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.98
The desired range for the decision variable and
The total design event G is junction of sub design events satisfaction on it are
which are functions of decision variables P (15)
R(s 2 ) = s 2,min < s 2 < s 2,max s 2 = ,Ps (2 ) = P(s 2 )
Pfwrink
G( s) = G( s1 ) and G( s2 )... and G ( sn ) (10)
Decision variable s3: The core shear resistance force is
The total design goal is to maximise the product of
satisfactions on decision variables Pcorshear = C11B4bc S ycs r 3 / 2 , C11 = 1 (16)
P( G( s)) P( s) = P( s1 ) P( s2 ).....P( sn ) (11)
The desired range for the decision variable and
satisfaction on it are
4. GOALS AND CONSTRAINTS FOR R(s3 ) = s3, min < s3 < s3, max
DECISION VARIABLES
P (17)
s3 = , Ps (3) = P(s3 )
Here sk is a decision variable and P(sk) is satisfaction on Pcorshear
it. The desired range for sk is R(sk) = skmin < sk < skmax .
Two of three parameters p1, p2 or x1max can be freely Decision variable s4: The core fracture resistance force is
chosen as desired .One may choose ( p1, p2) and calculate
x1max (p2/ p1) or choose p2 and x1max and calculate p1. lcell
Pcorfrac = C8 B4bc Sfrcs r 3 / 2 , C8 = 1 (18)
a
Table 4. Constants for bending and failure of beams [1].
B = mode of loading , P= bending laod at mid beam Here lcell is cell size and a is half crack length, Sfrcs =
fracture strength of solid core. The desired range for the
B( j) B(1) B(2) B(3) B(4) decision variable and satisfaction on it are
P 48 4 4 2
P
R (s4 ) = s4,min < s4 < s4,max s4 = ,Ps (4 ) = P(s4 ) (19)
Pcorfrac
Failure modes are shown in Fig. 4.
P P P
Decision variable s5: The bond failure resistance force is

t G c Ef
a) b) c) Pbondf = B3bc (20)
P P
P L t
Here Gc = Strain energy release rate. PU it is about 1J/m2,
L is beam length and t is face thickness. The desired
d) e) f)
range for the decision variable and satisfaction on it are
Fig. 4. Failure modes, a) Face yielding,
P
b) Face wrinkling, c) Core shear, d) Core fracture, R(s5 ) = s5,min < s5 < s5,max s5 = ,Ps (5) = P (s5 ) (21)
e) Bond failure, f) Deflection. Pbondf

3
Now the variable range is intentionally made wide, from Decision variable s11: Desired beam height d range, the
0.1 to 30 since the bond failure in panels is not so critical. decision variable and satisfaction on it are
Another reason is that if this range is limited below unity
then the total design will flounder away from realistic R(s11 ) = d min < s11 = d < d max
(31)
optimum. s11 = d , Ps (11) = P(s11 )
Decision variable s6: The desired load P range, the
decision variable and satisfaction on it are Here
d 5 = c(Nic ) + 2t (Nit ),d1 = c(1) + 2t (1),
R(s6 ) = Pmin < s6 = P < Pmax d max = 2d 5 ,d min = d1
(32)
(22)
s6 = P, Ps (6) = P(s6 )
Decision variable s12: Desired beam length L range, the
Decision variable s7: The total deflection f is sum of decision variable and satisfaction on it are
bending and shear deflections. Bending deflection is
R(s12 ) = Lmin < s12 = L < Lmax
(33)
s12 = L, Ps (12 ) = P(s12 )
3
L
fb = P ,(EI )eq 12 E f btc 2 (23)
B1 (EI )eq
Decision variable s13: The cost K is now defined as
Shear deflection is material cost depending on the masses of the constituents
L m = mf + mc ,mf = 2 Rf (ifa )bLt ,
fs = P ,( AG )eq 1c bd 2 G co (24)
B2 ( AG )eq mc = Rco (ics )bLc (34)

Here the foamed core elastic modules Eco and shear
modules Gco depend on the solid elastic modules of the
core material
Eco = C1 Ecs r 2 ,C1 1,Gco = 0.7 Ecs r 2 , (25)
Desired deflection f range and the decision variable and
satisfaction on it are
R(s7 ) = f min < s7 = f < f max s7 = f = f b + f s , (26)
Ps (7 ) = P(s7 )
A common requirement for panels is that deflection
should be a suitably small fraction of the total span L. The
upper and lower limits are
f lim = 0.05 L f min = 0.01 f lim , f max = 2 f lim (27)
The reason for allowing a large upper limit is that a strict
limit may hinder finding a realistic working optimum.
Decision variable s8: The desired stiffness k range and
the decision variable and satisfaction on it are
P
R(s8 ) = k min = 0.01k max < s8 = k = < CALL pzz(s1, s2, p1, p2, s, P(s)).
f (28)
k max = 10 s8 = k , Ps (8) = P(s8 )
6
Decision variable s9: The desired core thickness c range
and the decision variable and satisfaction on it are
R(s9 ) = cmin < s9 = c < cmax
(29)
s9 = c, Ps (9) = P(s9 )
K = Cf (ifa )mf + Cm (ics )mc
Desired cost K range, the decision variable and
satisfaction on it are
R(s13 ) = K min < s13 = K < K max ,
(35)
s13 = K , Ps (13) = P(s13 )
5. ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMISATION
In engineering optimisation at concept stage most tasks
are highly non-linear and also the design variables are
few and discrete. For this reason, the exhaustive or
learning enhanced search methods are deemed to be
satisfactory. User can select the face materials
FOR ir = ira TO irb ,Nir= 5' density ratio r(ir )
FOR ic = ica TO icb , c(ic) core thickness class
FOR it = ita TO itb , t(it), face thickness class
Each of the k = 1,2..13 decision variables is calculated
(sk), bias pair p1 and p2 are given. Then the satisfaction
function P(s) is obtained by a call
The total satisfaction is product of partial satisfactions.
First Ps = 1 initialisation before the loop
FOR i = 1 TO 3 : Ps = Ps Ps(i) : NEXT i
Pg = Ps
IF Pg > Pgbest THEN : 'new optimum is found better than
previous: ELSE search is continued. END IF
NEXT it,ic,ir
6. RESULTS OF OPTIMISATION

Decision variable s10: The desired face thickness t range Results are shown in Fig.5 and Tables 5 and 6. Core
and the decision variable and satisfaction on it are thickness and cost increase with increasing load force
until maximal available dimensions are reached.
R(s10 ) = tmin < s10 = t < tmax Satisfaction increases from a small value 0.24 at 1kN load
(30) to a maximum 0.55 at a load range P =10...20kN and then
t = s10 , Ps (10 ) = P(s10 ) it approaches zero at about 100kN load. At loads

4
exceeding P=80kN first the face yielding becomes 7. RESULTS OF FEM CHECKING
critical. Algorithm chose density ratio to r =0.1. Length
L=1, width b = 1m. Results are shown in figs 6 and 7 and in Table 7. The mid
core c plane deflections by the FEM model are higher (11.5mm)
Cost (m) than the analytical idealised model results (10mm). One
2000 0.2 reason is that FEM model takes into account also the
Pg = 0.6 Cost deflection at the supports. According to [1] the variability
Total Pg 0.1 of Poissons ratio in foams is large from 0.5 to -0.7. Now
satisfaction 0.4 1000
a value 0.1 is chosen.
0.2 For FEM model the following data is chosen. Face is
core 0 0 GRP with Youngs modulus Ef = 10000MPa, shear
0
1000 10000 100000 modulus Gf = 3000MPa, Poissons ratio yf = 0.3. Core is
a) P PU foam with Eco = 16MPa, yco = 0.1 giving Gco = 8MPa.
y y
fFEM
P t
x x
c
t -21 -57.5
L b ana FEM
b)
Fig. 5. a) Total satisfaction, cost and core c as function of
load P on the sandwich panel, b) beam sketch

Table 5. Results of optimisation. The cost bias was set by

(p1,p2) =(0.1, 1) to get moderate low cost of the design. -19
P, Force (kN), Pg, total satisfaction, t(it) face thickness , anal
c(ic) core thickness, f, deflection,cost /1000 ,K +28
FEM
P 1 5 10 20 40 60 80
Pg .24 .47 .55 .54 .44 .32 .19
t 1 3 4 4 4 4 4
c 40 50 60 80 100 100 100
f 3.3 5.3 6.9 9.7 8.9 13.4 17.9
K .36 .58 .72 .86 1.37 1.37 1.37

Table 6 shows the effect of changing the cost bias p2 from 19

moderate cost desire 1 to very low cost desire to 5. Lower an.
12.2
cost is obtained by a decreasing core thickness with an FEM
acceptable decrease in total satisfaction.
18.5
21 an. FEM
Table 6. The effect of change in cost emphasis from
moderate to high at the same load. y
P fFEM
moderately low very low
z
Property x
cost goal p2=1 cost p2=5

P , load force (N) 20000 20000

Fig. 7. FEM results: a) boundary conditions in the FEM
Cost bias (p1,p2) (0.1,1), (0.1,5),
model, b) sketch showing deflections at points of interest,
Pg, Total satisfaction 0.54 0.20 c) normal stresses at the middle beam obtained by FEM
t, face thickness (mm) 4 4 and analytical models.
c, core thickness (mm) 80 60
f, total deflection ,fFEM 10, 11.93 14, 15.68 Evaluation of components of the FEM stresses can be
cost 864 720 done by assuming that the FEM results can be explained
Ps(1) satisfaction on s1 0.897 0.82 by assuming a superposition of bending and normal
s1= P/Pyf, yield ratio,f 0.104,15.6 0.14, 21 stresses due to various sources.
indices: ir,it,ic,ifa,ics,iP 1,5,9,2,1,4 1,5,7,2,1,4
FEM = anal + nx + bx
Pyf, Pfwrink, ,Pcorshear 192,100,642, 120,400,401, 58 = 21 + nx + bx
Pcorfrac, Pbondf (kN) 510, 5.354 318 , 3.346
+ 28 = 19 + nx + bx nx = 5, bx = 42

5
The line load causes large stress- strain variations in its ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
vicinity. Some models can be used to explain the FEM
results as shown in Figs 7 and 8. The authors are grateful for the support to this research
given by the companies Himtech Oy Engineering and Oy
Lx Rx Scan Fibre Ltd.
t
f = -21
f = -19 T REFERENCES

d c normal,shear =-20 T [1] GIBSON, L. J., ASHBY, M. F., Cellular Solids,

Cambridge, University Press, 1997
bend,local = -22 [2] ASHBY, M. F., Materials selection in mechanical
+22
T=top face design, Elsevier 3rd edition, 2005
t [3] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Multi-objective
19 optimisation by technical laws and heuristics.
B Memetic computing. DOI10.1007/s12293-009-0020-
21 0. Springer. com. Short Technical Letter. September,
2009
a) [4] TAITOKARI, E., MARTIKKA, H., Dynamics
design of vesses of fibre reinforced plastic with steel
shafts for fluid mixing. Machine Design 2009. The
t -58,FEM Monograph of Faculty of Technical Sciences,
-21 , anal .top face f University of Novi Sad, ADEKO, 2009, ISSN 1821-
FEM T 1259, pp.21-26
-19,anal,,top face down f
+28 [5] AGARWAL, B., BROUTMAN, L. J., Analysis and
d c T -5 top face normal,shear performance of fiber composites, Wiley, 1990
-42 top face bend,local
[6] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Comparison of
T optimisation tools for design of welded beams,
+42 Machine design fundamentals, The Monograph of
t 12.2,FE Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia,
19,anal M 2008
B
21,anal [7] PLLNEN, I., MARTIKKA, H., Optimal re-
18.5,FE design of helical springs using fuzzy design and
M FEM. Advances in Engineering Software 41, 2010,
b) pp 410-414
[8] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Design of
Fig. 8. The effect of local line load on stresses: preloaded joints for optimal load bearing capacity.
a) analytical theory, b) FEM calculation Machine Design 2009. The Monograph of Faculty of
Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad,
ADEKO, 2009, ISSN 1821-1259, pp.261-266
[9] NX Nastran FEM program
9. CONCLUSIONS

We have combined in this approach basic mechanics with

new goal formulations and heuristics to obtain optimised
sandwich panels.
In engineering optimisation at concept stage most tasks CORRESPONDENCE
are highly non-linear and also the design variables are
few and discrete. For this reason, the exhaustive or Heikki. MARTIKKA,
learning enhanced search. Methods are deemed to be Prof. Emeritus, D.Sc.(Tech.)
satisfactory. It was advantageous to make material CEO, Chief Engineer
selections first. Then a reasonable discrete selection of Himtech Oy ,Ollintie 4
FIN-54100 Joutseno, Finland
face and core thickness variables and a density ratio
heikki.martikka@pp.inet.fi
variable are defined.
The results show that panels can be designed which have
Erkki Taitokari
a fairly constant level of maximum satisfaction in a load CEO, MSc.(Tech.)
range. The present approach combining basic mechanics Oy Scan Fibre Ltd
with new goal formulations and FEM fine tuning is an Liisankatu 26
efficient tool in structural optimum design of innovations. FIN-55100 Imatra, Finland
The future aim of this work is to generalise this approach. erkki.taitokari@scanfibre.fi

6

A BRIEF REVIEW OF FIXTURE DESIGN
AND AUTOMATION
Djordje VUKELIC
Branko TADIC
Janko HODOLIC
Nenad SIMEUNOVIC
Abstract: The problem of fixture design, as one of the
pivotal elements which significantly influence the quality
of process planning in manufacturing engineering,
remains topical, especially in a highly automated, flexible
manufacturing environments. Computer-aided fixture
design has, for a number of years now been in the focus of
a large number of researchers. The results of this
research have allowed a systematized knowledge of the
possibilities offered by computer-aided fixture design.
Emphasized in this paper is the importance of automation
in fixture design. Characteristic approaches to fixture
design automation are reviewed and analyzed. Basic
features, advantages and disadvantages of particular
approaches are examined. The paper concludes with
future directions of research.
Key words: fixture, design, automation, CAFD
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last couple of decades the computers have
been increasingly used to assist design activities. The
beginnings of their application date back to the sixties of
the last century, when they were first successfully used to
control machine tools. This was followed by an expansion
of their application in various domains of manufacturing
engineering. The concepts of flexible manufacturing
system (FMS) and computer aided manufacturing (CIM)
have evolved since. Today, the emphasis is placed on the
intelligent manufacturing systems which are able to solve
problems without the use of an explicit and detailed
algorithm or a mathematical interpretation of the problem.
Various CAx (Computer Aided Everything) systems are
used to assist product design and manufacture in order to
shorten the time and related costs. Numerous systems
have been developed which allow automation at particular
stages of design and manufacture. Computer technologies
have revolutionized modern manufacturing. From the
standalone CAD/CAM applications, to PDM/ERP
(Product Data Management/Enterprise Resource
Planning) systems, the computer technologies have
fulfilled the dreams of every manufacturer shorter
product development time, higher quality, and lower
costs. Computer-aided fixture design (CAFD) has become
reality as part of this revolution by integrating the fixture
design know-how and CAD platforms. With the aim to
reduce fixturing costs, over the years, various CAFD
systems have been developed to assist fixture designers.
Although numerous research efforts have been aimed at
development of fixture design systems, there is still a
need for development of a method which would assist the
designer at fixture elements level, where the basic task
would be to identify the required structure of fixture i.e.
the optimal number and arrangement of elements
according to predefined criteria. Though the primary
function of a fixture is allow precise location and
clamping of workpiece, there are a lot of other criteria to
be satisfied, which most often pertain to ergonomic
issues. Finally, one of the most important aspects of
fixtures is their impact on manufacturing costs through
assembly time, materials, costs of fixture manufacture,
etc. Another interesting feature of fixture design is the
fact that the various requirements to be met are usually
opposed to one another. Fixture design and manufacture
costs can account for up to 10-20% of the total
manufacturing costs [30]. These costs not only pertain to
fixture material, manufacture and assembly, but also
encompass the costs of fixture design. Lowering of fixture
design costs induces significant economic effects. There
are two approaches to this goal. One is focused on the
development of flexible fixtures, while the other relies on
the simplification of fixture design through computer
application.
2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SYSTEMS FOR AUTOMATED FIXTURE
DESIGN
Computer-aided fixture design is a more recent way of
design (the first attempts at fixture design automation date
back to the eighties of the last century). This approach
evolved as an attempt to overcome the negative aspects of
the conventional design paradigm.
CAFD uses computer to automate the steps in fixture
design. The goal is to generate an adequate fixture
solution within an acceptable time frame, while at the
same time minimizing the subjective influence and effort
of the designer. The most important assumptions for
efficient application of computers in the process of fixture
design are the 'translation' of designer's knowledge and
experience into a computer-usable form, the development
of a logic used in selection and decision-making, etc [27].
In essence, the systems for automated design are based on
information technologies (IT), while their structure and
principle of functioning make them specialized IT
systems. Regardless of methodology applied in the
development of a system for automated fixture design, the
constituent parts of every system are: module for defining
of input information, module for generation of output
information, and a data base [28].
7
Considering the systems for automated fixture design, the
input information can be broken down into three larger
categories: workpiece information (shape, geometry,
dimensions, etc.), technological information (machine
tools, cutting tools, cutting regimes, etc.), production
organization and management information (time of
design, time of manufacture, etc.).
Output information contain all the required data for
successful assembly and exploitation of fixtures. They are
always adjusted to end-users individual needs. The
necessary output information include: assembly drawing
of fixture and bill of materials (BoM). Very often, part
drawings are also required (regardless of whether the
parts are standard or not), while among the other
information are: weights of particular fixture elements,
total fixture weight, position in storage, etc.
The data base is fundamental to software support. Its
basic task is to provide system efficiency through quality
and effective functioning. Its primary functions are data
acquisition, storage, keeping, searching, and updating.
The data base must contain all the data necessary for a
successful functioning of the software support. It should
contain the required information (alpha-numerical and
graphical) pertaining to existing fixture design solutions,
fixture elements, and workpieces for which the fixtures
were designed.
3. CHARACTERISTIC APPROACHES TO
FIXTURE DESIGN
During the past two decades a number of researchers have
put in effort to solving the problem of rationalization, i.e.
automation of fixture design. There are numerous
examples of developed systems to confirm that claim.
Based on available references and consultations with
professionals and scientists from that area, it can be
concluded that the so far fixture design automation has
been developing through three main approaches: expert
systems, Case Based Reasoning, and Artificial Neural
Networks.
3.1. Application of expert systems in fixture
design
Operation of the majority of expert systems for fixture
design is based on symbolical representation and
processing of built-in knowledge. The knowledge is
represented using formal symbols and other appropriate
data structures presented in a formal language, while the
problems are solved by deriving conclusions through
manipulation of these symbols and data structures.
Expert systems whose knowledge is formalized through
rules are often termed rule-based systems. The rules can
be understood as the elements of knowledge, i.e. the
quantum of knowledge pertaining to a particular domain
of fixture design [15].
A rule represents a logic relation, and can be expressed
as:
If X Then Y
meaning: "if assumption X holds true, then Y is inferred"
or "If situation is X Then action Y is in order". For
instance: if "the base surface is a hole" then "the locating
element is a long pin" [23].
8
In other words, a rule is a logical If-Then loop meaning: if
a premise holds (or a set thereof), then an inference can be
made (or a set thereof) or an action can be undertaken (or
a sequence of actions). Such way of formalizing
knowledge is very natural and is suitable for modular
representation. It also allows easy modifications of the
knowledge, for the new rules can be added independently
from the existing ones, while the system is transparent,
i.e. its inference in easy to follow. Due to their form,
production rules are suitable for representing the logic-
based knowledge [21,22].
The inferences are made through comparison of a set of
rules with the set of facts pertaining to a given situation. If
the "If" part of the rule holds true, then the action defined
by "Then" is executed. When this happens it is usually
said that the rule has fired. For instance:
If (Premise)
 Machining operation = drilling (and),
 Batch size = single (and),
 Machine tool = vertical milling machine (and),
 Machine tool type = conventional (and),
 No. of machining surfaces = one (and),
 No. of cutting tools = one (and),
 Drilling diameter = three (and)
Then (Inference)
 Guiding element = fixed bush
Such or similar production rules have been developed
mostly for locating and/or clamping elements [2,6,7,9,12].
The elements are selected by re-iterating rules until
satisfactory elements have been found in the data base.
Should a larger number of eligible candidates be found,
the designer decides upon the one, based on his/hers
experience. Elements are selected based on their function.
Since there are several elements with identical functions,
they are grouped together. When applying the rules, the
function of each element is checked.
The beginnings of application of expert systems in fixture
design is attributed to the works of Markus et al. [20] and
Gandhi and Thompson [13]. Larger part of these
researches was theoretical while pointing out at some
possible ways of practical application. They marked the
onset of intensive development of expert systems in the
domain of fixture design. Darvishi and Gill [10], and
Ferreira, et al. [11] proposed a general model for
knowledge representation within an expert system. They
placed emphasis on the representation of declarative
knowledge. However, the rules which describe mutual
relationships and functions of elements were not
developed. Besides, the geometry of workpiece, its
dimensions and tolerances were also disregarded.
Procedural knowledge is vital to expert system operation,
and for its representation production rules are most often
used. Decision trees and rules networks were used to
define production rules. Decision trees were first
introduced by Bugtai and Young [4], and Dai, et al. [8]
and they are clear and comprehensible for the user. As
their main feature, they require a hierarchy of knowledge
in a particular domain. When representing knowledge
using rule networks, strict hierarchy is not required but,
on the other hand, they are less comprehensible. Fixture
design is, by nature, much closer to this way of
representing knowledge.

Fig. 1. Fixture designed using an expert system [31]
The reason for application of expert systems is to place
the available knowledge on fixture design at disposal
through various application software. Expert systems
cannot entirely replace fixture design experts, especially
when it comes to creativity and general knowledge.
However, their advantage over humans lies in the
permanence of their knowledge, i.e. it does not depend on
repeated use. Expert systems use existing rules for fixture
design and can function relatively well as initial solutions.
Nevertheless, they lack flexibility, are difficult to adjust
and self-improve. In addition, there is no formalism to
allow detection of possible conflicts among production
rules when updating the database with new rules. For
these reasons, expert systems are recommended to
production systems with a well established and permanent
production program.
3.2. Case-Based Reasoning in fixture design
Case Based Reasoning (CBR) is one of the approaches to
intelligent database search. Every new search is based on
previous similar cases, thus utilizing some sort of
experience. This approach has been widely used in fixture
design. CBR is a concept which comes up with new
fixture solutions based on the existing ones, applying
modifications where necessary. The process of reasoning
can be described as follows. There is a new problem to be
solved, i.e. new workpiece for which a fixture must be
designed. The designer searches the knowledge base in
order to find similar design solutions. The next step is to
adapt the existing solution to new requirements and to
generate a new working solution. Should the same
problem be solvable using two solutions (all the
parameters are identical or close enough), the solution
that better solves the problem is stored in the knowledge
base. Knowledge representation in such fixture design
systems is performed based on cases. Every case contains
criteria which are classified as input and output. The input
criteria store information required for proper fixture
design, while the output criteria store information with
complete fixture design solutions. A subset of criteria
which allow the knowledge base to be searched are the
indices. Each case consists of the so called indexed and
non-indexed criteria.
The indexed criteria allow the search of the knowledge
base. Kumar and Nee [16] performed indexing using
numbers as attributes which describe the workpiece for
which a fixture is designed. Liqing and Kumar [19]
developed their cases from indexed criteria in the Internet
environment based on XML technology. In this way they
allowed exchange of information with other CAD/CAM
systems.
Non-indexed criteria do not allow comparison of cases
(they are not normalized), but are the carriers of semantic
information which are not suitable for normalization. The
indices, i.e. search criteria, are essential to proper system
functioning. Sun and Chen [25] developed the cases from
both indexed and non-indexed criteria. To simplify the
problem, he also developed a system for concept fixture
design. The inference process was based on cases which
define required locating elements for prismatic
workpieces using the 3-2-1 locating method. The criteria
were represented in a tree form.
After a case is structured, it is necessary to reduce all data
to a form which allows efficient manipulation and
management. Normalization requires all the cases to be
organized in a way which allows efficient comparison of
all values. Most often used for this purpose are the well
known metrics-based normalizations. Normalization is to
be viewed upon as the process in which a particular set of
data is allotted a common attribute in order to facilitate its
management. The so far research has efficiently tackled
the problem of normalization based on classifiers. Vukelic
et al. [29] approached normalization by adding a system
for unification of elements within complete fixture design
solutions.
Once normalization is completed, it is possible to perform
aggregation (synthesis) of data. With the case-based
fixture design systems a concept of similarity was used to
calculate the difference between the existing and required
fixture design solutions. Aggregation is required to
generate a single value from several indices (results
column) which is subsequently used to select - and, in the
case of several similar solutions - sort the existing fixture
design solutions.
Sun and Chen [25] applied the nearest neighbour method
which determines the similarity between the existing and
the novel fixture solution based on a weighted sum of
indices.
Vukelic et al. [29] were using the induction method. The
induction algorithm was used to form a decision tree,
which was subsequently used to measure similarity based
on If-Then rules.
Boyle et al. [3] applied the knowledge guided induction
method which is based on an expert system. It involves a
series of questions set by the system, which have to be
answered by the designer in order to narrow the domain
of feasible solutions.
However, the indexing remains an issue here. There are
no formal methods which could be used to define those
indices, thus the use of indices still relies on designer's
experience. Poor understanding of design requests is
causes inadequate indexing. If the design requests can be
adequately formalized, then the chances are greater that
those requests shall be used to generate indices, either
directly or as general guidelines. It is worth noting that
there exist some techniques for automated indexing, such
as the criterial learning method, inductive learning
method, method based on differences, method based on
similarities, etc.
In majority of cases, aggregation of data is solved by the
nearest neighbour method. The largest problem with this
design method is determination of significance and slow
9
search of the required solution. Fastness of this method is
directly linearly proportional to the number of cases
stored in the knowledge base. Thus, this method is more
useful in the case of a relatively small knowledge base,
which is rather unlikely in fixture design where quality
fixture solutions demand large number of cases.
Analysis of selected solutions is also at the hands of
designer and his experience. There is no possibility to
revise previous stages or improve the selected solution
without repeating the whole fixture design procedure
from scratch. Li et al. [17] proposed a solution for this
problem introducing an arbitration of conflicts between
dimensions and functions of fixture elements which could
be reviewed in the form of intermediate results at any
moment throughout the design process. Nevertheless, this
solution proved inadequate.
Fig. 2. An example of output results from the case-based
fixture design system [19]
Case-based reasoning can be successfully applied at the
conceptual stage of fixture design, when locating and
clamping surfaces are defined for predefined schemes.
The essential problem in the so far investigations has been
clear and systematic definition of all parameters which are
necessary for implementation of adequate modifications,
whether at the conceptual- or detailed fixture design
stage. The set of currently available design rules is still
incomplete. In addition, it is impossible to define all
design rules, since their number grows with experience.
3.3. Application of Artificial Neural Networks in
fixture design
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) represent a transition
from symbolical to sub-symbolical level of data
processing where the rules used to transform input
information into output result - fixture design, are not
known. This approach does not require user to explicitly
formulate knowledge. ANN are trained iteratively, over a
period of time. It is important to define proper structure
and interrelations. ANN consists of an input and output
layer, and one or several hidden layers, each of them
having certain number of neurons. Unless user instructs
the system otherwise, the initial values of weight
coefficients are set on a random basis. During training,
weight coefficients are updated so that the next iteration
produces output values which are closer to the input.
Once the desired accuracy is achieved, or the predefined
maximum number of iterations is reached, the training
stops and the network is ready for the testing phase.
10
In their feasibility study on application of ANNs in fixture
design, Balasubramanian and Herrmann [1] give a mainly
theoretical contribution which lacks a practical case study.
The authors suggested application of ANNs to define
measures of similarity between the existing and novel
fixture design solutions as an alternative to case-based
reasoning. Their goal was to establish prerequisites for
fixture design based on existing design solutions.
Lin and Huang [18] used ANNs to generate concept
design of modular fixture for cutting-off operations based
on the principles of Group Technology (GT). GT concept
was used to classify workpieces of various shapes and
dimensions. Once a workpiece is classified using ANN
and an appropriate heuristic algorithm, concept solution is
generated. The system was developed for a particular
group of workpieces and in that respect lacks generality
(cannot be used for a broader class of workpieces).
Yuperl and Cus [32] developed a system for optimization
of clamping forces which is based on artificial neural
networks for prismatic parts, using the 3-2-1 clamping
method, and assuming that both fixture and workpiece are
rigid bodies. The 3-2-1 method requires three locating
elements on the first locating surface, two locating
elements on the second locating surface, and one on the
third. The system can define various clamping schemes,
positions of clamping elements, and magnitude of
clamping force. However, it does not allow selection of
required elements, but instead solves the problem of
clamping on a conceptual level.
Hamedi [14] also used ANNs to define positions of
clamping elements, using maximum stress and elastic
deformations of workpiece as the goal function. To
provide input data for ANN training, he used the ANSYS
CAE system. Hamedis system generated satisfactory
concept solutions of clamping schemes for prismatic parts
of simple geometry.
Subramaniam et al. [26] used ANNs to generate concept
fixture design solutions. ANN was trained to approximate
fixture productivity, and the ease with which a workpiece
is placed into and taken out of the fixture. For lack of
real-life, industrial data, to enhance the process of training
they used a performance matrix which was composed
based on their own data, which renders this study
unrealistic.
Similar contribution came from Cai et al [5]. They
developed a highly specialized system which allowed
generation of concept fixture design solutions exclusively
for locating elements, restricted to a predefined group
type of workpieces.
Fig. 3. An example of output results from an ANN-based
fixture design system [26]
Advantages of ANNs lie in their robustness to noisy input
data as well as their ability to learn. ANNs should
therefore be used for solving particular problem areas in a
highly complex matter of fixture design which is virtually
impossible to express algorithmically.
All the so far results of application of ANNs in fixture
design only allow generation of partial concept solutions.
Completion of the process from conceptual to detailed
fixture design is often time-consuming.
The basic problem of creating an adequate ANN pertains
to collecting sufficient quantity of input training data
based on systematized examples from the industry.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE
RESEARCH
Fixture design is a complex process which requires
extensive knowledge. For this reason, fixture design
automation is a very demanding undertaking and
represents one of the bottlenecks in flexible
manufacturing systems.
None of the reviewed approaches to automated fixture
design have managed to completely satisfy demands. One
of the general traits of these systems is their ability to
produce partial solutions, i.e. the locating and clamping
elements for simple prismatic workpieces. Although this
is not the only way to perform locating, the so far research
has relied on the 3-2-1 locating method, as well as on a
complete restraint of the workpiece, in spite of the fact
that this increases both costs of fixturing and the number
of constituent fixture elements. The designer is very often
left on his/her own devices when it comes to decision-
making, which many authors corroborate in their papers
claiming that 'The quality of fixture solution depends on
the designer's experience'. The influence of locating error
is completely disregarded, though it greatly contributes to
the total machining error, i.e. machining accuracy.
Although the intelligent systems have been undergoing
constant development, it is still early to talk about a
general solution for intelligent fixture design, since none
of the so far proposed systems have seen successful
industrial application. This is due to the fact that the
processes are very complex, and depend on numerous
factors which must be taken into consideration (but are, in
some cases, impossible to define). Obviously, the
artificial neural networks are an attempt to simulate the
work of the human brain. However, they are still far from
sophistication and complexity required to completely
replace humans in fixture design.
Despite the obvious advantages of automated fixture
design, there is still the problem of integration of
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CAM). In order to increase the efficiency
of the manufacturing system as a whole, there is a logical
requirement to integrate the information systems which
support design decisions, and other systems which
support enterprise management functions. The process of
fixture design is not entirely synchronized with other
design processes. In spite of numerous research efforts to
automate the methodology, there was little advancement
in the development of methods to support the design
within Concurrent Engineering (CE) environment based
on team collaboration. Future approaches to fixture design
methodology must be focused not only on CAD/CAM
integration, but more importantly, on providing support
for multidisciplinarity through concurrent engineering
paradigm.
Efficient application of the concept of virtual fixture
design would enable the development of fixture solutions
through co-operation of multidisciplinary teams which
would be in a position to understand, review, evaluate,
edit and improve a virtual fixture solution before it has
assumed any physical form.
All this supports the claims that there is still a lot of space
for potential research in the domain of automated fixture
design. It is logical to expect that the novel approaches to
automated fixture design and manufacturing automation
in general, shall be based on non-algorithmic
programming and methods of artificial intelligence.
Special efforts should be aimed towards creating systems
which are integral, universal, consistent, flexible, simple,
and intuitive.
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[12] FUH, J. Y. H., CHANG, C. H., MELKANOFF, M.
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[13] GANDHI, M. V., THOMPSON, B. S., Automated
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[14] HAMEDI, M., Intelligent fixture design through a
hybrid system of artificial neural network and genetic
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[26] SUBRAMANIAM, V., KUMAR, S. A., SEOW, K.
C., A multi-agent approach to fixture design, Journal
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[27] VUKELIC, DJ., HODOLIC, J.: System for computer
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1335-2393.
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KRIZAN, P., SIMEUNOVIC, N.: Development of an
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CORRESPONDENCE
Djordje VUKELIC, Mgr. MSc. Eng.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
vukelic@uns.ac.rs
Branko TADIC, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
University of Kragujevac
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Sestre Janjic 6
34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
btadic@kg.ac.rs
Janko HODOLIC, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
hodolic@uns.ac.rs
Nenad SIMEUNOVIC, Mgr. MSc. Eng.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
nsimeun@uns.ac.rs

DESIGN FOR MODERNIZATION A
WAY FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF ECO
IMPROVEMENTS OF PORTS CRANES
Nenad ZRNI
Sran BONJAK
Milo OREVI
Abstract: The paper deals with some modern ways for
improving eco performances of port cranes. The problem
and the fundamental strategies in design for crane
modernization are given and the structure of basic
environmental issues for container terminals equipment is
provided. Some actual solutions for modernization of
RTG cranes are presented. The basic idea in this paper is
to promote a new area of Design for X: Design for
Modernization. Design for Modernization has to be
connected with the recent trends and regulations
concerning environmental protection and ecodesign.
Key words: modernization, design, RTG cranes, ecology
1. INTRODUCTION
Design for X (DfX) is a knowledge system which
involves a wide collection of specific design guidelines
and presents a core area of design methodology [1]. Each
design guideline addresses a particular issue that is caused
by, or affects the characteristics of a product. The design
guidelines themselves usually propose an approach and
corresponding methods that may help to generate and
apply technical knowledge in order to control, improve, or
even to invent particular characteristics of a product.
Some important area of DfX are: Design for (minimum)
Cost, Design for Quality, Design for Material, Design for
Manufacture (Manufacturability), Design for (ease of)
Assembly, Design for (ease of) Disassembly, Design for
Recyclability, Design for Aesthetics, Design for
Ergonomics, Design for Performance, Design for Service,
Design for Safety, Design for (ease of) Maintenance,
Design for Testability, Design for Logistics, Design for
Environment (Protection and/or Environmental
Sustainability), etc. [1, 2, 3]. In [4] the idea of Design for
Modernization has been introduced (however, only at the
intuitive level for solving a practical problem), but up to
now design and modernization are mostly considered
independently. The goal and motivation of this paper is to
point out a necessity to include together into design
process the aspects of Design for Modernization (suitable
for modernization and/or modification) and Design for
Environment and to show some modern and related
practical technical realizations in the field of RTG
container cranes in ports. Also, the idea is to indicate the
future research that can lead to the development of
methods (systematic approaches guidelines) and tools
(practical resources for product developers) related to the
introduced notion of Design for Modernization and
connected with the recent trends and regulations
concerning environmental protection and ecodesign.
2. BASICS OF CRANES MODERNISATION
To remain competitive, many companies are pushing their
cranes beyond original specifications and paying a hefty
cost that can be measured both in operation expense and
potential liability exposure. More than 50% of cranes in
industry are projected to be operating beyond capacity.
Cranes built 30 or more years ago are often inadequate to
meet new process demands due to limited capacity or
slow speeds.
As cranes age, the availability of replacement parts
becomes more difficult and the aggravated costs of
maintenance justify the replacement of older components
and technologies with more current equipment. This is
particularly true for the electric drive systems. For old
cranes some, if not all parts are obsolete, delivery times
are unacceptable, prices of spare parts have increased
dramatically. Budgets have to be constantly updated due
to increased component cost. We have a noticeable
increase in unscheduled shutdowns. Reliability factor is
deteriorated to a level where production cost is increasing
beyond the accepted norm and more capacity, operating
speed or performance is needed to meet increased
production demands. Finally, inspection reveals that the
crane is starting to show excessive wear, or it is in
noncompliance with current safety standards,
environmental requirements or practices [5].
The term crane modernization and modification refers
to steps taken to upgrade a ports cranes to enhance their
performance, reliability and safety. The old systems are
replaced with new ones and the required crane
engineering incorporated to accommodate the change. It
can encompass the alteration of crane dimensions as well
as upgrades or replacement of old or worn electrical and
mechanical systems.
Fig.1. Sales by industry (source KONE cranes)
13
The problem of cranes modernization is very important
for port equipment (harbor cranes), particularly for cranes
operating in container terminals in seaports and river ports
[6]. Harbor cranes present 15% of total sales by industry
according to Konecranes Company, a worlds leading
cranes manufacturer, Fig. 1.
Container terminals today face many challenges among
them managing power consumption costs and the
requirements to achieve greener operations. The actual
challenges of the container terminals in the world are [7]:
 Increasing capacity requirements; Fig. 2. Crane-cost of ownership (source KONE cranes)
 Cargo volume growing dramatically;
 Terminal congestion; An example of modification/modernization costs for
 Rising fuel prices; Ship-to-Shore (STS) container cranes is shown in Table 1
 Increasing environmental concerns; [8].
 Ship emissions and container handling equipment
emissions; Table 1. Cost guidelines for STS container cranes
 Growing CO2 emission market; modification
 Noise abatement concern;
Cost
 Public awareness of environmental impact. Modification Measurement
$ x 1000
The above mentioned challenges are followed by the
several risks as: Geometry changes
 Backlog at terminals; Increase lift height 20' 600
 Escalating costs; Increase outreach 6' 75
 Loss of competitiveness; 12' 125
 Impact of regulations; 20' 500
 Increasing public image and media coverage. Increase backreach 15' 125
Therefore, the modernization work is typically performed Increase portal height 5' 75
on cranes in container terminals, such as ship-to-shore Widen leg clearance 1' 25
(STS) cranes that perform container or bulk-handling 4' 250
duties (known also as grab ship unloaders), rubber-tyred Decrease overall width 12' 200
gantry cranes (RTGs), and rail-mounted gantry cranes Performance changes
(RMGs). Older container cranes in ports typically exhibit
Increase rated capacity 25% 200
the following limitations [6]:
Increase main hoist speed,
 Insufficient lift height,
replace drives with digital, 1,000
 Insufficient outreach, replace controls
 Outdated drive and control systems, Upgrade gantry braking 100
 Slow operating speeds. Install snag protection 100
Thus, crane owners (port operators) must decide what to Install man lift 150
do with their old cranes. They can either dispose of the Convert shore power to diesel 300
old cranes and replace with new cranes or modernize and Convert diesel to shore power 150
modify to adequate dimensions or customize in
accordance with customer needs. Older cranes can be
For all modernization and modification work, a rigorous
improved to a higher level of productivity and safety, by
set of procedures has to be followed according to [9]:
one of the modernization upgrade and refurbishment
programs, often offered by the larger manufacturers of  A survey of crane structures and mechanisms is
such equipment. Modernization programs are popular performed to assess the integrity of the crane structure
from both an engineering and economic standpoint and and its systems to determine the scope of work
can include the following: Increase capacity including involved.
dimensional changes, major mechanical components,  Using finite element analysis methodology (FEM), a
electrification systems, cab to pendant conversions, radio structural analysis is conducted to calculate stress
and infrared remote controls, new increased speeds and levels and identify areas where stresses will be
motion controls enhancements in order to get concentrated due to increased dimensions and wind
performance improvements. Modernization, drive and loads.
control upgrades and retrofits, as well as dimensional  Design the optimum structural modifications. The
modifications can easily be incorporated as a part of the process is computer-driven but is augmented by years
overall crane refurbishment. It is worthwhile to mention of real world experience. Structural modifications
that the modernization works are one of the principal are identified, verified by computer simulation, and
incomes for big manufacturers of such equipment. Also, outlines are generated. Throughout, the goal is to
according to the Konecranes date, crane-cost of ensure low stress levels to minimize structural fatigue
ownership for modernization are 30%, Fig. 2. and extend the service life of the crane.

14
 Final outlines of all items are sent to fabrication
teams. All critical welds undergo Non-Destructive
Tests (NDT) such as UT/MPI (Ultrasonic Testing and
Magnetic Particle Inspection).
 Activities comply with current industry standards such
as EN 13001, FEM 1.001, ISO 4301 and BS 2573 for
cranes.
The mentioned set of procedures can be used for making
design guidelines when introducing Design for
modernization and appropriate methods and tools. Also,
crane modernization is an important link in the life-cycle
approach for cranes, Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Life-cycle approach for cranes
3. ECO DESIGN AND CONTAINER
HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Eco-designing is trendy in the recent investigations in the
field of engineering logistics, according to five main
criteria which connect the eco-design tools [10]:
 Product technological executability comprising
material characteristics and various production
options;
 Recycling (technologies, quality, kind of
recirculation, energy, materials, etc.)
 Work conditions (risk, emissions of different types);
 Competitiveness (costs of all types);
 Environmental protection.
Work conditions, costs and environmental protection
concern a similar manner of reflection as regards to life
cycle assessment (LCA). Fundamentals of the sustainable
(eco) product development are given in [11].
It is predicted that by 2015 Europes electrical energy
requirement will be a whopping 1,320 TWh/year, with
about 707 TWh delivered through electric motors of one
sort another. The analysts of the Vacon company
(Finland, specialist in AC drives and controls) believe that
the use oh high efficiency motors instead of standard ones
and by using drives the energy saving potential in Europe
alone could be 90 TWh/year, with corresponding
reduction of about 36 m tones of CO2 [7]. Moreover,
world electricity demand as forecasted by the World
Energy Outlook 2009 (OECD/IEA) is projected to grow
at an annual rate of 2.7% in the period 2007 to 2015, then
slowing slightly to 2.4% per year on average in the period
2015-2030, as economies mature and as electricity use
becomes more efficient. Over 80% of the growth between
2007 and 2030 is in non-OECD countries. In the OECD,
electricity demand is projected to rise by 0.7% per year on
average between 2007 and 2015, which takes into account
the impact of the current financial and economic crisis.
Growth in the period 2015-2030 is slightly higher,
averaging 1.1% per year. Demand in non-OECD
countries grows by 5% per year over 2007-2015, slowing
to 3.3% per year in 2015-2030. In contrast to all other
final forms of energy, projected electricity demand in
2030 is slightly higher than in last year's World Energy
Outlook.
Nowadays, the environmental protection and energy
saving are the central topics when designing container
terminals. The fast growing container terminals are
confronted with rising fuel prices, and the main goal is to
reduce operational costs, as well as the environment
benefits with a considerable reduction of emissions
(greenhouse gases) and noise. So, having in mind the
terminal needs (higher throughput by increasing
productivity, improving dispatching and tracking,
acquiring bigger equipment) and terminal challenges
(reduction of costs, fuel consumption and emissions) the
various energy saving solutions for greener transportation
have been pioneered in the past years.
Rubber Tyred Gantries (RTGs) as possibly the worlds
largest rubber tyred vehicle are mobile equipment that
load and unload containers onto trucks in the terminal.
Conventional RTGs are driven by electric motors
powered by large on-board generation sets. RTGs poor
inherent efficiency offers a good opportunity for energy
saving improvements, Fig. 4 [7]. So, RTG cranes are an
ideal example for modernization in order to improve eco
performances and may be considered for the future
analysis of the connection between Design for
modernization and Design for environment.
Fig. 4. Energy per container movement on terminal
4. ECO SOLUTIONS FOR MODERNIZATION
OF RTG CRANES
The port equipment industry has developed a variety of
technologies and systems, and many have now been fully
road tested at the dockside. This includes zero emission
models, hybrid and all-electric models, regenerative
breaking and engine efficiencies. The power and
requirements of RTG cranes used for unloading shipping
containers are highly suitable for a hybrid application,
because frequent lifts require short bursts of power and
most of the energy is regenerated when the container is
hoisted down.
According to the data given by the company Railpower
Technologies Corporation, their solution of hybrid ECO
15
crane enables a reduction in fuel consumption and
greenhouse gas emission of RTG cranes by up to more
than 70% (74% fuel savings during first active duty tests)
and this is achieved by replacing the on-board diesel
generator power plant with ECO crane battery generator
sets hybrid system, Fig. 5. This system is smaller than
conventional diesel generator and a lead-acid equipped
energy storage system. It can be used as a replacement for
existing generator set as well as being installed on new
crane equipment. RTG traditional generator sets are
usually sized much larger than the peak power demand
from the load in order to maintain sufficiently stable
voltage supply for the electric motor drives. However,
peak power itself is sparsely used for lifts and fuel
consumption does not follow the same path. The hybrid
ECO crane solution enables to shrink the generator set
rating to the average demand and significantly trim down
the fuel costs. During the load lifting the system spends
energy, while during the load lowering the system
reclaims energy, Fig. 6. The ECO crane batteries provide
the complementary power that adds up to the generator
set power needed to achieve peak power (capacity to level
the power provided by the prime power source to the
average demand). This is also a reservoir that recuperates
the energy regenerated (an average of 70% of the energy
when hoisting containers down) by the hoist drive when
the load is hauled down. Finally, the recycled energy
enables the reduction of fuel consumption. The fuel burn
rate observed during active typical duty cycles was 2,08
gal/hour for a fuel power efficiency of 12 kWh/gal, very Fig. 5. Hybrid power plant for RTG crane
close to the most efficient existing generators used for
residential and industrial power supply. The conventional
diesel generators used on conventional RTGs of this size
burn approximately 8,0 gal/h for active duty cycle. As
RTGs usually operate in active duty during 1/2 to 2/3 of
the time that they are powered for service, the average
fuel savings over a long period could even be improved
(60-80% fuel savings, adding up to an economy of
150,000 litres of fuel per year). Also, the reduction of 60-
90% of green-house gases is fulfilled. The ECO crane
energy storage technology enables satisfaction of
simplicity and clean energy to container handling
requirements: maintenance-free batteries, requires no
water, rarely need to be replaced (2-3 year intervals),
capacity to recharge from shore power for even more fuel
savings, provide clean mobile yard standby electrical
power easily powering small electrical tools for hours Fig. 6. Recycled energy for RTG crane
without the use of an additional generator, quieter
operation, etc.
The hybrid ECO-RTG system is also developed by
Siemens [12], Fig. 7, by installing a power control system
and helps to reduce the energy consumption of diesel-
electric systems. The ECO-RTG is based on the rugged
technology developed by Siemens for hybrid city buses
similar to the technology used in hybrid cars such as
Toyota Prius. The ECO system will store the energy
during container lowering (traditional RTGs burn off into
the atmosphere by resistor banks the energy generated
during container lowering) and reuse it for further
efficiency. The ECO system is designed for simple
installation of energy storage devices such Ultra
Capacitor banks which can store the energy released when
lowering the container. Fig. 7. Hybrid ECO-RTG system developed by Siemens

16
The experience given by Siemens for 15 RTGs
(manufacturer ZPMC) equipped with the mentioned
hybrid system in the container terminal in Tangiers
(Morocco) reveals that the ECO-RTG drive system gives
a fuel saving of over 50% compared to conventional RTG
drive systems while keeping the same productivity. The
combined reduction in the annual emissions of CO2 of all
15 ECO cranes equals 13,000 tons of CO2, equivalent to
the output of 1,400 European households, or 3,800 cars.
Also, the reduced emissions of noise and fumes are
achieved, as well as the smaller drive and unnecessary
high speed idling. For instance, after two weeks of
running four of the new ZPMC-Siemens units supplied
for the Port Algeciras (Spain) [PT], measured fuel
consumption is down from 21,3 liters/hr for a standard
machine to 6,5 liter/hr for the ECO (reduction of 69,5%).
Main features of Algeciras Terminal cranes are: Rated
load 50 t (Exceptional load 61 t); Lifting height 18,1 m;
Clearance inside legs 21 m (6 lanes + tuck lane); 2 wheels
per corner, 8 wheel totally; 8-ropes reeving system for
load control. If the mentioned date are trustworthy, the
Port Algeciras will save over 60,000 per machine per
year, or 1,2 million per year for the twenty machines
delivered from ZPMC. The cranes in Port Algeciras
typically run 21 hours/day, 362 days/year and make 8,5
moves/hour. However, the increase of moves/hour will to
some extent decrease the fuel savings.
An example of eco design solutions for environmentally
improve existing RTG cranes by using ECODESIGN
PILOT, downloadable from the web
(http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE/ENGLISH) and
showing a large tree structured questionnaire not only
with impact classes but also with life cycle stages is given
in [13].
5. CONCLUSION
Modernization of cranes could have several reasons
depending on the clients demands on terminal operations.
Crane modernization raises production and reduces
liability. Most terminal operators are interested in
increasing the efficiency and availability of their
terminals and following the up-to-date environmental
aspects for the existing equipment in order to get an eco
improvement of the product. In the front line of the
needed equipment for environmental improvements RTGs
are most important (green technologies are central to most
modern gantry crane systems) and this is where some
leading companies such as Siemens and Railpower
Technologies Corporation are focused to provide best eco
solutions for their clients targets. The modern ECO crane
solutions presented in this paper enables 50%+ fuel
savings; they are cost effective, fast Return on Investment
(ROI) on fuel and maintenance, reduced operating and
Life Cycle Cost, as well as reduction of greenhouse gases
and quieter operation. The effects of the solution exceed
the local government requirements, and the solution can
be applied to existing cranes (retrofit), as well as
applicable to new equipment. The amortization period for
the additional costs of an ECO_RTG crane compared with
a conventional ECO-RTG crane is less than four years.
In order to develop arguments in this area of upgrading
cranes there are two critical areas: availability of the
cranes and cost implications. Both areas and the foregoing
analyses impose the necessity for developing a new area
of DfX: Design for Modernization.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and
Technological Development of Serbia funded project TR
14052.
REFERENCES
[1] MEERKAM, H., Design for X: A core area of design
methodology, Journal of Engineering Design, Vol.5,
No 2, pp 145-163, 1994.
[2] PAHL, G., BEITZ, W., WALLACE, K., Engineering
Design A systematic approach, Springer Verlag,
London, 1996.
[3] VEZZOLI, C., MANZINI, E., Design for
Environmental Sustainability, Springer Verlag,
London, 2008.
[4] PROTSAILO, M.Y., Design for modernization of a
BKZ-420 boiler to configuration with bottom-
mounted burners, Fuel and Energy Abstracts,
Volume 38, Number 3, pp. 169-169(1), May 1997.
[5] CASPER, W., Modernization and upgrading of
shoreside container cranes, Proceedings of the
Specialty Conference on Port Modernization,
Upgrading and Repairs, ASCE, March 21-23, New
Orleans, LA, 1983.
[6] ZRNI, N., Modernization and modification of
material handling equipment and machines as a way
to increase efficiency in transport-logistic systems,
invited lecture, International Conference
Intralogistics, Novi Sad Fair, November 6th, 2008.
[7] ZRNI, N., OREVI, M., Recent development of
environmental friendly technologies in container
terminals, Proceedings of the 19th International
Conferece on Material Handling, Constructions and
Logistics - MHCL09, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering Belgrade, pp. 347-350, Belgrade, 2009.
[8] BHIMANI, A., Container crane upgrade and
relocation: Three case studies, Proc. of the
Conference PORTS95, ASCE, March 13-15, Tampa,
Florida, 1995.
[9] DARLEY, P., LIANG, J., Crane modernization
Why and how?, Terminal Operations Conference
Asia, Shangai, China, 18-20 March, 2008.
[10] CZAPLICKA, K, Eco-design of non-metallic layer
composites with respect to conveyor belts, Materials
& Design, Vol. 24, pp. 111-120, 2003.
[11] WIMMER, W., ZUEST, R., LEE, K.M., Ecodesign
implementation A systematic guidance on
integrating environmetal considerations into product
development, Springer, Dordrecht, 2004.
[12] KUILBOER, R., Evaluating the ECO-RTG concept,
Port Technology International, issue 33, pp. 75-76,
2007.
[13] CHEVALIER, J.P, Product Lyfe Cycle Design:
Integrating Environmental Aspects into SMEs
Product Design and Development Process, Proc. of
the Conference on Ecologic Vehicles and Renewable
Energies, 26-29 March 2009, Monaco.
17
CORRESPONDENCE

Nenad ZRNI, Assoc.Prof. D.Sc. Eng.

University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11120 Belgrade 35, Serbia
nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs

Sran BONJAK, prof. D.Sc. Eng.

University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11120 Belgrade 35, Serbia
sbosnjak@mas.bg.ac.rs

Milo OREVI, M.Sc. Eng.

University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11120 Belgrade 35, Serbia
mddjordjevic@mas.bg.ac.rs

18

OPTIMALISATION OF BRIQUETTING
MACHINE PRESSING CHAMBER
GEOMETRY
Peter KRIAN
ubomr OO
Milo MAT
Abstract: The contribution deals with the compacting of
material, mainly biomass, which one of the way how to
treat the biomass waste. The aim of this contribution is to
present how important are structural parameters of
briquetting machine pressing chamber at compacting
process. The contribution is focused on influencing
parameters which is possible to control by structural
changes on tools of production machine - briquetting
machine. Information which you can read in our
contribution was obtained from analyses, experiment and
experience with compacting. There is also described
influence of some structural parameters on the quality of
pressing.
Key words: biomass, compacting, briquette density,
length and conicalness of pressing chamber,
mathematical model of compacting
1. INTRODUCTION
Compacting process is very interesting process of
biomass treating. Also it is very complicated process
because there are many parameters influencing to this
process and the final briquettes quality. Briquettes quality
is defined by Standards and is evaluated by mechanical
and chemical thermic indicators. The most important
mechanical indicator of quality is briquettes density. By
this indicator is mainly evaluated also compacting
process.
2. INFLUENCING PARAMETERS AT
COMPACTING PROCESS
Briquettes quality evaluated by density is influenced by
many parameters. On the base of our experiences and
analyses we can divide them into these three groups [3]:
 material parameters;
 technological parameters;
 structural parameters.
Material parameters comes from pressed material
properties and there are: material moisture, fraction
largeness, chemical composition of material, etc..
Technological parameters are pressing temperature,
compacting pressure, compacting speed, holding time,
etc.. These parameters can be changed through the
compacting according to compacting machine
possibilities. Also structural parameters are very
important. We mean structural parameters of pressing
chamber. For successfully pressing of quality briquettes
have to be in synergy parameters of all mentioned groups.
For us as a constructers is very important to know
behavior of all parameters. We know that very important
for compacting are pressing temperature, material
moisture, compacting pressure and fraction largeness.
When we adjust the optimal values of these parameters
according to pressed material we can obtain briquettes
with suitable quality. But also we know if we changing
some structural parameters we can reach better results.
Therefore is very suitable to make optimalisation of
pressing chamber geometry. Major structural parameters
which influencing the final briquettes density are [6, 7]:
 diameter of pressing chamber;
 length of pressing chamber;
 conicalness of pressing chamber;
 friction coefficient between chamber and pressing
tool;
 etc.. (length of cooling canal)
Geometry of pressing chamber is very important at
compacting. In nowadays doesnt exist many sources and
analyses which deals with description of compacting
process, with influence of individual parameters of this
process and with description of pressing conditions into
the pressing chamber through compacting. Results listed
in this contribution are based on our experiences, on our
done experiment and analyses comparing with existing
designed mathematical model of compacting.
3. ANALYZE OF IMPACT OF SOME
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Dont exist many publications which described
mathematical models including impact of individual
structural parameters. We did some analyses and we
found two mathematical models which contains also
structural parameters. Therefore we were able to test them
a check their impact on other parameters in these models.
The first mathematical model represents equation (1).
4. . . H
pG = p k .e Dk
(MPa) (1)
Closer describing of the model you can find on Figure 2.
This mathematical model is describing compacting
process on vertical press and is describing effecting forces
and pressures in the pressing chamber. We tried to test the
impact of length of compacted briquette H. From this
result we will be able in future calculate the optimal
length of pressing chamber. By testing we chose unit
values for other parameters in model and step by step we
raise the value of length of compacted briquette always
about 10%. The results you can see in following Figure 1.
19
 60
coefficient , and length of compacted briquette H.
Equation (3) describes Figure 2.
Counter pressure in chamber pG (MPa)

50

40

30

20

10

0
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
pk axial pressure of press

(MPa)
Length of com pacted briquette H (m m )
pG counter pressure in
chamber (MPa)
Fig. 1. Dependence of counter pressure in chamber pG on pr radial pressure (MPa)
the length of compacted briquette H [3] pm axial pressure on the
briquette (MPa)
Dk diameter of pressing
You can see that when we raise the length of compacted chamber (mm)
briquette exponentially decreasing the effecting counter friction coefficient (-)
pressure pG on the briquette and vice versa. We suppose H length of compacted
that the same fact will be confirmed by our experiment briquette (mm)
and calculations.
The second mathematical model represents equation (2).
2. .G . RL . LP Fig. 2. Pressing conditions in closed pressing chamber by
Px = Pxo .e r (MPa) (2) single-axis pressing on vertical press [2]

where is Px compacting pressure on the briquette (MPa);

[ pm ( pm + dpm )] Dk
2

Px0 initial compacting pressure (MPa); friction pr Dk dx = 0 (3)

4
coefficient (-); G modulus of elasticity ratio for
longitudinal and cross directions of fibers (-); RL By equation (3) solving and by border conditions
Poissons coefficient (-); r semi diameter of pressing substituting we obtained equation (1) and equation (4).
chamber (mm); Lp length of the pressing chamber (mm). 4. . . H
This model [9] describing the case when is the elastic
p k = pG .e Dk
(MPa) (4)
material compacted into the pressing chamber. But model
isnt describing the relation between the length of
Equation (4) specifies relation between axial pressure pk
pressing chamber and effecting counter pressure and
and counter pressure effecting on compacted briquette pG.
therefore we didnt test it.
This mathematical model was designed by German
researchers [1]. This mathematical model allows us to
4. PRESSING CONDITIONS IN SINGLE-AXIS calculate the suitable length of compacted briquette,
PRESSING IN CYLINDRICAL CHAMBER suitable counter pressure and suitable length of pressing
chamber. With combination of friction coefficient and
On the base of single-axis pressing theory in closed length of pressing chamber we can provide needed
chamber we can analyze impact of length of pressing counter pressure at compacting. But how impact the
chamber change. Diameter of pressing chamber with length of pressing chamber and counter pressure the final
length of pressing chamber has significant impact on briquette quality represents by briquette density? Answer
briquette properties at burning and also on pressing tool to this question can give us only the mathematical model
wearing. By burning of briquettes is needed slow which specifies relation between axial compacting
combustion. This we can execute when the pressure and briquette density.
surface/volume ratio of briquettes is the smallest as can Therefore we designed the experiment for main
be. The same situation is also by pressing tools wearing. influencing technological and material parameters
The pressing tool wearing is smaller when smaller evaluation. We tried to find functional dependence
surface/volume ratio of pressing tools is. Therefore is
very significant to find the optimal geometry of pressing = f ( p, T , wr , L ) (5)
chamber according to briquettes burning, to tools wearing
and according to trade requests. where: briquette density (kg.dm-3), p axial
Pressing conditions in closed chamber at single-axis compacting pressure (MPa), T pressing temperature
pressing when is the counter pressure generated by (C), wr relative material moisture (%) and L fraction
counter pressure plug is shown in Figure 2. Maximal largeness (mm).
compacting pressure pk which is rising by pressing We designed experimental pressing stand (see Figure 3)
depend on pressing chamber length and shape; depend on on which were executed experiment. This experimental
friction relations between compacted material and wall of stand allowed us to change the values of mentioned
the chamber. Drag friction is backward assigned by radial parameters and helped obtained suitable results for
pressure pr, applied to chamber wall, by friction mathematical model designing.

20
 Dk=20 mm. For calculation of length of compacted
briquette (H) we need also compacting ratio for wood.
This ratio is ratio of volume before compacting and after
compacting. This ratio was calculated from briquette
density (by pressure 120 MPa and temperature 105C)
and from length of pressing chamber Lk. The calculated
compacting ratio for wood for our case is 1:8. Now we
can calculate length of compacted briquette after each
pressing on the pressing stand. Note, that in our case, in
case of closed chamber, has each briquette various length.
On following Figure 5 you can see what is situation in
closed chamber at compacting. After than we were able to
calculate searched counter pressure pG with using of
before calculated values and with according to equation
(1).
Fig. 3. Designed experimental pressing stand [2]

Measured data we processed with basic mathematical and

statistical methods and in the final we were able to design
the mathematical model, equation (6).

Pressing
4 , 98371 0 , 0261781 . p 0 , 0410292.T 0 , 620594. wr 0 , 015446. L + 0 , 000228845 . p .T +

= e 0,0031851. p.w + 0, 00528717.T .w 0,0000273004. p.T .w r r r (6)

Extruding
With equation (6) [2] we can calculate the optimal axial
compacting pressure according to Standards given
briquettes density. On following Figure 4 you can see the
dependence of briquette density on compacting pressure
at various pressing temperatures which was created with c.)
a.) b.)
using the equation (6).
Fig. 5. a.) Single-axis pressing process in closed chamber
1,3 on vertical press and individual phases of compacting
b.) pressing of the 1st briquette + filling of pressing
Briquette density (kg.dm-3)

115 C
1,2 chamber; c.) pressing of the 2nd briquette + filling of
Hustota vliskov (kg.dm-3)

105 C pressing chamber; [1, 2]

1,1

95 C Calculated values of counter pressure you can find in

1
85 C following Table 1.
Table 1. Editorial instructions
0,9
Table 1. Calculated values of counter pressure at vertical
0,8 closed chamber way of pressing [2, 5]
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Lisovac tlak (MPa)
Compacting pressure (MPa) i 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 4. Dependence of briquette density on compacting Lki (mm) 140 122,5 107,19 93,79 82,07
pressure at various temperatures (wr=10%; L=2mm) [2]
pGi (MPa) 39,84 45,74 51,59 57,35 62,87
Now we are able to calculate the counter pressure from
equation (1) and from functional dependence =f(pk). We can say that value of counter pressure increasing with
Counter pressure value is very important because with reduction of the length of compacted briquettes. In closed
value of radial pressure influencing the length of pressing way of pressing is compacted briquette after each pressing
chamber. As an example we used for calculation shorter because after each pressing is volume of pressing
dimensions of our experimental pressing stand. This stand chamber reduced. According to these results we can say
supplies closed vertical way of compacting (as on Figure that value of counter pressure will decrease with
2). We chose axial pressure pk according to Figure 4 increasing of length of compacted column.
(pk=120 MPa), with this pressure we are able to compact This fact we were able to use at calculation of optimal
briquettes by Standards given quality. Friction coefficient length of pressing chamber. But this calculation can be
between pressed material (wood) and wall of pressing performed only at continuous way of pressing in open
chamber (steel) is known, =0,35. is ratio of main chamber. We tried to calculate the counter pressure and
strains r/m (Fig.1). For dispersive materials is this ratio we tried to apply this theory to horizontal continuous way
from interval 0<<1. Diameter of pressing chamber is of pressing. On following Figure 6 you can see what is
given by construction of experimental pressing stand, situation at horizontal continuous way of pressing.

21
 40

35

(MPa)pG (MPa)
30

pressure
25

counterprotitlak
20

Effectingpsobiaci
15

10

Fig. 6. Counter pressure effecting at horizontal 0

continuous pressing in open chamber [2] 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85

Length of zlisovanho
dka pressed column lz m(mm)
stpca lz (m )

The main difference is that the length of compacted

briquette is equal for each briquette. Briquettes which Fig. 7. Dependence of counter pressure effecting on
were pressed sooner will continuously move through the briquette in pressing chamber on length of pressed
whole pressing chamber up to end of chamber. The end of column [2, 5]
the chamber has to be in the place where the compacted
briquette hardness higher than effecting counter pressure But the tools wear is also higher. We had many
is. We used again dimensions of experimental pressing experiences about briquetting machines, when we
stand at calculation of counter pressure but with changed the cylindrical pressing chamber for conical
considering of continuous way of pressing. In following pressing chamber we reached briquettes with higher
Table 2 you can see the calculated values of counter density. But doesnt existing any mathematical model for
pressure. conical pressing chamber. Therefore we tried to design
mathematical model for conical pressing chamber.
Table 2. Calculated values of counter pressure at
horizontal continuous way of pressing [2, 5] pressing
piston
i 1 2 3 4 5
lzi (mm) 87,5 70 52,5 35 17,5 cylindrical
pGi (MPa) 0,48 1,45 4,39 13,23 39,84 part

We can say that counter pressure decreasing with increase conical

of length of pressed column or with increase of length of
pressing chamber. With other experiment in the future we
have to verify this fact. Also is much needed to find the
optimal length of pressing chamber in dependence on
compacting pressure or counter pressure. Optimal length
of pressing chamber is when briquette reaches Standard
given density, when is able to overrun the counter
pressure and when it is able to leave the pressing chamber
without fall to pieces. Optimal length of pressing chamber
will change in dependence on effecting compacting
pressure or counter pressure. Optimal length of pressing
chamber will depend also on radial strains. In the future it
will be very useful if we could execute experiment for
radial strains find out. On the following Figure 7 you can
see the dependence of effecting counter pressure in
pressing chamber on length of pressed column. This
dependence comes from previously calculations. You can
see that the counter pressure is higher when the length of
pressed column is shorter and vice versa.
5. PRESSING CONDITIONS IN CONICAL
SHAPED PRESSING CHAMBER
Situation about pressing conditions in conical chamber is
a little bit complicated. There is pressed material
conquered by multi-axis pressing. Therefore increases the
pressing quality increases briquettes density and also
increases briquettes mechanical properties.
part
calibration
part
Fig. 8. Main parts of conical pressing chamber [2, 4]
For analysis of influence of conical pressing chamber
change we used the theory of forward extrusion [4] as a
basic technology of metal volume moulding. Force and
pressure distribution in this definition is very close to
theory of biomass compacting. The simple figure of the
main parts of conical pressing chamber you can see on the
Figure 8. This type of pressing chamber is often used in
the constructions of compacting machines. Pressing
chamber consist of 3 basic parts cylindrical part, conical
(reductive) part and calibration part. Material is filled into
the cylindrical part and then starts to be compacted by
pressing piston. In conical part the main compacting of
material is being done. The pressure and the conical
chamber cause the multi-axis compacting effect. The
holding time while the pressing is under the pressure is
necessary for elimination pressing expansion. Calibration
part gives final shape to pressing and provides the holding
time under the pressure and temperature.

22
For better describing the pressing conditions in conical
chamber we used Figure 9, where we can see all effecting
forces and pressures. Maximal reached axial pressure PK
depend on length of pressing chamber L, on shape of
pressing chamber, on size of vertex angle of conical
chamber and on friction conditions between pressed
material and wall of chamber. Surface friction drag is
given by radial pressure PR, by cross factor of pressure
PM, which effecting on wall of chamber, by friction
coefficient and by length of pressing chamber L.
Diameter of chamber is linear decreasing according to
length of chamber L. See following Figure 9.
PK axial pressure of press
(MPa)
PG counter pressure in
chamber (MPa)
PR radial pressure (MPa)
PM axial pressure on the
briquette (MPa)
d0 input diameter of
pressing chamber (mm)
d1 output diameter of
pressing chamber (mm)
d diameter of pressing
chamber in cross-section
(mm)
friction coefficient (-)
L length conical part of
pressing chamber (mm)
Fig. 9. Pressing conditions in conical pressing chamber
[7, 8]
For description of pressing process we have to go out
from description of pressures effecting on elementary cut
conic with dx thickness (see Figure 10). In vertical
direction effecting axial compacting pressure PM, in
opposite direction effecting elicited PM+dPM. From
friction effecting increasing also pressure perpendicular to
the wall of chamber PR.
Fig. 10. Spatial pressures distribution on elementary cut
conic [7, 8]
For creating of balanced equation we will need to know
surfaces sizes where reacting the individual pressures. On
the base of plane pressures distribution (see Figure 11) we
were able to write following equation (7)
PM .SV 2 + PM .SV ( PM + dPM ).SV 2 .( PR + PM .sin ).dSPL .cos = 0 (7)
Fig. 11. Plane pressures distribution on elementary cut
conic [7, 8]
For the next editing of the equation (7) it will be needed
to define the border conditions and to define the final
shape of mathematical model suitable for optimalisation
methods.
This mathematical interfering is yet not complete
therefore we cant show you the mathematical model for
conical shape pressing chamber. But the next step will be
design of mathematical model for conical shape pressing
chamber. With this model we will be able to calculate the
optimal length of conical pressing chamber according to
Standard given final briquettes density. Also we will be
able to prove the impact of conicalness of pressing
chamber on final briquette quality.
Just only for a demonstration see following final Figure
12 where you can see impact of resizing of applied
compacting pressure. Below of the each briquette is
mentioned compacting pressure with which was the
briquette pressed.
31 MPa 63 MPa 159 MPa
191 MPa 254 MPa
Fig. 12. Impact of resizing of applied compacting
pressure [2]
6. CONCLUSION
In this contribution we tried to show you results of our
design of calculation methodology for structural
parameters (length of pressing chamber, conicalness of
pressing chamber) impact on final briquette quality. With
this methodology we could be successful with the
pressing chamber geometry optimalisation.
By cylindrical pressing chamber we used existing German
mathematical model supplemented by our mathematical
model. With these tools we are able to calculate
effecting counter pressure and also suitable optimal length
of pressing chamber according to Standards given
23
briquettes density. The next step in this area will be the
verifying this fact.
In area of designing of mathematical model for conical
pressing chamber we have more to do. We have to design
mathematical model, we have to prove the impact of
conicalnes of pressing chamber on final briquette density
and also we have to verify the obtained results.
[9] HOLM, J.; HENRIKSEN, U.; HUSTAD, J.;
SORENSEN, L.: Toward an understanding of
controlling parameters in softwood and hardwood
pellets production, published on web 09/09/2006,
American Chemical Society

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This contribution was created by realization of project

Development of progressive biomass compacting technology
and production of prototype and high-productive tools(ITMS
Project code: 26240220017), on base of Operational
Programme Research and Development support financing by
European Regional Development Fund.

REFERENCES

[1] HORRIGHS, W., Determining the dimensions of

extrusion presses with parallel-wall die channel for
the compaction and conveying of bulk solids,
Aufbereitungs Technik: Magazine, Duisburg,
Germany, 1985, No.12.
[2] KRIAN, P., Process of wood waste pressing and
conception of presses construction, Dissertation
work, FME SUT in Bratislava, Slovakia, July 2009,
p.150, (in Slovak).
[3] OO, .; KRIAN, P.: Analyze of forces interaction
in pressing chamber of briquetting machine,
Proocedings of the 11. International Conference TOP
2005, ast - Papiernika, Slovakia, 29.06-
01.07.2005, FME STU in Bratislava, ISBN 80-227-
2249-9, pp. 299-306, (in Slovak).
[4] STOROEV, M.V., POPOV, J.A.: Theory of metal
shaping, Alfa Bratislava, Slovakia, SNTL Praha,
1978, 63-560-78, p.488, (in Slovak).
[5] KRIAN, P., OO, .; VUKELI, Dj.: Counter
CORRESPONDENCE
pressure effecting on compacted briquette in pressing
chamber, Proceedings of the 10th International
scientific conference, 9.-10.10.2009, Novi Sad, Peter KRIAN, MSc. PhD.
Serbia, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 2009, ISBN Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
978-86-7892-223-7, pp. 136-139 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
[6] KRIAN, P.; VUKELI, Dj.: Shape of pressing Nm. Slobody 17
chamber for wood biomass compacting, International 81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Journal for Quality Research, Vol. 2, No. 3 (2008), peter.krizan@stuba.sk
ART GRAFIKA d.o.o. Podgorica, Montenegro, ISSN
1800-6450, pp. 205-209 ubomr OO, Prof. MSc. PhD.
[7] MAT, M.; KRIAN, P.: Influence of structural Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
parameters in compacting process on quality of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
biomass pressings, APLIMAT - International Journal Nm. Slobody 17
Applied Mathematics, ISSN 1337-6365, Vol. 3, No. 81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
3 (2010), pp. 87-96 lubomir.soos@stuba.sk
[8] MAT, M.; KRIAN, P., OO, .;
KOVOV, M.: Signification of pressing chamber
Milo MAT, MSc.
geometry in realtion to the quality of high-grade
Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
solid bioafuel, Proceedings of Abstracts of
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
International Conference ERIN 2010, 16.-
Nm. Slobody 17
17.03.2010, Pilsen, Czech Republic, West-Czech
81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Univerisity in Pilsen, ISBN 978-80-7043-866-4,
milos.matus@stuba.sk
p. 53, (CD-ROM), (in Slovak)

24

FEA IMPLEMENTATION IN MOVING
LOAD PROBLEM AT BRIDGE CRANES
Vlada GAI
Milorad MILOVANEVI
Zoran PETKOVI
Abstract: The dynamics of an overhead crane with
moving hoist with FEA is considered in this paper. The
weight of hoist and payload was treated as moving force,
ignoring inertia effects. The trolley has velocity which is
function in time. Illustration of equivalent nodal forces is
applied at uniform discretizied beam subjected to a single
load moving at prescribed velocity. It is obtained
frequencies and dynamic deflections of structure of bridge
crane finite element model. The results show that
standard finite element packages, apart from modal
analysis and tyme hystory analysis, can be used to
describe response of structure to time-variant moving
loads.
Key words: FEA, moving load, dynamic response
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with moving load problem which is
special topic in structural dynamics. The importance of
this problem is manifested in numerous applications in the
field of transportation. Bridges, cranes, cableways, rails,
roadways, runways and pipelines are examples of
structural elements to be designed to support moving
masses. Interest in analysis of moving load problems
originated in civil engineering (from observation that
when an elastic structure is subjected to moving loads, its
dynamic displacements and stresses can be significantly
higher than those due to equivalent static loads) for the
design of rail-road bridges and highway structures.
Applications of moving load problem have been
presented in mechanical engineering studies for the past
30 years. Its solution requires appropriate modelling of
the structure and a trolley. Typical structure under a
moving load (trolley) in mechanical engineering are
overhead cranes, gantry cranes, unloading bridges,
slewing tower cranes, cableways, guideways,
shipunloaders or e.g. quayside container cranes
considered in [14, 15]. The application of moving load
problem in cranes dynamics has obtained special attention
on the engineering researchers in the last years, but
unfortunately little literature on the subject is available.
The basic approaches in trolley modelling are: the moving
force model; the moving mass model and the trolley
suspension model moving oscillator model existing in
some special structures of gantry cranes and unloading
bridges. The simplest dynamic trolley models are moving
force models. A review of moving force models is given
in [3].
The consequences of neglecting the structure-trolley
interaction in these models may sometimes be minor. In
most moving force models the magnitudes of the contact
forces are constant in time. A constant force magnitude
implies that the inertia forces of the trolley are much
smaller than the dead weight of the structure. Thus the
structure is affected dynamically through the moving
character of the trolley only. All common features of all
moving force models are that the forces are known in
advance. Thus structure-trolley interaction cannot be
considered. On the other hand the moving force models
are very simple to use and yield reasonable structural
results in some cases [16].
There are proposed many analitical methods for solving
the simple cases of moving load problems. Many of them
refer to excellent monograph by Fryba [5]. For more
complex problems numerical methods have to be used.
Although varying positions of the present dynamic loads
need some special considerations, the finite element
method (FEM) is especially powerful due to its versatility
in spatial discretization, [9,12]. Major steps for finite
element analysis of moving load problems are done by
Olsson [3], and later improved with moving mass
problem by Tretheway [1], along with Wu [2] and others.
To the authors knowledge FEA, with mentioned
considerations, is now only used method for crane
structural dynamics at reviews of well known researchers.
Standard finite element packages are not usually set up to
apply moving loads. Although better FE softwares
provide analysis due to dynamic loads, application of
moving and time-variant loads demands certain
considerations. This paper shows techniques for
describing such loads in finite element software SAP
2000. The algorithm is presented on a model of overhead
bridge crane as typical material handling machine with
moving element-hoist. The results are compared with
results of analytical solution of uniform, simply supported
Euler Bernoulli beam subjected to a constant vertical
force moving at constant speed.
2. DYNAMICS OF BRIDGE CRANE
Overhead bridge cranes are widely used in factories of all
kind of industry. They run along a parallel pair of rails,
while moving trolley hoisting a cargo object moves over
main girder(s). The crane spans are becoming larger and
hoists are becoming faster, along with demand of precise
positioning on girder. These parameters are increasing
throughout structural flexibility of cranes, which in first
request detailed static analysis in design process [11].
Moreover, this calls for dynamic analysis.
In the past we have seen mounting interest in research of
modelling and control of cranes [16], and many standard
25
models have been already investigated. These models can
be distinguished by different complexity in modelling and
by the nature of neglected parameters. However, most of
the presented models are very simple ones. Most of the
standard commercial FEM softwares are fully capable to
simulate such models.
Fig. 1. Bridge crane
The most common modeling approaches are the lumped-
mass and distributed mass approach, as well as the
combination of the first two approaches. A relatively
recent review on cranes dynamics, modeling and control
is given in [18], but without considering the problems of
the moving load influence on the dynamic response of
cranes.
Having in mind that the speed of the entire bridge in
horizontal plane (transverse direction) is usually low or
the cranes does not travel in the transverse direction, and,
therefore it is assumed that two space dimensions are
sufficient to describe the payload movement.
In dynamics of bridge cranes one must always start with
crane model as uniform, simply supported beam subjected
to a constant vertical force moving at constant speed.
Analytical solution of dynamic responses for this case is
known [3]. This approach has two important roles. First,
for initial design process it gives satisfactory data for
describing dynamic behavior of cranes. Moreover, it
stands for verification of advanced models and algorithms
for obtaining desired responses.
Fig. 2. Uniform, simply supported beam subjected to a
constant vertical force P moving along the beam
In this paper the aim is to implement moving load
requisitions in standard FE package for dynamic analysis
of crane structure. Extension here is that all the nodal
26
forces are calculated with case where moving force goes
along the beam with velocity as function of time. One can
use any velocity pattern which determines the position of
the hoist. Usual used pattern is trapezoidal velocity
pattern, fig. 3. The modification of trapezoidal pattern is
possible in automation of bridge cranes, along with
stepped and notched velocity pattern [17].
Fig. 3. Trapezoidal velocity pattern
Here, used pattern is trapezoidal velocity pattern. Trolley
starts accelerating in time tu, goes with constant speed at
time tr, and finishes cycle decelerating in time tk. Total
time is time needed for trolley to get from left end to the
right end on main girder.
3. DEFINITION OF NODAL FORCES
The equation of motion of multi-degree-of-freedom
structural system is represented as follows:
[ M ]{u&&} + [C ]{u&} + [ K ]{u} = {F (t )} (1)
where [ M ],[C ],[ K ] are the mass, damping and stiffness
matrices of structure, respectively; {u&&},{u&},{u} are the
acceleration, velocity and displacement vectors for whole
structure, respectively; and {F (t )} is the external force
vector. With beam subjected to a concentrated force P,
the forces on all the nodes of the beam are equal to zero
except the nodes of element s that is subjected to
concentrated force, fig. 4.
Basic principle of simulation of moving load is to apply
forces and moments to all the nodes of the finite element
model, making these loads functions of time. As expected
nodes near to the instantaneous force application point
can then be given relatively large force values, whereas
nodes away from the instantaneous force application point
will have zero values. To develop techniques for deriving
appropriate time-loads for all the nodes of the structure, a
beam subjected to a single concentrated force will be
studied first. According to Clough and Penzien [7], the
external force vector takes the following form:
{F (t )} = {000.... f1( s ) f 2( s ) f 3( s ) f 4( s ) ....000} (2)
where f i( s ) = f i( s ) (t ), (i = 1,2,3,4)
represent the equivalent nodal forces,
{ f ( s ) (t )} = P{N } (3)
and
{N } = [ N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 ]T (4)
such that these represent shape functions, hermitian and determined for prescribed function of velocity.
polynomials [8], given by We can find the element number s, that the moving
concentrated force is applied to at any time t, as
N1 = 1 3 2 + 2 3 (5)
x p (t )
2 3 s = Int[ ] + 1. (14)
N 2 = l ( 2 + ) (6) l
Element s has two nodes s and s+1. Therefore, the
N 3 = 3 2 2 3 (7)
following equations for nodal forces and moments are
formed when the moving concentrated force, P, is on the
N 4 = l ( 2 + 3 ) (8) sth beam element at any time.
= x/l (9) Fts=rt = PN1 (15)
noting l as element length and x as distance along the
element to the point of application of force P, as shown in Fts=+r1t = PN 3 (16)
fig. 4.
M ts=rt = PN 2 (17)

M ts=+r1t = PN 4 (18)

Fti= rt = 0 , M ti = rt = 0 (19)
(i =1 to n except s and s+1).

Equation (9) can be rewritten in terms of the global

Fig. 4. The equivalent forces of the element s subjected to
concentrated force
In order to simulate the moving load there is considered
beam composed of n-1 elements, with n nodes, with
concentrated force moving with velocity v(t), fig. 5.
Fig. 5. A beam subjected to concentrated force moving
with velocity v(t)
Considering m time steps and choosing a time interval t,
the total time is then given by
= m t (10)
The force and moment vectors contain information for all
the nodes on the beam at all time steps:
position with
x p (t ) ( s 1)l
= (20)
l
Hence, the time-force and time-moment functions are
determined for all the nodes of the beam when is
subjected to a moving concentrated force. There is
simplification referred as no moment method, setting
N2, N4 to zero. However, in this paper is used full
method concerning all of previously mentioned. The same
principle could be applied if other element types were
used, but corresponding shape functions would need to be
used.
3.1. Illustration of equivalent nodal loads
To illustrate the principle involved the following example
would be introduced. Here, given algorithm is written in
software Mathematica-Wolfram [19], and illustrates the
principles considering beam of lenght 40 m, with 11
nodes equally spaced along the beam. Let a force of
constant amplitude of 1 N moving from left end to the
other end with velocity pattern, as on fig. 3.

[ F ]im+1 = [ Fti=0 Fti=1t Fti=2t ...Fti= ]im+1 (11)

[ M ]im+1 = [ M ti=0 M ti=1t M ti=2t ...M ti= ]im+1 (12)

for i = 1 to n.

At any time t = r t (r = 1 to m), the position of the

moving force, relative to the left end of the beam, is given
by

x p (t ) = v(t )dt (13) Fig. 6. Force-time graph for each node of beam

27
Paramethers are: acceleration time is 2 s, tr is time where
force moves with constant velocity 5 m/s, and
decceleration time is 2 s. Total time of 10 s is divided into
100 time steps. Fig. 6 and fig. 7 show the force/time and
moment/time graphs for each node of the beam.
All these figures illustrate a feature of technique that both
the force and moment on each node are zero for all times
other than while the force is travelling from the previous
node to the next node.
First, it is performed Modal analysis in SAP 2000, which
is always first step in dynamic analysis to obtain
frequencies. Participating mass ratios and first 3
frequencies of structure is given in [13], and compared
with theoretical values. Natural frequency is 2,08 Hz, i.e.
period 0,48 s. Mode shapes are well-known for simply
supported beam [4].
For given data of moving hoist, it is used equivalent
forces and moments for each node on main girder
(runway beam), obtained with mathematical software,
according to chapter 3.1. Each load is given as Time
history function in FE software. Linear Modal History
case is created with all the functions. It is used solver with
step-by-step method in 100 steps to obtain response.
Number of steps should be the same as for determination
of equivalent forces.

5. RESULTS AND VALIDATION

After creating the appropriate model of crane, defined

load cases-time hystory functions-load combination one
can find response of structure due to moving force-hoist.
It is common in structural analysis of cranes to search for
middle section displacement and max. flexural moment.
Plot displacement of joint representing middle section is
presented in fig. 9,a., throughout dimensionless time.
Fig. 7. Moment-time graph for each node of beam Maximum displacement is 9,52 cm. Flexural moment
envelope shape is given in [13].
4. FE MODELLING

Described principles is implemented on finite element

model of top-running overhead crane. Model is created in
FE package SAP 2000v12 [20], with representation on
fig. 8. Model consists of 26 elements, with box section
properties. Elements of main girders and elements of end
carriages are the same. Capacity per girder is 10 t. Main
girder consists of 10 elements. There are followed
recommendations for discretization of structure
continuum in moving load finite element beam models
[1]. The span is push-to-limits span of bridge crane as
L=40 m. End carriage length is 8 m. Maximum velocity of
hoist is 5 m/s. Mentioned parameters are postulated in
chapter 3.1.

Fig. 9. Time-plot of mid-span displacement; (a) SAP 2000

dynamic response;(b) analytical solution with force
moving with constant velocity [3]

Fig. 8. FE model of bridge crane

Other data used for material-section properties in finite

element models are: mass density of beam elements
=7850 kg/m3, Youngs modulus E=2,1 1011 Pa, area of
main girder box section A=0,04 m2, moment of inertia of
main girder I=0,00667 m4, area of end carriage box
section Ac=0,0272 m2, moment of inertia of end carriage
section Ic=0,0016 m4. Fig. 10. Time-plot of mid-span accelerations

28
Fig. 10. shows acceleration of mid-span section with
maximum value of 0,4 m/s2.
The problem with force moving on simple beam with
trapezoidal velocity pattern cant be solved analytically.
However, where force is moving with constant speed
exact solution is known [3]. Basic parameter for this case
is non-dimensional parameter which is ratio of half of
fundamental period of beam and time for passing beam
from left to right end, which is for this case
T1 0,48
= = = 0,03 (21)
2 28
and is used for getting middle span displacement and
shown in fig. 9, b. Maximum displacement is 9,74 cm.
This is used for validation of given model in SAP 2000.
6. CONCLUSION
This paper deals with moving load problem in dynamic
analysis of bridge cranes with FEA. There is presented
accepted technique for using standard finite element
package to analyze the dynamic response of structure to
time-variant moving load. They are incorporated in FE
package SAP 2000 with data from computer program
created according to presented algorithm. Force is moving
with trapezoidal velocity pattern. Equivalent nodal forces
and moments are gained with full method and illustrated
for chosen parameters. The procedure is applied to a
model of bridge crane with parameters with upper limits
of standard ones, for span and velocity of hoist. Static
analysis is first performed to approve design parameters
of crane. There are followed recomendations for
discretization of structure continuum in moving load
finite element beam models. There are obtained
frequencies of structure with modal analysis. It is
obtained mid-span displacement. Furthermore, whole
procedure is validated with analytical solution where used
crane model is assumed to be simply supported beam with
one moving force traveling at constant speed. The small
difference occurs because of different velocity patterns.
Maximum displacements are very close, which validate
FEA usage. FEA gives much more possibilities in getting
responses (frequencies, displacements, accelerations,
shear forces, flexural moments...) where we can include
more influences, apart from analytical (idealized) models.
The aim of this work is to emphasize the technique for
describing moving load with standard FE packages. It is
convenient to be applied at models of material handling
machines with various structural types. But, it can be used
only where inertia effects of moving hoist is neglected
which is referred as moving mass problem in structural
dynamics. Also, important aim is to improve moving load
considerations in Serbian literature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is a part of the research funded project TR-
14052 supported by Ministry of Sciences and
Technological Development of Serbia.
NOMENCLATURE
[M ] structural mass matrix of beam
[C ] structural damping matrix of beam
[K ] structural stiffness matrix of beam
{u} nodal displacement vector
nodal velocity vector
{u&}
{u&&} nodal acceleration vector
{F (t )} external force vector
N shape functions
v(t) velocity of moving hoist
x distance between the contact position of
moving load and left end of beam
element
T1 fundamental period of beam
time for moving hoist from left end to
right end of beam
A cross-sectional area of a beam
I moment of inertia
E Youngs modulus
mass density of beam
REFERENCES
[1] RIEKER, J.R., LIN, YH, TRETHEWAY, M.W.:
Discretization considerations in moving load finite
element beam models, Finite Elements in Analysis
and Design 21, pp. 129-144, 1996.
[2] WU, J.J., WHITTAKER, A.R., CARTMELL, M.P.:
Dynamic responses of structures to moving bodies
using combined finite element and analytical
methods, International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences 43, pp. 2555-2579, 2001.
[3] OLSSON, M.: Analysis of structures subjected to
moving loads, Lund Institute of technology, Sweden,
1986.
[4] MEIROVICH, L.: Elements of vibration analysis,
McGraw-Hill, International edition, 1986.
[5] FRYBA, L.: Vibration of solids and structures under
moving loads, Czech Republic, 1972.
[6] KARNOVSKY,I.A., LEBED, O.I., Formulas for
structural dynamics, McGraw Hill, 2004
[7] CLOUGH, R.W., PENZIEN, J., Dynamics of
structures, New York, 1975
[8] PAZ, M., LEIGH, W., Structural dynamics:theory
and computation, Fifth edition, Kluwer, 2004
[9] GAI, V., ZRNI, N., BONJAK, S., Computer
aided analysis of load/stress/dynamic behaviour for
special bridge-type stacker-reclaimer, Monograph
Machine design, pp 119-126, N.Sad, 2007
[10] GAI, V., OBRADOVI, A., PETKOVI, Z.,
Mathematical modelling of the in-plane vibrations of
portal cranes with FEM verification, Monograph
Machine design, pp 121-126, Novi Sad, 2009
[11] GAI, V., ZRNI, N., BONJAK, S., Loading
capacities curves for I-section runway beams
according to bottom flange bending and lateral
buckling, Monograph Machine design, pp 181-186,
Novi Sad, 2008
29
[12] GAI, V., Analiza dinamikog ponaanja [19] Mathematica, Wolfram, www.wolfram.com
pretovarnih mostova za ugalj u termoelektranama, [20] SAP 2000v10, Computers and Structures, Inc.,
Magistarska teza, Mainski fakultet Beograd, 2004. University of Berkeley, 2006.
[13] GAI, V., ZRNI, N., OBRADOVI, A.,
MILOVANEVI, M., Revisiting the use of finite
element packages for moving load problem at bridge
cranes, International Conference-MHCL 09,
Belgrade, 2009, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
pp 71-74,
[14] ZRNI, N., Uticaj kretanja kolica na dinamiko CORRESPONDENCE
ponaanje obalskih kontejnerskih dizalica, doktorska
disertacija, Mainski fakultet Beograd, 2005
[15] ZRNI, N., BONJAK, S., HOFFMANN, K.: Vlada GAI, Ass. MSc.
Application of non-dimensional models in dynamic University of Belgrade
structural analysis of cranes under moving Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
concentrated load, Proc. 6th MATHMOD, Kraljice Marije 16
ARGESIM REPORT No. 35, edited by I. Troch and 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
F. Breitenecker, pp. 327-336, ARGESIM vgasic@mas.bg.ac.rs
Verlag/ASIM, Vienna, 2009
[16] ZRNI, N., HOFFMANN, K., BONJAK, S.: Milorad MILOVANEVI, Prof. DSc.
Modelling Of Dynamic Interaction between Structure University of Belgrade
and Trolley for Mega Container Cranes, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Kraljice Marije 16
Dynamical Systems, Vol. 15, No. 3, 295-311, 2009. 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
mmilovancevic@mas.bg.ac.rs
[17] ZRNI, N., PETKOVI, Z., BONJAK, S.:
Automation of Ship-To-Shore Container Cranes: A
Review of State-of-the-Art, FME Transactions, pp Zoran PETKOVI, Prof. DSc.
111-121, Vol. 33, No 3, 2005. University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
[18] ABDEL-RAHMAN, E. M., NAYFEH, A. H. AND Kraljice Marije 16
MASOUD, Z. N., 2003, Dynamics and control of 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
cranes: A review. Journal of Vibration and Control, zpetkovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
9(7), 863-909.

30
 between the supporting hydraulic cylinder and the fixed
end of the BWB hoisting system rope, Figs. 1, 2 and 3.

REDESIGN OF THE CONNECTING

EYE-PLATE OF THE BUCKET WHEEL
BOOM HOISTING SYSTEM
Fig. 1. BWE O&K SchRs 630
Sran BONJAK
Neboja GNJATOVI
Nenad ZRNI

Abstract: Bucket wheel boom (BWB) hoisting systems are

the vital parts of the bucket wheel excavators (BWE).
Failures of the mentioned systems are inevitably cause the
BWE collapse followed by a very huge financial loss. This
paper discusses the results of the investigation of the
stress states of the BWB hoisting system connecting eye-
plate. The redesign solution for the connecting eye-plate
reconstruction has been chosen based on the comparative
stress analysis of alternative solutions. The adopted
solution satisfies all design restrictions and strength
criterion. Besides that, the stress level is lower for 20 % Fig. 2. Scheme of the BWB hoisting system ropes
compared to the original connecting eye-plate design.
After installing the redesigned connecting eye-plates as Fixed ends of the BWB hoisting system ropes, Fig. 2
well as during the operation of the BWE no failures have (detail A), are supported by hydraulic cylinders. The rope
occurred. end eye and piston rod eye are connected by an
appropriate coupling, Figs. 3 and 4.
Keywords: bucket wheel boom, hoisting system, Due to geometrical modifications of the hydraulic
connecting eye-plate, FEM, redesign cylinder, it was necessary to enlarge the distance between
the holes ( 70 mm) on the connecting eye-plate
(measure d on Fig. 4) from d = 200 mm to d = 230 mm,
1. INTRODUCTION keeping in mind following restrictions:
Connecting eye-plate thickness (t = 30 mm) must stay
Continuous exploitation of bucket wheel excavators unchanged;
(BWE) and stacker-reclaimers in harsh working Maximal total length of the connecting eye-plate is 380
conditions lays ground for fatigue cracks occurrence. mm;
Their propagation in vital parts of the support structure Connecting eye-plate should be made of StE 420.
such as tie-rods (of the bucket wheel boom - BWB,
counterweight arm, portal) and their supports can lead to
catastrophic consequences [14].
The fundamental problems of any machine subsystems
redesign, therefore the BWE substructures as well, are
caused by the restrictions ensuing from installation
conditions and functionality [5,6]. Special difficulties in
the BWE redesign originate from the relative complexity
of the considered structures as well as the nature of
external loads [710]. And exactly because of that,
comparative stress strain analysis presents an
indispensable and inevitable part of the redesign process Fig. 3. Rope fixed end and hydraulic cylinder connection;
[11]. This paper presents the redesign of the coupling 1 hydraulic cylinder; 3 coupling

31
 3.2. FEM models
Finite element models of the alternative design solutions
were created on the basis of the proper 3D models, Fig. 6.
These models present the continuum discretized by the
tetrahedron elements [12], Fig. 7, Tab. 1.

(a) variant I (b) variant II

(c) variant III (d) variant IV

Fig. 4. Coupling assembly; Fig. 6. 3D models of the alternative design solutions

1 connecting eye-plate; 2 pin

2. DESIGN SOLUTIONS

Researches were conducted for four connecting eye-plate

design solutions, Fig 5. Variant I is the original design
solution. Connecting eye-plate thickness (t = 30 mm) is
the same for all considered alternatives.

Fig. 7. Tetrahedron type element

(a) variant I (b) variant II
Tab. 1. FE meshes data

Variant Number of nodes Number of elements

I 80725 371867
II 105690 491478
III 110684 513909
(c) variant III (d) variant IV IV 113374 526064

Fig. 5. Alternative design solutions

3. STRESS STATE IDENTIFICATION
3.1. External load
The maximal coupling tensile force is FHC = 194 kN. The
design solution of the coupling assembly enables equal
distribution of tensile force on each connecting eye-plate
0.5FHC.
Having in mind the case of the fit of the pin and eye-plate
hole (70H8/h6), the sinusoid function of the connecting
eye-plate load distribution (bearing load) was adopted,
Fig. 8.
3.3. Analysis of the FEM results
Stress fields, Fig. 9, present the values of the uniaxial
stresses obtained according to the Huber-Hencky-von
Mises hypothesis (stress values are given in Pa).

32

Fig. 8. Applyng of the external load
If the maximal value of uniaxial stress is taken as the
solution validation criteria, Tab. 2, it is conclusive that
variant IV presents the best solution, Tab. 3.
Tab. 2. Maximal von Misses stresses
Variant Maximal stress value in kN/cm2
I 14.8
II 12.2
III 12.0
IV 11.9
Tab. 3. Maximal relative stresses
Variant Relative stress
I 1.00
II 0.82
III 0.81
IV 0.80
4. CONCLUSION
According to code DIN 22261-2, the impact of the hole
on the connecting plate stress-state is taken into account
by the factorization of the analytically calculated stress
values. The application of FEM, which presents the
inevitable stage in the redesign of support structures vital
parts and mechanisms of the BWE, enables more precise
identification of the connecting eye-plate stress field. In
the presented case, the comparative stress analysis of the
alternative design solutions is done based on the finite
element analysis results. The adopted solution satisfies all
designing restrictions and strength criterion. Besides that,
the stress level is lower for 20 % in comparison to the
original connecting eye-plate design. After installing the
redesigned connecting eye-plates and during the operation
of the BWE no failures have occurred. That finally and
unquestionably verifies the results obtained in this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and
Technological Development of Serbia funded project TR
14052.
REFERENCES
[1] BONJAK, S., ZRNI, N., SIMONOVI, A.,
MOMILOVI, D., Failure analysis of the end eye
connection of the bucket wheel excavator portal tie-
rod support, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 16,
issue 3, pp. 740-750, 2009.
[2] RUSISKI, E., CZMOCHOWSKI, J., ILUK, A.,
KOWALCZYK, M., An analysis of the causes of a
BWE counterweight boom support fracture,
Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 17, issue 1, pp.
179-191, 2010.
[3] ARAUJO, L.S., DE ALMEIDA, L.H., BATISTA
E.M., Analysis of a bucket wheel stacker reclaimer
structural failure, Proceedings of the Conference
Materials Science & Technology 2009, Charles R.
Morin Memorial Symposium on Failure Analysis and
Prevention (Proceedings on CD), Pittsburgh, 2009.
[4] GHOSAL, S., MISRA, D., SAHA, T.K.,
CHAKRAVORTY, D., CHAUNDHURI, B., Failure
analysis of stacker cum reclaimer in ore handling
plant, Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention,
Vol. 8, issue 6, pp. 564-571, 2008.
[5] BONJAK, S., PETKOVI, Z., ZRNI, N., SIMI,
G., SIMONOVI, A., Cracks, repair and
reconstruction of bucket wheel excavator slewing
platform, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 16,
issue 5, pp. 1631-1642, 2009.
[6] BONJAK., S., PETKOVI, Z., ZRNI, N.,
PANTELI, M., OBRADOVI, A., Failure analysis
and redesign of the bucket wheel excavator two-
wheel bogie, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 17,
issue 2, pp. 473-485, 2010.
[7] BONJAK, S., ZRNI, N., PETKOVI, Z., Bucket
wheel excavators and trenchers computer added
calculation of loads caused by resistance to
excavation, Machine design (monograph edited by S.
Kuzmanovi), University of Novi Sad Faculty of
Technical Sciences, pp. 121128, Novi Sad, 2008.
[8] BONJAK, S., PETKOVI, Z., ZRNI, N.,
PETRI, S., Mathematical modeling of dynamic
processes of bucket wheel excavators, Proceedings 5th
MATHMOD, ARGESIM Verlag, pp. 41410,
Vienna, 2006.
[9] RAAZ, V., Assessment of the digging force and
optimum selection of the mechanical and operational
parameters of bucket wheel excavators for mining of
overburden, coal and partings, Krupp
Foerdertechnik, Essen, 1999.
[10] DURST, W., VOGT, W., Bucket Wheel Excavators,
Trans Tech Publications, 1989.
[11] BONJAK, S., PETKOVI, Z., ZRNI, N.,
DRAGOVI, B., GNJATOVI, N., Comparative
stress analysis the basis of efficient redesign of the
bucket wheel excavators substructures, Proceedings
of the 9th International conference Research and
development in mechanical industry RaDMI 2009,
SaTCIP, pp. 1525, Vrnjaka Banja, 2009.
[12] ZAMANI, N., CATIA V5 FEA Tutorials release 14,
University of Windsor, 2005.
33
 (a) variant I (b) variant II

(c) variant III (d) variant IV

Fig. 9. Stress states of alternative connecting plate solution

CORRESPONDENCE

Sran BONJAK, Prof. DSc.

University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11120 Belgrade, Serbia
sbosnjak@mas.bg.ac.rs

Neboja GNJATOVI, Assistant MSc. Nenad ZRNI, Assoc. Prof. DSc.

University of Belgrade University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16 Kraljice Marije 16
11120 Belgrade, Serbia 11120 Belgrade, Serbia
ngnjatovic@mas.bg.ac.rs nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs

34

AUTOMATION OF PREFABRICATED
REMOVABLE STRUCTURES
DESIGNING PROCEDURES
Jovan VLADI
Rastislav OSTAKOV
Radomir OKI
Dragan IVANI
Abstract: Having in mind a very broad spectrum of
machine technics production achievements, with a
supporting structure as a skeleton in a generalized sense,
tendency to design it as rational as possible concerning
its weight and manufacturing costs, becomes ever more
easily observable. Prefabricated removable structure
manufacturers try to satisfy very different and ever more
complex customers needs, i.e. manufacturing process
duration shortening, fast and simple mounting process,
easy structure relocation procedure and total costs
lowering before all. Depending on the intended object
function, aesthetic-architectural demands, etc, structure
design has to enable building of hall/shed constructions
in different forms and dimensions, using the unified
structure members with universal characteristics.
In aim to shorten the time for defining the kind and
quantity of prefabricated removable hall structure
members, as well as the total construction costs, the
paper outlines the created software which automatically
generates structure parts lists on the base of demand for
offer, as inevitable for supporting structure members
systematization and tender documentation issuing.
Key words: prefabricated industrial structures, computer
design, software
1. INTRODUCTION
Contemporary methods of industrial object structures
manufacturing all over the world contribute to developing
and adoption of different systems and types of pre-
fabricated industrial buildings. Expanded demands on
reliability, efficacy and environment protection result in
the improved characteristics of objects, especially:
 increased resistance to corrosion,
 significantly higher strength in comparison with
classical constructions,
This paper has derived from the project of the Chair for mechanical construction, transporting systems and logistics: Development, design and
optimization of systems and constructive elements of supporting structures prefabricated industrial halls.
 significantly lowered object inside temperature unlike
other objects of similar purpose, as very important for
saving the energy needed for ventilation systems,
 increased resistance to fire,
 increased resistance to atmospheric influences,
 obtained interior which can be easily built up,
 making the most of interior room, due to the absence
of any additional supporting pillars and elements,
 lower prices on the market in comparison with other
ways of building construction.
Another very important advantage of these objects is that
they can be easily built up using ''do it yourself''' system,
which is very important because it is not necessary to hire
highly qualified working personal.
In aim to shorten the period of defining the types and
required number of supporting, nodes and connecting
elements of prefabricated halls, as well as for determining
the total construction price, a computer program for offer
issuing and supporting structure elements classification
has been developed, with automatic generating the
production and delivery lists (assembly parts list). The
computer program is written in Microsoft Excel, because
it offers the possibility of generating the complex user
applications with active communication between the user
and the program (users activity guided programming).
Program input parameters beside basic hall geometrical
characteristics as height, width, and longitudinal pillar
distance, include also hall location and intended purpose,
etc. As output values, program generates data on type,
number and design characteristics of supporting, nodes
and connecting elements of considered prefabricated hall.
Apart from this, on the basis of input unit prices of
individual elements (that can be modified directly in
program) and production costs of required technical
documentation, the total prefabricated hall price can be
obtained, as essential for the fast offer issuing to the
potential customers.
In such way, in a very short period of time after defining
and issuing the project task, the data on the total hall
manufacturing costs and specification of individual
elements are obtained. For the actual order form data on
required hall structure elements are automated generated.
Such program also contributes to the customers easier
final decision making and hall choosing, because various
variant solutions in accordance with customers demands
and wishes concerning his actual needs, can be quickly
produced.
2. MODELING AND VERIFICATION OF
PREFABRICATED HALL ELEMENTS
Computer models of the prefabricated industrial halls are
created by using the software package CATIA, Fig. 1.
There are three basic groups of elements in metal
structures of prefabricated industrial halls:
 supporting elements (rolled members),
 joint steel elements and
 connecting elements.
The supporting elements represent the different steel
rolled members which form a spatial lattice structure.
They are connected in structure nodes by the joint steel
elements (panels), so the connections are realized using
connecting elements bolts [5].
35

Fig. 1. Model of the prefabricated industrial
hall, formed in CATIA
The computational models for calculating the supporting
elements loadings are created in software package
RASTA. The basic computational model is formed using
the next method: the nodes are located on places of the
connecting elements, in points where the supporting
rolled steel elements are connected. Accordingly, the
magnitudes of inner forces, stresses and deformations of
individual supporting elements are obtained, so loading
consideration of the connecting elements is avoided. The
computational model in KRASTA is given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Computational model of the prefabricated
industrial hall, formed in RASTA
As output data, KRASTA produces forces, stresses and
deformations of beams, and nodes spatial displacement.
In Fig. 3. the displacement of gabled roof nodes is shown.
Fig. 3. Graphic survey of nodes displacements
As a basis for analysis of the existing, and development of
the new supporting structures node elements, computer
models of prefabricated industrial halls are used, formed
in CATIA. Due to the complexity and a large number of
elements (supporting, joint and connecting), analysis of
36
the whole model could not be performed at once, so it has
to be divided into a larger number of smaller, partial
models. An individual partial model consists of one joint
element (connecting panel) and all matching supporting
and connecting elements (bolts). Connecting elements are
replaced in models with pins, diameters of pins equal to
bolt calculation diameters. On the external contact
surfaces pin heads are formed, with diameters equaling to
the inscribed diameters of corresponding bolt heads.
Accordingly, the formed partial models are imported into
the software package ANSYS WORKBENCH, and the
example in Fig. 4. illustrates this.
Fig. 4. Partial model of the prefabricated industrial
hall, formed in ANSYS WORKBENCH
Afterwards, in the mentioned software, contact surfaces,
loadings and constraints of supporting elements are
defined, which are previously obtained on models that are
formed and analyzed in software RASTA. On the basis
of the obtained results, joint elements are typified and
unified, according to their shape, dimensions and number
of members which are connected in the node.
Compilation of geometrical and calculation models
specified in this chapter represents the basis for forming
the computer program for offer issuing and supporting
elements systematization.
3. CREATING OF COMPUTER PROGRAM
FOR OFFER FORM ISSUING
Program for choice and calculation of elements of
contemporary industrial prefabricated structures has been
written on the basis of results obtained during the
realization of project Development, designing and
optimization of prefabricated hall supporting structure
systems and design elements, financed by the Ministry
of Science and Technological Development of Republic
of Serbia.
After choosing the individual hall structure elements
program calculates their masses, and afterwards the total
structure costs, as relevant for both the customer and the
manufacturer. Program is applicable for prefabricated
removable constructions with the next parameters:
 width: - 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 m,
 height: - 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7 m,
 longitudinal pillar distance: - 4, 5, 6 m,
 number of hall sections: - 2 15,
 velocity of hall loading wind - 19, 26, 35 m/s,
 type of wall facings (coverings, boardings) installation
(horizontal and vertical).
The program has been accomplished in such way that for
each chosen hall width, two pages (Sheets) in Excel are
formed. The first page contains the output data (Start
page) and the second page contains the data appearing in
the calculation of the hall elements (Data basis).
First, the elements are grouped into the tables, according
to their location in the hall structure, as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Lattice elements
Afterwards, the tables for these five element groups are
formed. The type of the rolled member is entered into the
first table column, the corresponding unit mass into the
second column. A table part describing the hall structure
pillar is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Table with pillar data
3.1. Defining the individual hall structure
elements
A classification of possible combinations number in
dependence on input data has been made. The obtained
solution shows about 90 possible combinations for the
hall of defined width. Afterwards, the parameters for each
possible combination have been entered into the particular
table. Appearance of such table is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Table for longitudinal pillar distance 4 m,
height 2.5 m, wind velocity 19 m/s
According to the hall manufacturer, the type of the rafter
cross-section depends above all on the longitudinal pillar
distance. For the hall structure, program takes into
account three various longitudinal pillar distances (4 m,
5 m, 6 m), as well as three types of rolled members. This
has been easily introduced into the calculation using the
logical function IF.
Two types of facing are defined in the program, i.e.
horizontal and vertical facing.
For vertical facing horizontal supports are installed. The
required number of supports over the pillar height is
calculated on the basis of recommended distance between
them of about 1,7 m. The type of support cross-section
depends on the height, longitudinal pillar distance and
loading wind velocity.
For horizontal facing, the horizontal support at the top and
one additional vertical support are installed. For pillar
height greater than 5 m, another horizontal support of wall
facing is installed.
In the next step number of nodes and connecting elements
and their individual and total masses are defined. The
manufacturer of prefabricated removable hall structures
obtained the data on connecting elements. The elements
have been divided into the elements of inner frame and
front and back facade (outer) frame.
As shown in Fig. 8, each table column is defined by a
certain simple function. So, for example, values in two
table cells in the upper table row have to be multiplied
in the cell containing the number of the plates and in the
cell containing the mass of the plate, in aim to obtain the
total mass of required number of connecting elements.
Fig. 8. Connecting elements
For calculating the number of connecting elements,
relevant parameters are the number of hall sections, as
well as the way of hall wall facing.
The number of sidelong stretching braces (Fig. 1.)
depends on the facing type, for vertical facing the number
of facing horizontal supports is relevant, as stretching
braces are installed between them. For horizontal facing
and height over 5 m, another horizontal support and a pair
of stretching braces are added.
Predefining of connecting plates, supporting, stretching
and connecting elements has been performed in aim to
form the hall price on the basis of needed steel mass.
For a start, elements are classified in a few groups on the
basis of production and mounting parameters, which
causes different price forming. The first table contains the
connecting elements and the second table sheet metal,
plates, stretching and other elements, and recommended
price parameters for elements and hall mounting.
After defining hall elements, each figure is transferred to
the Start page, so the Start page appearance can be
easily modified, Fig. 9.
37
 5. CONCLUSION
Usage of previously described software package
represents the perfect solution for small and middle-sized
companies, wishing to be competitive on the very
demanding today market. This software package
illustrates the advantages of automated calculation
performance, enabling the huge time savings and
unintended human errors avoiding. More advanced
program performing using Excel includes its integration
with Visual Basic, considerably expanding program
possibilities, as well as its integration with a drawing
software package.

Fig. 9. Start page REFERENCES

Start page in Fig. 9. consists of two formed tables,
where data on rolled members needed for inner and outer
frame are to be written in. Next to these two tables, a
figure with marked positions from the table and a key for
the table are given. In the next step, a table with data on
facing supports, rafters, outer frame rolled members and
connecting elements for the whole hall is given.
4. SOFTWARE USAGE PROCEDURE
The first thing a user has to do, is to choose the hall
width, Fig. 10. It is to be done using the so-called Sheet
at the Start page bottom.
[1] PETKOVI, Z., OSTRI, D., Metal Structures I,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade 1996,
[2] DOMAZET, Z., KRSTULOVI, L., Metal
Structures and Design, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, Split 2006,
[3] BABIN, N., BRKLJA, N., OSTAKOV, R., Metal
Structures, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad
2006,
[4] VLADI, J., IVANI, D., OKI, R., GAJI, A.,
Analysis and Choice of Prefabricated Industrial
Halls Elements, XIX International Conference
MHCL '09, Belgrade 2009, pp 257-260,
[5] VLADI, J., OKI, R., IVANI, D., GAJI, A.,
Prefabricated Industrial Halls s System f Objects
Structure in Agriculture, Journal "Agricultural
Technics", Vol. XXXIII, No. 4, 2008., pp 45-52,

CORRESPONDENCE

Jovan VLADI, PhD, Prof.

University of Novi Sad,
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
vladic@uns.ac.rs
Rastislav OSTAKOV,
PhD, Assist. Prof.
University of Novi Sad,
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
sostakov@uns.ac.rs
Radomir OKI, MSc
Fig. 10. Parameters to be chosen/specified University of Novi Sad,
Faculty of Technical Sciences
After choosing the hall width (16 m), program calls the Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
page shown in Fig. 10, which offers the next parameters 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
to be chosen/specified using the falling lists: longitudinal djokic@uns.ac.rs
pillar distance (first parameter in Fig. 10.), serviceable
height, hall loading wind velocity, type of facing and the
Dragan IVANI, MSc
number of hall sections. On the basis of these parameters
University of Novi Sad,
program defines the hall length. According to
Faculty of Technical Sciences
manufacturers recommendations, the roof slope of 7o and
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
snow loading for our region of 1 kN/m2 are adopted.
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Data calculated afterwards are given on the Start page
zivanic@uns.ac.rs
and can be seen in tables in previous chapter.

38
 of 7500 and 8000 kg. The two extraction cables, 46,5
mm diameters, and 8,049 kg/m specific weight, are
winded over the pairs of upper and lower winding pulleys,
Fig. 1, 5000 mm diameter and on the drive roll of the
5000 mm diameter winding engine. The pulley weight
is 12109 kg, in the tower, 51 m high, the axis of the upper
pulleys, ans 44 m, the axis of the lower pulleys, as to the
level of the shaft ramp. The two balancing cables have a
135x20 mm cross section and a 9,062 kg/m specific
weight.

SIZE VERIFICATION AND DESIGN

ANALYSIS OF PULLEY SHAFT AT
LONEA MINING PLANT
Iosif DUMITRESCU
Vilhelm ITU
Mihai Carmelo RIDZI

Abstract: Mining industry is still the only supplier of

mineral resources, both metals, coal and other useful
mineral substances. In order to secure the continuity of
the extraction process, winding installations, as main link
in the transportation flow of mined out mass, should
function in optimum and safe conditions. The paper refers
to size verification and design analysis of pulley shaft in
the winding installation with skip at Lonea Mining Plant,
which broke down in the year 2007, leading to blockage
of transportation flow.

Key words: pulley shaft; size verification; design analysis

1. INTRODUCTION

The utilization of coal for energy purposes is still in an

essential position in world economy, in spite of the
facilities provided by energy based on petroleum and
natural gas or nuclear or hydro energetic plants.
In order to secure the continuity of the extraction process,
it is important for the winding installations, as main link
in the transportation flow of mined out mass, to function
in optimum and safe conditions. Therefore it is required to
permanently monitor the behaviour of these installations
in view of improving the technical economical indicators
of reliability and exploitation.
Variation of demands is due both to cinematic and
dynamic parameters and geometric ones. Cinematic
parameters are in their turn influenced by extraction depth
and distance between levels, with repercussions on
maximum velocity and acceleration and retardation
periods.
The winding installation that goes with the skip shaft at
Lonea Mining Plant is intended to extract the
underground mineral substance, between level -247,35
and the skip discharge level +649,5 m, an 896,85 m route.
The extraction vessels are skip-cage type of 21620 kg
weight for a useful extraction vessel capacity in the range
Fig. 1. Extraction pulley platforms
2. SIZE VERIFICATION OF PULLEY SHAFT
The charges on the elements of the multi-cable winding
installation can be permanent and temporary. Permanent
charges are those due to the weight of the basic elements
of the system with extraction vessels without load
(extraction cables, cable connecting devices, tension
balancing devices in cables, extraction vessel, balancing
cables connecting devices, balancing cables).
Temporary charges are work charges(load of the
extraction vessel, dynamic starting and stopping forces),
random and emergency charges acting temporarily on the
winding installation, during the functioning of the
installation, of the tests and other revision and repair
operation of the winding installation.
The highest charges are the emergency ones that occur
when the extraction vessel is blocked, which moves
upwards the shaft. All the elements of the winding
installation are sized to safety coefficients higher than 8,
at material transportation, as well as permanent charges.

39
 Fig. 2 shows the pulley shaft, cross sectioning the
separation plane of the semi pulleys, where: 1 shaft; 2
fixed pulley; 3 mobile pulley; 4 pulley shaft support
bearings. The fixed pulley is positioned on the shaft
through a shoulder and a parallel wedge, and the mobile
pulley through a shoulder and two sliding bearings. Semi
pulleys are assembled through cantering wedges,
fastening screws and fastening rings. The mobile pulley
has the role of reducing tensions in the cable and wear of
the groove for the cable, due to different lengthening of
the two cables when winding and unwinding on and from
the drive roll of the winding engine.
The design shape and size of the shaft are given in Fig.
3.a and the mathematical model of loading the shaft in
Fig. 3.b. Each pulley is considered to rest on two planes
of the shaft, with a force concentrated on the middle of
the planes. Based on the mathematical model in Fig. 3.b, a
shaft size verification programme for three work situation
of the fixed pulley was devised. Fig. 4 shows the
variations of the (r=980 MPa) safety coefficient
compared to the break resistance of the shaft steel,
40Cr10, and the (c=780 MPa) flow limit in the 20
points on the shaft, for the three situations: I when the
fixed pulley rests on both planes(Fig. 4.a); II when the
fixed pulley rests only on the plane at the end of the
shaft(Fig. 4.b); III when the fixed pulley rests only on
the plane at the middle of the shaft(Fig. 4.c).
Fig. 2. The pulley shaft

Fig. 3. Shaft design size and mathematical load model

39
40
 Fig. 4. Variation model of the safety coefficient to the resistance to break and flow limit

Even with these values of the safety coefficient, at the verifications and breaking of the shaft in the area of the
beginning of the year 2007, the shaft broke down at point fixed pulley threshold, a design and technological analysis
6, shown in Fig. 5. It is noticed that the break was of the shaft was necessary.
initiated in the area of the wedge groove and was In the execution of the two parts of the support plane of
produced in time due to fatigue. the pulley, two level adjustment of the tool should be
made, these leading to size deviations of the two parts,
even when shape and position deviations didnt exist.
These size deviations lead to fixing the pulley on only one
side, its boring being made by only one pass, which
brings an additional bending moment to the shaft,
reducing the safety coefficient to fatigue even more, (less
than 0,95). The situation shown is confirmed by the use of
a copper foil on one of the sides, secured with a bracelet
against rejection.
Considering the above, the following design solution was
proposed for the shaft, shown in Fig. 6, where 1 mobile
pulley ring; 2 shaft; 3 wedge; 4 fixed pulley ring.
The proposed shaft has symmetrical head pins and one
central plane, allowing its easy and precise processing.
The mobile pulleys ring is tightened to the shaft and the
fixed pulley ring, positioned on the shaft by the two
wedges, is mounted loosely.
With the help of Cosmos Design Star software, an
analysis with finite elements for the two design solutions
Fig. 5. Shaft break was made, and the results are shown in Fig. 7. Case II was
analyzed, when the fixed pulley is fixed only on the outer
In the area of the fixed pulley, tension concentrators, due plane, it is noticed that the tension equivalent to the
to diameter leap(330 to 360) of a 2,5 mm radius and existing shaft is three times higher, due to the geometric
wedge groove, overlap. For the three possible cases of shape and of the tension concentrators.
mounting the pulley on the shaft, with the help of Gh.
Buzdugans formula, safety coefficients to fatigue shown 4. CONCLUSION
in Table 1 were determined.
The design solution proposed shows the following
1 advantages:
C = , (1)
2 2 2 - increase of the safety coefficient to fatigue to higher
k 1 k 2 a m
+ values, due to reducing tension concentrators in the area
01 c of the fixed pulley, only the wedge groove;
- economy of forged material of 262,6 kg(from 370 to 340
Table 1. Safety coefficients to fatigue diameter) of over 500 EURO;
- improvement of degree of use of material, increase from
Point on the shaft 79,7% to 89,7% ;
Pulley mounting
6 7 - improvement of technological conditions of processing;
- improvement of conditions of assembling of
Case I 1,37 1,18 fixed pulley.
Case II 1,061 1,066
Case III 1,22 0,95 REFERENCES

3. DESIGN ANALYSIS OF PULLEY SHAFT [1] Drghici, I., .a. (1982) Design guide for machine
building, vol. II, Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti.
Starting from the design solution of the pulley shaft at [2] Technical documentation for winding installation for
Lonea Mine shown in Fig 2, the results of size new shaft with skip at Petrila Mine

39
41
 Fig. 6. Modified pulley shaft at Lonea Mining Plant

Fig. 7. Analysis with finite elements of the two shafts, existing and proposed

[3] * * * - Research contract No 165 A.S.L./26.09.2008 Vilhelm ITU, Lecturer, Ph.D.

with C.N.H. Petroani. University of Petroani
[4] * * * - Solid Edge Software v.19, Academic license Department of Mechanics and
ADA Computers Bucureti. Machine Design
[5] . * * * - Cosmos Design Star Software v.4, License Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical
S.C. INICAD DESIGN S.R.L: Bucureti. Engineering
Petrosani, Romnia
CORRESPONDENCE drituv@yahoo.com

Iosif DUMITRESCU, Mihai Carmelo RIDZI,

Assoc.Prof., Eng.Ph.D., Assoc.Prof., Eng.Ph.D.,
University of Petroani University of Petroani
Department of Mechanics and Department of Mechanics and
Machine Design Machine Design
Petrosani, Romnia Petrosani, Romnia
iosif_dumi@yahoo.com ridzim@yahoo.com

39
42

FATIGUE ENDURANCE DIMENSIONING
BY STRAIN LIFE METHOD WITH A
NOVEL NOTCH COEFFICIENT
Ilkka PLLNEN
Heikki MARTIKKA
Abstract: The local strain or strain life method takes into
account the local strain and stress changes at notch but
not surface or fracture effects. It is considered as more
physically based than the stress life methods. The
materials are a low and a high strength steel. A planar
model is studied with elliptical, circular and rectangular
notch forms and no notch. A novel Neuber type notch
coefficient is developed. It is based on use elliptic elastic
factor. Then its applicability is extended into elastic
plastic range with the secant modulus method applied
along a tensile test curve described with Ramberg
Osgood model. The new notch factor is obtained for basic
soft steel and generalized for other steels. It is
incorporated in a strain life model by which fatigue lives
are obtained for various notches and prestrainings. The
method is being verified and FEM is used to obtain
elastic-plastic stress and strain notch factors and to
combine them to be the Neuber type factor for fatigue
estimation.
Key words: Strain life method, novel notch factor, steels
1. INTRODUCTION
In machine elements the end user desires sufficient
reliability of obtaining cost-effective performance. In
dynamically loaded structures the local geometric
discontinuities and notches are often obligatory to obtain
the desired performance of the component. But they are
undesirable causing fatigue. The basic fatigue design
procedures are considered in textbooks like by Norton [1]
and Dowling [2]. Local stress based methods consider
only stresses and not strains. Using the local strain or
strain life method both elastic plastic yielding effects
affecting fatigue life can be considered. Zahavi et.al [3]
describe a range of fatigue mechanisms. Crack growth is
not explicitly accounted for in the strain life method as by
Bannantine et al. [4]. Sandor and Bela [5] discuss the
derivation of strain life parameters. Blake [6] suggests
utility of secant method in estimating the effect of
yielding of notch effective factor. Doege [7] shows that
conventional models may overestimate the effect of
elastic notch factor. Elastic notches are discussed by
Inglis [8] and their effect on fatigue and fracture by
Juvinall et al. [9] and Anderson [10]. Accurate FEM [11]
modelling can give reliable stress strain information of
notch effects. These can be integrated into a fuzzy
optimum design methodology as discussed by Martikka et
al. [12-16]. The main purpose of this study is to present
results of a methodology based on Neubers ideas for
assessing the notch effect and the non-linear Ramberg
Osgood (RO) type material models.
2. REVIEW OF BACKGROUND THEORY
2.1. Stress concentration models
A common task of the designer is to design optimally
components with obligatory geometrical discontinuities,
which generate stress and strain concentrations causing
risks of shortened fatigue lives. The elastic and plastic
stress concentration factors can be roughly estimated
analytically and accurately calculated by FEM. A
common and versatile form for a notch is an ellipse.
2.1.1. Elliptic notch model for stress concentration rise
The elastic stress concentration factor for an ellipse is
combined with the secant model and then incorporated
to the RO material model. When nominal stress n acts
perpendicular to the major a -axis of an elliptic hole, a
stress concentration appears at the tip, Fig. 1.
a
max = n 1 + 2 = n K t
b (1)
b2 a b a
r , b = qr , = = q =
a b r r
Here a is major axis and b is minor axis. Now it is more
convenient to use the radius of curvature r at notch. Using
this elastic notch factor can be written as
a (2)
Kt = 1 + 2 = 1 + 2q
r
2.1.2. Secant modulus model for describing stress
concentration change due to plastic yielding
The notch factor model described by Blake [6] is based
on use of the secant modulus concept. Due to notch tip
plastic yielding the phenomenological secant modulus
decreases so that the effective Ke approaches unity
although the initial elastic Kt may have been large.
d
( ) E=
d
r
2b 2a
max Es =
S = n
a) b)
Fig. 1. Notched plate loading. a) Geometry and freebody
model. b) Principle of the secant method
Thus Ke is ratio of monotonic yield stress at a notched
part and nominal or yield stress at an unnotched part.
43
 E = notch root stress range
Ke = = 1 + s ( K t 1) = 1 + e( K t 1)
n E (3) = notch root strain range
K = notch stress concentration factor
1
Es a 2
e= Es = , K e = 1 + 2 e
E r K = notch strain concentration factor

2.1.3. Effective stress concentration factor as strength

ratio e S
The effective stress concentration factor Kf is in fact ratio
of unnotched to notched component fatigue strengths. A K 5
K Kt
general model is
Kf
K f " = 1 + q" ( K t 1)
p
(4) 1
1 Kt 5
If p = 1 then q = notch sensitivity. For hard materials q =
1, for medium hard materials q = 0.5 and for very soft or a) b)
insensitive materials q = 0. Model which fits to Doeges Fig. 2. a) The principle of strain life method,
[7] data has q= Rm(MPa)/1000, p = 0.3. The stress state b) Elastic notch factor vs. effective factor
is not considered in this model.
The choice of the appropriate notch factor is somewhat
2.2. Ramberg Osgood material model combined problematical.
to the secant modulus The Ke factor applies to monotonic testing and gives the
ratio of yield stresses at notch to and at unnotched part.
The secant modulus method is used in connection with But the Kf factor gives ratio of fatigue strength of an
the RO model. First the total strain is obtained with the unnotched specimen and an notched specimen at some Nf
RO model =1 million cycles.
n RO
n
1
These Kf models do not consider explicitly any plastic
= el+ pl , = + = + p (5)
yielding at notch. In monotonic loading slip bands and
E K E Rp extrusions and intrusions form and act as initial cracks.
Then a relative secant elastic modulus parameter e can be Surface effects and residual tensile stresses decrease
written using the RO model fatigue strength. These are incorporated to a common
factor C. In the present case of using a low strength steel
on may set C = Cs or the surface factor. For polished
1
(6)
e= E = E e= surface Cs = 1, for ground Cs = 0.9 and for cold drawn Cs

1 1
n'
E K n'
= 0.7. Phenomena at notch are illustrated in Fig. 3.
+ 1+
E K K K

Parameter e is expressed with dimensionless parameters n A

1 E (7)
e( z ) = 1
1
, k ep = , z = , z nom = nom r C B
1 + k ep z n' K K K D

Next this is inserted to the elliptic notch model. The

radius of curvature r = r(a,b) model is needed. The stress Fig. 3. Phenomena at notch, A = nominal- stress strain
ratio z can be solved iteratively. field, B = notch elastic zone, C = notch plastic zone crack
of length a and crack tip plasticity
a 1 z
K f,RO = 1 + 2 = (8)
r 1+ k z n
1
1 z nom Thus the simplified notch factor is obtained by logic
ep

2.3. Neubers rule and notch factor selection (

CK f, Neu = Cf K f,RO , S , S m CK f ) (10)
The effective stress concentration factor at a notch is by C 1 K f, Neu K f
Neubers rule a geometric mean of two factors [3]
2.4. Fatigue life estimation


K t, Neu = [ K K ]

K f,Neu = The energy density at notch L is by some constant factor
S e (9)
higher than at the location of nominal stress or
K f,RO K f, Neu
L = K f, Neu 2 12 S 12 e = 12 12 = L1
Here the assumption is made that the two notch factors (11)
S
can equated at the same location since they describe the S = Ee e =
same phenomena in a different way. The following E
notations are used Hookes law applies at nominal stress location. But after
S = nominal stress range yielding in unnotched part the relation becomes non-
e = nominal strain range linear. Energy density models are separately

44
 Table 1. Material data
[ 1
] 4L
2
L = K f,Neu 12 S , L1 = 12 12 = 1 (12)

E Material im=1 im=2 im=3,
Here is strain range at notch. The assumption is that property RQC-100 Ti-6Al-4V S235
the RO total strain model can be written using strain and E 206000 105000 206000
stress ranges. The notch energy density L1 can be R p 827 880 250 (input)
obtained by its definition and the RO material models by R m 863 950 360
multiplying strain amplitude by stress amplitude 1 to Z 0.5 0.36 0.7 (input)
2
A5 0.08 0.14 0.24
give the notch energy density
n 0.04 0.07 0.12
1 K 1010 950 535
1
1 1 n'
2
= 2 +2 12 (13) Strength coefficient K of the power law model and
E K ' relationship between nominal (e) and true (t) stresses is
en en
log() t = K t n = Rm t n K = Rm
nn nn (17)
Plastic Total n

Strain life strain life e = e t t
e = Rm e n t t
c
n
Elastic
Strain life Reduction in area Z is obtained often in material testing
strain
and fracture strain is calculated from it.
amplitude qq b
Sf 1
Z = 1 , f = ln , f '= f (18)
So 1 Z
103 106
Nf, fatigue life, 2 Nf =reversals to failure Here n is the power law exponent at a part without notch.
It is rarely estimated in material testing. Thus an
Fig. 3. Total strain vs. fatigue life approximate model is used to estimate it, Fig. 4 and Fig.5.
Lf
The density is A5 = 1 = Af , f = ln(1 + Af ) A5 n 0.5 A5 (19)
L0
1
( )
2
1
2
1 n ' For simplicity the power law model is used to describe
1
12 = L1 + 2 2
1
(14)
2 E approximately the relationship between the fracture strain
K '
and fracture stress. Some simplifying assumptions are
generally made:
The notch strain half range depends on plastic elastic  True fracture strain f and fatigue ductility coefficient
strains. They depend on the fatigue life and on the mean f can be equated
stress as shown in Fig.3. The following parameters are
 True fracture strength f may be approximated as
needed
fatigue strength exponent f
n log( K f ) 1
b= , qq = b , c= (15) f = K f n , f '= f , f '= f (20)
1 + 5n 6 1 + 5n qq f f
f ' = K ' f ' n' n' = K ' = (21)
f n' qq
The effect of mean stress on fatigue life is considered by c f c

Morrows procedure
2.6. The effect of work hardening on fatigue life
' m
[2 N f ] + f '[ 2 N f ]
bq q c
1
2
= f The work hardening strain is needed. It can be obtained
E (16) by inputting a stress which is above Rp. Then strain can
1 = 4 L1 be calculated from the RO model. The definition of the
2 , b = b( no. notch), q q = b( notch)
exponent is not fully clear.
nRO
Here qq is slope with notch and b is slope without notch. 1
= + p , p = 0.002 , nRO = (22)
E Rp n
2.5. Material data and parameters
Fatigue life depends on the true toughness which is
Material data are shown in Table 1. The following
plastic work per unit volume
properties are needed: E = Elastic modulus, Rp = Sy =
yield strength, Rm = Su =UTS tensile strength. Z = RA = f f
reduction in area, A5= elongation, K = strength f n +1
uf = B d t = K t d t = K n
(23)
coefficient. The steels are a high strength steel RQC-100 n +1
and a low strength steel of S235 type. 0 0

45
Now an assumption is made: The remaining Z available Using this value the final model is obtained
for maintaining fatigue endurance decreases linearly as
B +1 S max (26)
the plastic work reserve is exhausted. This simple model K f ( y ) = K max ( K max K min ) y , y=
By + 1 Rm
is not proven but it is reasonable since it satisfies the
boundary conditions This model has still one parameter B. It can be
determined using a reasonable chosen intermediate fit
u
Zremain = Z ( 0) 1 f1 Z ( s) = Z ( 0) 1 s n +1
uf
( ) (24)
point. One rational choice is at ratio of main strengths.
Re 250 3
y' = = , K f ( y ') = 3 = K max = sK max
s = t1 , Z ( s = 0) = Z ( 0) , Z ( s = 1) = Z (1) = 0 Rm 360 7 (27)
f (1 s y ') K max + y' K min
B=
2.7. Derivation of the model for new Neuber type y ' ( sK max K min )
notch factor
3. ANALYTICAL AND FEM ANALYSIS OF A
The principle of the derivation is shown schematically in NOTCHED PLATE IN TENSION
Fig.4 and Fig.5. The monotonic Kt,Neu ratio is not same as
Kf ratio of fatigue strength. The Kf by Doege model Analytical elastic notch factors models in Fig. 6 and FEM
,eqn(4) agrees on the average with the Neuber model.
[8] are used to estimate the plate model shown in Fig. 8.
(1) ( 0) One notch is a rectangular with sharp corners and the
K t,Neu = [ K K ] K =

= other is half circle. The load stress state is S =200, Sm
S ( 2) ( 0) (25)
=100. Results are shown in Fig. 7 and in Table 2. At
(1) ( 0)

sharp notch edge of rectangular whole the fatigue life is
K = = , K f,Neu = Kf
e ( 2) ( 0) S e smaller by 1/200 times the life at the half circle notch.

f cyclic 2b
( ) H/h=
40/30 5
Rmt= 406 ( ) Kt=
2.2
f 1 2 2a=6

monotonic Es =
Rp= r/h = 5/30 4
R m=
250
360 a) b)
1 2 Fig. 6. Analytical estimation of notch factors. a) Kt for a
p=p n A5= t symmetrically notched plate under tension by a
0.24
f f
0.12 nomograph for obtaining notch factor, b) Tensilely
a) = A5 b) loaded plate with a rectangular hole
Fig. 4. a) tensile test models, b) model illustrating
derivation of the novel Neuber model
100 S235 type steel
Rp=250, Rm = 360,E=206000
Tensile test nominal stress vs. true total strain Nominal load stresses
, elliptic 10-1 S=200 , Sm =100
notch ,max
400 400 half strain Kt= 5.34, elastic
,no notch range Kf,Neu= 2.83,
360 D7
nominal 340 10-2 elastic -plastic
300
stress 320 Nf = 8110
K,FEM21 250 K,FEM Kt = 2.82, elastic
Kf,Neu,FEM Kf,neu K Kf,Neu = 1.22,
200
10-3 elastic-plastic
Nf = 1,81 106
100
D350
K 0 10-4
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
total strain , elastic + true plastic strain 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Fatigue life Nf (cycles)
Neuber stress concentration at notch, anal KfNeu, KfNeu,FEM
Stress concentration at notch, anal. K , K,FEM
Strain concentration at notch, anal K , K,FEM Fig. 7. Fatigue life estimate based on the notch factor
obtained by FEM [8]
Fig. 5. A method for obtaining the Neuber factor from a
tensile test curve.Doege model,D7,Kf=1.6,D3:Kf=1.44 As shown in Table 2 the fatigue life is determined
and by non-linear FEM model for rectangular notch decisively by the Kf notch factor.

46
For the circular notch at the plate edge the nomographs A nonlinear FEM model was made with true stress - true
by [15] give Kt = 2.2. The value by FEM is Kt =2.82. strain models in Fig. 11.

Table 2. Fatigue life estimate based on the notch factor

obtained by FEM [8]
400,0.12 420,0.4
Nom. Nom. Elastic 250,0.00125 ,
Low strength steel S235
stress mean notch
Rp=250 , Rm=360 Z=0.55
range stress factor
S Sm Ktmax Nf, Fatigue Ktmax Fig. 11. A FEM model based on the model by [17], page
MPa MPa FEM cycles/106 analytic 90, and the tensile test curve model
100 1.2 2.18
200 circle 2.82 c 1.86 2.2 c First fully elastic loading is applied.
rect. 5.34 r 0.0081 5.75 r At the circular notch the elastic factor Kt = 2.42 by [17]
agree with Kt= 2.44 by FEM. At the corner of the
For the rectangular notch at plate edge the Inglis [8] rectangular notch the elastic notch factor is Kt = 3.2 by
model of an inner rectangle with rounded edges is used. [17] and by FEM Kt = K = 3.27 = K giving Kf,Neu,FEM =
Maximum value of stress concentration factor at 3.27 as shown in Fig.5.
x = a / r = 3 / 0.2 = 15 is 5.75 by the model Next a higher loading is applied which gives elastic
nominal stress 110 MPa and plastic yielding at notch. The
max 1 2( x + 1) (28) factors are K = 2.3, K = 4.98 giving Kf,Neu,FEM = 3.392.
Kt = = 2 x 1+ = 5.75
nom x 1 Next full plasticity at nominal region is obtained with

stress 258MPa just to exceed the yield stress 250 giving
Geometry of the FEM model is shown in Fig. 8. notch factors K = 1.08, K = 21 and giving
K f , Neu , FEM = [K K ] = [1.08 20] = 4.5 . Thus as shown in

4
Kt=5.34 Fig.5 the FEM based Neuber factor increases steadily but
the analytical Neuber factor decreases monotonically to
5 r=0.2 unity. It is based on the RO tensile tests curve.
H=40 h=30 The empirical Doege estimates agree roughly with it at
n the two Kt values. But its dependency on the nominal
stress magnitude is not included in the formula.
r= Kt =2.82
a = 100 4. RESULTS
Fig. 8. Geometry of the FEM model
4.1. Effect of work hardening on fatigue life of a
FEM model results are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. S235 type steel
Sharp notch is used with Ktmax = 7 and nominal stress
range S=50, nominal mean stress Sm = 250. The RO
model is used to obtain strain. It is assumed that fatiguing
exhausts the reserve of reduction of area Z.
Using an unworked state Rp=250, Z = 0.7gives a notch
factor Kf= 2.59 with fatigue life Nf = 0.610106.
Using a work hardened state Rp= 320>250 ,Z = 0.688<
0.7. Notch factor Kf= 4.25 gives Nf = 0.061106.
Fig. 9. FEM model showing two types of edge notches
S Low strength
stress Nf=0.2 0.55 steel of type S235
range Kt=3 Kt=3 Fatigue life Nf in
millions of cycle
200
Nf=0.0009 Nf=0.003 units
Kt=7 Kt=7
S = 2( S max S m ) = 200

Nf=9 Nf=5050
Kt=3 Kt=3
Fig. 10. Principal stress at the corner of the rectangular 50
notch in the elastic range Nf=0.015 Nf=0.61
Kt=7 Kt=7
0
Nominal stress is 5.25 MPa. The largest principal stress at 0 100 200 250
the sharp corner of the rectangular notch is 28. The elastic
Sm, mean stress (MPa)
stress concentration is Kt = 5.34 and Kf,Neu=2.83. At the
half circular notch the elastic stress concentration factor is
Kt = 2.82. and Kf,Neu = 1.22. Fig. 12. Results for a low strength steel

47
Thus work-hardening of a notched steel increases the
yield stress Rp and lowers Z thus reducing the fatigue life
by a factor 0.1. The results are shown in Fig. 12.
4.2. Effect of mean stress and peak stress on
fatigue life
The nominal peak stress is sum of mean stress and stress
amplitude or half stress range. The novel Neuber type
stress concentration factor decreases when peak stress is
increased along the work hardening tensile test curve. As
shown in Fig.12. Moderate increase of the mean stress at
constant stress amplitude increases the peak stress. The
model predicts that this increases the fatigue life of a soft
steel. But a combination of high stress range and high
notch factor reduces strongly the fatigue life.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn.
The proposed novel Neuber type notch coefficient is
reasonably accurate for use in a local strain or strain life
method to calculate fatigue lives of soft and hard steels
and also titanium.
Elastic elliptic notch from model is a realistic model to
get a purely elastic stress concentration. This can be
combined with the secant modulus and the Ramberg
Osgood tensile test material model. Then the Neubers
rule is applied to this result to give novel Neuber type
notch factor model.
In a case study two notch types are considered and two
steels. The specimen geometry is a plate with an elliptical,
circular and rectangular notches and no notch.
Analytical elastic estimates of notch factors agree with
FEM. The analytical elasto-plastic Neuber type notch
factor decreases monotonically from max value to a value
close to unity. The empirical Doege estimates agree with
it. But with work-hardening material models in FEM the
stress notch factor decreases as expected but the strain
notch factor increases so that the FEM Neuber factor also
increases up to yield stress. Program stopped at
significant plasticity in the nominal region. On suggestion
is that Neubers rule may give non-conservative
predictions in widely plastic regions.
The model is usefully to study how various combinations
of stress state notches and initial work hardening affect
the fatigue life. These results show that a reliable and
generalized notch factor model can be obtained with more
research and verification.
REFERENCES
[1] NORTON, R., L., Machine Design.An Integrated
Approach. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006
[2] DOWLING, N. E., Mechanical behavior of
materials, Prentice Hall, 1998.
[3] ZAHAVI, E., TORBILO, V., Fatiguedesign. Life
expectancy of Machine Parts, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, 1996
[4] BANNANTINE, J., COMER, J. J., HANDROCK, J.
L., Fundamentals of metal fatigue analysis, Prentice
Hall,1990
48
[5] SANDOR, BELA, I., Fundamentals of cyclic stress
and strain, The University of Wisconsin Press
[6] BLAKE, A., Practical stress analysis in engineering
design, Marcel Dekker, Inc, 1990
[7] DOEGE, E., Leichtbau durch Schmiedestucke, VDI-
Z,120, Nr.20 (II)
[8] INGLIS, C.,E., Trans.Inst.Naval Arch.55 ,1913
[9] JUVINALL, R., C. MARSHEK, K., M.,
Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1999
[10] ANDERSON, T., L., FractureMechanics.
Fundamentals and applications. Taylor & Francis,
2005
[11] NX Nastran FEM program
[12] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Comparison of
optimisation tools for design of welded beams,
Machine design fundamentals, The Monograph of
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia,
2008
[13] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Multi-objective
optimization by technical laws and heuristics,
Memetic Computing, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg,
ISSN 1865-9284 (Print) 1865-9292 Volume 1,
Number 3 / November, 2009, Short Technical Letter,
DOI 10.1007/s12293-009-0020-0, pp 229-238
[14] PLLNEN, I., MARTIKKA, H., Optimal re-
design of helical springs using fuzzy design and
FEM. Advances in Engineering Software 41, 2010,
pp 410-414
[15] MARTIKKA, H., PLLNEN, I., Design of
preloaded joints for optimal load bearing capacity.
Machine Design 2009. The Monograph of Faculty of
Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad,
ADEKO, 2009, ISSN 1821-1259, pp.261-266
[16] TAITOKARI, E., MARTIKKA, H., Dynamics
design of vesses of fibre reinforced plastic with steel
shafts for fluid mixing. Machine Design 2009. The
Monograph of Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, ADEKO, 2009, ISSN 1821-
1259, pp.21-26
[17] PILKEY, W. D., Petersons stress concentration
factors, 1997, John Wiley & Sons
CORRESPONDENCE
Ilkka PLLNEN
General Manager,MSc.(Tech.)
SAV Engineering
Savonkatu 21
45100 Kouvola, Finland
ilkka.pollanen@sav.fi
Heikki. MARTIKKA,
Prof.Emeritus , D.Sc.(Tech.)
CEO, Chief Engineer
Himtech Oy ,Ollintie 4
FIN-54100 Joutseno, Finland
heikki.martikka@pp.inet.fi

OPTIMIZATION OF CONTAINER QUAY
CRANE LIFE TIME BASED ON
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Goran BOJANIC
Nebojsa RALEVIC
Milosav GEORGIJEVIC
Abstract: This paper presents an innovative concept for
optimization of metal construction cross section in
container quay cranes. Using simulation models in
software packages ADAMS and KRASTA produced the
data for calculation of fatigue damage, or determination
of life time. Calculation of fatigue damage for all
elements was performed based on the standards EN
13001-1 and EN 13001-2. Fatigue damage was
calculated for different container masses to be operated
by the crane in determined work cycles and this was
subsequently presented with Newtons polynomial
interpolation, followed by the proposed optimization of
cross sections.
Key words: container crane, fatigue, numerical analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Papers [1,7,9,10] demonstrate calculations of life time for
complex mechanical systems. However, for certain types
of machines there are still no conventional optimization
methods. This paper proposes an optimization method for
metal construction of container quay crane based on
numerical analysis (i.e. analysis of polynomial
interpolation). The new optimization approach analyzes
inclination and position of curves that represent fatigue
damage of elements in the construction by comparison of
Newtons interpolation polynomials.
The paper gives the following results:
 Fatigue of crane elements,
 Changes of cross section of the element that has,
based on analysis (in the demonstrated example),
shown a necessity for a change (beam 136),
 Impact of changing the cross section of the element
(beam136) to other elements in the construction.
Simulation models of container quay cranes were created
using software ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of
Mechanical Systems) and KRASTA (KRAn-STAtik).
Software application ADAMS allows monitoring of the
dynamics (velocity, acceleration, force...) of the system,
while KRASTA enables observation of stress,
deformations, movements, etc. Fatigue damage in the
construction depends on the change of stresses.
Calculation of life time is based on a calculation of the
fatigue damage in the construction.
Following an introduction, the second section discusses
fatigue damage, standards and hypothesis. The third
section presents the system description, while the fourth
section demonstrates the proposed optimization of
element cross sections with obtained results. The fifth
section analyzes a three-parameter optimization, while the
sixth section gives concluding remarks.
2. DESCRIPTION OF FATIGUE DAMAGE,
STANDARDS AND HYPHOTHESIS
Every dynamically loaded metal construction needs to
satisfy among other criteria also verification of fatigue
damage. Verification of fatigue damage assures that no
failure appears during variable loading of the metal
construction within a certain period of time, or useful life
time. Analysis of stresses in the construction and their
transformation in the form most appropriate for
calculation of fatigue damage is of the highest importance
for the verification. When normal and shear stresses are in
the same phase, it is possible to apply one of the already
confirmed hypothesis about equivalent stress for ductile
materials, e.g. shear stress hypothesis (SH) or distortion
energy hypothesis (DEH) based on which it is possible to
proceed with the calculations of fatigue damage. If
normal and shear tensions are not phased, another method
of calculating equivalent tension is applied. One of the
hypotheses established and possible to apply in this
situation is EESH (Hypothesis of effective equivalent
stress). Papers [9,10,11] show validity of the hypothesis
EESH for situations when normal and shear stresses are
not in the same phase. In case of variable amplitude or
mean stress it is not possible to obtain data about useful
life time directly, but it is necessary to use one of the
hypothesis about accumulation of damage e.g. hypothesis
Palmgren Miner, relative hypothesis Palmgren Miner,
hypothesis Gnilke, hypothesis Corten Dolan, hypothesis
Haibach... None of the existing hypothesis is universal
and produces results with absolute certainty, but instead
with lesser or higher probability.
This paper conducted a calculation of fatigue damage for
container quay crane intended for operation in the river
terminal. European standards EN 13001-1 and EN13001-
2 (CEN/TC147/WG2 Crane safety general design) are a
method for theoretical evaluation of cranes and it
introduces a direct link between user and designer as well
as designer and manufacturer of components [2,3]. The
method of collecting and processing data necessary for
calculation of fatigue damage in this paper was executed
based on this standard (for material S355JO) as well as on
the basis of simulation models. For classification
purposes the load effect (stress) history parameter s can
be calculated, based on a one-parameter presentation of
stress histories during the useful life of the crane it is
defined by:
49
s = k (1) 3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

m Figure 1 depicts the quay crane intended for operation in a

( R m ) ni ( R m )
k = a ,i (2) river terminal. The designed crane has nominal capacity
i a ( R m ) n of 40t.Technical parameters of the crane are:
Span: 25 m
= n / N D (3) Outreach on both sides: 27, 5 m
Lifting height: 25m
Where: Approximate weight: 290 t
- is relative total number of stress cycles
The crane can move with velocity of 2m/s, trolley on the
k - is the stress spectrum factor crane 2m/s, while the velocity of lifting of a container 0,5
a ,i ( R m ) - is the stress amplitude of range i for m/s for full container and 1m/s for an empty container.
constant stress ratio or constant mean stress Analysis of the frequencies of loads is of crucial
a ( R m ) - is the maximum stress amplitude for importance for defining useful life expectancy of
container quay cranes. Figure 1. shows determined
constant stress ratio or constant mean stress proportion of work cycles for a crane intended for
ni ( R m ) - is the number of stress cycles with stress operation in the river terminal of the port Dunav in
amplitude of range i Pancevo (Serbia).
n = ni ( R m ) - is the total number of stress cycles
i
during the useful life of the crane
N D = 2 106 - is number of cycles at endurance limit
m = 3 - is the inverse slope of a / N -curve of the
component under consideration

Using traditional Palmgren Miner rule:

ni
D = N
i
i
i
(4)
i Fig. 1. Percent cycle distribution

where D is the sum of fatigue damage and equation

i For determination of the frequencies of loads, the
i following distribution of the cycles was accepted, as in
of Whler curve: figure 1:
m m
10% of the cycle: farther-closer barge
n
N i = aD N D Di = i ai (5)
23% of the cycle: closer barge-middle of main girder
ai i i N D aD 38% of the cycle: closer barge-container yard
29% of the cycle: middle of beam carrier container yard
m
n n ai a
Di = i Note:
i i n N D a aD It needs to be indicated that this distribution of cycles is
only one example that matches the designed crane in the
m port Dunav in Pancevo, based on the expected

Di = a k (6)
operation and simulation models in the software package
i aD ED7 (Enterprise Dynamics 7) that analyzes material
flows.
In case when the value of the fatigue damage sum is equal
For determining frequencies of loads it was necessary to
to D
i
i = 1 the part failure occurs.
determine also the loads crane would work with during its
More on the simulation models of container quay cranes useful life. For the purpose of calculation it was accepted
can be found in papers [1, 4, 5, 6]. Further on is analyzed that the largest container weights 40t and it is not standard
optimization of element cross sections in metal yet, but expected in the future. Calculation was conducted
constructions applicable for any complex metal also for the currently largest container weighting 30t, as
construction, including the metal construction of the well as containers of 20t, 15t and 10t. It should be noted
container quay crane. that the spreader weights 10t.

50
4. PROPOSED OPTIMIZATION OF Table 2. Dependency of life time on the container mass
ELEMENT CROSS SECTIONS (20 and 10t)handled by the crane(cycle distribution fig. 1)

Following the performed calculations of fatigue damage, 20t+10t =30t 10t+10t = 20t
it is possible to show dependency of useful life time on
the container mass handled by the crane in case of 1,003*106 1,282*106
determined work cycles (shown in figure 1). The paper Beam 136
work cycles work cycles
demonstrates the potentially most stressed elements in
different cycles. Because of the restricted space the 0,777*106 1,086*106
Beam 83
proposed optimization will be shown only for these 7 work cycles work cycles
elements (see [5]).
0,866*106 1,152*106
Beam 75
work cycles work cycles
0,883*106 1,052*106
Beam 34
work cycles work cycles
0,913*106 1,091*106
Beam 33
work cycles work cycles
0,843*106 0,99*106
Beam 221
work cycles work cycles
0,827*106 0,97*106
Beam 35
work cycles work cycles

Fig. 2. The most endangered elements in the construction

Table 1. Dependency of element life time on the container

mass (40t,30t and 15t) handled by the crane (cycle
distribution fig. 1)
Future Presence Average
40t+10t = 30t+10t 15t+10t = Fig. 3. Diagram of dependency of life time on container
50t =40t 25t mass handled by the crane (distribution fig. 1)
Beam 0,704*106 0,851*106 1,184*106
136 work cycles work cycles work cycles When every element in the metal construction is
Beam 0,542*106 0,652*106 0,927*106 presented as dependence of life and container mass
83 work cycles work cycles work cycles handled by the crane in determined work cycles (figure
Beam 0,495*106 0,651*106 1,008*106 1), then with sufficient number of points it would be
75 work cycles work cycles work cycles possible to determine the curve inclination of all
elements, i.e. every function could be represented through
Beam 0,530*106 0,626*106 0,883*106 interpolation polynomial.
34 work cycles work cycles work cycles
Beam 0,543*106 0,643*106 0,913*106 In case every curve would be presented as Netwons
33 work cycles work cycles work cycles interpolation polynomial, based on [8] it would be:
Beam 0,606*106 0,715*106 0,846*106
221 work cycles work cycles work cycles pn ( x ) = f (x0 ) + ( x x0 ) [x0 , x1 ; f ] +
Beam 0,516*10 6
0,603*10 6
0,828*10 6
+ (x x0 ) ( x x1 ) [x0 , x1 , x2 ; f ] + .... (7)
+ (x x0 ) ... ( x xn 1 ) [x0 , x1 ,..., xn ; f ]
35 work cycles work cycles work cycles

Besides fatigue calculation for container masses of 40, 30

and 15t, the calculation was performed also for masses of
20 and 10t, in order to determine as many as possible
points based on which interpolation polynomials could be
generated with higher precision.
Presented equation is Netwons interpolation polynomial
[ ]
of n -th degree, where x0 , x1 ,..., xn ; f is distributed
difference of n-th degree. (See defining of the Netwons
interpolation polynomial in [8])

51
When the function describing fatigue of every element is Table 3. Dependency of element life time on the container
represented with interpolation polynomial, tendency of mass (40t,30t and 15t) handled by the crane (cycle
every element under different loads can be observed. distribution fig. 1) after the change
Curve inclination describing fatigue damage presents a
Future Presence Average
basis that can be subject of optimization.
40t+10t = 30t+10t =40t 15t+10t =
50t 25t
To perform optimization, interpolation polynomials of all
elements need to be analyzed (based on (7)). Elements in 1,071*106
Beam 0,709*106 0,831*106
the construction that will not be analyzed in this paper work
136 work cycles work cycles
have curves belonging to the right side of the diagram. cycles
Curves presented with interpolation polynomials should 0,883*106
be overlapping as much as possible. The presented Beam 0,528*106 0,648*106
work
example with 7 elements, beam 136 (figure 3- blue 83 work cycles work cycles
cycles
colour) is located highest on the right and hence it is
oversized. 0,997*106
Beam 0,485*106 0,638*106
work
75 work cycles work cycles
cycles
0,899*106
Beam 0,473*106 0,612*106
work
34 work cycles work cycles
cycles
0,897*106
Beam 0,488*106 0,620*106
work
33 work cycles work cycles
cycles
0,907*106
Beam 0,608*106 0,712*106
work
221 work cycles work cycles
cycles
0,896*106
Beam 0,492*106 0,624*106
work
35 work cycles work cycles
cycles

Table 4. Dependency of life time on the container mass

(20 and 10t) handled by the crane (cycle distribution
fig. 1) after the change

20t+10t =30t 10t+10t = 20t

0,991*106 1,178*106
Beam 136
work cycles work cycles

0,796*106 0,982*106
Beam 83
work cycles work cycles

0,857*106 1,134*106
Fig. 4. Cross section of beam 136 a.) before the change Beam 75
work cycles work cycles
b.) after the change

It can be observed that for the beam 136 the outside wall 0,786*106 1,029*106
Beam 34
has been changed, from 15mm to 12mm (which is the work cycles work cycles
first next standard cross section).

After changing of the cross section of the element 136 and 0,797*106 1,026*106
Beam 33
performed calculation, a change in the curve inclination work cycles work cycles
can be observed, as shown in figure 5. Results in this case
are presented in table 3. 0,832*106 0,972*106
Beam 221
work cycles work cycles
Note: It should be noticed that the change of the cross
section does not solve optimization problem of all cross
sections, or this particular cross section completely, but it 0,800*106 1,020*106
is only the beginning of the optimization that should be Beam 35
work cycles work cycles
conducted in the presented direction.

52
 5. THREE-PARAMETER OPTIMIZATION

So far the paper analyzed the case where the distribution

of the work cycle is known (figure 1) and in this case
fatigue of each crane element was presented with a curve
in a plane. If as the third coordinate was accepted k
(stress spectrum factor) see equation (2), then fatigue of
each element would be represented through a surface in
ni ( R m )
space. In equation (2) the part is a direct
n
link with the determined cycle distribution shown in
Fig. 5. Diagram of dependency of life time on container m

mass handled by the crane (cycle distribution fig. 1) -

a ,i ( R m )
figure 1, while is a link with the load
before and after the change a ( R m )
(or container mass). If we would observe separately e.g.
Figure 5 shows that change of cross section of the element 20t or 50t these would be all surfaces in space, but if we
136 influences to a lesser extent also the fatigue damage also included a percentage value of the container then the
of other elements. Demonstrated example shows that the appropriate surface would be between the drawn ones.
curve (beam 136) describing the fatigue damage has
shifted to the left. Savings in the material gained in this
example is approximately 1,3t.
Empty circles mark the curves prior to optimization,
while the full ones mark them after optimization. For the
beam 136 the curve after optimization has been marked
with squares. The goal of reducing and increasing cross
sections is to obtain the curves as close/similar as
possible, i.e. that the same fatigue damage occurs in all
elements. In other words, all curves should point towards
some ideal curve. The way to obtain an ideal curve is first
to discard the ones too far on the left or right, and then to
derive an average curve for the rest, one all other curves
should subsequently point towards.
n

x1, j + x2, j + x3, j + ... + xn , j

xi , j
x curve
j = = i =1
(8)
n n
j = 1,2,...m Fig. 6. Surfaces for different container masses
Under the condition that the sum xi , j summarizes
Surfaces of all elements should be as close as possible.
only xij of the curves not too far on the left or right. Figure 7 shows surfaces for three different elements (e.g.
for beam x, beam y, beam z). More successful
x curve
j marks points belonging to the ideal curve. optimization shows smaller differentiation between the
surfaces.
It should be defined how much the greatest difference
between two curves should be, in order to define the term
too far on the left or right. The conclusion is that the
greatest difference cannot be smaller than the error of
interpolation polynomial (7). This can be represented with
an expression in the case of Newtons interpolation
polynomial see [8] :

> n +1 (x ) [x0 , x1 ,..., xn xn +1; f ] (9)

Where marks the greatest difference between the

curves describing the fatigue damage of elements in the
metal construction. The greatest value is not
determined, but the goal should be the least value
possible, because in that case the construction will be
compact and better designed the optimization will be
more successful. Fig. 7. Surfaces for different elements in the construction

53
If in each element we find critical points and connect
them, then this curve in space represents interpretation of
the crane. This curve changes for a different percent rate
of the cycle and different container mass. Collection of all
of these curves represents a mathematical description of
the crane range.
6. CONCLUSION
Fatigue damage in complex constructions has not been
defined completely so far, even though there are some
hypothesis that under certain conditions product
satisfactory results. Problem analyzed in the paper
proposes an optimization of metal constructions that have
been dynamically loaded and where it is necessary to
conduct calculation of the fatigue damage. The proposed
method was demonstrated in example of the container
quay crane intended for operation in the river terminal.
Container quay cranes are large machines that are usually
oversized, while based on of the proposed calculation it is
possible to save on the material, i.e. it is possible to create
cranes which cost less while preserving the same security
against fatigue damage. It is emphasized that the paper
depicts the method related to the metal structure of the
container quay crane, although the method is also
applicable for any other complex metal structure.
Universal application of the presented method gives
greater value to the proposed optimization. Further work
will be conducted in effort to define three-parameter
optimization and closer definition of the frequencies of
load.
REFERENCES
[1] BOJANIC, G., BOJANIC V., GEORGIJEVIC M.,
Calculation of constructions in relation to fatigue in
early phase of designing simulation models(aspect CORRESPONDENCE
of testing and verification models), Second
International Conference on Material and Component
Performance under Variable Amplitude Loading,
March 23-26,2009 Darmstadt, Germany pp.595-604
[2] EN 13001-1, Crane safety General design, Part 1:
General principles and requirements
[3] EN 13001-2, Crane safety General design, Part 2:
Load actions
[4] GEORGIJEVIC, M., Using Simulation in Material
Flow Processes and Machine Design, Simulation
News Europe, July (2002) No. 34, pp. 18-19
[5] GEORGIJEVIC, M., BOJANIC, G., BOJANIC, V.,
Application of simulations in fatigue calculations
during different designing stages, 3rd International
Conference on Power Transmissions, October 1st and
2nd, 2009 Kallithea, Greece. pp. 327-332
[6] GEORGIJEVIC, M., BOJANIC, V., BOJANIC G.,
Possibilities and advantages of computer simulations
during design processes, Proceedings of the 5th
International Symposium about forming and design
in mechanical engineering KOD 2008, Novi Sad 15-
16 April 2008, pp. 43-48
54
[7] LENGL, E., TEUTSCH, R., KRUMENAKER T.,
NOWOTTNY, D., SPRAVE, J., Optimization based
on parameterized cad models with respect to
variable amplitude fatigue simulation requirements,
Second International Conference on Material and
Component Performance under Variable Amplitude
Loading, March 23-26,2009 Darmstadt, Germany
pp.605-613.
[8] RALEVIC, N., MEDIC, S., Matematika I (II deo),
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical
Sciences, Novi Sad 2002
[9] SONSINO, C.M., Multiaxial fatigue of welded joints
under in-phase and out-of-phase local strains and
stresses, International Journal of Fatigue, Volume
17, Issue 1, January 1995, pp. 55-70
[10] SONSINO, C.M., Fatigue testing under variable
amplitude loading, International Journal of Fatigue,
29(2007) No.6, pp.1080-1089
[11] SONSINO, C.M., KRUEPPERS, M.; EIBL , M.;
ZHANG, G., Fatigue strength of laser beam welded
thin steel structures under multiaxial loading,
International Journal of Fatigue, 28 (2006) No. 5-6,
pp. 657-662
Goran BOJANIC, M.Sc.Eng.
University of Novi sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
gbojanic@uns.ac.rs
Nebojsa RALEVIC, Assoc. Prof. Ph.D.
University of Novi sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
nralevic@uns.ac.rs
Milosav GEORGIJEVIC, Prof. Ph.D.Eng.
University of Novi sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
georgije@uns.ac.rs
 r r
centre position ( a ii , bij ) in which transmission levers are
connected to members of mechanism kinematical pair.
Driving part of mechanism is formed of: hydro-cylinder of
double way action, driving member Cij of mechanism
transmission part and relatively fixed member Lj of
mechanism kinematical pair. Members of driving part are
connected in a way to form four-member plane mechanism
with single translation-sliding articulation and three rotary
articulations. Driving part of mechanism is determinated by
parameters of hydro-cylinder: inicial cip and final cik
kinematical length and piston diameter di1 and piston rod di2
r r
and also by vectors of articulation centre position ( a i , b j ) in
which hydro-cylinder is connected to members of mechanism
MECHANISM SYNTHESIS OF kinematical pair.
MANIPULATOR OF MOBILE By developed procedure of synthesis, parameters of
MACHINES1) mechanism members contained in valve group are
determinated:
Dragoslav JANOEVI
Nikola PETROVI { r r r r
eip = d i 1 , d i 2 ,cip ,cik , ai ,bi , aij ,bij ,ci ,cij } (1)
Vesna NIKOLI
During synthesis, parameters of mechanism functions and
parameters of hydrostatic system of mechanism,
Abstract: Actuating mechanism synthesis optimal solving contained in valve group, are given:
of actuators parameters, transmission levers lengths and
joints coordinates in which the actuator and transmission Pip = { qin , M oinw ,ti , p } (2)
levers are connected to the members of manipulator
kinematic chain. In synthesis the start is the prescribed where: qin = {qi1, qi2, qi3} is subgroup of angles
rang of move, needed actuating swing torque and determinated by: initial qi1 (fig.2) and final qi3 position,
available pressure of the hydraulic system. and by position qi2 in extent of motion of relatively mova-
ble member of mechanism, M oinw = { M oiw1 , M oiw 2 , M oiw3 }
- subgroup of the strongest moments of mechanism stress,
1. INTRODUCTION determinated, for both ways of action, in given
mechanism position, ti - duration time of mechanism
Manipulator mechanisms of mobile machines are motion extent, p = {pr, pb, po} - value subgroup of
performed in the shape of plane lever configuration with operating pr and blocking pb pressure, and pressure po in
hydro-cylinder connected, directly or indirectly, to reversing pipe of mechanism hydrostatic system.
members of kinematical pair of mechanism. General
model of mechanism is consisted of transmission and
2. SYNTHESIS OF MECHANISM
driving part (fig.1).
Transmission part of mechanism is composed of relatively TRANSMISSION PART
fixed Lj and movably Li members of mechanism kinematical
pair Lj - Li, and of driving Cij and transmission lever Cii. Analitic procedure based on general Freudenstein`s
Members of mechanism transmission part are connected in a method [1] of articulated quadrangle construction is
way to form plane articulation quadrangle. Transmission part defined in purpose of synthesis of manipulator
of mechanism is determinated by kinematical lengths of mechanism transmission part.
transmission lever Cij, Cii and by vectors of articulation
Kinematical lengths of particular members of articulated
II s I quadrangle of mechanism transmission part are
determinated on the basis of three given position in
Cij (fig.2) of mechanism driving member and corresponding
Cii xi
c&i ,c&&i , Fci Li given position in of mechanism executive member with
di2 dc the help of equation
di1 ci dq
) p,Q i bij
bi qci aii = eio si ; bij = ei1aii ; cij = ;
c aii qi ei 2 (3)
bii cii = ( aii2 + bij2 + cij2 2ei 3 aii cij )1 / 2
Oi -ij xj
Lj
q&ci ,q&&ci , M ci q&i ,q&&i , M ci where: eio is selected constructing relation of attached aii
and recognized kinematical length si of mechanism
Fig. 1. General model of manipulator mechanism executive member:
1)
Paper done within the research project Development of the Model and Technologies of Logistics of the Communal Waste Transport from the
Program of Technological Development, No. 14068, financed by the Ministry of Science ofthe Republic of Serbia.

55
 u1 u2 mechanism driving member, necessary stroke, initial and final
ei 1 = , ei 2 = , length of hydro-cylinder is found:
u3 u3
xi
ei 3 = cos( i1 i1 ) + ei 2 cos i1 ei1 cos i1
n=1
in = ( q in + ii ij ) n = 1,2 ,3 (4) ii
Li
cii
where: cij
u1 = (cos i 1 cos i 2 )[cos( i 1 i 1 ) cos( i 3 i 3 )] i1 qi1
(cos i 1 cos i 3 )[cos( i 1 i 1 ) cos( i 2 i 2 )]
aii
ij Mci1 i1
u 2 = (cos i 1 cos i 2 )[cos( i 1 i 1 ) cos( i 3 i 3 )]
(cos i 1 cos i 3 )[cos( i 1 i 1 ) cos( i 2 i 2 )] bij Moi1
xj
) Lj Oi
u3 = (cos i 1 cos i 3 )(cos i 1 cos i 2 )
(cos i 1 cos i 2 )(cos i 1 cos i 3 )

Condition coordinates of driving member of mechanism cii xi

cij i2 ii
transmission part (q ci , q& ci , M ci ) are determinated in
i2
dependence of condition coordinates of mechanism n=2
executive member (qi , q& i , M i ) with the assistance of i2
Mci2 si
equation (fig.1): i2
ij aii Li
qi2
qci = c + ij , xj
bi
aii sin( s q ) Oi
q&ci = q&i , (5) b)
Lj Moi2
cij sin( s c )
cij sin ( s c ) i3
M ci = M oi
(
aii sin s q ).
ci3
cij
3. SYNTHESIS OF MECHANISM DRIVING ij
PART i3
bi cii xj
For purpose of synthesis of manipulator mechanism Oi
driving part, analitic procedure [2] based on graphic Lj
procedure shown in paper [3] is defined. c)
oi3
Analitical procedure of synthesis of mechanism driving aii
part, at first place, on the basis of mechanism stress qi3
moments M cinw , and by selection of piston diameter value ii
and piston rod selected from data bank Dij of standard Li
hydro-cylinders defines needed sides rin of hydro-cylinder
action in relation to centre line of articulation of
n=3 xi
mechanism kinematical pair, for the purposes of three
given position (fig.3a): Fig. 2. Position of mechanism transmission part at
synthesis
w
k h M cin
oi
nci {( pi1 Ai1 pi 2 Ai 2 ) Fti } chi = kc ri sin( ) , cip = chi + cci ; cik = chi + cip , (7)
rin = max w
(6) 2
n = 1,2 ,3 M cin 0 , pi1 = po , pi 2 = pr
w
M cin 0 , pi1 = pr , pi 2 = po And therefore there are determinations related to allowed

speed of piston stroke and hydro-cylinder flexible stability:
where: nci - is number of mechanism hydro-cylinders, kh-
F
is coefficient of hydraulic stability of driving mechanism, c&i c&di , cd ci , (8)
Ai1, Ai2, pi1, pi2 - are working surfaces and pressures on pb Ai1
cylinder sides and hydro-cylinder piston rod, Fti hydro- Where: kc is coefficient of hydro-cylinder stroke, cci
cylinder friction force. construction length of hydro-cylinder, di, Fcd, ci -
According the longest side ri = max (ri1, ri2, ri3) of hydro- allowed speed of motion, allow force of buckling and
cylinder action and given motion extent oi = qcn1 - qcn3 of coefficient of hydro-cylinder flexible stability.

56
Attached lengths ai and bi which define hydro-cylinder and Coordinates of the part of closed curve line which satisfy
mechanism connection, are determinated from the following unequation (9e), define possible attached lengths bi on
system of equations and unequations (fig.3b): relatively fixed mechanism member:
a) ( x ai )2 + y 2 = cip2 ,
bi = ( xi2 + y i2 )1 / 2 (11)
2 2
b) ( x ai cos oi ) + ( y ai sin oi ) = cik2 ,
c) y = ki x (9) Equation (9c) presents straight line which goes through
coordinate beginning O an articulations center in which
cik + cip cik cip
d) ai , e) y 0 hydrocylinder is connected to relatively fixed member of
oi oi mechanism kinematical pair. Straight line is determinated
2 sin( ) 2 sin( )
2 2 by direction coefficient:
Given equations and unequations are defined in
k i = tg ( pi ) (12)
coordinate system Oxy. Coordinate beginning of the
system O is placed in centre of articulation of mechanism
kinematical pair. Attached length ai of movable member Angle pi that makes dependent coefficient of straight line
in borer initial position is agreed with Ox center line, and direction (9c) is derived from the condition of equality of
in final position with identical centre line creates angle of attached length bi on relatively fixed member of
motion extant oi. mechanism kinematical pair, for initial and final position
Equations (9a) and (9b) present equation of circles Kp, Kk of mechanism (fig.3a):
with radiuses identical with initial cip and final cip length
cip ri1 c ri 3
of cylinder. Circles centers present member in initial and bi = = ik
final position of mechanism. By changing attached length ai sin pi ai sin( oi + pi )
ai of mechanism, in extent of given unequation (9d), there (13)
cik ri 3 1
is appearance of section points of circle which create pi = arc ctg ( ctg oi )
closed curve line Zi determinated by coordinates: cip ri1 sin oi

m m cik2 cip2 Equation of straight line (9c), as it is shown by its

xi = , yi = direction coefficient, expresses, besides kinematical and
( 1 cos oi ) sin oi 2ai sin oi
mechanical condition for mechanism in final positions
( 1 cos oi )( c ik2 c ip2 ) + 2 a i2 sin oi realize necessary driving moments at identical pressure of
m= (10)
4 ai hydrostatical drive.
By changing equation (9c) in equations (9a and 9b)

{4a ( 1 cos )[c

2
i oi
2
ik ]
+ cip2 ( 1 cosoi )ai2 ( cik2 cip2 )2 }
1/ 2
square equations are appeared:
4 ai
Closed curve line presents Zi geometric place of possible x 2 ( 1 + k i2 ) 2 ai x + ai2 cip2 = 0
centers of articulations in which hydro-cylinder is
( 1 + ki2 )x 2 2ai (cosoi + ki sinoi )x + ai2 cik2 = 0 , (14)
connected to relatively fixed mechanism members.

n=3

cik n=2 Kk
Li Li
oi aik
Ai

oi
Bi
ai
ri3
cik
ci ai
Moin>0 x
aip Oi
Oi cip
Moin<0 n=1
bi Zi
cip Kp
ri1 ri2 pi
Bi
) Lj b) Bi
y
Fig. 3. Synthesis of mechanism driving part: a) position of mechanism driving part at synthesis;
b) determination of coordinate connection of hydrocylinder to mechanism driving part
57
 y y

cik
io io

i ip cik

bi1 Oi cip x ai2 x

ai1 cip
bi2

Zi Zi

Fig. 4. Variants of mechanism solution

From which, by further procedure, possible solutions of [3] JANOEVI D.: Projektovanje mobilnih maina,
attached length on mechanism movable member is given: Mainski fakultet Univerziteta u Niu, 2006.
[4] JANOSEVIC D., JEVTIC V.: Metodes for the
1/ 2
c ik2 c ip2 (cos oi + k i sin oi ) u 4 optimal hydraulic transmission system sythesis of
a i 1 ,2 = , (15) working equipment of a hydraulic excavator
2( 1 cos oi k i sin oi ) equipped with digging bucket, Facta Universitatis,
where: series Mechanical engineering Vol 1, No1, University
of Nis, 1994.
[ ]2
u4 = cik2 cip2 (cosoi + ki sinoi ) ( 1 + ki2 )( cik2 cip2 )2
[5] .: O

, 2004, ,
By changing of calculated possible value of attached lengths , 2004.
ai1,2 on mechanism movable member in equations (10), [6] . :
coordinates (xi1,2, yi1,2) of section points of closed curve line Zi , 14
and straight line (9c) are appeared (fig.4). Section points , .1-2/2003, .
coordinates (xi1,2, yi1,2), according equation (11), determinate
possible values of attached lengths bi1,2 on relatively fixed
mechanism member. As a result of synthesis, we have, for the
identical hydro-cylinder (fig. 4), two mechanism solutions: ai1
> bi1 and ai2 < bi2, with the same transmission functions. CORRESPONDENCE

4. CONCLUSION Dragoslav JANOEVI, prof. dr

University of Ni
In this paper is given analytical procedure for synthesis of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
transmission mechanism in the shape of plane cranked Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
quadrilateral which actuator is two-way effect hydro- 18000 Ni, Serbia
cylinder. In synthesis is associated range of movements janos@masfak.ni.ac.rs
and moments of the load for the initial, final, and among Nikola PETROVI, asistent
position of the mechanism, and also folder with hydro- University of Ni
cylinder standard sizes. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
18000 Ni, Serbia
petrovic.nikola@masfak.ni.ac.rs
REFERENCE: Vesna NIKOLI
[1] HAMILTON H., Fred O., Mechanisms and dinamics University of Ni
of machinery, New York,1957. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
[2] JANOSEVIC D., Optimalna sineza pogonskih meha- Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
nizama hidraulickih bagera, disertacija, Masinski 18000 Ni, Serbia
fakultet Univerziteta u Nisu, Nis,1997. ansev83@yahoo.com

58

DESIGN, SIMULATION AND TEST OF
MOBILE HEAVY-DUTY STRUCTURES
Dragan MARINKOVI
Zoran MARINKOVI
Abstract: Mobile heavy-duty structures, such as truck
mounted cranes or concrete boom pumps, need to
withstand very high loads, endure hard use and wear
during work, possess high efficiency, high mobility and
adaptability to complicated working sites, etc. Obviously,
their design has to meet many requirements. Choice of an
adequate material is only one segment of the task. Highly
efficient composite materials allow for tailoring the
material properties and thus designing on the material
level. Furthermore, an FEM simulation is in the very
heart of the structure layout. And finally, although
simulations make possible huge savings in testing, tests
are still an inevitability that provides an ultimate
confirmation of the suitability of the structural design.
This paper addresses the aspects of design, simulation
and tests of those structures, whereby mobile concrete
boom pumps are chosen as a representative example of
the considered group of structures.
Keywords: heavy-duty structures, FEM, simulation, test
1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile heavy-duty structures, such as truck mounted
cranes, concrete boom pumps, telescopic bulk material
conveyors, etc. belong to the essential items of equipment
for building industry, mining and tunnel construction and
many other major industrial projects. They have to meet
very rigorous demands related to both their work, as well
as their transport with the aim of reaching the working
site. They are characterized by high static and dynamic
alternating loads, so that their design has to account for
fatigue. Contact with quite abrasive materials leads to
excessive wear. High efficiency and safety are practically
a standard demand from any machine. One of somewhat
specific requirements from the considered structures is
adaptability to complicated working site conditions. In
order to illustrate this demand, Figure 1 shows some
configurations of concrete distributor masts during
operation in order to perform concreting over obstacles or
concrete distributing on floors with limited clearance.
Today modern large scale mobile equipment of this kind
may reach even more than 60 meters. However, the
operators of these machines do expect sustained further
increase in performance for the future. On the other hand,
another very serious limitation to be considered is the axle
load permitted on the roads by legal rules, because the
machines such as concrete boom pumps have to drive on
to get to the working sites. This means that their overall
weight has to be kept within certain limits.
Fig. 1. Some configurations of concrete distributor masts
in operation
Getting increased boom length under these contradicting
demands requires optimal lightweight construction.
Though the use of high-alloy steels brought some
potential for the boom design, further substantial weight
reduction is required as a pre-requisite for larger boom
structures. Novel materials with very high stiffness to
weight ratio are needed to deliver the properties that suit
the design requirements. Fiber reinforced laminated
composites are excellent candidates for the task. This type
of material together with complex geometry of the
structures requires FEM based simulations in order to
assess properties and behavior of the structures even
before the final product is available [1]. Nevertheless,
tests are in many occasions still an inevitability not only
to confirm suitability of the design but also as a part of
health-monitoring process [2].
2. FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE
LAMINATES AND MODELING
REQUIREMENTS
The status of the state-of-the-art structural material over
the last couple of decades deservedly belongs to fiber-
reinforced composite laminates. They render a group of
the lightest, strongest, stiffest and corrosion-most resistant
structural materials available [3].
Quite generally speaking, composite materials are formed
by combining two or more already existing materials with
different properties. The aim is to form a material with
unique new properties, which are actually a combination
of advantageous properties of the constituents. In the case
of fiber-reinforced composites, the reinforcements are in
the form of thin fibers (carbon, glass, aramid, etc.) placed
in a matrix. The fibers may be of different length and
shape, but quite commonly they are long and unidirectional.
59

Fig. 2. Fiber-reinforced composite laminate with
unidirectional layers
The most common architecture of fiberreinforced
composite materials is a laminate, which consists of a
number of layers with different orientations of fibers and
certain sequence (Fig. 2).
The greatest advantage of composite materials is their
high strength and stiffness to weight ratio. Furthermore,
by choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, their proportion and orientation of
reinforcement, thickness of layers, etc., manufacturers can
produce properties that exactly fit the requirements for a
particular structure and a particular purpose. The
anisotropy in the material can be systematically utilised
for local stiffness optimisation. In this manner, the design
process begins already on the material level.
Effective modeling and simulation of thin-walled
structures made of fiber-reinforced laminates are driven
by the recognition that the nature of their general behavior
allows the condensation of the complex 3D-field to the
essential ingredients of the structural response described
by a 2D approach [4]. Two major first-order theories are
used: the Kirchhoff-Love and the Mindlin-Reissner
theory. Without going into details of the theories, it can be
said that the essential difference between the two is in
consideration of transverse shear stresses. Modern finite
element software packages offer rich element libraries
and, thus, the engineers are typically provided with
appropriate choice of elements implementing one of the
two theories and sometimes even some theories of higher
order. This reduces significantly the effort required for the
modeling process and improves the efficiency of the
model. The appropriate choice is a matter of engineering
judgment.
Though the 2D approach is sufficient to give global
behavior of thin-walled structures made of composite
laminates, a detailed assessment of local stress and strain
states requires the full 3D approach. The 3D approach is
also needed when fractures and delaminations are
investigated.
Besides complex homogenized material models, the use
of composite laminates in many cases also demands to
include geometrically non-linear effects. This is mainly
the consequence of significant flexibility of thin-walled
structures, thus resulting in finite local rotations, though
the strains remain within the limits of material linearity
[5]. This requires to account for the change in structural
configuration during deformation. Furthermore,
composite laminates may also require coupling of
different physical phenomena into the numerical
simulations. Depending on the type of composite, their
properties can be rather susceptible to environmental
changes such as temperature and humidity.
60
3. FEM SIMULATION
FEA is a numerical approximation that is used to solve
engineering problems over an arbitrary domain, described
by governing equations of the considered physical
processes, boundary conditions and, when dealt with
transient problems, initial conditions. A finite element
model is a discrete representation of the continuous,
physical domain that is being analyzed. This discrete
representation is created using nodes and elements. Nodes
are connected together to form elements. The nodes are
the discrete points on the physical domain where the
analysis predicts the response of the part due to applied
excitations. The response is primarily defined in terms of
nodal degrees of freedom (DOF), but also a number of
other quantities are calculated within the domain of the
element, based on the nodal DOF of the element nodes.
In the field of structural analysis, FEA is used to solve a
wide range of static and dynamic, linear and nonlinear
problems. Some commercial software packages allow to
perform simulations as a series of analysis steps, whereby
each step may be a different type of analysis. The
advantage of this feature is that the initial structural
configuration and initial stress state within the upcoming
step may correspond to the end configuration and stress
state of the previous simulation step. This provides the
possibility to suitably perform simulations of relatively
complex processes involving several different phases and
to investigate properties of the structures that may change
throughout deformations (e.g. the change of eigenmodes
and eigenfrequencies).
FEM simulations are supposed to reduce the overall
manufacturing costs by providing the possibility to reach
the suitable design much faster and with less need for
testing. While the aerospace industry within the
framework of enormous total product costs and high
prestigious applications can better cope with high
manufacturing costs, other industries are more subjected
to actualities of the situation, which calls for alternatives
to intensive testing. This is particularly valid in a situation
where composite laminates are applied as a structural
material. A great number of possible material
combinations and layer sequences render testing of all
possible solutions prohibitively expensive.
A couple of examples of FEM simulations, followed by
corresponding tests, are described in the sequel of the
paper.
3.1. FEM simulations of an arm assembly of a
mobile concrete boom pump
The aim of this section is to exemplify the aspects of
FEM simulations for the investigated type of structures.
In order to do that an arm assembly of a mobile concrete
boom pump is considered.
The question that arose regarding the design of the arm
was whether it was advantageous to introduce in the
design a stiffener in the form of internal thin-walled
cylinder, with the aim of achieving higher stiffness
against torsion. The dotted line in Fig. 3 shows the area of
the arm where the stiffener is introduced. This figure also
gives the surface CAD model of the arm.

Fig. 3. Surface CAD model of the arm of concrete boom pump
The surface model is discretized with quadratic shell
finite elements. Different element sizes are used, thus
producing different FE-models, ranging from 20 000 and
up to 100 000 elements. Fig. 4 depicts one of the
discretized models.
Fig. 4. Shell FE model of the arm
The models are used to simulate the behavior of the arm
under working conditions. Such an analysis demonstrates
that the area of the structure around the stiffener might be
jeopardized by relatively high stresses induced in certain
cases of working loads. In order to perform a more
detailed analysis, a model is prepared with a very fine
mesh in the area of interest. Modern FEA software
packages also allow for such FEM models with nodes
lying on the edges of adjacent elements. The solution is
obtained by means of penalty method forcing those nodes
to retain their local natural coordinates on the adjacent
element edges. This makes possible to refine models in
certain areas and to improve significantly the solution in
those areas with minimal additional modeling and
numerical efforts, Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Shell FE model with finer mesh in the critical segment
Finally, the overall model is once again refined by
reconsidering the critical segment as a full 3D
(volumetric) model. The features of the modern FEA
software packages contribute again to comfortable and
not-too-expensive adjustment of the model. Namely, an
option for suitable surface-to-volume coupling is provided
and also realized through penalty method. Hence, it is
enough to remodel the investigated segment as a
volumetric model (Fig. 6) and to define appropriate
couplings to the rest of the structure given as a surface
model. The volumetric segment of the model alone is
discretized with more than 130 000 quadratic hexahedral
finite elements, thus providing quite detailed insight into
the strain and stress states within the segment of the
structure. The insight confirmed that relatively large von-
Mises stresses are induced in the segment under
considered working loads.
Fig. 6. 3D CAD and corresponding FE model of the
critical segment
This gives rise to further investigation about the proposed
design and especially about the role of the proposed
stiffener. The stiffener is in further step excluded from the
design. A simple comparison between the results with and
without the stiffener illustrates the effect that causes
relatively high stresses. Since the introduced thin-walled
cylinder provides additional stiffness, the vertical walls of
the booms cross section undergo significant deformation,
which can be described as double bending (Fig. 7a). This
double bending runs over relatively small length and
therefore causes high bending stresses. Once the stiffener
is excluded from the design, the deformed cross section of
the boom profile has different form and the stresses are
significantly reduced (Fig. 7b). The check on overall
torsional deformation of the arm shows negligible
changes, thus proving that the stiffener does not affect
noticeably the arms torsional behavior. The conclusion
yields that the design without the internal stiffener is
advantageous compared to the design with this part
included.
a)
b)
Fig. 7. Deformed cross section of the boom:
a) with the internal stiffener, b) without the stiffener
61
3.2. FEM modal analysis of an arm segment
made of composite laminate
The next FEM simulation represents a modal analysis of
an arm segment (Fig. 8) which is made of a composite
laminate. The laminate consists of 62 layers and has an
overall thickness of 1.65 cm, with the total length of the
arm segment of approximately 1.6 m. Actually, each layer
is made of the same fiber-reinforced material with long
unidirectional fibers, but the orientation of fibers, as well
as the thickness of layers differs from layer to layer. It
was necessary to introduce three local coordinate systems
in order to define the sequence of layers in three different
areas of the carbon fiber composite (CFC) arm segment.
The areas are distinguishable on the right-hand side of
Fig. 8, where the discretized model with approximately
1000 quadratic shell finite elements is depicted.
Fig. 8. Arm segment made of composite laminate
Besides the geometry and material properties, for modal
analysis it is also necessary to include in the model all
attached masses, since the eigenmodes and
eigenfrequencies are significantly affected by them. As
can be seen in the middle of Fig. 8, there are metal
bearings placed at the holes. Their mass is included in the
model as distributed mass around the holes. As for the
boundary conditions, the edge of the upper hole is
considered to be clamped, since this corresponds to the
boundary conditions applied in the test.
Only the description of the considered segment of the
structure and the developed model is given here. The
results of the modal analysis are given in the next section,
which also contains test results and direct comparison
between the two.
4. TESTS AND COMPARISON BETWEEN
TEST AND SIMULATION RESULTS
As already stated, regardless of the highly developed
simulation tools, tests are still in many areas of
engineering an inevitability. They provide the ultimate
confirmation of the suitability of the developed structural
design. Tests are also used as a part of structural health-
monitoring, in order to perform checks on possible
damages and, if a damage is present, to locate it and
perform its characterization.
Tests corresponding to both of the above considered
numerical simulations are done. Following the same
pattern as for simulations, the results are given in the
following subsections.
62
4.1. Tests on the arm assembly of mobile
concrete boom pump
FSince the simulation has pointed out the critical area
considering the magnitude of induced stresses and the
structure has already been manufactured according to the
proposed design that includes the internal stiffener, it was
decided to perform tests in order to assess the behavior of
the structure and the strain and stress states induced by
characteristic working loads (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. The complete structure of concrete boom pump in
test environment
One-side strain gauges are used for the measurements.
This type of strain-gauge can measure tensile strain or
bending strain by simply bonding the gauge to one side of
a plate, as it is shown in Fig. 10. The dimensions of the
applied gauge inside the backing are 32.9 mm and the
resistance is 350 .
Fig. 10. One-side strain gauges bonded to the arm
The tests confirmed high magnitude of strains and stresses.
Furthermore, a damage occurred during tests in the area
depicted in Fig. 10a. This is exactly the same area where
critical stresses are predicted by simulation (Fig. 10b).
Hence, the numerical simulation by means of FEM predicts
very accurately where critical stresses would occur under
working loads, thus pointing out the weakness of the
design. Based on the deformed shape one may intuitively
conclude that the reason for the high stresses is the
stiffening effect provided by the internal cylinder. The
simulations of the structural behavior under the same loads
and with the stiffener excluded from the design resulted in
acceptable and, therefore, more favorable stress states.
a)
b)
Fig. 10. a) Damage in the structure during test and
b) critical stresses predicted by simulation
4.2. Experimental modal analysis of the CFC
arm and comparison with numerical results
An experimental modal analysis of the investigated
composite web structure is performed with a state-of-the-
art laser scanning vibrometer (Polytech). Although this
device facilitates the extraction of modal data, its usage
brings a few additional problems for further processing.
The scanning-software defines its own mesh of
measurement points over the real structure. For
processing and comparing the measured and analytical
modal data, the measurement points should be ideally
coincident with nodal points within the FE model, which
is in practice not always easy to achieve. Furthermore, the
number of scanning points is limited. Figure 11a depicts
the real test object with the generated scanning mesh (as
generated and taken by the scanning vibrometer). In
comparison, Figure 11b shows the FE model, with its
much finer mesh, whereby the marked points depict the
FE mesh nodes that closely match the measurement
points. For determination of those FE nodes originally
developed software is used.
a) b)
Fig. 11. CFC arm: a) real structure with scanning mesh
b) FEM model with matched scan points
The measured modal data and those from FE analysis
show good agreement, although some differences are
notable. This is expectable due to idealizations which are
included in the computational FE model. The real boom
web does not have exactly constant thickness over the
length and it was laminated by hand. Furthermore, as
already stated, the metal bearings are only tackled as
secondary components in the FE model. Finally, on the
upper bearing the structure is fixed during testing, but this
is definitely not an ideal clamp of the structure, as
considered by the FEM-model.
Figure 12 shows the second (top) and third (bottom)
measured and calculated eigenmode, with two-coloured
representation chosen to clearly depict the nodal lines of
the modes (lines with zero amplitude). The allocation of
the measured and computed modes is done by Modal
Assurance Criterion (MAC) analysis, which compares
calculated ith mode, ci, with experimentally determined
jth mode, ej (Table 1):
MAC ij =
( T
ci ej )
2
( T
ci )(
ci ejT ej ) (1)
Despite the idealizations implemented in the model, one
may notice high values of MACs for the considered
frequency range. Not for all of the modes calculated by
numerical simulation corresponding experimental modes
are determined. This is attributed to the position of the
shaker during the experiment. Later analysis revealed that
the shaker position was quite close to the nodal lines of
the experimentally undetected modes. Obviously, those
modes could not be excited by the shaker.
Fig. 12. Choice of eigenmodes experimental(left)
and simulation results (right)
63
Table 1. Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) comparison between measured and calculated modes
Measurement
E-Mode1 E-Mode2 E-Mode3 E-Mode4 E-Mode5 E-Mode6 E-Mode7
MACs f=7.9 Hz f=35 Hz f=97 Hz f=182.9 Hz f=213.1 Hz f=266.9 Hz f=310.3 Hz
A-Mode1
0.997 0.159 0.207 0.019 0.013 0.002 0.023
f=7.25 Hz
A-Mode2
0.191 0.98998 0.045 0.219 0.042 0.015 0.034
f=35.5Hz
A-Mode3
0.058 0.034 0.689 0.009 0.08 0.279 0.006
f=68.7Hz
FEM calculation

A-Mode4
0.18 0.05 0.947 0.008 0.092 0.152 0.045
f=91.9Hz
A-Mode5
0.076 0.001 0.0036 0.005 0.0095 0.241 0.046
f=94.3Hz
A-Mode6
0.016 0.25 0.051 0.951 0.023 0.135 0.037
f=174.3Hz
A-Mode7
0.014 0.0003 0.17 0.0029 0.8999 0.192 0.174
f=217.5Hz
A-Mode8
0.024 0.0001 0.053 0.0032 0.085 0.834 0.0035
f=295.9Hz
A-Mode9
0.008 0.0087 0.066 0.0047 0.098 0.119 0.765
f=323.4Hz

5. CONCLUSIONS [3] MARINKOVI, D., MARINKOVI, Z.: Active

Heavy-duty operations performed by the considered
machines and their carrying structures make their design
quite a responsible task. The paper tackles the aspects of
simulation and experimental testing of large heavy-duty
carrying structures. It demonstrates that simulation based
on FEM models can be successfully performed, resulting
in quite reliable and accurate results. Tests are quite
expensive, in certain cases even prohibitively expensive,
but are also an inevitability that provides the ultimate
check on suitability of the structural design and developed
models.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is financially supported by the Ministry of
Science and Technological Development of Republic of
Serbia, Project Nr. 14068. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
Composite Laminates a Step Forward in Structural
Design and Performance, in Kuzmnovi S. (Ed.)
MACHINE DESIGN - monograph, University of
Novi Sad Faculty of Tehnical Sciences, ADEKO,
Novi Sad, pp. 115 120, 2008.
[4] MARINKOVI, D.: A New Finite Composite Shell
Element for Piezoelectric Active Structures, PhD
Dissertation, Otto-von-Guericke Universitt
Magdeburg, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 20:
Rechneruntersttzte Verfahren, Nr. 406, Dsseldorf,
2007.
[5] MARINKOVI, D., KPPE, H., GABBERT, U.:
Degenerated Shell Element for Geometrically
Nonlinear Analysis of Thin-Walled Piezoelectric
Active Structures, Smart Materials and Structures,
Vol. 17, 015030, 2008.
CORRESPONDENCE

Dragan MARINKOVI, D.SC.

REFERENCES Assistant Professor,
University of Ni
[1] MARINKOVI, D., KPPE, H., GABBERT, U.:
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Virtual Design and Simulation of Advanced
St. A. Medvedeva 14., Ni, Serbia,
Lightweight Structures, 8th Magdeburg Days of
gagimarinkovic@yahoo.com
Mechanical Engineering & 7th MAHREG innovation
forum, Magdeburg, October 2007., Proceedings, Editors
- Kasper, Roland et al., pp. 138-144, 2007. Zoran MARINKOVI, D.SC.
[2] ZEHN, M., MARINKOVI, D., LWIS, P. v.: Full Professor,
Experimental and Analytical Modal Analysis of University of Ni
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composite Structures, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Proceedings of International conference on Noise and St. A. Medvedeva 14., Ni, Serbia,
Vibration Engineering - ISMA 2009, Leuven, zoranm@masfak.ni.ac.rs
Belgium, 2009.

64
 In Figure 1 one can see that in urban traffic conditions
only about 21% of energy supplied with fuel is
transformed into mechanical work, from which it is
supplied to the powertrain (19%) and the auxiliary
systems (2%). Thus, the mechanical power consumed in
the auxiliary machinery drive is approximately 10% of the
total mechanical power generated by the combustion
engine.

Table 1.
Name Power
Wiper 300 W
ABS pump 600 W
IMPROVING THERMAL BALANCE IN CPU 3200 W
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Electric seats 1600 W
USING THE TURBOGENERATOR
Active suspension 12000 W
Sawomir DZIUBASKI Power assisted steering 1800 W
Jerzy JANTOS

In modern constructions auxiliary systems are usually

Abstract: Exhaust losses have a significant share in the electrically powered Table 1, which leads to growing
total energy balance of the internal combustion engine. demand for electrical power (Fig. 2).
The use of exhaust energy can be one of the most effective
ways of improving the performance of the engine. The
paper presents the option of using the turbogenerator to
supply the necessary electric power needed by the vehicle.
On the basis of simulation tests the possible power output
of the turbogenerator was estimated. In addition, the
effect of the proposed solution on the parameters of the
engine was assessed.

Key words: internal combustion energy balance,

turbogenerator

1. INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine forms the primary source Fig. 2. Alternator power increase over the years [2]
of mechanical power in vehicles. Due to the large number
of units in service, quality of work of internal combustion Thus, replacing the conventional alternator with an
engines the efficiency of the engine has a significant electric machine powered from the exhaust turbine can
effect on the economy and environment [5] [6]. The task contribute to improvement of the performance of the
of the constructor is therefore the construction of more engine.
modern engines, characterized by better performance.
Meanwhile, despite high, because up to 50% theoretical 2. MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION
efficiency, the average energy efficiency of the engine is Electric power of a generator:
far less (Figure 1).
Pel = G Pt , (1)
is determined by its efficiency (G) and the output of the
exhaust turbine

k1
Pt = t m& eg Reg [T1 T2 ] (2)
k1 1

where:
t turbine efficiency,
k1 ratio of specific heats,
Reg exhaust gas constant,
Fig. 1. The energy balance of the car in urban
traffic[1] m& eg exhaust gas flowrate,

65
T1, T2 temperature before and after turbine. A characteristic feature of the gas turbine is a small value
Exhaust gas mass flow of the generated torque (turbine car around 3Nm) and the
m& eg = m& a (3) high value of speed (over 50,000 rpm). An example of the
waveform of turbine shaft torque is found in Fig.5.
where:
growth load factor,
results from mass airflow into an engine:
m& a = 0,5 Vss n a (4)

where:
Vss engine volume,
n engine speed,
volumetric efficiency ,
a air density.
As a result, the theoretical electric power output of the
generator, which is propulsed by the exhuast turbine can
be written as
k
P = 0,5 V n 1 R (T T )
el G t ss a sp 1 2
(5)
k1 1 Fig. 5. Torque of the exhaust turbine [3]
Fig. 3 shows the theoretical power output of an electric
generator for the following parameters: Such a fundamental modification of the mechanical
G = 0.9; t = 0.75, = 0.65, = 1.06 characteristics of the turbine are associated with a need to
use an appropriate generator. In these conditions it is
necessary to apply a brushless generator with small
resistance and the ability to operate at a high speed. The
torque and current in this generator is shown in Figure 6,
and its design in Figure 7.

Fig. 3. Theoretical electric power generator, depending

on the engine operating conditions Fig. 6. Electrical generator torque[4]

The figure shows that the theoretical electric power a)

generator, significantly depends on the speed and engine
load.

3. TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Figure 4 shows the diagram of the proposed system.

b)

Fig. 7. Construction of a high speed brushless generator

Fig. 4. Diagram of the proposed turbogenerator a) stator, b) rotor

66
4. ENERGY ANALYSIS

In order to determine the effect of the proposed solutions

on energy parameters calculations were conducted with
regard to an example engine, whose parameters are
summarized in Table 2.

Engine parameters
Table 2.
Name Parameter

Engine type 188A5000

Engine volume w cm3 1242

Maximum power (DIN)
59
in kW Fig. 9. Characteristics of the 188A5000 engine
Speed of the maximum performance after the turbogenerator application
5000
power in rpm
Maximum torque (DIN) 6. CONCLUSION
144
in Nm
Speer of the maximum The analysis shows that electric power that can be gained
4000
torque in rpm the system is sufficient to cover the power demand in a
car. At the same time the system can significantly
A test bench (Fig. 8) shows that the overall efficiency of improve the overall efficiency and reduce fuel
the engine determined by relation consumption, which is accompanied by lower emission of
exhaust gases to the environment. It is therefore necessary
Pe (6)
o =
to conduct further tests to determine in what
Qin circumstances the turbogenerator operates most
effectively.
where:
o efficiency of the engine,
Pe engine power,

Q in
- energy flux,
REFERENCES
does not exceed 30%.
[1] LAGUNOFF Gustaf Automotive Hybrid
Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Department
of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering,
Division of Machine Elements, 2008 r,
[2] BOKULICH F., Europe laeds 42-charge, AEI May
2001 r,
[3] SZYMKO S., MCGLASHLAN N. R., MARTINEM-
BOATS R., PULLEN K. R., The development of a
dynamometrfor torque measurement of automotive
turbocharger turbines, Departament of Mechanical
Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK,
Automobile Engineering 2007 r,
[4] BUMBY R. J., SPOONER E., JAGIELA M.:
Equivalent circuit analysis of solid-rotor induction
machines with reference to turbocharger accelerator
applications. School of Engineering Durham
Fig. 8. Engine characteristics 188A5000 University, UK, Department of Electrical
Engineering and Automatic Control, Technical
In case when electric power output is accounted for , the University of Opole, Poland, 2006 r.
efficiency calculated for this system

Pe + Pel
o* =
(7) ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Qin
Scientific work financed from school in 2009/2010 as a
is significantly higher (Fig. 9) and reaches 45%. research project.

67
CORRESPONDENCE

Mr Dziubaski Sawomir
Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering at Opole
University of Technology
s.dziubanski@doktorant.po.edu.pl

Mr Jantos Jerzy, Dsc., DEng.

Professor in the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
at Opole University of Technology.
j.jantos@po.opole.pl

68

FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS
ANALYSIS OF THE AUTO COOLING
FAN MOTOR
Branislav POPOVI
Dragan MILI
Miroslav MIJAJLOVI
Abstract: According FMEA method, this paper represents
the results of the analysis of causes and modes of failure
of the cooling fan motors as a part of the cool liquid
cooling system of vehicle. Description of the FMEA
method is pointed out in the introduction of the paper.
Based on detailed review of the structure and operation
modes of the observed object and other relevant data,
FMEA discovered the weak place in the construction of
the fan-motors, and then after necessaries reconstructions
we repeat investigation which gave positive results. In
conclusion, the paper presents possible applications of
the achieved results and the effects of the cooling fan
motors reconstructions.
Key words: Reliability, FMEA, Cooling fan motor
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last decades customers changed their buying
behavior. After World War II the customer demand was
very high and unsatisfied. Suppliers were producing only
necessary goods and in restricted quantities. During the
time transaction between customer and suppliers took
place. The transaction from the typical sellers market too
the buyers market was the result.
Globalization and World Wide Web are keywords for the
society nowadays. Due to the fact that time and distance
are becoming relative, customers are placing increased
demands on high quality and reliable products. Therefore
manufacturers invest a lot of time and money to increase
quality. But the increasing capabilities and functionality
of many products are making it more difficult for
manufacturers to maintain the quality and reliability.
Traditionally, reliability has been achieved through
extensive testing and use of techniques such as
probabilistic reliability modeling. These are techniques
done in the late stages of development. The challenge is
to design in quality and reliability early in the
development cycle.
Therefore engineers introduced Failure Modes and
Effects Analysis (FMEA). FMEA is a methodology for
analyzing potential reliability problems early in the
development cycle where it is easier to take actions to
overcome these issues, thereby enhancing reliability
through design. FMEA is used to identify potential failure
modes, determine their effect on the operation of the
product, and identify actions to mitigate the failures. A
crucial step is anticipating what might go wrong with a
product. While anticipating every failure mode is not
possible, the development team should formulate as
extensive a list of potential failure modes as possible.
The early and consistent use of FMEA in the design
process allows the engineer to design out failures and
produce reliable, safe, and customer pleasing products.
FMEA does also capture historical information for use in
future product improvement.
A subject of research are cooling fan motor type MH-140
KL, products of company Zastava PES Surdulica,
implemented for car cooling systems and heating or air
conditioning of passenger space in the bus. Production of
those electro motors is done according to different
technical requests and standards of auto industry.
Former request of duration period of electro motors with
collectors has been 500 hours of work. Today the most
famous world producers of cars and other vehicles
demand duration period of 3000 working hours and 10000
hours for buses.
In accordance with producers regulation task of research
is to increase duration time of electro motors with
collector from 500 to 3000 hours. Application of FMEA
in re-design process of the auto cooling fan motors MH-
140 KL is done, potential hazards and failures are
identified and premeasures are defined for problems
overcoming and lifetime of systems increase.
2. SIGNIFICANCE AND ROLE OF VEHICLE
COOLING SYSTEM
Security and safety have a special place in all vehicles
types. Safety increase can be achieved by taking
measurements of accident prevention (active security) or,
taking measurements for minimum consequence in case
of accident (passive security). Vehicle cooling system is
one of most important system for internal-combustion
engine security and safety. It provides that engines
working temperature is in permit limits and without
breakdown.
Fig. 1. Diagram of a cooling system
69
Components of car cooling system (Fig. 1): liquid,
radiator, water pump, thermostat, tubes, fan electro motor
(in further text electro motor with working circuit), it need
to reduce temperature in very short time and to prevent
internal-combustion engine damage.
The most important system for vehicle cooling system is
electro motor, it moves rotor of working circuit, and in
further course it will consider EM structure and functional
way.
3. FMEA & FMECA
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a
structured, qualitative analysis of a system, subsystem, or
function to identify potential system failure modes, their
causes, and the effects on the system operation associated
with the failure modes occurrence. If, as is usually the
case, the FMEA is extended to include an evaluation of
the failure criticality as assessment of the severity of the
failure effect and its probability of occurrence the
analysis is called a Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality
Analysis (FMECA) and priorities are assigned to the
failure mode.
The FMEA task generally demands two sets of
requirements. One set, which is called general
requirements specifies the implementation requirements,
input information requirements, and documentation or
output requirements. The implementation requirements
provide general information and ground rules such as:
how the FMEA will be performed, and to what level of
abstraction it will be performed. The input requirements
define the information needed from designers, system
engineers, reliability and safety engineers. The
documentation or output requirements of the FMEA task
can take on many different forms depending on the
applicable standards. The documentation of the
information produced by the FMEA must provide the
needed critical information without unnecessary details.
The other set of requirements, called detailed
requirements, consists of the analytical portion of the
FMEA. The FMEA takes a systematic approach for
determining and evaluating each system, subsystem, part
and component historical failure modes. This aspect of
the analysis is called the failure mode portion FMEA.
Once the failure modes have been defined for the system,
the potential effects, or impact on each part of system are
evaluated according to the mission system safety.
The FMEA can be extended to determine the criticality of
the effects of each failure mode according to criticality
criteria which involve the probability of the failure mode
and the severity of the effect. The formal approach to this
analysis was developed and documented in US Military
Standard 1629. It is used to assess the safety of various
system components, and to identify design modifications
and corrective actions required to reduce the effects of a
failure on the system. Although FMECA is often thought
of as a safety analysis, its main benefit is that the system
designers learn more about the system while provide the
analysis. Hence FMECA should be done iteratively as the
design develops.
A FMECA is potentially one of the most beneficial
analyses done in a well reliability program. It is also one
of the most tedious, time consuming, error prone and
70
difficult in development of a product. Hence a
computerized aid needs to be developed to help in
performing the analysis.
The FMECA methodology is based on a hierarchical,
inductive approach to analysis. Before beginning, the
analyst must have a good understanding of the system
components and the system operation and mission. The
analyst then determines how every possible failure mode
of each system components, affects the system operation.
When the analysis is completed the analyst should have a
clearer and deeper understanding of the system
components and their relationships to the system
operation and mission.
As mentioned in the previous section FMECA extends the
FMEA to include the probability of the item failure
modes and prioritize them for corrective actions.
Traditionally, the criticality assessment is performed be
either
- developing a Risk priority Number (RPN)
- calculating an item criticality number.
The RPN method is used mostly in the automotive
industry and the criticality number techniques is used
mostly in the nuclear and aerospace industry.
We will pay attention in this paper especially RPN
techniques. The RPN criticality assessment uses
linguistic terms to rank the probability of the failure-mode
occurrence, the severity of its failure effect, and the
probability of the failure being detected on a numeric
scale from 1 to 10.
These ranking are then multiplied to give the RPN.
Failure modes having a high RPN are assumed to be more
important and given a higher priority than those a lower
RPN. The criticality number calculation described in
MIL-STD-1629A, first categorized the severity of the
failure mode effect and then develops a criticality
ranking which is, in essence, the probability of a failure
with that severity occurring. The procedure consists of
determining the failure effect probability ( ), the failure
mode ratio ( ), the part failure rate ( ) and its operating
time ( t ), and using these values compute a criticality
number for each item failure mode severity classification.
4. TYPES OF FMEA'S
There are several types of FMEAs. Some o them are
used much more often than others. FMEAs should
always be done whenever failures would mean potential
harm or injury to the user of the end item being designed.
The different types of FMEA can be seen in table 1.
Table 1. FMEA types usage
FMEA types usage
focuses on global system
System
functions
Design or focuses on components and
Construction subsystems
focuses on manufacturing and
Process
assembly processes
Service focuses on service functions
Software focuses on software functions
4.1. FMEA usage Table 2. Severity guidelines for design FMEA (1-10
qualitative scale)
When do we use FMEA? In the past, engineers have done
a good job of evaluating the functions and the form of
products and processes in the design phase. But the Effect Rank Criteria
designing in reliability and quality was a huge problem.
Often the engineer uses safety factors as a way of making
No 1 No effect.
sure that the design will work and protected the user
against product or process failure. As described in an Very
2 Customer not annoyed.
article from the Mechanical Engineering: A large safety slight
factor does not necessarily translate into a reliable
Slight 3 Customer slightly annoyed.
product. Instead, it often leads to an over designed
product with reliability problems.
Minor 4 Customer experiences minor nuisance.
With FMEA the engineer get a tool with can assist in
providing reliable, safe, and customer pleasing products Customer experiences some
Moderate 5
and processes. FMEA helps the engineer to identify dissatisfaction.
potential product or process failures.
Significant 6 Customer experiences discomfort.
FMEA can be used to develop product or process
requirements that minimize the likelihood of those
Major 7 Customer dissatisfied.
failures. FMEA is also the basis for:
 Evaluate the requirements obtained from the customer Extreme 8 Customer very dissatisfied.
or other participants in the design process to ensure
that those requirements do not introduce potential Serious 9 Potential hazardous effect.
failures.
 Identify design characteristics that contribute to Hazardous 10 Hazardous effects.
failures and design them out of the system or at least
minimize the resulting effects.
4.2.1. Causes of failure mode
 Develop methods and procedures to develop and test Identify the causes for each failure mode. A failure cause
the product/process to ensure that the failures have is defined as a design weakness that may result in a
been successfully eliminated. failure. The potential causes for each failure mode should
 Track and manage potential risks in the design. be identified and documented. The causes should be listed
Tracking the risks contributes to the development of in technical terms and not in terms of symptoms.
corporate memory and the success of future products Examples of potential causes include improper torque
as well. applied, Improper operating conditions, too much solvent,
FMEA ensures that any failures that could occur will not improper alignment, excessive voltage etc.
injure or seriously impact the customer of the product or 4.3. Occurrence
process. There are several different approaches to do a
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis. One possible way is The Occurrence is the assessment of the probability that
described in the following chapter. This way is a the specific cause of the Failure mode will occur. A
combination of two different internet sources. One is from numerical weight should be assigned to each cause that
Kenneth Crow and the other from Nomogen. In figure 3-1 indicates how likely that cause is (probability of the cause
we can see an overview about the FMEA procedure. occurring).
It starts with the FMEA Planning and Team Creation For that failure history is helpful in increasing the truth of
down to FMEA Development and then to the Evaluation the probability.
of the results. Therefore historical data stored in databases can be used
4.2. Severity and questions like the following are very helpful to solve
this problem.
Severity is an assessment of the seriousness of the effect
 What statistical data is available from previous or
and refers directly to the potential failure mode being
similar process designs?
studied. The Customer in process FMEA is both the
internal and where appropriate, external Customer. The  Is the process a repeat of a previous design, or have
severity ranking is also an estimate of how difficult it will there been some changes?
be for the subsequent operations to be carried out to its  Is the process design completely new?
specification in Performance, Cost, and Time. The  Has the environment in which the process is to operate
Ranking and suggested criteria are listed in table 2. changeable?
A common industry standard scale uses 1 to represent no  Have mathematical or engineering studies been used
effect and 10 to indicate very severe with failure affecting to predict failure?
system operation and safety without warning. The intent
of the ranking is to help the analyst determine whether a A common industry standard scale uses 1 to represent
failure would be a minor nuisance or a catastrophic unlikely and 10 to indicate inevitable. The Ranking and
occurrence to the customer. This enables the engineer to suggested criteria are can seen in table 3: Occurrence
prioritize the failures and address the real big issues first. ranking and suggested criteria.

71
Table 3. Occurrence guidelines for design FMEA (1-10
qualitative scale)
Effect Rank Criteria
Almost Failure unlikely. History shows no
1 concept stage.
never failure.
Remote 2 Rare number of failures likely.
Very slight 3 Very few failures likely.
Slight 4 Few failures likely.
Low 5 Occasional number of failures likely.
Medium 6 Medium number of failures likely.
Moderately Moderately high number of failures
7
high likely.
High 8 High number of failures likely.
Very high 9 Very high number of failures likely.
Almost
10 Failure almost certain.
certain
4.4. Detection
Here we have to distinguish between two types of
detection. On one hand we have to identify Current
Controls (design or process).
Current Controls (design or process) are the mechanisms
that prevent the cause of the failure mode from occurring
or which detect the failure before it reaches the Customer.
The engineer should now identify testing, analysis,
monitoring, and other techniques that can or have been
used on the same or similar products/processes to detect
failures. Each of these controls should be assessed to
determine how well it is expected to identify or detect
failure modes. After a new product or process has been in
use previously undetected or unidentified failure modes
may appear. The FMEA should then be updated and plans
made to address those failures to eliminate them from the
product/process.
The other thing is to asses the probability that the
proposed process controls will detect a potential cause of
failure or a process weakness. Assume the failure has
occurred and then assess the ability of the Controls to
prevent shipment of the part with that defect. Low
Occurrence does not mean Low Detection - the Control
should detect the Low Occurrence. Statistical sampling is
an acceptable Control. Improving Product and/or Process
design is the best strategy for reducing the Detection
ranking - Improving means of Detection still requires
improved designs with its subsequent improvement of the
basic design. Higher rankings should question the method
of the Control.
The ranking and suggested criteria are shown in table 4:
Detection ranking and suggested criteria.
72
Table 4. Detectability guidelines for design FMEA (1-10
qualitative scale)
Effect Rank Criteria
Proven detection methods available in
Almost certain 1
Proven computer analysis available in
Very high 2
early design stage.
Simulation and/or modeling in early
High 3
stage.
Moderately Tests on early prototype system
4
high elements.
Tests on preproduction system
Medium 5
components.
Low 6 Tests on similar system components.
Tests on product with prototypes and
Slight 7
system components installed.
Proving durability tests on products
Very slight 8
with system components installed.
Only unproven or unreliable
Remote 9
technique(s) available.
Almost
10 No known techniques available.
impossible
4.5. Risk Priority Numbers (RPN)
The Risk Priority Number is a mathematical product of
the numerical Severity, Probability, and Detection ratings:
RPN = (Severity) x (Probability) x (Detection)
The RPN is used to prioritize items than require
additional quality planning or action.
4.6. Actions
Determine Recommended Action(s) to address potential
failures that have a high RPN. These actions could
include specific inspection, testing or quality procedures;
selection of different components or materials; de-rating;
limiting environmental stresses or operating range;
redesign of the item to avoid the failure mode; monitoring
mechanisms; performing preventative maintenance; and
inclusion of back-up systems or redundancy.
After that we have to assign Responsibility and a Target
Completion Date for these actions. This makes
responsibility clear-cut and facilitates tracking.
Update the FMEA as the design or process changes, the
assessment changes or new information becomes known.
5. FMEA OF AUTO COOLING FAN MOTOR
To achieve planned goal is to get lifetime of cooling fan
motors from 500 hrs to 3000 hrs, all parts from the fan
motors rotor, bearings, collectors etc, are analyzed
from the aspect of importance for the motor functionality.
Complete FMEA analysis is done for every mentioned
part and actions necessary for lifetime improvement are
applied. One part FMEA analysis of the applied
improvements is shown in the Table 5.
Table 5.

Product name:
FMEA Drawing. No:
Electrofan

Responsible person Company Delivery Model/System/Machining Technical Condition / Changes

Date Date Page
Present Condition Corrective Actions Improvements

Recommendatio
Functional class

Consequence of

Responsibilitys,

Responsibility
determination

determination

Risk priority
Risk priority
Cause of the

dynamics of

dynamics of
malfunction
Component

Controlling

es, planned

Probability
Probability

realization
the failure

planning
planned
Type of

Weight
Weight

Failure
Failure
failure

ability
ability

ns
Overheating of the

electrode. Voltage

N=6+6 wire 0,75

documentation series and samples as

Preassembling

Development
Controlling

measuring

After development of prototype

Failure

Failure

Sector
Rotor

rotor

4 7 6 168 3 4 1 12

well
Overheating f the

Power decrease

Development
Novo design
changes
Failure

Failure

sector
Rotor

rotor

5 6 5 150 3 3 1 9

sector, Production
Durability testing

power decrease

Documentation
Wearing of the

Load decrease,

Development
Failure. Bad
durability

collector

change I
Brushes

Failure

Sector

4 10 5 200 1 7 5 35

After definition of necessary actions, redesign of the REFERENCES

electrofans is applied and experimental testings are
started. [1] BARLOW, R. E., PROSCHAN, F., Statistical Theory
of Reliability and Life Testing Probability Models,
6. CONCLUSION Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York, 1975.
[2] LAZOR, J. D., Failure mode and effects analysis
In accordance to above note it can be concluded: (FMEA) and Fault tree analysis (FTA) (Success tree
The most important aims of the FMEA, of the fan motors analysis - STA), In Handbook of Reliability
as a part of the car cooling system SUS, as key Engineering and Management, McGraw-Hill, 1995,
substructure: pp. 6.1-6.46.
 through lab investigation, which bartered road [3] HENLEY, J. E., KUMAMOTO, H., Reliability
investigation, receive systematic identification of all Engineering and Risk Acssessment, Prentice-Hall,
1981.
possible causes combinations which lead to unwonted
event; [4] VUJOEVI, M., Tree fault analyze; view of basic
concept and technique, Tehnika 38 (1983) 11, s.
 determinate of parts or operations which most 1546-1555.
seriously affect on certain reliability measurement and [5] MILI, D., Mechanical systems reliability,
application need for measurement improvement; Mainski fakultet, Nis, 2005.
With FMEA it can be concluded in which direction [6] ATI, D., Development and use of theory reliability
development need to go in the construction or in the method, Mainski fakultet, Kragujevac, 2005.
production process of the fan-motors, for increasing of [7] VUJANOVI, N., Technique system theory of
working time from 500 to 3000 hours, and except invest technique system reliability, 1990.
in development and material quality control improvement, [8] MITRAKOVI, B., Machines for direct current,
parts and subparts, new equipment for production, this 1991.
product does not charge input price increasing for raw [9] MILI, D., MIJAJLOVI, M., Mechanical system
materials (material and parts). reliability Workbook, Mainski fakultet, Nis, 2008.

73
[10]POPOVI, B., MILI, D., MIJAJLOVI, M., CORRESPONDENCE
Analysis of the cause and types of the collector
electromotors failures in the car cooling systems, Branislav POPOVI, M.Sc.Eng.
MACHINE DESIGN 2009, The editor in chief: prof. Regional Chamber of Commerce and
phd. Sinia Kuzmanovi, ISSN 1821-1259, pp. 151- industry Leskovac
156. Stojana Ljubia 12
[11]MILI, D., MIJAJLOVI, M., Reliability analyses 16000 Leskovac, Serbia
of electrolocomotive 461 series railway car bogies, branislav.popovic@komora.net
Scientific Expert Conference on Railways
ELKON 06, Ni, 19.-20.10.2006., s. 79-82. Dragan MILI, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
[12]MILI, D., VELJANOVI, D., Software for University of Ni
analysis of mechanical parts reliability, Scientific Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Expert Conference IRMES 06, Banjaluka- Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
Mrakovica, 21. i 22. September 2006., s. 411-416. 18000 Ni, Serbia
[13]MILI, D., MILENKOVI, S., MARKOVI, B., milcic@masfak.ni.ac.rs
Identification of reliability identifiers for 461
electrolocomotives railway car bogies, Proceedings Miroslav MIJAJLOVI, M.Sc. Eng.
8. International Conference QUALITY AND University of Ni
RELIABILITY MANAGEMENT DQM-2005, 15- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
16 June 2005, Beograd, s.308-317. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
18000 Ni, Serbia
miroslav_mijajlovic@masfak.ni.ac.rs

74

A STUDY OF THE CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS DAMAGES FROM
PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Nicolae POPA
Cosntantin ONESCU
Abstract: The normal acting of an oil processing
installation is determined also by the proper working of
the centrifugal pumps. The preventive control process
modernization has shown that a range of various
frequencies damages can appear in centrifugal pumps
working.
After vibration measurement which monitoring the pump
operation, can be take the decision to replace the
damaged elements following the vibration trend
evolution.
Key words: centrifugal pumps, damages, mechanical face
seals.
1. INTRODUCTION
The centrifugal pumps are equipments for liquids
transport, pumping being the effect of the centrifugal
forces on the pumped liquid. In its simplest form, a
centrifugal pump is formed of a blade rotor, assembled in
a case with a collecting channel of increasing area section
(in the shape of a snail); the exhaust main is axially wired
to the pump case, and the delivery pipe is tangentially
wired.
The rotor driving is made through a shaft, tied up the rotor
(40%) as damage generating causes at the mechanical
systems, if the maintenance is based on corrective
technical interventions. The predictive maintenance is a
maintenance system, based on the possibility of predicting
the breaking moment of a system, by following certain
measures variation, measures which become signatures
of that equipment. In industrial applications, especially in
the petrochemical industry, its more likely to use the
vibration analysis. This activity is usually realized in the
maintenance department or in the functioning safety
centre, where the equipment functioning is quantified.
Together with the damage cause control through proactive
maintenance, the reliability program should determine
and diagnose the damages and begin the maintaining
actions for clearing the situation, or at least to draw the
attention on the risk of continuing operating in these
circumstances.
2. THE ANALYSIS OF INJURED
ASSEMBLIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The recorded observations at disassembling the
centrifugal pumps in a petrochemical plant for a month
(the recordings are made monthly) lead to the following
appearance frequencies:
- the face seal: 15 maximum 12 (refinery)
- the bearings: 2.4 maximum 6 (refinery)
- the rotor: 2.3 maximum 7 (refinery)
- the coupling: 1....2 maximum 7 (refinery) etc.
Other damaged subassemblies with a low appearance
frequency are: mild seal, slip bearings, bearing body,
shaft, stator and others.
3. THE ANALYSIS OF THE FACE SEAL
ASSEMBLY
The face seal is the subassembly which has an appearance
frequency larger than 1 at all the analyzed sections. So it
was necessary to emphasize the causes which led to their
determination. These causes can be:
- vibrations;
- normal wear in time;
- long stationing,
- impurity in the product;
- nonconforme repairs;
- chemical corrosion and cavity;
- salted product;
- blocked pump.
70
65

with a parallel blade, fixed by a screw assembling. The 60

shaft is supported in the case on two bearing boxes. A 50

very important functioning condition is that the pump has 40

Nr
a sealing system, with the exterior at the shafts exit from
the pump case. This sealing system, in most of the cases, 30
17 21

is formed of a face seal or a combination of face and 20

secondary seals. 10 5 2 1
6
2
The centrifugal pumps can be actuating by indirect 1

0
transmissions (belts, chains and gear wheels) or directly ns ar g s irs ion on uc
t
mp
tio we din rit ie re
pa os ati rod pu
al tan or vit
through couplings, using, as energy sources, an electrical Vi bra
No
rm S Impu
q ua
te
i ca
l c Ca
ry stalP
L ock
ed
de im C
rotor with or without reducer. Ina Ch
Dam age type

The equipment operating is related to its technical

situation. Mechanical damages have an important ratio Fig. 1. Damage causes of mechanical seals [2]

75
From the analysis made on 120 centrifugal pumps, which
had as damaged subassembly a face seal, the following
distribution of causes resulted: vibrations 5; normal
wear in time 65; long stationing 17; impurity in the
product 21; nonconforming repairs 2; chemical
corrosion 1; cavity 6; salted product 1; blocked
pump 2.
The possible cause / number of recorded events graphic,
as well as the value percentage of total number of causes
are presented as follows (fig. 1).
It can be very easily observed that four causes which led
to face seal deterioration are:
- impurity in the product 21%
- long stationing 17%
- cavity 6%
- vibrations 5%
The first three causes, which mean 44% of the value
percentage, are technological problems; this leads to the
necessity of talking to the persons responsible with
increasing the reliability of the technological process.
53%
14%
18%
4% 2% 1% 5% 1% 2%
Vibrations
Normal w ear
Standing
Impurities
Inadequate repairs
Chimical corosion
Cavitation
Crystal Product
Locked pump
Fig. 2. Percentage values damage causes of mechanical
seals
4. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DIAGNOSIS
Together with the damages causes control by predictive
maintenance, within reliability program has to determine
and diagnosis defections, and to begin the maintenance
actions to improve the situation or to warning on the risk
of operating in bad conditions.
In the framework of the research contract of the Applied
Mechanics Department we participate to a predictive
control based on the vibrations defections detection to the
assemblies with work with face seals. From these
measurements for a centrifugal pump multistep with two
rotors, FP19 assembly position, FCC plant.
After the measurement effectuated on 04 February 2009,
in the points represented in fig. 3 we can observe
increasing of velocity values reported to the previous
measurement. The vibrations lead to alarm range
(measured values was 7.5 mm/s). From this moment a
carefully monitoring of the equipment has been started,
76
from vibration and operating parameters point of view. At
the 11 May 2009 the vibrations level lead to 11.8 mm/s
velocity (fig.5 and table 1).
2 4
MOTOR PUMP
1 3
Fig. 3. Location of the measurement points on pump and
motor
The spectral analysis effectuated shows a misalignment of
the entire rotor system (shaft rotors) within the pump
housing due to central brush wear between rotors. From
the analysed spectra we can see the apparition of
maximum amplitude (9,23mm/s) at the fundamental
frequency of the equipment (2880 rpm). These
fundamental frequencies generated the misalignments
defection and/or unbalance.
Fig. 4. Pump housing point 3 spectra analysis on 04
February 2009
For a precise analyse of an equipment defections, it is
very important to know the variation of the vibration
amplitude in time and the data/information regarding
technological parameters, eventual accidental stops
(electrical shocks/technological shocks). All these data
cumulated can lead to a precise diagnostic of the
equipment. In our case the vibrations level increased
constantly, means that the defection increased constantly
in time (evolution of wear). It is taken the decision for
pump disassembly and we saw that the central brush
between rotors was wear, the rotor assembly being
misaligned in the pump housing.
After central brush replacement and alignment, the
equipment was restarted, the vibrations level measured on
15 June 09 shows that the vibrations level decreased from
11,8 mm/s (fig.4) to 1,0mm/s as shown in the
measurements fiche (fig.6).
The spectral analysis given below (fig 6) shows that the
amplitudes by frequency are under 1 mm/s that means
that the is defection was correctly indentified and
repaired.
 In the figure 6 is shown the vibrations evolution trend,
before intervention and after intervention. We can observe
the fundamental amplitude disappearance to the last
spectra (right up of the figure 6) and the decreasing of the
overall vibrations values after equipment reparation.
The yellow colour shows alarm limit for the equipment
operating and the red colour shows danger limit (the
equipment operation lead to danger limit and after
reparation operate normally in the white range).

Fig. 5. Pump housing spectra analysis on 11 May 2009.

Table 1. Measurement values in the specified points on 11 May 2009.

Point Direction Amplitude U.M. Modification Data

1 Horizontal 0.252 g's 5/11/2009

1 Horizontal 1.28 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
1 Vertical 1.38 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
2 Axial 1.52 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
2 Horizontal 0.418 g's -- 5/11/2009
2 Horizontal 1.53 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
2 Vertical 1.11 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
3 Axial 8.13 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
3 Horizontal 0.137 g's -- 5/11/2009
3 Horizontal 11.8 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
3 Vertical 7.44 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
4 Horizontal 0.337 g's 5/11/2009
4 Horizontal 9.2 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009
4 Vertical 9.84 mm/sec -- 5/11/2009

Fig. 6. Pump housing spectra analysis on 15 June 2009.

5. CONCLUSION  a technical discussion with the pump beneficiary in

From the analysis of the pump damages and the causes
determining the damage of the main subassembly the
face seal we can observe the following:
order to increase the reliability and fluidization of the
technical process;
 making and respecting a periodical program of turning
on/off the equipments, at an interval of 1-2 weeks for
the long stationing equipments;

77
 respecting the starting technologies for the warm
pumps (especially in the cold season, when theres the
danger of forming ice corks or crystallizing the
product);
 checking the installing conditions (form and
dimensional deviations); installing hydro-cyclone
filters at the pumps which work with solid impurities
products;
 using Quench systems at warm pumps;
 checking the face seals quality and suppliers.
REFERENCES
[1] POPA, N., Contributions regarding the wear
phenomena to the mechanical face seal from
petrochemical industry, PhD. Thesis, Polytechnic
University of Bucharest, 1996
[2] ENESCU, M, Technical analysis report. Mechanical
seal, Navodari Petrochemical Refinery, Romania,
2004.
[3] MAYER, E., Axial Gleitringdictugen, V.D.I. Verlag,
1977, 1982.
[4] POPA, N., ONESCU, C., The deformation influence
on the mechanical face seals operating behaviour,
Machine Design Monograph, Serbia, Novi sad, 2009.
[5] POPA, Nicolae, Mechanical Seals, The Flower
Power Publishing House, Pitesti, 2003
78
[6] POPA, Nicolae, NICOLESCU, B., ONESCU,
Constantin, Theoretical researches regarding
mechanical face seal hydrodynamic lubrication, The
10-th International Conference on Tribology
ROTRIB07, 2007, Bucharest, November 08-09
[7] POPA, N, IORGA, I., ONESCU, C., ISTRATE, M.,
Dynamics of the mechanical face seals with
eccentricity, The Second International Conference
Advanced Concepts In Mechanical Engineering
(ACME), Iasi, 5-6 June 2008.
CORRESPONDENCE
Nicolae POPA, Prof. PhD. Eng.
University of Piteti
Faculty of Mechanics and Technology
Trgu din Vale 1
110040 Piteti, Romania
npopa49@yahoo.com
Constantin ONESCU, Lecturer. PhD. Eng.
University of Piteti
Faculty of Mechanics and Technology
Trgu din Vale 1
110040 Piteti, Romania
costi_onescu@onescu.com

INFLUENCE OF CENTRIFUGAL
PHENOMENON AT CVT OPERATING
CONDITIONS
Andrzej BIENIEK
Abstract: In the metal belt of Continuously Variable
Transmission the thrust force between transmission pulley
and belt is depended of construction of hydraulic
clamping chambers and value of hydrostatic oil pressure
which is controlled according to the control strategy. By
the rotation of CVT transmission pulleys appear an
hydrodynamic pressure effect as results of centrifugal
forces affected on the oil. Also at the transmission belt
acting centrifugal corces. It is necessary to take into
consideration that phenomenon at the control algorithm.
In the paper the mathematical description of
hydrodynamic pressure effect are presented. The
presented simplified analytical dependence based on
hydrodynamic centrifugal coefficient. The experimental
results by different operating condition are also
presented. Analysis of described phenomenon show
significant influence on CVT operating parameter and
simultaneously on transmission safety and his economical
proprieties.
Key words: Continously Variable Transmissnion,
centrifugal oil pressure, operating conditions, thrust force
1. INTRODUCTION
In the automotive Continously Variable Transmission
with metal belt transmission of torque is realized thanks
to friction forces acting between belt and transmission
pulleys. Action of friction forces couse to axial clamping
forces depended of oil pressure occurred in clamping
chamber of movable sheave. Control of transmission ratio
and ability to torque transmission (belt sliding limitation)
is possible thanks to regulation of oil pressure acting at
transmission hydraulic circuit (primary and secondary
pulley). Observation of one of the basic control
parameters as clamping pressure is available thanks to
pressure sensors. Construction of CVT and mostly their
hydraulic circuit (inlet of hydraulic pressure to rotational
chamber) has that implication, that supply of hydraulic
circuit to rotational chamber occur at the shaft center or in
the vincinity of that. Also the presure sensor is placed at
that circuit and measured hydraulic presure that acting at
shaft center [4]. During rotation of CVT pulleys occur a
phenomenon so in the hydraulic chamber as on
transmission belt, that have to be take into consideration
in the CVT control algorithm [7]. Influence of centrifugal
forces acting in the clamping chambers and transmission
belt at clamping forces controled by CVT control unit is
very significant issue that have to be investigated.
2. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES AT CVT
As previously mentioned occurance of phenomenon in
clamping chamber and at transmission belt during rotation
of transmission pulleys appears centrifugal forces.
2.1. Hydrodynamical oil pressure effect
A V-belt type continuoulsy variable transmission used in
automotive vehicle has two pulleys (primary and
secondary) Each pulley consists of pair of conical disks.
One of them is connected and fixed with shaft, another
can be axialy shifted on the shaft. The movable conical
disk of each pulley are provided with clamping chamber
and oil pressure is supplied thereto or relased therefrom.
and basic oil pressure is generated by oil pump In this
case, the oil clamping chamber is rotated with pulley
wchich cause that additional centrifugal oil pressure
occurs in the clamping chamber. That hydrodynamical oil
pressure effect acts radially on the pulleys and is
outwardly. In this case grows oil pressure in the chamber
acts with greater clamping force on transmission belt that
working between conical disks.
The grow of axial clamping force coresponds to grow of
oil pressure of the clamping chamber. As a results of
greater clamping force occur depression of transmission
belt between conical disk or shift of conical disks. This
has influence of different operating parameter and
condition of transmission. This hydrodynamical oil
pressure has influence of transmission ratio, torque
transmission capability, transmission efficiency, and other
operating conditions as effect of thrust force ratio change
[3, 5, 6]. As show (1-4) axial thrust force A is a sum of
force Aspr that come from spring mounted on pulley and
Ahyd as effect of oil pressure affected in clamping
chamber:
A = Ahyd + Aspr (1)
The force Ahyd that come from hydraulic pressure include
thrust force dependend of hydraulic oil pressure pstat that
is measured at shaft axis and acting at movable pulley as
force Astatt, and Adyn as hydrodynamical oil pressure:
Ahyd = Astat + Adyn . (2)
Primary CVT pulley opearate with axial force A1 as result
of hydraulic pressure pstat1 that press on clamping area S1
and force Adyn1 that is an effect of hydrodynamical oil
pressure
A1 = S1 pstat1 + Adyn1 (3)
On the secondary CVT pulley besides from oil pressure at
movable sheave act also sprig that induce initialy belt
tension and thrust force A2:
A2 = S 2 p stat 2 + (k spr (r0 r2 ) + Fspr 0 ) + Adyn 2 (4)
79
That force is depended of spring koefficient kspr and 3. CVT OPERATING CONDITIONS AND
spring force Fspr0 that couse initialy spring tension, were CENTRIFFUGAL PHENOMENON
r0 is wrap radius on secondary pulley in case of initial belt
tension (as effect of spring acting), and r2 is actual wrap 3.1. Research object
radius on secondary pulley. Hydrodynamical phenomenon
cause a signifficant axial force part that acting on each The research object was an automotive CVT Fuji Hyper
pulley. Contribution of hydrodynamical part of axial force M6 (fig. 1) with SI engine operated in compact car.
is depended of different prarameters as CVT operating
indexes (pulley rotational speed ), clamping area
construction (Roc- outside clamping area radius Ric -inner
clamping area radius), and oil properties (oil oil
density):
2 oil
Adyn =
4
(R 4
oc Ric4 ) (5)

That parameters that are dependent of CVT pulley

construction, and include hydraulic fluid properties could
be described as centrifugal coefficent:
oil
cd =
4
(R 4
oc Ric4 ) (6)

that is constant as CVT operated at thermal equilibrium

(oil=const). Then hydrodynamic centrigugal coefficient
amount at primary pulley:
oil
cd 1 =
4
(R 4
1oc R14ic ) (7)

and respectively at secondary pulley:

oil
cd 2 =
4
(R 4
2 oc R24ic ) (8)
Fig. 1. Scheme of the research CVT: 1-primary pulley, 2-
Then hydrodynamical part of the axial trust force is secondary pulley, S1-clamping area of primary chamber,
described as: S2-clamping area of secondary chamber [4]
Adyn = cd 2 (9)
Described transmission is controlled with electro-
2.2. Centrifugal forces phenomenon on CVT belt hydraulic control system, that regulate value of presure
pstat at secondary pulley and transmision ratio as ratio
Another phenomenon that has influence on CVT
between primary and secondary pulley rotational speed .
operating condition is action of centrifugal forces on
To verification of influence of centrifugal phenomena it
transmission belt acting on wrap radius at each puley:
was necessary to observe course of primary chamber oil
1
AK = K sin cos (10) przessure. It was possible in case with modification of
2 control and hydraulic sytem. The hudraulic control unit
where: was completed with primary presure sensor (fig.2).
K centrifugal force acting at transmission belt
- half slope angle of cone-shaped transmission sheave,
The centrifugal force at primary pulley as dependence of
specific belt mass mj, primary pulley rotational speed 1 ,
and primary wrap radius r1 , has effect at axial thrust force
Ak1 described with equation:
1
AK = m j 12 r12 sin cos (11)
2
Control of the oil pressure in the clamping chamber have
to take into acount all of described phenomenon, and the
minimum clamping force value schould ensure minimum
transmission safety from belt slip. Then the minimum
value of axial thrust force could be formulated as: Fig. 2. Hydraulic system resupply with primary presure
To senseor
Amin = + AK (12)
2 T r1 cos Main properties of the experimental transmission are
where presented in table 1. The hydrodynamic centrifugal
To- input torque coefficients was determined on basis of clamping
T- friction coefficient at the contact of belt and pulley chamber constructions and their geometrical dimensions.

80
Table 1. The Fuji Hyper M6 main properties
No. Properties Value
1. Transmission ratio range iT 0,442 2,432
2. Control system type El.-hydraulic
3. Hydraulic torque converter 3 part + lock
4. Hydraulic conv. torque ratio 1,71
5. Hydraulic conv. Diameter 200 mm
6. Belt type metal belt
7. Specific belt mass 1,6 kg
8. Hydraulic pressure range 1,80 5,35 Pa
9. Primary pulley thrust area S1 0,0207 m2 Fig. 5. Thrust force on primary pulley: 1- with centrifugal
10. Primary pulley thrust area S2 0,0097 m2 phenomena consideration, 2- no correction
11. Pulley cone-shaped angle 11
As seen at fig. 5, 6 consideration of centrifugal
12. Pulley center distance a 0,155 m
phenomena entail that real thrust force has much higher
13. Belt lenght l 0,648 m
value as a result of static oil hydraulic pressure (without
14. Construction index 0,3871 correction).
15. Primary hydrodynamic 0,0325
centrifugal coefficient cd1
16. Secondary hydrodynamic 0,0080
centrifugal coefficient cd2
17. Oil density 860 kg/m3

3.2. Trust forces

Experimental investigations were made with dynamical
tests. There was an full vehicle acceleration tests which
simulated operating condition as full transmission load
with change of transmission pulleys rotational speed
(fig. 3) and decrease of transmission ratio iT . Fig. 6. Secondary pulley thrust force: 1- with centrifugal
phenomena consideration, 2- no correction

Fig. 3. Change of pulleys rotational speed during test

Fig. 7. Trust force ratio: 1- with centrifugal phenomena

consideration, 2- no correction

Also when centrigugal forces are not considerated trust

Fig. 4. Course of centrifugal forces during test
One of the phenomena that is occurred at this test is
acting of centrifugal force Ak.[1, 2] Estimated value of
this force was determined with equation (11) and
presented on figure 4. Consideration of centrifugal
phenomena at clamping pressure (thrust force) control
algorithm entail change at thrust force value (fig. 5, 6) on
transmission pulleys, and transmission operating
parameters as trust force ratio (fig. 7).
force ratio has dissimilar course to completed trust force
ratio (with centrifugal part) (fig. 7).
3.3. Transmission operating conditions
Change of thrust force ratio has impliction in change
transmission ratio value or transmission operation
conditions as friction coefficient between belt and pulley
(fig. 8), relative slip angle (fig. 9), and transmission
efficiency (fig. 10) [8]. Figures 8-9 are as 1- operating
condition with consideration of centrifugal phenomena,
and as 2- uncorrected course depicted. As seen on fig. 8
estimated friction coefficient after consideration of
centrifugal phenomena decreese to range 0,04-0,02 which
not conduce to advantageous transmission efficiency [8].

81

Fig. 8. Relation between trust force ratio and friction
coefficient between belt and pulley
One of the parameters that descibe load ability of
transmission is relative slip angle at wrap angle. In case of
achieving boundary value 1,0, transmission operated with
full load . Tested transmission was loaded with almost
constant torque, but trust force was controlled with
transmission safety faktor for more then 1,3, and also
there wasnt macro slip [7, 8] of transmission belt
detected as for relative slip angle for about 1,0 expected
[1, 2]. Until consideration of centrifugal forces it was
posible to estimation relative slip angle (range 0,8 0,9)
fig. 9. That is a case of transmission safety margin and
theoretical ability to transmission of higher torque.
Fig. 9. Relation between transmission ratio and relative
slip angle on primary pulley
Estimation of transmission efficiency (fig. 10) shows that
overall CVT efficiency achieved by standard clamping
pressure control is generally below 0,9.
Fig. 11. Estimated CVT efficiency
This need to be improved to achieve advantageous
operating conditions and better economical properties
(lower fuel consumptions, beter transmission durability).
In case there no need to transsmit higher torque it is
possibility to decreese clamping pressure and improving
transmission efficiency by advanced oil pressure control.
82
4. CONCLUSION
In Continuously Variable Transmission with metal belt
and hydraulic clamping system appear many phenomenas.
As indicated consiteration of centrifugal forces acting at
CVT has very signifficant influence at transmission
operating conditions. Standard pressure control resulted
with marigin of transmission safety consecution with
overclamped trust forces. As results of them transmision
operated with lower overall efficiency and transmission
durability as results of overclamping is also
disadvantageous. Applying to control algorithm
advanced function (that allow on base of monitoring of
operating parameter and consideration of phenomenas)
could improving transmision operating conditions.
REFERENCES
[1] BIENIEK, A., Analysis of transmission load and
frictional conditions in continuously variable
transmission, International Congres Motor Vehicles
& Motors, Kragujevac 2006 nr 20060064 pp 1-4
[2] BIENIEK, A., JANTOS, J. Applying of frictional
conditions estimation at thrust force control in
continuously variable transmission. JSAE Paper No
20074543, CVT & Hybrid Conference Yokohama
2007
[3] van der LAAN, M., van DROGEN, M., Improving
pusch belt CVT efficiency by clamping force control
strategies based on variator slip measurment,
International Symposium on the TVT, Vol. 2005, pp.
1-6.
[4] Fiat Punto Speedgear Arbeits und
Informationsunterlagen, 2000
[5] RYU, W., KIM, H. CVT ratio control with
consideration of CVT system loss, International
Journal of Automotive Technology, vol. 9, No. 4 pp.
459-465, 2008
[6] SAUER G. Grundlagen und Betriebsvehalten eines
Zugketten-Umschlingungsgetriebes, VDI Verlag, nr
293, 1996
[7] VEENHUIZEN, P., BONSEN, B., KLAASSEN, T.,
van der MEERAKER, K., Simulated behaviour of a
vehicle with V-belt geared neutral transmission with
variator slip control Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Vol 219, pp. 1321- 1330,
2005
[8] YAMAGUCHI, A., TANI, H., HAYAKAWA, K.
Measurment and Estimation Technologies for the
Experimental Analysis of Metal V-belt Type CVTs,
R&D Review of Toyota CRDL Vol. 40 No.3 pp. 21-
29, 2006
CORRESPONDENCE
Andrzej BIENIEK, Ph. D. Eng.
Opole University of Technology
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Mikolajczyka 5
45271 Opole, Poland
a.bieniek@po.opole.pl
 Fig. 2. The three-dimensional model
of the connecting rods cap

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

OF THE CONNECTING ROD
Vasile George CIOAT
Imre KISS

Abstract: This study presents a method used to verify the

Fig. 3. The three-dimensional models
connecting rods stress and deformation using the finite
of the connecting rods screws and nut
element method with Ansys v.11. The study only analyses
a component of the connecting rod, and that is the
connecting rods foot, and only for one challenge
(request)-the extension-due to the maximum inertia force
of the piston group at the end of the evacuation. The
obtained results provided by this method are compared to
the results obtained by classic calculation, in similar
conditions of application, and afterwards conclusions are
drawn.

Keywords: connecting rod, stress and deformation,

Ansys v.11, computer aided design

1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the initial dates and relying on the
recommendations from the specialized literature [1,2] the
main dimensions of the connecting rods components
have been established: the foot, the rod, the head of the
connecting rod and the cap rod.
For the three-dimensional model of the connecting rod
based on the dimensions established in [2], the CAD
Autodesk Inventor software, made by Autodesk, is used.
Figure 1 presents the three-dimensional model of the
connecting rod, Figure 2 the three-dimensional model of
the connecting rods cap, and Figure 3 the three-
dimensional models of the connecting rods screws and
nut.
Fig. 1. Three-dimensional model of the connecting rod
Fig. 4. The three-dimensional model
of the connecting rods assembly
The three-dimensional model of the connecting rods
assembly is shown in Figure 4.
2. THE FINITE ELEMENTS ANALYSIS
WITH ANSYS
In order to make the connecting rods verification with
the computers help, the finite elements method is used,
applied with CAE-Ansys v.11 systems help.
Like many analysis programs with finite element, Ansys
divides any analysis problem into three stages:
preprocessing, solution and postprocessing.
In the first stage, the user creates the model to be analyzed
or imports it, defines the type of finite elements,
establishes the materials and their properties, all these by
easily activating the commands placed on the toolbar or in
the contextual menu from the branches in the
specification tree.
In the second stage, the loads are implemented, the initial
conditions and boundary conditions are defined, the
model is discretized (the program also allows the
automatically defining of the nodes and the finite
elements for the piece exposed to the analysis) and the
program is being asked to solve the problem.

83
The last stage, postprocessing, allows the user to view the The connecting rods foot is submitted to extension at the
results obtained from the analysis. The program disposes end of the evacuation by the maximum inertia force of the
of a big variety of facilities which will offer you the piston group, which has a value of Ft = 13562 [N].
possibility of understanding the behavior of the model
analyzed in reality. Animation can be used in order to test
if the models form and operation fit with the practical
final model.

3. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
The first step in order to start the analysis with the Ansys
programs help is to choose the type of analysis. The type
of analysis will decide which type of results will be
obtained. For the case of the connecting rods analysis, a
structural analysis will be performed.
The connecting rods model is made in Autodesk Inventor Fig. 6. The force distribution on the upper exterior
and saved within this program in *.sat format. The model cylindrical surface
is imported in Ansys and then the mechanical
characteristics of the connecting rod are established:
density - 7850 kg/m3, Youngs modulus - 2.1.105 MPa,
Poissons ratio - 0.3, elasticity limit - 320 MPa and tensile
breaking strength - 610 MPa.
The connecting rods analysis will be made in the linear
static field, where small changes happen in rigidity, no
change happens in the uploading direction, the materials
stay in the linear elastic field and small deformations and
efforts are generated.
The finite elements network is made automatically, using
the Mesh option from the specification tree. This
procedures result is shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 7. Bearing Load

Fig. 5. The finite elements results

After the discretization, the loads and the constraints of
the connecting rod are imposed. These are specific to
every function phase of the connecting rod. One of the
important factors for an accurate result is to apply
correctly the loads and the constraints. There are many
ways to apply different loads and constraints to the
model: on nods, on edges, on surfaces or elements.
The verification is made separately for the components of
the connecting rod. This study presents the finite element
analysis of the connecting rods foot, being loaded in
tension.
Fig. 8. Embedding-Fixed Support
It is considered that the force is distributed on the upper
exterior cylindrical surface of the connecting rods foot,
following a sinusoidal law (Figure 6), the resultant being
equal to the concentrated force (Figure 7).
Concerning the constraints applied to the piece, all the
DOFs of A surfaces from Figure 8 (embedding-Fixed
Support) and the DOFs tangent and radial of the inside
cylindrical surfaces B from the same figure (Cylindrical
Support) were bounded, the grade which allows the axial
translation along the holes remaining free.

84
4. RESULTS
After performing the analysis, the results are obtained as
stress fields and deformations. For the actual case, the
stresses are obtained following the von Misses theory, the
total deformations and deformations in X and Y direction.
The equivalent stress fields calculated with the von
Misses theory is shown in Figure 9, and the deformations
in X and Y directions are shown in Figure 10 and Figure
11.
Fig. 9. The equivalent stress fields calculated
with the von Misses theory
Fig. 10. The deformations in directions X
Fig. 11. The deformations in directions Y
5. CONCLUSIONS
In order to compare the equivalent stresses due to the
challenge at traction of the connecting rods foot,
obtained through the two methods, the representation in
Figure 12 was made.
Using the classic method, the maximum values of the
equivalent stresses in the outer and inner fibers were
obtained, considering that the embedded section
corresponds to the 1300 angle. It can bee seen in Figure 12
that the equivalent stresses obtained with the finite
element analysis in the interest zones, have approached
values to those calculated with the classic method.
Concomitantly, it can be observed that in the interest
zones, the stress values are maximum, fact which
confirms the theory.
Fig. 12. The equivalent stresses - the two methods
The maximum deformation of the foot under the action of
the extension force Ft, calculated with the classic method,
has a value of 0.073 mm. In Figure 11 it can be observed
that the maximum deformation obtained with the finite
element method has a maximum value of 0.036 mm. This
can be explained by the fact that many simplification
hypotheses were considered for the classic calculation.
85
As a result of the connecting rods designing using the
two methods: classic and computer aided, the next
conclusions are made:
 From the constructive form designings point of view
,both of the methods require dates and informations
which can be found in the specialized literature, some
of them obtained through statistic ways, the
experience of the designer being requested.
 After establishing the main dimensions of the
connecting rod, in the case of classic designing, the
execution drawing is made manually or with help
from a drawing soft, composed of plane
representations, which represents a disadvantage
because it is necessary to compose the plane images
in the mind to view its 3D model.
 Besides the fact that it allows the three-dimensional
view of the designed model, a parametric three-
dimensional designing soft also allows the fast
obtaining of execution drawings with the purpose of
making its technical elaboration, and any modification
on the three dimensional model is also made
automatically on the execution drawings.
 From the verifications calculations point of view, it is
obvious that using a finite element analysis soft
(Ansys, in this case) for the stresses and deformations
calculations, saves a lot of time, comparative to the
classic methods calculation. Even more, results are
obtained in all of the structures nodes, not only in
certain sections.
 By using CAD and CAE software in the pieces
designing activity, the designer has the possibility to
analyze, in a short time, different constructive
variants, making his designing work more effective.
 Concerning the obtained results through the two
designing methods, it is observed that the values have
the same size order (especially the equivalent
stresses), which indicates the fact that the three-
dimensional model, the loads and the constraints were
correctly prescribed.
86
REFERENCES
[1] PICOS, C., s.a, Tehnologia construciei de maini.
Probleme, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti,
1976
[2] RAICA, T., Construcia i calculul motoarelor cu
ardere intern, P. III, Lito IPTV Timioara, 1984
[3] CIOATA, V. G., MIKLOS I. Z., Proiectare asistat
de calculator cu Autodesk Inventor, Ed. Mirton,
Timioara, 2009
[4] CIOATA, V. G., Proiectare asistat de calculator cu
Catia V5, Ed. Mirton, Timioara, 2008
[5] SHAM TICKOO, Autodesk Inventor 2008 for
Designers, CADCIM Technologies, USA, 2008
[6] *** - Ansys Users Manual
[7] STOLARSKI, T., & collective, Engineering analysis
with ANSYS software, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006
CORRESPONDENCE
Vasile George CIOAT, Lect. Dr.Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
vasile.cioata@fih.upt.ro
Imre KISS, Assoc. Prof. Dr., Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
imre.kiss@fih.upt.ro
  Hertz stresses reach relative high values, around 500-
700 MPa, on the cam peak.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE CAM

PROFILE DESIGN ON THE CAM AND
TAPPET HERTZ STRESSES AND WEAR
Constantin ONESCU
Fig. 1. The cam and bucket tappet valvetrain.
Nicolae POPA
Ionel VIERU
2. THE TAPPET MOVEMENT

Abstract: In this paper the influence of the cam profile To study the cam-follower coupler from cinematic point
design on the Hertz stresses and wear is studied. The cam of view we have the model from figure 1. Into the tasks
profile studied has the negative curvature radius on the specifications of the automotive engine valve train it gives
cam peak. The risk is that from technological reasons the for the polar angle (i), the values for the space (sI) of the
curvature radius to be zero. In this case the Hertz stresses flat follower. In this situation is indicated that the follower
and wear reach high values which modify the movement velocities and acceleration to be evaluated by numerical
law of the tappet. derivation, using the finite difference method [3]:
The authors try to correct the cam profile to avoid this ds si+1 si1
phenomenon, maintaining the negative curvature radius vt* = sT' = = (1)
on cam peak. d 2
The profile cam is designed starting with the
accelerations curve but in the same time related to the d 2 s si 1 + si 1 2 si
at* = sT'' = = (2)
Hertz cam and tappet stresses. d ( ) 2
Key words: valvetrain, cam profile, curvature radius, where si+1, si-1, si, one takes from the tables. The
Hertz stresses numerical values of the cam follower displacement si = si
(i) it loads on the computer using Excel soft. The
derivation step = 4 o . By coupling the calculus
1. INTRODUCTION algorithm to Excel it determines the variation
laws s = s( ) , s ' = s ' ( ) , s" = s" ( ) for a Kurz cam
In the case of the cam and tappet contact the without profile deviations with r0 =26.4 mm (basis circle
hydrodynamic lubrication theory is not reliable, because radius), smax = 8.9 mm (followers maximum
these types of contacts are very loaded. Introducing the displacement). as shown in fig. 2.
elastodynamic (EHD) theory it can compute the
lubrication parameters according with experimental data.
The EHD friction-lubrication regime is characteristic for
the high loaded Hertz contacts where the Hertz stresses
reach high and very high values (182200 MPa), and it
appears an elastic deformation, an interface, maintaining
the lubrication film between elements [1,4].
The EHD conditions appear, also, for the cam-tappet
contact presented in figure 1. The following conditions
are fulfilled:
 between cam and tappet the tangential and normal
relative movement is presented;
 the cam and tappet profiles assure the interspace EHD
lubrication configuration;
 the relative velocity assures the lubricant transport
within the lubrication interspace; Fig. 2. The 3D model of the camshaft.

87
From [1] it results that the movement laws from intake si +1 si 1 180 3
and exhaust cams are almost identical, and the tappet vt = AD 10 [m/s] (6)
velocities and accelerations have the appropriate values. 2
On recommends that the contact motion laws to be 2
establish beginning with the accelerations. si +1 + si 1 2si 2 180 3
at = AD 10 [m/s2] (7)
( )
2
The experimental applications and theoretical
development shows that the very small variations of the
cam profile as undulations or very small wears, for n AD
example adhesive wear, produce great variations of the where AD = represents the camshaft speed of
30
cam followers accelerations, in this case the inertia forces revolution, means the half of crankshaft value and s[mm]
exceeds the value initially considered from the valvetrain
the cam follower displacement, [] cam polar angle
design (Fig.2).
derivation step.
100
cama uzata

50

0
s''[mm/rad2]

-50
cama
teoretica

-100

-150
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
unghi [grade]

Fig. 3. Reduced accelerations for theoretical (blue) and

wear (red) exhaust cams Fig. 5. The real cam follower acceleration for theoretical
From theoretical point of view the cam - bucket tappet cam (non-wear) corresponding to different values of cam
contact can be modeled by three superposed points (on shaft speed revolution n AD =500...2000 rpm.
the cam, on the tappet and the contact ring) and the
following parameters can be deduced [1]: For this cam profile on observes from fig.4 that the
R p = r0 + sT ( ) (3) maximum acceleration value didnt appear on the cam
inflection points but the maximum acceleration values
Polar radius can be written as: appears on the cam peak within a small angular range. It
Rc = R p2 + e 2 (4) means that in this area will appear the maximum strength
of cam and cam follower.
Radius of curvature is given by the following relation:
= R p + sT'' ( ) (5) 3. FORCES FROM DIRECT VALVETRAIN

During the engine operation, in the valvetrain act the gas

pressure forces from cylinders, the inertia forces given by
the movement masses, the elastic force from valve spring
and the friction force from cam follower coupler [2].
From forces given above we consider only the inertia and
spring forces because the others forces are small.
Figure 4 gives the force equilibrium as written with the
relation (8):
m &s& = FN Fa or
(8)
FN = m at + k ( s0 j + s)
where s0 the initial spring displacement and j -thermal
clearance, k [N/mm] valve spring stiffness, m[kg]
movement masses.
Fig. 4. Cam curvature radius.
The movement mass can be written as:
On observes from the figure 3 that the curvature radius is m = mv + mt + ms / 3 (9)
negative on the cam peak.
To compute the real values of the cam follower velocity where mv - valve mass; mf tappet mass;
and acceleration we write the following relations: ms spring valve mass.

88
After the calculus of the couplers normal force can For steel the Young modulus is Pentru oel
compute the friction force as F f = FN and the 5
Ec = Et = E = 2.1 10 N / mm 2
and Poisson
friction loss power coefficient is t = = 0.3
Pf = F f v f (10)

The drive torque for the camshaft is given by the relation:

M rr = FN e (11)

where e is the contact position on the cam follower

diameter.

Tappet mass Spring mass

(mt) (ms)

Fig. 8. The Hertz stresses at cam and bucket interface for

500 rpm camshaft.
Valve mass Figure 5 presents the Hertz stress at 500 rpm for the cam
(mv)
profile with curvature radius presented in figure 3. At the
cam angle -12 degree, the curvature radius has the values
0.3153. That means that in this point the Hertz stresses
reach high value (2500 MPa) which is over the stress
Fig. 6. The direct valvetrain forces for the exhaust valve. material limits. With this cam profile design the
maximum value is not on the peak of the cam. With the
modified design from figure 6 the Hertz stresses between
cam and tappet have the shape from figure 7.

Fig. 7. Normal cam force FN versus cam angle and

camshaft speed revolution. Fig. 9. Modified cam profile design curvature radius.

4. CAM AND TAPPET HERTZ STRESSES

On suppose that the cam and tappet contact surface are

smooth, in this case the elements are pushed with the
normal force FN which is variable on cam profile and
camshaft speed revolution (figure 5). On observes that the
maximum force appears on the cam peak at the low and
medium speed and on the side parts at high speed.
The material for the cam and tappet is steel, and is
recommended that the material hardness to be around 60
HRC.
In this case the contract pressure is given by the Hertz
relation:
Fig. 10. The Hertz stresses at cam and bucket interface
FN 1 1 for 500 rpm camshaft.
H =
bc c 1 c 1 t2
2
+
In this case the contact stresses has the maximum value
c E E t on the cam peak and in the tappet centre. The speed

89
camshaft revolution, friction force and the cam profile
design lead to the cam and tappet deterioration by wear
and fatigue.
5. THE CAM AND TAPPET WEAR
The premature damages of the cam by severe wear are
due to the nonconformity of the technological factors,
especially the grinding parameters. Figure 8 presents a
comparison between a new camshaft and a camshaft used
around 40000 km on the car engine. The cam profile wear
is severe with the size of 4 mm on the cam peak
premature (Table 1). The severe wear appears in the area
where the hydrodynamic lubrication velocity is zero (dry
friction) and is combined with high temperature
conditions especially for the exhaust cams.
On observes that the area where the material is detached
is the area where the hydrodynamic velocity is zero [1],
so the friction is dry, and the tappet center is intact. With
the wear increasing the cam acting on the tappet detached
the material and it obtains the wear from figure 9 right. In
this moment correlated with the spin tappet motion,
lubrication and high temperature the tappet center wear is
increasing.
6. CONCLUSION
During many years the cam profile was designed related
to the tappet accelerations but its more important to
reduce the cam and tappet wear to correlate the cam
profile design with the curvature radius and the Hertz
stresses level. The negative curvature radius can reduce
the Hertz stresses level on the cam peak but the
technological and operating parameters must to avoid that
curvature radius to leads to zero.

REFERENCES
[1] ONESCU, C., The influence of cam profile deviations
on tribologic parameters for the cam follower
coupler with flat disc from thermal engine, The 12th
Fig. 11. The exhaust cam lobe wear (comparison with the IFToMM World Congress, Besancon 2007
new camshaft). [2] MATEA, A., DUMITRECU, V., ONESCU, C., The
study about forces system from cam-pusher coupler
Table 1. Comparision between new and used camshaft with flat disc, The eight SYROM, International
Symposium on Theory of Machines and
Wear Cam New Cam Mechanisms, Bucharest 2001, pp.251-256.
Diference
Lobe Lobe [3] ONESCU, C., Contributions to the acoustic radiation
[mm]
[mm] [mm] study using the equivalent source method with
Exhaust 1 57.50 -4.18 61.68 application to the thermal engine radiation with
Intake 1 61.50 -0.10 61.60 excitation given by valve train. PhD Thesis,
Exhaust 2 60.40 -1.15 61.65 University of Pitesti 2006.
Intake 2 61.20 -0.42 61.62 [4] BLAIR, G.P., McCARTAN, C.D., HERMANN, H.,
Intake 3 60.70 -0.93 61.63 Making the cam, Race engine technology, October
Exhaust 3 57.50 -4.09 61.59 2005, pp 46-55. (www.profblairandassociates.com)
Intake 4 61.10 -0.52 61.62
Exhaust 4 58.10 -3.53 61.63 CORRESPONDENCE
The main cause of the cam damages is the high values of Constantin ONESCU, Lecturer PhD. Eng.
the Hertz stresses on the peak of the cam correlated with University of Piteti
temperature increasing. For the intake cam lobe, the wear Faculty of Mechanics and Technology
has the maximum values around 1 mm. Trgu din Vale 1
The modification of the cam profile influences the valve 110040 Piteti, Romania
displacement with a bad engine operating (fig. 2). costi_onescu@yahoo.com
The theoretical study of the valvetrain shows that the cam
contact point C1 crosses one time the cam profile, the
tappet contact point C2 crosses twice the tappet. From this Nicolae POPA, Prof. PhD. Eng.
cause combined with the spin motion of the tappet the University of Piteti
different forms of friction and wear appears (fig. 9). Faculty of Mechanics and Technology
Trgu din Vale 1
110040 Piteti, Romania
npopa49@yahoo.com

Ionel VIERU, Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng.

University of Piteti
Faculty of Mechanics and Technology
Trgu din Vale 1
110040 Piteti, Romania
ionel.vieru@upit.ro
Fig. 12. The exhaust tappet wears.

90
 2. METHODOLOGY OF MODELING FSPL
RELIABILITY AND EFFICIENCY
Every multi-role CNC machine tool can be considered as
a complex system. If the system contains n number of
serial connected elements, damage of any of them leads to
the failure of the whole system and can be described by
graph [3, 4].
States on the graph: S0 all n elements of the system are
operating; S1 the first element failed and the system is
non-operational; S2 the second element failed and the
system is out of order; . . ; Sn nth element failed and the
system is not working.
Indications on the graph:
THE MODELING AND DESIGNING OF ( ) ( )
i , i = 1, n ; i , i = 1, n the intensity of failure and
FLEXIBLE SYNCHRONOUS restoration stream of working ability of 1 to n elements.
PRODUCTION LINE WITH REDUNDANT Because of the fact that after failure of any element the
TECHNOLOGICAL CELL rest of the elements cannot function properly until the
time of restoration of its work ability, it is considered that
Oleg FILIPOVICH only one element can fail at a time. All failure and
Victor TARANENKO restoration streams are considered as simple.
Antoni SWIC
Lech MAZUREK

Abstract: The paper introduces a mathematical model of

operation of a flexible synchronous production line
(FSPL) of multifunctional CNC machines that includes
one redundant multifunctional CNC machine which can
take over the functions of every FSPL machine. The
optimization of the number of machine tools considering
the efficiency of FSPL was conducted during designing of
FPSL. The graph of FSPL state, relations and equations
used to calculate reliability and productivity were shown.
Maple, the software used for reliability and productivity
calculations and modeling, as well as the mathematical
results are presented.

Keywords: model, flexible, synchronous production line,

technological cell

1. INTRODUCTION

Multi-role CNC machines are mainly designed for

processing frame type parts which have many holes with
different diameters and precision (class 5 to 11), on which
resistance points are based, and additional tools are
connected to the frame and to mounting connections (to
attach the part using screws or pegs and to facilitate
processing, establishing datums, and assembly). The
dimensions of the main hole diameters vary within a wide
range (from 16 to 50 mm) and depend on the type of part
[1]. The work [2] introduces specification of processing
Fig. 1. The conditions graph of the multirole CNC
machine tool: a) system elements from 1 to n; b) elements
conditions; c) machine as the sum of all elements
The system of equations for the qualification of final
probabilities is presented below:
n n

P0 i = Pii ;
and classification of holes for the system of automated i =1 i =1

design of technological processes. Modern market P11 = P01 ;

conditions require production characterized by quick start P = P ;
2 2 0 2
and quick change of the assortment of produced parts. (1)
.......
CNC machine tools and Flexible Production Systems P = P ;
(FPS), combing the high flexibility of traditional i i 0 i

equipment and the high efficiency of machine tools, are .......

P = P .
the most effective equipment for multi-nomenclature n n 0 n

production.

91
The standardization condition: 3. THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF FSPL
n FUNCTIONING
Pj = 1. (2)
j =0 At present we use the structure of the flexible
synchronous production line (FSPL) from the multi-role
After change of the first equation of system (1) to the CNC machine tools with a redundant technological cell
standardization condition (2) and solutions, every (RTC) which can replace any multi-role machine
probability Pi , (i = 1, n) is expressed by P0 : technological cell (TC). Fig.3 introduces the structure of
such a flexible system (FSPL).
i
Pi = P0 . (3)
i
The set of numbers i is marked as I ( i I ). Let us
introduce the j , belonging to this set: j I . With regard
of new letters, after the substitution of 3 to the
standardization condition 2 the following formula is
received:
1
P0 = .
n j
1+ (4)
j =1 j

After substitution of (4) to (3):

i i The redundant technological cell (RTC) can replace only
Pi = = , one damaged machine (TC), so whole system (FSPL)
n j n
(1 + ) i 1 + j (5) stops to work after failure of two machines (TC) [5].
j =1 j j =1
Fig.3. The FSPL structure
i j The graph of states (FSPL), including RTC, is introduced
where: i = ,j = . on fig. 4. States on the graph:
i j
The output system (Fig.1) is replaced with the simple S 0 - all multirole machines (TC) are operating; S1 - 1
two-state element: working and non-work (in the damage TC1 does not operate; S 2 - 2 TC2 does not operate; ,
condition; non-operational). The diagram of such an
S n - n - TC does not operate; S1,1 - second TC failure
element or new system is introduced in Fig. 2. n 2

while TC1 does not operate; . . S1, 2 - third TC3 failure

while TC1 does not operate; ; S1,n 1 - the n e TCn
failure while TC does not operate; S 2,1 - first TC
1 1

failure while TC2 does not operate; S 2, 2 - third TC3

failure while TC2 does not operate; ; S 2,n 1 the n - e
TC failure while TC does not operate; S3,1 - first TC
n 2 1

failure while TC3 does not operate; S3, 2 - second TC2

Fig. 2. Diagram of the system element failure while TC does not operate; S3,3 - (not shown on
3
graph) the TC4 failure while TC3 does not operate; ... ;
where is defined as: S3,n 1 - the ne TC failure while TC does not operate;
n 3
n
= i . S i ,1 - first TC failure while TC does not operate; S -
(6) 1 i i,2
i =1
second TC2 failure while TCi does not operate; ; Si ,n1
The value is defined from dependence: - failure n-e TC while TC does not operate; S n,1 - first
n i

P0 TC1 failure while TCn does not operate; S n, 2 - second

= (7)
1 P0 TC failure while TC does not operate; ; S n,n 1 - n1
2 n
- e TCn failure while TCn does not operate; States
After substitution of (4) to (7) the following formula is S 0 , S1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 ,..., S n - able to work and remaining for
received:
an emergency. Graph clarification: i (i = 1, n); i (i = 1, n)

= - intensity of the failure stream and restoring the working
n
j . (8) ability of technological devices TCi i = 1, n) .
j =1

92
The number of states is considerable (e.g. for n = 10 the where Pij - the states probability of Sij Ei , the rate
number of states is N = n 2 + 1 = 101 , which makes model Pi
before i in (1), equal Pi +
construction and analysis difficult). That is the approach n 1
Pij , then conditional
based on the increase of states is proposed. j =1( j i )

We isolate the following subsets in E set (power N ): probability, that it is include in the subset of states Ei , the
E1 = {S1 , S1,1 , S1, 2 ,..., S1,n1}; E2 = {S 2 , S 2,1 , S 2, 2 ,..., S 2,n1} ; system is in the state Si .
E3 = {S 3 , S 3,1 , S 3, 2 ,..., S 3,n1 } ;
; Ei = {S i , S i ,1 , S i , 2 ,..., S i ,n1}; ;
En = {S n , S n,1 , S n, 2 ,..., S n,n1} .

We will qualify the probability of system existence in

these subsets. In this case we will consider a diagram of
equivalent enlarged system shown in Fig. 4.

States on the diagram (Fig.4):

S0 - all multirole CNC machine tools are operating;
S1 - the system is in one of states of the E1 subset;

S2 - the system is in one of the states of E2 subset; ;
Sn - the system is in one of states of the En subset. Fig. 5. Diagram of conditions equivalent of enlarged
system
On the graph: i , (i = 1, n) - is the intensity of the failure
streams UTi , (i = 1, n); i 0 , (i = 1, n) - the intensity of the We will mark the component of set as S k , (k = 1, N ) ,
stream restoring the system working ability from subsets ( S k E ). Dividing the numerator and the nominative (1)
Ei , (i = 1, n). by the probability of system being in the
n 1
Ei Piz = P{S k Ei } = Pi +
j =1( j i )
Pij subset, we will
receive:

Pi
i 0 = i = Piy i
Pi (10)

where Piy - the conditional probability of system being in

the S i state.
We will qualify the conditional probability of the
elements of Ei subsets:
Piy = P{S k = Si / S k Ei }; Pijy = P{S k = Si / S k Ei } . They
are equal:

Pi
Piy =
Pi , (11)

Fig. 4. Graph of FSPL conditions, including one reserved

RTC place Pij Pij
Pijy = = n 1
Pi Pi + Pij . (12)

The task consists in defining i 0 (i = 1, n) . If all diagram j =1( j i )

(Fig. 4) conditions probabilities are known, then Piy

To determine the probabilities and
i 0 (i = 1, n) can be determined from the dependence:
Pijy , (i = 1, n; j = 1n 1) we should consider subsets
Pi Ei , (i = 1, n) as independent subsets. For comfort, the set
i0 = n 1
i
Pi + Pij (9) of numbers j is marked as J , ( j J ). Let us introduce
j =1( j i )
numbers m , also belonging to this subset ( m J ).

93
With regard of the new numbers of dependence to The whole initial structure of the flexible synchronous
determine Piy and Pijy we get: line (FSPL) pf multi-role CNC machine tools, including
reserve working place (RTC), is replaced through one
1 simplest equivalent element for which the intensities of
Piy = n 1 the failures streams and the restoration of efficiency
1+ j , (13)
j =1( j i ) are known. An element with two states is considered
j as the simplest: the standby and the working state. A
Pijy = n 1
, (14) diagram of conditions of such an element is shown in
1+ m
m =1( m i ) Fig.6.

j
where j = , m = m - the imported intensities of
j m
streams.
Substituting (13) in (10) we will receive:

n 1
i 0 = (1 + j ) 1 i . (15)
j =1( j i ) Fig. 6. Graph of FSPL conditions, referred to the simplest
element
All intensities in the diagram (Fig.5) are known, and the
States in the diagram: S 0 - able to the work; S -
probability of states P0 , P1 ,..., Pi ,..., Pn is defined
broken (unable to work). We will introduce two new
according to well-known dependences [3]:
subsets of states for the diagram in Fig. 4: U - able to
1 work , encircled with dashed line, and V - incapable of
n n 1
P0 = 1 + i (1 + j ) , (16) working:
i =1 j =1( j i )
U = {S0 , S1,..., Si ,..., S n }
1
n n 1 n 1
Pi = 1 + i (1 + j ) i (1 + j ) . (17) S1,1 ,..., S1, j ,..., S1,n 1 ,..., S i ,1 ,...,
i =1 j =1( j i ) j =1( j i )
V =
S ij ,..., S i ,n 1 ,..., S n ,1 ,..., S n , j ,..., S n ,n 1
After calculations according to relations (16) (17), the
graph probability conditions, introduced in Fig. 5, can The subset U answers state S0 introduced in Fig. 6,
determine the probability of states Si (i = 1, n) and and the subset V - state S The probability of the
Sij (i = 1, n; j = 1, n 1) of the diagram, introduced in Fig.
system being in states S0 and S is equal to:
3. According to (11), (12) and (13),(14):
n
n 1
P0 = P0 + Pi , (22)
i =1
Pi = Piy Pi = (1 + j ) 1 Pi , (18)
j =1( j i )
n n 1
P = 1 P0 = Pij . (23)
j i =1 j =1( j i )
Pij = Pijy Pi = n 1
Pi
1+ m . (19)
m =1( m i )

Intensities and for graph introduced on fig. 6

are equal to:
After substituting (17) in (18) and (19) :
n Pi n 1 n Pi n 1
1 = ( j) = ( j)
n n 1 i =1 P0 j =1( j i ) i =1
P0 + Pi
n
j =1( j i ) , (24)
Pi = 1 + i (1 + j ) i , (20) i =1
i =1 j =1( j i )

1 n n 1 Pij n n 1 Pij
n n 1 = j = n 1
j
Pij = 1 + i (1 + j ) i j . (21) i =1 j =1( j i ) P i =1 j =1( j i )
n
. (25)
Pij
i =1 j =1( j i ) j =1 j =1( j i )

94
4. PROGRAM FOR DEFINING FSPL 7. Defining the parameters of functioning of the
RELIABILITY AND EFFICIENCY synchronous line not including the reserve place:
1
K =
The program for defining the parameters of functioning of - the rate of readiness of the line G 1 + i ,
i
synchronous FSPL was written in the mathematical
software for analytic calculations Maple. This 1
K G .
environment is a powerful computer tool, able the solve - the efficiency of the line P = t
max
complex mathematical tasks. It contains tools related to 8. Calculation of current values
many mathematical fields (algebra, discreet mathematics,
- increase of the coefficient of readiness of the line
differential and integral mathematics, numerical and
different methods) and also allows graphical as absolute value K G = K G K G
representation, and connection to external modules and K G
programming tools. The algorithm of calculating the in percentages K G = max{K , K }100%
parameters of functioning the FSPL was worked out. All G G

calculations were carried out for the universal machining - increase of the efficiency of the line as absolute value
CNC center KORRADI VH 1000 that is part of P = P P
production lines to engine frames of vehicle Tavria Nova in percentages
(1200 cm3 i 63 KM) within the department of the stock
P
corporation AvtoZAZ-Motor in Melitopol Ukraine. The P = 100%
simulations were conducted for FSPL which consists of max{P, P}
vertical machining center CINCINNATI SABRE 1000 These calculation are taken cyclically until the condition n
and vertical machining center CINCINNATI ARROW = N is not met. After that the programme works out the
1000. results of the experiment (increase of efficiency) and
presents the results on the screen as a matrix and a chart.
The components of the program: The charts of increase of FSPL efficiency after changing
1. Block pastern of the input data. parameters and were introduced in Fig. 7, 8, 9.
2. The block of the calculation of required parameters
functions of the synchronous line with (without) the
reserve place. 5. THE RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
3. Block of formatting results of the experiment and
output for these results. 5.1 Line with the Maximum Number TC Equal
to 10
Input data to the execution of research: The parameters of reliability and service of all TCs are
1. Maximum number of cells in the line N; equal to
2. Intensity of the stream of damage i and restoring the = 0,2 (h-1)
working ability i of every unit ( i = 1, N ); = 5 (h-1)
3. Average time of service for every production t = 0,1 (h)
individual cell ti ( i = 1, N );
4. Step of calculations n (total number equal to the MATRIX OF EFFICIENCY INCREASE
difference between the values of two of the current
number of cells in line n of neighbouring cycles).

The block of calculations comprise the following

operations:

Defining intensities of streams i = , i = 1, N
i
1.
i
2. Qualification of the intensity i0 according to
dependence (15).
3. Calculation of the probability P0 according to
dependence (16). Fig. 7. Graph of FSPL efficiency increase
4. Calculation of the probability Pi, Pi, Pij according to MAXIMUM INCREASE = 21.224489795918
dependence (17), (18), (21) respectively.
5. Qualification of the rate of the readiness of the line
K G = P0 according to dependence (22). 5.2. Line with the Maximum Number of TC
Equal to 10
6. Calculation of the efficiency of the line: The parameters of reliability and service of all TCs:
1
P= KG , = 0,25 (h-1)
t max
= 4 (h-1)
where tmax - maximal time among average times of t = 0,1 (h)
service for every production cell

95
 MATRIX OF EFFICIENCY INCREASE
Fig. 8. Graph of FSPL efficiency increase|
MAXIMAL INCREASE = 25.1479289940828
5.3. Line with the Maximum Number of TC
Equal 10
The parameters of reliability and service of all TCs:
= 0,3 (h-1)
-1
= 3 (h )
t = 0,1 (h)
MATRIX OF EFFICIENCY INCREASE
Fig. 9. Graph of FSPL efficiency increase
MAXIMAL INCREASE = 27.500000000000
6. OPTIMIZATION OF THE NUMBER OF
MACHINE TOOLS IN THE FLEXIBLE
SYNCHRONOUS PRODUCTION LINE
The process of running the flexible synchronous
production line (FSPL) which consists of consecutively
connected technological machines (TM) with one stand-
by technological machine (STM) is considered in the
paper (Fig. 3).
The line consists of technological machines of one type in
number of n (TM1, , TMn) and one stand-by
technological machine STM which is able to replace
every single machine of TM system (the simulation was
carried out for FSPL in a.m. enterprise AvtoZAZ-Motor
in Melitopol).
In references [5] they present the model of functioning the
FSPL but the whole lines structure is exchanged,
according to reliability parameters, for the simple
equivalent element with two states (working and
emergency), defining its functioning indexes:
96
1) the intensity of failure and restoration stream of
working ability;
2) expected value of the production unit service time;
3) availability factor;
4) efficiency ratio taking into consideration reliability
parameters.
By creating the model they assumed that all streams
which carry the system from one state to another are
simple and service times are disposed exponentially.
However the intensity of failure stream i and restoration
stream of working ability i and also service times ti in
every TMi are different.
The given model differs from the one in references [6]
with equal quantities.
The aim of the model was to define the productivity gain
that is the difference of productivity of FSPL with STM
and productivity without STM:
&& = P
P && P
&&
The analysis of the results obtained by applying the model
shows, that by increasing the number of machine tools in
the line the diagram of the productivity gain is like the
one shown in Fig. 10.
First, the diagram increases steeply right up to the
maximum, then it decreases fluently together with
increasing number of TM in the line and the diagram can
practically reach the zero. It is obvious because by
significant increasing the number of TM in FSPL, one
STM cannot manage to replace the fixed number of TM,
well the productivity of FSPL with STM is equal the
productivity of FSPL without STM.
Fig. 10. Approximate diagram of the productivity gain
vs number of TM
The tasks optimization is found here, it lies in the fact,
that it is necessary to define the number of TM in FSPL
with STM which allows to attain the maximum
productivity gain. This is the task of integer programming
without reservation (taking into consideration that number
of TM is even). The solution shouldnt be worried out by
specially developed algorithm, it is better to choose the
quick choice process which consists in the repeatable
procedure in cycles, in each step j of the mathematical
model (in references [5]) for the current number of
technological machines TMj it defines the availability
factor of FSPL with STM and without STM and also its
&& , i P
productivity ( P && - accordingly). The productivity
j j
&& is defined. If P
gain P && > P
&& then the current
j j j 1
number of TM in the line - nj is assumed as the optimum
point nP&&P&& . Otherwise the cycle can be stopped. The
conditioning of unimodular target function (there is the
only extreme that is the global extreme) is confirmed by
findings of research with different parameters. In that
procedure the quantity j is being changed from 1 to nP&&P&&
and at the beginning of the cycle nP&&P&& = 1 .
The program of searching for optimal number of
technological machines is realized in the mathematical
software Maple 9. The solutions of the tasks is going to
be presented here.
The intensity of failure and restoration stream of working
ability and also the service times for every single machine
tool are assumed to be equal. The presented below
research is connected with defining the influence of
reliability parameters on optimal number of machine tools
in the line by fixed service times [7].
1. Reliability parameters are to be changed depending on
the intensity of failure of every single machine tool i =
0,250,35 h-1 with constants i = 3 h-1 and ti = 0,05 h
(Fig. 11).
Maximum productivity gain and optimal number of
machine tools are:
- in first case: Pmax = 27,90 pcs./h,nopt = 9 pcs.
- in second case: Pmax = 27,50 pcs./h,nopt = 10 pcs.
- in third case: Pmax = 27,08 pcs./h,nopt = 12 pcs.
Fig.11. Diagram of the productivity gain vs number of TM
by parameters quantities: 1 - i = 0,35 h-1, i = 3 h-1,
2 - i = 0,30 h-1,i = 3 h-1, 3 - i = 0,25 h-1, i = 3 h-1
2. Reliability parameters are to be changed depending on
the intensity restoration stream of working ability of
every single machine tool i = 35 h-1 with constants
i = 3 h-1 i ti = 0,1 h (Fig. 12).
Maximum productivity gain and optimal number of
machine tools are:
- in first case: Pmax = 27,50 pcs./h,nopt = 10 pcs.
- in second case: Pmax = 26,87 pcs./h,nopt = 13 pcs.
- in third case: Pmax = 26,49 pcs./h,nopt = 17 pcs.
Fig. 12. Diagram of the productivity gain vs number of
TM by parameters quantities: 1)i = 5 h-1,i = 3 h-1,
2)i = 4 h-1,i = 3 h-1, 3)i = 3 h-1,i = 3 h-1
7. CONCLUSIONS
A methodology is presented for modelling CNC machine
tools and FSPL. A mathematical model of machine tools
and FSPL as a structure of elementary technological cells
has been developed. The obtained results relate to
machining in flexible systems that are wholly brand-
name.
An algorithm has been developed for the calculation of
parameters of FSPL operation. All the calculations were
made for the universal CNC machining centre KORRADI
VH 1000, included in the production line for machining
engine blocks of the vehicle Tavria Nova (1200 cm3 and
63 KM) at the production department of the Company
AvtoZAZ-Motor" in Melitopol, Ukraine. Simulations
were performed for FSPL that incorporates a vertical
machining centre CINCINNATI SABRE 1000 and a
vertical machining centre CINCINNATI ARROW 1000.
The results of the simulation showed that the maximum
gain in productivity: Pmax = 27.90 pcs /h, and the
optimum number of machine tools nopt = 9 pcs, were
obtained at the level of damage stream intensity for each
machine tool of i = 0,25 ...0,35 h-1 and for constants i, =
3 h-1 and ti = 0,05 h.
The results of simulation showed that the maximum gain
in productivity: Pmax = 27.50 pcs /h, and the optimum
number of machine tools nopt = 10 pcs, were obtained for
the value of intensity of stream of restoration to work for
each machine tool of i = 3...5 h-1 at constants i, = 3 h-1
and 7,= 0,1 h.
The given values of intensity of streams of damage of
each machine tool , and of restoration to work , and ti
were obtained at the aforementioned Company. The
obtained results of simulations of gain in productivity and
the optimum numbers of machine tools indicate that with
deterioration in reliability parameters there is a decrease
in the optimum number of machine tools, but for a
specific number of machine tools the gain in productivity
is higher than for a line with analogous parameters of
maintenance and better indices of reliability.
97
REFERENCES CORRESPONDENCE
[1] SWIC A.: Elastyczne systemy produkcyjne.
Technologiczno-organizacyjne aspekty Oleg FILIPOVICH Doc. Ph D. Eng.
projektowania i eksploatacji. Wydawnictwo Sevastopol National Technical University
Politechniki Lubelskiej, Lublin (1998) Universyteckaya 33, 99-053
[2] MAZUREK L., SWIC A., TARANENKO V.: Holes Sevastopol, Ukraine,
processing and classification in automated phiol@ukr.net
technological process projecting system. Acta
Mechanica Slovaca, Journal published by Faculty of Victor TARANENKO Prof. PhD, D.Sc.,
Mechanical Engineering, the Technical University in Eng, Head of Flexible Manufacturing
Kosice, Kosice, 2-A/2006, Rocnik 10. s.325 330 Systems Department
(2006) Institute of Technological and
[3] SWIC A., TARANENKO V.: Projektowanie Information Systems
technologicznych systemw produkcyjnych. Lublin University of Technology
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej, Lublin (2003) Nadbystrzycka 36
[4] TARANENKO V. ., TCZUB . P.: Sistemnyj 20-618 Lublin, Poland
podchod k sintezu GAL mechanoobrabotki: w.taranenko@pollub.pl
Avtomatizacja processov i upravlenije, Viestnik
SevGTU, Sevastopol: wyp.7, 1997 (1997) Antoni WI, PhD, D.Sc., Eng., (Accos.
[5] FILIPOWICZ O., MAZUREK L., TARANENKO Prof.), The Head of Institute of
V., SWIC A.: Model matematyczny funkcjonowania Technological Systems of Information
elastycznej linii produkcyjnej. Pomiary. Automatyka. Lublin University of Technology
Robotyka. Miesiecznik naukowo techniczny, nr Nadbystrzycka 36
2/2007, Warszawa (2007) 20-618 Lublin, Poland
[6] MAZUREK L., FILIPOWICZ O., TARANENKO a.swic@pollub.pl
W., WI A.: Model procesu przezbrajania
wielozadaniowych obrabiarek NC w elastycznym Lech MAZUREK, M.Sc. Eng, assistant
systemie produkcyjnym. Przegld Mechaniczny The State School of Higher Education
No.5/2007, Suplement. S. 104-106 in Chelm
[7] .. - Pocztowa Str. 54, 22-100 Chelm, Poland
lmazurek@pwsz.chelm.pl
/.. , .. , .. . .:
, 1992. 536 .

98
 2. DESIGN OF LAMINATE CAB

2.1. The design principles

The laminate cab was designed according to yet existing
steel cab design for DETVAN HON 200 wheel loader.
The new cab was calculated in favor of this machines
mass. Whole laminate cab (Fig.1) is made of shell
features.

PASSIVE SAFETY OF MOBILE

WORKING MACHINE LAMINATE CAB,
ACCORDING ISO 3449 AND ISO 3471
STANDARDS
Jn EO
Martin TANEVSKI
Miroslav VERE

Abstract: This paper discuss the possibility of laminates

application in transport technology, particularly in
mobile working machines as the alternative to the
conventional materials.
It presents the results of FOPS / ROPS tests of the cab Fig. 1. Test sample
testing sample. This has been designed to be used for the
DETVAN HON 150/200 wheel loader, produced in PPS 2.2. Main shell
Groups works, Detva (Slovakia).
The design and testing process and the article were made The main shell of cab is made from 10 triaxial plies
within the solution of the APVV-0100-06 project, with because it was assumed, that the tensile stresses will be
financial grant of Slovak APVV agency. orthogonal in the plane of shell and the shear stress will
be perpendicular to the plane of the shell (and the plane of
Keywords: FOPS, ROPS, cab, laminate tensile stresses).
The very important part of the shell is its top part, which
serve as FOPS. This is designed as 20 mm thick sandwich
structure, because sandwiches have good bending and
body impact resistance properties.
1. INTRODUCTION The top skin of sandwich is 6 mm thick and bottom skin 4
mm thick.
According the ISO 3449 and ISO 3471 standards the cab The empty space between skins is filled by massive balsa
of mobile working machine (MWM) has to protect the wooden cube pieces which form the core of the sandwich.
operator from falling objects and outside forces caused by It is possible to apply other core material. The cross
rollover of machine. section cut of this structure is on Figure 2.
In the paper published within the monograph Machine
Design : On the occasion of 48th anniversary of the
Faculty of Technical Sciences: 1960-2008 we were
discuss about the safety and the FOPS/ROPS tests of steel
cab for HON 200 wheel loader and about the tests of
strength and elasticity of laminates, applicable for
laminate-cab frame construction, with disclosed results of
these tests.
The project progressed since year 2008, and the first
sample of the laminate cab has been built up. Later on, the
FOPS and ROPS of the cab were subjected to the tests
according mentioned ISO standards.
This paper presents test results, and evaluates advantages
and disadvantages of the laminate cab compared to the
steel cab. Fig. 2. Cross section of FOPS

99
2.3. Main frame ( ROPS )
The main ROPS frame is made of 10 unidirectional plies
as closed rectangular cross-section, with three
longitudinal ribs made also of 10 unidirectional plies.
Such a structure has the highest strength and toughness
along its longitudinal axis. The fibers are therefore
oriented along longitudinal axes of the sections ( 2
vertical and 2 horizontal = rectangle ROPS design ) of
designed ROPS. It was assumed, that the tensile stress
will be parallel along longitudinal section axis of the
ROPS and the shear stress will be perpendicular, in the
plane of cross-section.
Again, the empty space between skins is filled by massive
balsa wooden cube pieces which form the core of the
sandwich. It is possible to apply other core material. The
cross section cut of this structure is on Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Cross section of the horizontal part of ROPS-
frame
For a purpose of improve unity, the ROPS frame and the
main shell of the cab are fixed by bolted joints and epoxy
glue (Fig. 4).
2.4. Other pars of the cabin
The other parts of cab are designed as shell features of 10
mm thick triaxial laminate. The bottom of cab is
reinforced by steel plates to which are cab-frame
mountings welded.
Fig. 4. ROPS and shell bolted joints
100
3. TESTING OF THE LAMINATE CAB
All testing of the cabin was provided in certified
workstation at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of
university of ilina (Slovakia).
3.1. FOPS test of the sample
The FOPS test was processed according ISO 3449
standard, where the solid body is lifted by crane and
dropped on to the top of the FOPS ( in our case top of cab
shell ). There has to be reached specified impact energy.
As a body there was used iron sphere (Fig. 5) with
diameter 250 mm and weight 45 kgs.
Fig. 5. Testing sphere and FOPS test
There was not penetration of the sphere into the FOPS,
not even a contact patch. This means, that FOPS test was
successful and the designed structure passed FOPS test.
Consequently a laminate sandwich is assumed as
applicable material for FOPS.
3.2. ROPS test of the sample
The ROPS test was processed according ISO 3471
standard, where the test equipment simulates roll-over of
the machine by following forces:
1. transverse force machine falls on the side
2. vertical force machine rolls on ( top down )
3. longitudinal force rolled on machine moves on the
top of the cab by inertia, from previous movement of
the machine
The values of test forces depend on the mass of the
machine and were computed according ISO 3471
standard :
FT=6*M
Transverse load:
FT=6*8000=48 kN
FV=19.61*M
Vertical load:
FV= 19,61*8000=156.88kN
FL=4.8*M
Longitudinal load
FL=4.8*8000=38.4kN
Where M means machine mass (HON 200 , M = 8000
kg).
During the lateral loading of the ROPS (Fig.6), there has
to be minimum deformation energy absorbed. Its value is
also estimated by mentioned standard :
Because there are many measure steps and subsequent
table is too long in full range, there are reviewed only
important steps, where any change occurred during the
test.
There on the graph on Fig.7 is evident, that the first
damage occurred in step 365.5 and 366, where loading
force suddenly fell from 32.18 kN to 24.47 kN, but after
that on the force raised further again.

Fig. 7. Dependence of load from displacement ROPS

test results

It means that laminate can absorb more loading. Classical

Fig. 6. Lateral loading of ROPS
This test is static with dynamic forces effects allowed.
The standard requirements for ROPS test are following:
1. None of the ROPS parts can penetrate DLV
(Deflection Limiting Volume simulates sitting
operator).
2. The ROPS must withstand both standardized force
and deformation energy.
3. None of ROPS carrying (supporting) parts can be
damaged.
3.2.1. ROPS test results
At first the cab was tested by transverse load.
Unfortunately the ROPS frame was damaged earlier then
a force and energy reached their estimated maxima. On
the Figure 8 is the deformation graph of lateral ROPS test.
In the table 1 there are numerical results:
isotropic material is not able of this. This is a sign, that
laminate is not so impact sensitive like isotropic material.
In step 709.5 there was reached maximum deformation
load 47.34 kN with measured displacement 237 mm. The
absorbed deformation energy to this point was 6663.5 J,
what is more than was absorbed by steel cab. Moreover
serious material breakage occurred in this step, what
caused thenceforward consecutive decrease of
deformation load while deformation still increased. It
means, that ROPS at this stage stopped to perform its task
it was reached it strength.
There could be a conclusion, that for ROPSs made of
composite materials, ISO 3471 would be adapted in the
part where it discuss about impact damage, or even new
standard would be elaborated.
The first damage occurred in the corner of right vertical
and top horizontal profile of ROPS and other damages
were near the both bottom corners (Fig. 8, 9).

Table 1. Selected numerical values of lateral ROPS test

Step Displacement, mm Load, kN

0,0 -1 0,82
. .
12,0 2 2,88
. .
365,5 121 32,18
366,0 125 24,47
. .
709,5 237 47,34
. .
1011,0 272 30,89 Fig. 8. First damage

101
 REFERENCES
[1] ISO 3449, Slovak Office of Standard, Metrology and
Testing, Bratislava, October 1996
[2] ISO 3471, Slovak Office of Standard, Metrology and
Testing, Bratislava, November 2001
[3] VERE, M., TANEVSKI, M., EO, J.; Laminate
design of mobile working machine cabins, In:
Machine Design, On the occasion of 48th anniversary
of the Faculty of Technical Sciences, 1960-2008
Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, 2008
[4] EO, J., BEO, P.; Prspevok k analze stavu
naptosti a deformcie nekovovej kabny mobilnho
stavebnho stroja, In: Acta Facultatis Technicae
Zvolen. - ISSN 1336-4472. - Ed. 13, nr. 1 (2009),
p. 67-74
[5] EO, J., VERE, M., TANEVSKI, M; Bezpenos
nekovovej kabny pre mobiln pracovn stroj, In:
Acta Facultatis Technicae Zvolen. - ISSN 1336-4472.
- Ed. 12, nr. 1 (2008), p. 173-182
[6] EO, J.; Pouitie kompozitnch materilov na
stavbu ochrannch prvkov kabny pre mobiln
pracovn stroj, minima, STU, Bratislava 2009

Fig. 9. Other damages

It can be concluded, that designed laminate cab is not

convenient for a machines of weight category to 8 000
kgs, but it can be applicable for a lighter machines of the
< 6 000 kgs category.
But this fact is valid only when its considered
modification of the standard ISO 3471 about impact
sensitivity of laminate or composite materials. CORRESPONDENCE

4. CONCLUSION Jn EO, Eng.

Slovak University of Technology
According these tests it is evident, that laminates have got Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
both advantages and disadvantages. Nmestie slobody 17
If we consider this cab as a application to the machine of 812 31 Bratislava, Slovakia
weight category less than 6000kg, it is relevant to jan.sedo@stuba.sk
undergo dynamic tests with Crush Test Dummy, because
if laminate is not damaged, it has a good shape memory Martin TANEVSKI, Eng.
and it means that it is able to return to previous shape. Slovak University of Technology
Sudden release of load force can cause strong bounce- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
back of whole structure and can evocate great overloading Nmestie slobody 17
( g-forces ) of human body. 812 31 Bratislava, Slovakia
During the dimensioning of composite structures it should martin.tanevski@stuba.sk
by considered, that first damage of material does not
mean the stop to composite structure functionality
(situation, when some laminate plies or fibers are broken, Miroslav VERE, Prof. PhD. Eng.
but whole material absorbs next deformation energy and Slovak University of Technology
load force rises). It is analogous to plasticity in metals. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Future material solutions of ROPS can incorporate hybrid Nmestie slobody 17
materials, accompanying of cores made of welded steel 812 31 Bratislava, Slovakia
profiles into the hollow profile of laminate. miroslav.veres@stuba.sk
.

102

VIRTUAL AND REAL HYDRODYNAMIC
MODELS QUALITY EVALUATION BY
FLOW VISUALIZATION METHOD IN
LOW LEVEL BATH
Markta PETKOV
Miroslav VERE
Abstract: The contribution deals with problems
associated with qualitative assessment of flow around and
fluid flow in machine parts. Today, these tasks are usually
solved using the analysis of virtual models (DMU) in the
specialized software products environment usually based
on FEM. It appears, however, that this does not give
always correct results and therefore it is appropriate and
necessary to verify the quality of virtual models.
Verification of experimental models directly by using of
real parts is expensive, so the authors devote attention to
providing this task by flow visualization in hydrodynamic
bath with low level.
Key words: Low level bath, virtual hydrodynamic models,
flow visualization, models verifying
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrodynamic bath with low level (Fig.1) is an
experimental device, which is utilized for the flow
visualization. The results obtained by the combination of
experimental measurement on the simplified models and
numerical simulation on the digital mock-up models are
still used in design and modifications of existing
mechanisms or their parts. This paper is focused on the
experimental investigation and describes individual steps
of the measurement on particular cases and also to
possibilities of verifying of correctness both models -
virtual model used for computer analysis and simplified
one used for visualization in the low-level hydrodynamic
tank. The flow can be visualized by two methods - in the
first one the surface of the profile is modified. In the
second method the visualization particles are imposed
into the liquid which properties differ from the liquid
properties. Also the changes in the optical properties of
the liquid can be observed. The model surface can be
modified chemically, physically and mechanically. When
the liquid is modified by imposing of the visualization
particles, the particles can create (or not) filaments or
continual areas. Both of the modifications can be used in
visualization of liquids and gasses. In the contrast to the
previous cases, the observation of changes in optical
properties of liquids is not convenient for the
hydrodynamic bath. For the presented problems the thread
probe method and the method of dust particles were used.
When preparing the experiment in hydrodynamic bath it
is necessary to apply the theory of similarity between the
real object and its model. The visualizations performed at
the hydrodynamic bath are recorded by a camera. The
flow figures are recorded on the model and then evaluated
and transferred to the real part based on the hydrodynamic
analogy. The base of the analogy is geometrical similarity
between the model and the real part and equality of
minimum number of criteria parameters. The Reynolds
and Mach numbers are the most important in the
modelling of real fluids. The values of these parameters
on the model (index M) have to be equal to those on the
real part (index D) ( Re M = Re D , M M = M D ).
Fig. 1. Hydrodynamic bath with low level
Having equalized the parameters one can conclude that
the influence of the compressibility is unimportant for the
low velocity flow and do not have to be taken into the
account in this case. On the contrary the conservation of
Mach numbers between the model and real part is
necessary for the high velocity flow. The way of reaching
of the equality M M = M D is based on treated problem,
except for the case, where the liquid velocities on the
model and on the real part are the same. When the
velocity on model is low a liquid has to be used which
sound velocity is small. The velocity on the model
depends only on the ratio between the dimensions
d
( wM = wD D ), when the identical liquids are used. The
dM
reduction ratio is selected according to the possibilities of
the experimental device. Also the possible increase in the
Mach number M M has to be taken into the account. When
the equality Re M = Re D requires the increase in Re M , the
kinematics viscosity of the liquid on the model have to be
increased.
103
 to 14 are plotted figures from measurement, where the
record was performed with the exposure time 1s and
shutter 3,6. The time delay between the figures was
extended up to 8s.

Fig. 2. Visualization of flow around the cylinder using

dust particles method, spray on the surface level

Fig. 3. Visualization of flow around the cylinder using of

dyes introduction method to the volume liquid flowing Fig. 5. Intake initiation blue valve is open,

Fig. 4. Visualization of flow around the cylinder by thread

probes method

2. VISUALIZATION OF WORKING LIQUID

FLOW IN THE CYLINDER SPACE
DURING THE FILLING AND EMPTYING

The experiment was performed by the method, where the

water was dyed by the solution of Saturn black A 1341 in
concentration 5 gm per litre of water in container. The
aluminium powder ALPU was dispersed by the airbrush Fig. 6. Intake particular phases - piston is in upper
on the free surface with the average particle diameter of dead position
35 micrometers. Regarding the aluminium powder
properties it was necessary to create dispersion. The
aluminium powder was dispersed in water (0,48 g per litre
of water in dispersion container) with tenzid UFAROL
NA30 in concentration 1ml per litre of water in dispersion
container. The values of concentration in the particular
ingredients were set based on the knowledge from
previous realized experiments.
The model, which consists from the static and dynamic
parts, was made from plexiglass and fixed on the glass by
the flexible cement. The level of the free surface of the
dyed water was set using the stoppers on the value of 10
mm. For this kind of experiment it was necessary to
obtain the large static field of liquid. The stoppers ware
set up to the identical level in order to utilize the complete
surface of the liquid. The moving parts of the model were
handled by hand according to the given time limits.
The recorded figures were evaluated and the selected
figures sets show the experiment process. On the figures 5 Fig. 7. Intake particular phases

104

Fig. 8. Intake particular phases
Fig. 9. Intakemaximum size of the space
Fig. 10. Momentum of the working fluid takes effect
3. VISUALIZATION OF OIL FLOW
BETWEEN NONINVOLUTE TEETH
PROFILES IN GEAR
Theoretically, the issue of mating toothed gears oil
lubrication is very complicated process. This problem is
relatively good managed for involute gearing, although in
this case, sometimes there are difficulties in achieving the
required quality of lubrication. Much more difficult is to
reflect the requirement for quality lubrication for
noninvolute profiles where this requirement may act as an
optimization parameter for defining the correct mating
teeth profiles. In essence, there is no need to
quantitatively assess the quality of lubrication, but just its
qualitative assessment. This can be implemented on a
virtual model or the visibility of the flow of oil between
the teeth of a simplified model of real gears, provided that
envisages the creation of hydrodynamic lubrication layer
(although in fact such the lubrication free teeth in the
picture).
Fig. 11. Noninvolute toothed wheels in gearing
The Fig.12 and Fig.13 shows the results of both
procedures. It is obvious that the results are different. As
experimentally observed flow in the bath with low level
(visibility thread probes) corresponds to the nature of the
oil film in real transfers (change of flow direction in the
pitch point), the results of computer analysis of this
match.
Fig. 12. Oil flow between model of noninvolute teeth
profiles recorded in low level tank
105

Fig. 13. Oil flow between noninvolute teeth profiles
calculated in FLUENT environment
Fig. 14. Oil flow between noninvolute teeth profiles
calculated in FLUENT environment (plotted for matting
point near the pitch point)
4. CONCLUSION
The experiment of filling and emptying of cylinder during
the piston movement between the upper and lower dead
points were repeated 12 times for the time limits 5s and
8s. The figures were exposed when the flow passed
defined position at given time. Having reached the lower
dead position, it was necessary to wait until the
visualization particles were not in motion. This time was
in the range 150 160s. The more accurate value was not
accessible as the observation of the experiment with the
naked eye allows only its estimation. The particles of
aluminium experienced a movement, which was
undetectable with the naked eye. This movement was
detectable only at the photos. It resulted in from the
figures, that the state of the working fluid was influenced
106
by the momentum of liquid outside the piston
surroundings, which was connected to the outside space
by the open valve. The comparison of corresponding
piston positions and corresponding events (filling and
expression) was ensured by the figure similarity. The
abbreviations were registered in lower dead point. For the
slower piston movement, i. e. for higher time limit
between the particular positions it took shorter time to
bring the liquid to the rest then by the faster liquid to the
rest then by the faster movement. The obtained results,
however, fully corresponds to the ratio of filling,
respectively. discharge a real cylinder. Similarly, correct
results were achieved in the experiment with the flow of
lubricating oil of two mating gears. Opposite, the results
of the analysis of virtual model were not correct. This
shows a recognition that the use of low-bath is very
efficient and reliable way to verify the definition of
virtual models, as well as simplified models of real.
Visualization can serve to quickly assess the quality of the
model and the quantitative evaluation of flow can then be
used similarly defined virtual model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The article was written within the collaboration on the
CEEPUS program CII-RS-0304-02-0910 - Technical
Characteristics Researching of Modern Products in
Machine Industry (Machine Design, Fluid Technique and
Calculations) with the Purpose of Improvement Their
Market Characteristics and Better Placement on the
Market realized between Mechanical Engineering Faculty
in Bratislava and Mechanical Engineering Faculty of
University of Liberec under the coordination by prof.
Kuzmanovi from University of Novi Sad.
REFERENCES
[1] MERZKIRCH, W.: Flow Vizualization, Academic
press, New York and London, 1974
[2] PETKOV, M., Flow visualization in
hydrodynamics bath, Experimental fluid mechanics
2007, ISBN 978-80-7372-273-9, TU Liberec 2007
[3] VERE, M., BOANSK, M., GADU, J. Theory of
Convex-Concave and Plane Cylindrical Gearing,
ISBN 80-227-2451-3, STU Bratislava 2006
CORRESPONDENCE
Markta PETKOV, Eng.
Technical University of Liberec
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Studentsk 2, 461 17 Liberec
Czech Republic
marketa.petrikova@tul.cz
Miroslav VERE. Prof. Ph.D.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Nm. slobody 17, 812 31 Bratislava,
Slovakia
miroslav.veres@stuba.sk

DESIGNING COMPUTER FROM MODEL
TO FINISHED PRODUCT
Goran NESTOROVI
ivoslav ADAMOVI
Abstract: The main element of a successful production is
its level of automatisation which includes the highest
state-of-the-art information technologies in the system of
design and manufacturing control. Concerning designing
and control at the service of creating the product,
coordination and the integrity of the information
technologies are the key factors without which the
manufacturing itself must not even be imagined.
Keywords: CAD, CAM, design, model, manufacturing
1. INTRODUCTION
CAD/CAM technology is represented by the integrity of a
process of design and manufacturing. During the
development of information technologies throughout the
generations of computers, CAD/CAM concept of machine
manufacturing developed as well, in terms of up-to-date
software solutions for the need of designing and
controling machines (CNC). The mutual dependance
between hardware and softeare as the elements which
determine the cocncept of information technologies,
represent the functional coordination which is to satisfy
their usage for various purposes. As such coordinatin
perfected and developed, so were formed different
variations in order to fulfill the requirements of the
modern manufacturing.
Today there are many software solutions with suitable
hardware support at very popular price, so that even
people in small and medium firms can take the CAD/CAM
into cosideration only if they adjust their needs well with
the requirements of a business plan.
In the scope of this work CAD/CAM technologies will be
represented, as well as the application of Pro/ENGINEER
on a process model of creating the product.
2. CAD GEOMETRICAL DESIGN
The term Computer Aided Design (CAD) was introduced
during the middle of the 1950's and it permeates all
software generations for computer design, which were
perfected with the aid of the information technologies
develpoment.
The interpretation of a geometrical object is the main
motive for computer design since the early beginning
(1st-3 rd generation of softwares). It is directed toward
the procedurure which applies to the representation of a
physical object, designing and parametrical modeling.The
interpretation of a geometrical form can be represented as
2D, 21/2D and 3D models.
Geometrical modeling includes: the vector theory, the
theory of sets, analytical geometry, opology and
numerical methods.
In CAD technlogy there are three basic types of a 3D
geometrical model which are used in designing:
wireframe, surface model and solid models (solid bodies).
The conversion of such types of geometry can be at its
best applied to the third generation of CAD softwares:
Pro/ENGINEER, Autodesk Inventor, CATIA, I-deas,
Mecnanical Desktop, Solid Works, Solid Edge,
UnigraphicsNX, etc.
2.1. Wireframe
Wireframe 3D and surface models which bring progress
concerning the 2D geometry appear in the 1970's. The
simplest way to represent 2D and 3D object in virtual
space is by simple 2D entities logicaly lined up in a plane
or in a 3D space. The wireframe objects (Figure 1.)
represent wireframe models without surface or volume,
with a clear contour structure of edges and apexes.Their
usage is limited today and it mostly refers to the
possibility of the easier surface modeling for already
formed wireframe.
Fig. 1. Wireframe model
2.2. Surface model
Surface models represent the organized set of polygonal
surfaces.Polygonal scheme of a surface model is based
ona topologycal structure of database, which is in its
foundation developed in order to be created: a shaded
feature of an object (Figure 2.), to perform animation and
test visibility.
Fig. 2. Surface model
107
With most of the 3D software solutions the strategy is in
the support of a higher level of the consructive solid
geometry (Constructive Solid Geometry - CSG) of a tree
hierarchy (for solid models), which then can be
transferred into the lower level on the so called NUBRUS-
surfaces (non-uniformed rational B-splines).
2.3. Solid models
When talking about volume modeling, solid model-apart
from containing the descriptin from each point in space-
also contains a description of a designed object and
additional information about its form, overall size,
material standard, etc.In the view of its characteristics
solid models contain the details about the mass of the
object, moment of the section inertion, the volume, the
radius or the centre of gravity when viewing the object in
its physical sense.Such data about 3D model are directly
suitable for the processing on a computer controled
machine (CNC) or for the software using the method of
final elements for the analysis (CAE), by which the
function of 3D model is extended. When talking about 3D
parametrical modeling, mistakes can be easily found and
eliminated (using the information and auto-blocade of
further instructions).
In 3D solid modeling, the described characteristics of a
model are, apart from being convenient for structural
analysis and manufacturing, also suitable for creating the
final phase structures, if bearing in mind that very few
models are used on their own. The structure creating
module (Figure 3.) is a built-in operation in almost all of
the modern software applications.
Fig. 3. The structure in a modul ,,Assembly
3. CAM MANUFACTURING PROCESS
After designing in CAD technology, a model continues
towards the CAM manufacturing process. CAM
technology includes:the process of loading in geometry
created in CAD, technological manufacturing, verification
and simulation, post processing and the process of
controling the production on CNC machine. Such type of
manufacturing, i.e. the concept of integrated CAD/CAM
technology, represent the so called automatic
programming of NC i CNC machines considering the
writing of a program for manufacturing process. The
108
modernization of CAM technology emulates the
development of softare tools that can be in the form of the
application module (an option) for 3D modeling or in the
form of special software solutions as in Manufacturing
Solutions from Pro/ENGINEER applications. Figure 4.
represents the scheme of creating the product in CAM
technology [2].
REFERENCE MODEL CAD technology WORKPIECE
MANUFACTURING MODEL
OPERATIONS
SET UP PROCESS ENVIRONMENT TOOLS
FIXTURE
DEFINE NC SEQUENCES
CREATE CL DATA FILES
POST-PROCESSING CL DATA
CAM technology DRIVE NC MACHINE TOOL
Fig. 4. Creating the product in CAM technology
4. THE MODEL OF DESIGNING
MANUFACTURING IN PRO/ENGINEER
Pro/ENGINEER represents the software surroundings
composed of program tools used for CAD designing,
CAM manufacturing and CAE analysis of almost
innumerable types of products. Its field of usage applies
to mechanical design, even if there are new additions to
the program which refer to consruction work. Beside
basic modules there are lots of additional modules, which
can be used for performing the operations on thin metal
leaves, defining pipeline and electical instalations,
designing molds. defining the project of joining the
objects with wires, numerical control of the machines, etc.
Sensitivity analysis and projection optimisation
completely based on geometrical form is done with the
help of Behavioral Modeling Extension (MDX).
Additional package, Pro/MECHANICA is integrated with
Pro/ENGINEER program, so that the structural analysis
could be performed: deformation, statical stress,
vibrations, the analysis of suppleness of a material, termal
analysis and the analysis of a dynamic movement of a
mechanism. Generally, Pro/ENGINEER is a system
which enables parametric modeling based on features-
constructive elements (elements of a higher level with
clear phisycal characteristics, i.e. suitability for extruding
of the third dimension, openings, cuts, radius, extrusion
along trajectory line, rotation, etc.
4.1. Designing 3D Solid product
Designing will be shown in this part of the work, and
creating of a simple product made of wood in another.
The product is constructed in a module Part (module for
making the parts) with the aim of representing the
possibility of this software tool and its full asociation with
a module for creating the product Manufacturing.
Steps for designing are as followed:
1. Modeling of the reference model ,,plane
The object named plane is the reference model of a final
product designed in a Part/Solid modul. The model
(Figure 5.) is formed using the construction of a
feature:extrude-translateral extrusion, remove material
extrude- removing the material by extrusion and round -
creating the radius (rounding).
Fig. 5. Reference model ,,plane
2. Modeling of the workpiece
The workpiece is the starting model for the final product.
The workpiece ,,plane (Figure 6.) is created in the
module Part/Solid with the help of the feature extrude -
translateral extrusion of the third dimension.
Fig. 6. Workpiece ,,plane
By modeling the workpiece, all elements are ready for
CAM manufacturing process in the module
Manufacturing according to the scheme in Figure 4.
4.2. Model CAD/CAM of the manufuring process
By choosing the option in Figure 7, the module
Manufacturing/NC Assembly is opened.On the basis of
the geometrical form of the ,,plane model, the processing
by Milling will be further configurated -suitable for
creating its surfaces and details.
Fig. 7. Window for choosing the options
1. Forming the manufacturing model ,,plane
After entering the Manufacturing the refernce model
,,plane.prt' is introduced, as well as the workpiece
,,workpiece - planet.prt. The manufacturing model is
formed by immersing the reference model into the
workpiece, as shown in the Figure 8. During this
operation the most important thing is setting the
constrains for determining the position, so that the
manipulation over the manufacturing model could
continue.
Fig. 8. Forming the manufacturing model
2. Set up process environment
a. Defining the operations
The defining of the operations follows after forming the
manufacturing model.The operations include: defining the
working machine - NC Machine, defining the fixture
109
setup (default fixture setup in this case), defining of a
machine coordinate system- Machine Zero and defining
the Retract Surface, as shown in the Figure 9.
Fig. 9. Defining the operations
b. Defining the manufacturing tools
Tools for material processing (milling in this case) is
possible to define in three ways:by entering the
parametres in already formed database; by modeling the
3D Solid Tools; by defining the tools using the 2D sketch
- Sketch Tool. For making the product ,,plane the tools
configurated by entering the parametres (Figure 10.) are
used. Three types of tools are created: Milling cutter for
processing the contour, milling cutter for head on
processing and milling cutter for processing the
indentation details of a panel.
Fig. 10. Parametrical tools determination
3. Determining the regime of manufacturing
Depending on the manufacturing model material, the type
of processing and the choice of suitable tools, the regimes
of processing are determined. Determining the regime of
manufacturing is done by entering the parametres as
shown in the Figure 11.
110
Fig. 11. Entering the parametres of the manufacturing
regime
4. Determining the geometry of manufacturing
All the necessary parametres are set for the milling
process by defining the operations, determining the tools
and the regime. Afer that the reference geometry of a
model should be determined on the basis of which the
machine will perform the processing by removing the
workpiece material. For processing the contour of a
model the option Profile/Surfaces is chosen, where the
surface and the edge of a contour are determined (Figure
12.). The surface for the frontal processing is determined
by Face/Surfaces option and the selection of the face
surface of the model. The surface in the form of
indentation is determined by Volume/Window option,
where one should select the frame (Chain) onto the plane
of extrusion (previously made by Mill Window Tool), and
which represents the movement of tools in the form of a
ring.
Fig. 12. Determining the geometry of model contour
5. Simulation of processing
In the Figure 13: a,b,c the simulation of using tools
during the processing by milling the surfaces of the
manufacturing model ,,plane.
 - MCD Files: * .tap (control G - code for setting the CNC
machine in motion) - according to the chosen type of the
processor.
Executive -control routine is possible to create for all the
sequences of processing (in this case the contour
processing, frontal processing, the processing of
indentations) or for each sequence respectively. The
difference between chosing options is as follows:
- The starting point for processing of all the sequences is
the route: CL Data/Output/Select One/Operation/npr.
rough_ milling.
The starting point for a single sequence is the route: CL
Data/Output/Select One/Nc Sequence/npr.
frontal_processing and so on for all the types of
processing.
The Figure 14: a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h represents the way of
choosing the options for post-processing formation .
a) the contour processing

b) the frontal processing

Fig. 14. Forming Post-processing

The chosen post processor UNCX01.P24 MAHO in the

Figure 14: f refers to the milling cutter for three-axis
milling which has SIMENS CNC 432 control unit (Figure
15.).

c) the processing of indentations and details

Fig. 13. Simulation of processing by milling

6. Executive-control routine
Post processing is translation of the CL data into the
machine language which represent the executive-control Fig. 15. Milling with SIMENS CNC 432 control unit
routine for setting the CNC machine in motion and is
done in two basic forming phases: After choosing the type of the post-processor G-POST
- CL Data Files: *.nlc (APT programming language frame for a dialogue is systematically and start the CNC
created as ASCII database text) and machine which will make the final product 'plane'. The

111
Figure 16: h represents the list (in editorial text) of G- [3] Brati, V., Jovanovi, A: Inenjerski prirunik za
code program groups which contain the data about the runo programiranje NC i CNC maina alatki,
program numbers, the code for millimetric measure Tehnika kola, Smederevo, 2008.
system, date and time of forming .tap file, the list of used [4] Leti, D, i dr.: Grafike komunikacije u inenjerskom
tools, name and type of the first sequence - processing, as projektovanju, Tehniki fakultet ,,Mihajlo Pupin,
well as the executive program of the first sequence - Zrenjanin, 2002.
processing. [5] Nestorovi, G., Bjelakovi, M.: Modeliranje
mainskih elemenata u pomo Pro/ENGINEER-a
5. CONCLUSION Wildfire 3.0, Akademija inenjerstva odravanja,
Beograd, 2008.
From the above shown can clearly be said that the [6] Ogrizovi, M.: Upravljanje CNC maina iz
production ,which completely includes information Pro/ENGINEER-a Wildfire, Kompjuterska
technologies, yields high results concerning the reliability biblioteka, aak, 2007
of the machines (processing centres) which function [7] Toogood, R.: Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 4.0,
according to the precisely designed and established Kompjuterska biblioteka, aak, 2008.
process, which directly influences the product quality.The [8] www.cadpro.co.rs
high level of productivity in short time interval as well as
the series of other factors justify the price of the
investment in such manufcturing systems. As can be seen
from the model shown, software achievments for CORRESPONDENCE
CAD/CAM technologies are not at all complicated for
those whose main motive is creativity, and the will for Goran NESTOROVI, Master of Science,
upgrading its main drive. Professor at Technical school with home
students ,,Nikola Tesla
Boe Dimitrijevia bb
12207 Kostolac, Serbia.
REFERENCES gnestorovic@gmail.com
[1] Nestorovi, G.: Modeli projektovanja pouzdanosti
maina i njihov uticaj na proces eksploatacije, ivoslav ADAMOVI, Ph. D.
Doktorska disertacija u pripremi, Tehniki fakultet Professor at University of Novi Sad,
,,Mihajlo Pupin, Zrenjanin. Technical Faculty ,,Mihajlo Pupin
[2] Bjelakovi, M.: Od modela do proizvoda uz pomo ure akovia bb
Pro/ENGINEER-a, Grafiko-izdavaka kua 23000 Zrenjanin Serbia
Ljubostinja, Trstenik 2004. adamovic@tf.zr.ac.rs

112
 2. METHOD

In order to obtain the special view in the Blumensaats

line direction, it is necessary to generate an approximate
3D model of the femur and screw, which is built into the
knee. On the Fig. 1 Blumensaats line (red line) is shown
[5]. The mentioned view is very important for the analysis
of the patient post-operative recovery.

GENERATION OF THE
APPROXIMATIVE HUMAN KNEE 3D
MODEL BASED ON THE X-RAY
Zoran MILOJEVI
Slobodan NAVALUI
Ratko OBRADOVI

Abstract: This paper deals with a problem of the post-

operative results of the human knee anterior cruciate
ligament reconstruction verification. It is emphasized that
mentioned verification depends, mostly, on the angle and
position of the screw which is built-in in the human femur. Fig. 1. Blumensaats line
For this purpose the methodology and appropriate
software system for generation of the adequate, but There is a large X-ray base of the patients for whom
approximate, 3D model of the femur and screw, built in it, Tunnel X-ray (image in the Blumensaats line direction)
are developed. A hypothesis that femurs 3D model was not done and the developed system will enable usage
approximation could be done by the method of ellipses, of these X-ray images for later post-operative analysis.
was assumed. This hypothesis is based on the human knee On the Fig. 2 a way/procedure for special view in the
X-ray images and the special view of the Blumensaats- Blumensaats line direction is shown.
line. The software solution is developed for AutoCAD
system, by application of the C++ development library
ObjectARX (AutoCAD Runtime eXtensions)

Key words: human knee reconstruction, femur,

Blumensaats - line, ObjectARX

1. INTRODUCTION

In the papers [1], [2], [3] a significance of the angle and

position of the screw, built-in in the human femur, and the
determination of the screw angle for the verification of
the post-operative results of the human knee anterior
cruciate ligament reconstruction was emphasized. In the
mentioned paper a procedure for the screw angle
determination, based on the X-ray images, was presented.
However, determination of the screw insertion point, i.e.
oclock screw position [4] based on the X-ray images,
is a more difficult task. Knee stability and kinematics
significantly depend on oclock screw position.
Determination of the screw insertion point is a 3D
geometrical problem, and it is necessary to create a 3D
model of the femur in order to determine the exact screw
insertion point.
In this article, a new procedure for determination of the
approximate 3D femur model, based on the X- ray
images, is discussed.
Fig. 2. Special view in the Blumensaats line direction
Approximation of the femur and the screw built in it was
done by ellipses method. Modelling principle is shown on
the Fig. 3. Femur is modelled by the outer contours which
are generated from X-ray image (outer profile, Fig. 3aA),
and femur canal (tunnel) which is most approximate to
the cylindrical shape (Fig. 3aB).
Final 3D model is generated by Boolean subtraction
operation where femur canal model is subtracted from the
femur profile model (Fig. 3b). On the Fig. 3c a rendered
model of the femur and screw is shown.

113

Fig. 3. Femur modeling principle a) bone segment (A -
profile, B - canal, C - screw), b) model after canal
subtraction, c) rendered model
On the Fig. 4 the procedure of the outer femur profile
generation is shown.
As previously mentioned, an ellipses method was used for
approximation. In the top and side views, outer contours
are cut by transversal planes. In this way the points 1-4
(Fig. 4) are determinated. Ellipses axis are calculated
from the following equations:
a/2=(X2-X1)/2
b/2=(Z4-Z3)/2
Coordinates of the ellipse center are calculated from the
following equations:
XC1=(X1+X2)/2
ZC1=(Z3+Z4)/2
In this way, the ellipses in the transversal sections of the
femur are generated (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Method of the outer femur profile generation
114
On the Fig. 5, procedure for femur canal model
generation, which is most approximate to the cylindrical
shape, is shown.
Profiles are generated in each section perpendicular to the
Blumensaats line. They consist of one circle and square
profile. After the canal model subtraction from outer
profiles model, desired hole is obtained. First step
presents determination of the intersection points (1 and 2)
with canal contour lines in the top view. After that, on the
Blumensaats line (in the side view), a corresponding
intersection point (1,2) is determinated. In the plane
which contains points 1,2 and which is perpendicular on
the Blumensaats line, the profile (shown on the Fig. 5) is
generated. It is necessary to translate generated profile by
distance N = r tan, in order to obtain real profile
position. In this position the real length of the line 1-2, i.e.
radius of the circle r, can be seen.
Fig. 5. Method for femur canal model generation
The screw model generation is carried out by the same
ellipses model.
3. DEVELOPED SOFTWARE SYSTEM
The software solution is developed for AutoCAD
program system, by application of the C++ development
library [6]. The main reason for the mentioned software
combination choice is that it is very simple to generate
special view of the model and to draw contours from X-
ray image in the AutoCAD system. Also, development
library has functions for transformations and
determination of the entities intersection points.
Simplified model of the developed software system is
shown on the Fig. 6. More details aboutf developed
software system is shown in [1].
First step is generation of the contours in the AutoCAD
system, based on the X-ray images. For contours
generation command spline was used. After that, distance
dy (Fig. 7) between section planes should be defined.
Using this program system, contours limit points miny
and maxy are selected. The next step is contours cutting
with auxiliary lines in order to obtain intersection points
of the femur, canal and screw. Based on the intersection
points, femur profile ellipses (Fig. 3) canal ellipses (Fig.
4) and screw ellipses are generated. Using the command
loft, three solid objects are generated, based on the
previously created sections. At the end, Boolean operation
subtraction canal model from femur model is carried out.
Fig. 6. Model of the developed system/software solution
On the Fig. 7 parameters of the generated model are
shown. Section coordinates adjusting have to be made as
views disposition, on the Fig. 7, depend on the patient X-
ray image itself. With the help of contours intersection
points, in the top view, x and y coordinates of the model
are obtained.
With the help of contours intersection points, in the side
view, z coordinates of the model are obtained.
Fig. 7. Parameters of the generated model
4. RESULTS VERIFICATION
Verification of the obtained results was done on the 32
patients. To verify developed system it was necessary to
obtain, for each patient, conventional X-ray and Tunnel
X-ray images (in the Blumensaats line direction),
because Tunnel X-ray gives exact position of screw.
Comparison of the results obtained by the developed
system and the results from Tunnel X-ray proves the
system accuracy.
On the Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, results for two patients are
shown.
Fig. 8. First patient right knee, a) contours for model
generation, b) special view =450, c) tunnel X-ray =450
Fig. 9. Second patient right knee, a) contours for model
generation, b) special view =450, c) tunnel X-ray =450
115
On the Figures 8 and 9 can be seen that generated special
views of the femur and screw are significantly matched
with tunnel X-ray, and can be surely used for post-
operative analysis of the patients recovery.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper the methodology and developed software
solution/system for approximate femur and screw model
generation, based on two views from X-ray, are
presented. Developed software solution allows analysis of
the patients post-operative recovery by contemporary
methods, without using tunnel X-ray. Furthermore, it is
now possible to use a large base of the previously
generated X-ray images and include those patients into
recovery analysis. The validity of the tools the doctors are
now provided with is proved by medical practice.
REFERENCES
[1] NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI, Z., MILANKOV,
M., DRAGOI, M., V., BEJU, L., System for
Verification of the Human Knee Postoperative
Results, Academic Journal of Manufacturing
Engineering, Vol. 7, Issue 1/2009, pp. 62-67, ISSN:
1583-7904
[2] NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI, Z., MILANKOV,
M., System for Screw Angle Determination Built in
the Human Knee, Proceedings, 4th International
Conference on Engineering Technologies -
ICET2009, Novi Sad, 2009.
[3] NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI, Z., MILANKOV,
M., 3D Human Knee Model Generation Based on
the CT Images, Proceedings, InterRegioSci 2009,
Novi Sad, 2009.
[4] NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI, Z., MILANKOV,
M., Technical Aspects of the Human Knee Post
Operative Results Verification, Machine Design,
Monography, FTN, Novi Sad, 2009, pp. 303 306.
[5] JACCO A. C. ZIJL, ARTHUR E. B. KLEIPOOL, W.
JAAP WILLEMS (2000) Comparison of Tibial
Tunnel Enlargement After Anterior Cruciate
Ligament Reconstruction Using Patellar Tendon
Autograft or Allograft, the American Journal of
Sports Medicine, 2000, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 547-551
[6] ZELJKOVI, M., NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI,
Z., ZELJKOVI, , Product Design by Up-To-Date
Software Systems Usage, The 4th International
Conference on Advanced Manufacturing
Technologies, Bucharest, 2005, pp. 185-194
[7] NINKOVI, S., Comparison of the Clinical an
Radiological Results of the Knee Anterior Cruciate
Ligament reconstruction Results, Master thesis,
Medical Faculty, University of Novi Sad, 2008., (in
Serbian).
[8] NAVALUI, S., MILOJEVI, Z., ZELJKOVI,
M., Concept of the Virtual Engineering, Odravanje
Maina, 2008, Vol. 5, No. 9-10, str. 4- 9, ISSN 1452-
9688. (in Serbian).
[9] MILOJEVI, Z., NAVALUI, S., ZELJKOVI,
M., Virtual design and manufacturing, Machine
Design, monography ed. S. Kuzmanovi, Novi Sad,
2008, pp. 263- 270, ISBN 978-86-7892-105-6
116
[10] DONG, X, GONZALEZ BALLESTER, M.A.,
ZHENG, G., Automatic Extraction of Femur
Contours from Calibrated X-Ray Images using
Statistical Information, Journal of Multimedia, Vol.
2, No. 5, 2007., pp. 46-54
[11] GIRON, F., CUOMO, P., AGLIETTI, P., BULL, A.,
AMIS, A., Femoral Attachement of the Anterior
Cruciate Ligament, Journal of Knee Surg. Sports
Traumatol. Arthroscopy, No. 14, 2006., pp: 250-256.
[12] HOWELL, M., GITTINS, M., GOTTLIEB, J.,
TRAINA, S., ZOELLNER, T., The Relationship
Between the Angle of the Tibial Tunnel in the
Coronal Plane and Loss of Flexion and Anterior
Laxity After Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Reconstruction, The American Journal of Sports
Medicine, Vol. 29, No. 5., 2001., pp:567-574.
[13] LORENSEN, W., CLINE, J., Marching Cubes: a
High Resolution 3D Surface Construction Algorithm,
Journal of Computer Graphics, Vol. 21, No. 4, 1987,
pp: 163-169.
[14] SCHROEDER, W., MARTIN, K., LORENSEN, B.,
The Visualization Toolkit an Object-Oriented
Approach to 3D Graphics, 3rd Edition, Pearson
Education Inc., 2002.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In this paper some results of the joint project:
Development of the Software/Hardware System for
Verification of Post-operative results of the
Reconstruction of Anterior Cruciate Ligament of the
Human Knee, carried out by the University of Novi Sad,
Serbia, Transilvania University of Brasov and Lucian
Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania are presented. The
project is supported by the Provincial Secretariat for
Science and Technological Development of Vojvodina,
Serbia.
CORRESPONDENCE
Zoran MILOJEVI, Assistant Professor
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
zormil@uns.ac.rs
Slobodan NAVALUI, Full Professor
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
naval_sl@uns.ac.rs
Ratko OBRADOVI, Associate Prof.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
obrad_r@uns.ac.rs
 demanding manufacturing precision and machine tool
productivity.

2. THE CALCULATION OF RADIAL

STIFFNESS OF NODAL POINTS

2.1. Assumptions of solution

NEW METHOD FOR RADIAL STIFFNESS
OF NODAL POINTS CALCULATION
ubomr OO
Peter KRIAN
Iveta ONDEROV
Abstract: Spindle - bearings system of the machine tools
play a major role in the fulfilling the required working
accuracy and productivity. The number of spindles
supported on angular contact ball bearings is increasing
proportionally with increasing demands on the machine
tool quality. It is caused by the fact that these spindle
bearings in various combinations can to reach sufficient
radial and axial stiffness and revolving frequency of the
spindle-bearing system. The complex analysis stiffness of
nodal points is difficult and complicate. In this paper is
introduced as well simplified mathematical apparatus for
evaluation of radial stiffness bearing knot.
Keywords: Spindle, Bearing, Machine Tools, Stiffness
1. INTRODUCTION
The number of spindles supported on angular contact ball
bearings is increasing proportionally with increasing
demands on the machine tool quality. It is caused by the
fact that these bearings can be arranged in various
combinations to create bearing arrangements which can
be enabling to eliminate radial and also axial loads. The
possibility of variation of the number of bearings, preload
value, bearings dimensions and contact angle of bearings
used in bearing arrangements create wide spectrum of
combination to reach sufficient radial stiffness and
revolving frequency of the spindle-bearing system,
(Fig.1). The sufficient stiffness and revolving frequency
of headstock are necessary criteria for reaching
According to the Hertz assumptions [2], there is
dependence between the load P and deformation at
the contact point of the ball with the plane, given by the
relationship
P = k.3/2 (1)
1. the bearings in the nodal points are of the same type
and dimensions, with exact geometric dimensions
2. the value of the contact angle is equal for all
directionally-arranged bearings in the nodal point, which
causes equal distribution of strain on these bearings
3. radial load is equally distributed onto all bearings of
the nodal point
2.2. Stiffness of nodal points with directionally-
arranged bearings
The calculation of the stiffness of a nodal point is based
on the stiffness of the bearing itself [4], which is defined
as
d Fr1
C r1 = (2)
d r0
As radial displacement r0 is a function of contact
deformation 0 of the ball with the highest load [3], the
equation for calculating stiffness of radial beveled
bearings will have the form of
d Fr1 d 0
C r1 = . (3)
d 0 d r0
When calculating stiffness, the distribution of load among
the rollers must be determined, and the dependence
between the load on the top ball and external load must be
found. The distribution of load in the bearing can be
derived from the static condition of balance [ 4 ]
= Pj . cos( j ). cos( j. )
Fr1 z
Fr1 = (4)
i j =0
360
where = is the spacing angle of balls.
z
The values of contact deformations j and angles j
differ from each other around the circumference of the
bearing and can be expressed as follows, (Fig.2):

j = l rj l p = [l . sin ( ) + ] + [l . cos( ) +
z z p
2
z z r0 . cos( j. )] l p
2
(5)

l z . cos( z ) + r 0 . cos( j. )
cos( j ) = (6)
[l .sin ( ) + ] + [l . cos( ) +
z z p
2
z z r 0 . cos( j. )]
2

117
 Fig. 1. Horizontal machining centre, Thyssen-Hller Hille GmbH , Germany
Work nodal 3x71914 ACGB/P4 - 2x71914 ACGB/P4, Opposite side 6011-2Z

By loading the pre-stressed bearing by radial force is
distance between center of balls OAOip constant, (Fig.1 b,
c).
l p . sin ( p ) = l rj . sin ( rj ) = konst. (7)
The dependence between the deformation of the j-th ball
and the top ball can be determined by the relation
j = 0 . cos( j. ) (8)
By derivation of the equation (4) we get

d Fr1 z d P d j d j
= i. . cos( j ) Pj . sin ( j ). . cos( j. )
j
. (9)
d 0 d j
j =0 d j d 0
The unknown derivatives in equation (9) can be The dependence of the contact deformation and radial
calculated by derivation/simplification of the relations displacement, Fig. 1, can be determined from the relation
(1), (7), (8).
1
d 0 d j d j
dPj 3 2 / 3 1 / 3
= k Pj = . (13)
(10) d r0 d 0 d r0
dj 2
d j tg ( j )
= (11) d j
d j lr j Where is calculated from the equation (5)
d r0
d j
= cos( j. ) (12) by inserting equations (14) and (12) into equation (13)
d 0

d j 1 2(1z cos z + ro cos( j. )) cos( j. )

= . = cos j cos( j. ) (14)
d ro 2 (1z cos z + ro cos( j. ))2 + (1z sin z + p )2

d 0 After inserting equations (15) and (9) into equation (3) we

. cos( j ). cos( j. ) = cos( j ) (15)
1
= will get the resulting relation for the stiffness of a pre-
d r0 cos( j. ) stressed nodal point with directionally-arranged bearings.

3 2 / 3 1/ 3 sin 2 ( j )
C r = i. .k .Pj . cos ( j ) + Pj .
z
. cos ( j. )
2 2
(16)
2
j =0 l rj
118
 a)

c)

b)

Fig. 2. Built-in bearing scheme, a unloaded, b pre-stressed, c radial loaded

2.3. The stiffness of nodal point with bearings
arranged according to the shape
When calculating the nodal point with bearings arranged
according to the shape we divide the nodal point into part
1 and part 2 (Fig.1), with the same orientation of
contact angles -nodes as directionally-arranged bearings,
and the stiffness of the parts will be calculated as follows:

z sin 2 ( 1 j )
C r1 = i1 . .k 2 / 3 .Pj1 / 3 . cos 2 ( 1 j ) + Pj .
3
. cos ( j. )
2
(17a)
2
j =0 l r1 j

3 2 / 3 1/ 3 sin 2 ( 2 j )
C r2 = i2 . .k .Pj . cos ( 2 j ) + Pj .
z
. cos ( j. )
2 2
(17b)
j =0
2 l r2 j

for Fig. 1: numbers of balls: i1 = 3, i2 = 2,
contact angles 1 = 2 = 25
By their subsequent addition we determine the total
stiffness of the nodal point with
C r = C r1 + C r2
In order to optimize the stiffness and load-bearing
capacity for determined technological conditions, the
manufacturers of machine tools have come out with a
new, non-traditional solution of nodal points. By
diminishing the contact angle of the bearing in Part 2, the
(18) axial stiffness of the nodal point is partially decreased,

119
but at the same time the value of the radial stiffness and
boundary axial load is increased.
2.4. Approximate calculation of stiffness
When evaluating the overall stiffness of a spindle, the
designer must take into account the approximate
calculation of the stiffness of the nodal points.
If all the rollers are loaded, and their number is more than
2 per bearing [4], the following equation can be applied:
z radial stiffness of a bearing angle with directionally
z
cos ( j. ) = 2
j =0
2
(19)
If the bearing angle is loaded only in an axial direction by
the pre-stressing force, then the load on the rollers is
constant around the whole circumference and can be
expressed, for the particular parts of the nodal point [8],,
in the form
3.10 -3 2 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3 cos 2 ( 1 ) i22 / 3 . cos 2 ( 2 ). sin 1 / 3 ( 1 )
Cr = .z .k .i1 .Fp . 1 / 3 .1 +
4 sin ( 1 ) i12 / 3 . cos 2 ( 1 ). sin 1 / 3 ( 2 )
where the approximate value of the deformation constant
is k = 1,25.d w , dw diameter of balls.
The pre-stressing value Fp can be calculated according
to the standard STN 02 46 15. Some foreign
manufacturers (fy SKF, FAG, SNFA ...) publish this
value in their catalogues. The number of balls z and
diameters of balls dw of some types of bearings are
quoted in literature, e.g. [7].
4. VERIFICATION OF MEASURED AND
CALCULATED VALUES
The results obtained according to this mathematical
model were compared with the values measured by means
of the experimental device shown in Fig 3. This device
was used to measure the deformation characteristics of
nodal points with different combinations of arrangement,
pre-stressing values, contact angles, loads and revolution
frequencies. This new equation (22) for middle stiffness
of the bearing arrangement Cr calculation was
experimental verified, [1], [5], [6].
At Fig. 3 we have been compared experimental measure
stiffness, exactly theoretical and middle calculated radial
stiffness of the bearing arrangement B7216 AATB P4 O
UL. Results are very good.
1. At zero frequencies the values of radial stiffness are
experimental higher than theoretical values, Fig.3. The
dependence of stiffness on loading has a digressive
(decreasing) course. The decrease is nearly linear, until a
certain critical force Fkr , at this point the least-loaded
roller becomes unloaded.The deformation characteristic
of the nodal point is influenced by the type of flange.
The direction and gradation of the stiffness change under
the given operation conditions depend on their
construction.
120
Fp Fp
P1 j = ; P2 j =
i1 .z. sin ( p1 ) i2 .z. sin ( p 2 )
(20)
The magnitude of the contact angles of spindle bearings is
not greater than 26 degrees. In that case the value of the
second expression in equations (17a) and (17b) is
negligible.
Taking into consideration these assumptions, we will get
the relationship for the approximate calculation of the
placed bearings.
3.10 -3 2 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3 cos 2 ( )
Cr = .z .k .i .Fp . 1 / 3 (21)
4 sin ( )
and with bearings arranged according to shape:
(22)
5. SUMMARY
In this paper are presented the regulations for selection
and calculation of the radial stiffness of nodal points
composed of radial ball bearings with beveled contact.
The resulting radial stiffness of spindle nodes is a
function of various factors. Its calculation, considering the
operation conditions of the node, is quite complicated,
and cannot be accomplished without the use of computer
technologies.
The research results show that the change of the radial
stiffness of pre-stressed nodes is relatively small at zero
revolution frequencies, in dependence on loading, and can
be mineralized.
In this field the results of the precise and the approximate
mathematical model are practically equal. From the
preceding it follows that in a preliminary design of
mounting, a simplified mathematical model for
calculating the stiffness of nodal points can be used, as
derived in this article.
At Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 is experimental stand for messing
radial and axial stiffness.
REFERENCES
[1] OO, .: Statika loiskovch uzlov vretien
obrbacch strojov. [Kandidtska dizertan prca].
STU Bratislava. 1992, 140 s.
[2] HARRIS, T.A.: Rolling Bearing Analysis. New York
- London - Sydney, 1966, 481s.
[3] BALMONT, V.B. - RUSSKICH,S.P.: Raset
radialnoj estkosti radialno - upornogo podipnika.
Trudy instituta. M., Specinformcentr VNIPPa, 69,
1978, .1, s..93 - 107.
[4] KOVALEV, M. P.- NARODECKIIJ, M. Z.: Raset CORRESPONDENCE
vysokotonych arikopodipnikov. 2 vyd. Moskva,
Mainostroenie 1980. 279s.
ubomr OO, Prof. MSc. PhD.
[5] OO, .: Quality of design engineering: case of
Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
machine tools headstock. In: Quality Festival 2008 :
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
2nd International quality conference. - Kragujevac,
Nm. Slobody 17
May 13-15, 2008. - Kragujevac : University in
81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Kragujevac, 2008. - ISBN 978-86-86663-25-2.
lubomir.soos@stuba.sk
[6] LAVORK, L.- OO, .- ZO, J.: Applied
Software Technology of Designing a Bearing
Housing Fitted with Rolling Bearing Arrangement. Peter KRIAN, MSc. PhD.
In..: ICED 91. Zurich, August, 1991, s.1228 -1233. Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Nm. Slobody 17
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
peter.krizan@stuba.sk
Tento prspevok vznikol za podpory finannch
prostriedkov projektov KEGA . 7216/09 a SK-SRB-011- Iveta ONDEROV, MSc. PhD.
07. This contribution has arisen in assistances financial Slovak Technical University in Bratislava
resources project KEGA nr. 7216/09 and SK-SRB-0011- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
07. Nm. Slobody 17
Tento prspevok vznikol za finannej podpory projektu 81231 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
KEGA . 7216/09 a SK-SRB-0011-07. iveta.onderova@stuba.sk

Stiffness Fkr c

F[N]
Fig. 3. Radial stiffness of the bearing arrangement B7216 AATB P4 O UL,
a - experimental, b exactly theoretical, c middle theoretical,

121
 5

1 2 3 4

Fig. 4. Cut of experimental stand, 1- holder, 2- to retighten screw, 3- dynamometer, 4- force bearing, 5- force arm

2 3 7
6 1

Fig. 5. 3D model of experimental stand, 1- holder, 2- to retighten screw, 3- dynamometer, 6- drive, 7- Poly V belt

122

DIFERENTIAL PLANETARY
TRANSMISSION OF WIND TURBINE
CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE
TRANSMISSION
Vojislav MILTENOVI
Miodrag VELIMIROVI
Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI
Milan BANI
Abstract: New concept of wind turbine power
transmission, which instead of multiplicators with
constant transmission ratio, uses variable transmission
ratio (CVT) is increasing. In order to exceed
multiplicators with constant transmission ratio
disadvantages, new concept of wind turbine power
transmission anticipates differential power transmission
and power transmitters with variable transmission ratio
(CVT) instead of multiplicators with constant
transmission ratio. It is used for adjusting turbine
impeller work with generator work. The capacity of
power generation increase in wind turbines but generated
many technical problems. Those problems slowed the
development of wind energy usage. Many of those
problems are related to power transmission.
Wind turbine transmission concepts can be divided into
several types. Actual transmission types in wind turbines
include planetary differential transmitters. Differential
planetary transmitters have significant function in those
concepts.
This paper shows new concept of combined CVT for
application in wind turbines designed for a specific task.
1. INTRODUCTION
Wind turbine as energy source became competitive to
classic energy sources, not only due to costs but also to
produced energy quality. Basic problem regarding wind
generators construction is in a fact that intensity and wind
direction is constantly changing over time. The wind
turbine impeller should always use maximum of the wind
power potential, i.e. to operate in its optimal regime,
which only depends on current speed of the wind.
Generator work regime is in function of induced electric
power. To connect wind turbines with power distribution
network, it is necessary that deviation of voltage and
frequency lie in narrow boundaries.
Basic elements of wind power plants are wind wheel
(turbine), current generator and wind power plant pillar.
Since the number of revolutions developed by wind
turbine can be insufficient for generator work, power
transmission-multiplicator is necessary. For determining
transmission ratio of multiplicator part of wind turbine, it
is necessary to have number of rpm of impeller and
generator. The number of rpm of generator could be,
depending of generator type:
 i = 0.125 0.375 (8 2.66) , the number of rpm of
generator is 400 min-1 ("alxion", permanent magnet)
 i = 0.0277 0.833 (36 12) , the number of rpm of
generator 1800 min-1 ("VESTAS")
 i = 0.0167 0.05 (60 20), the number of rpm of
generator 3000 min-1 (classical asynchronous for all
producers).
In order to exceed disadvantages of multiplicators with
constant number of rpm, power transmitters with variable
transmission ratio are predicted for usage in wind turbine
for adjusting turbine impeller work with generator work
in wind turbine development researching. In this paper
advantages of CVT transmissions in relation with
transmission with constant number of rpm are pointed.
In combination with planetary differential gearboxes the
maximum output torque of CVTs is increased.
2. MULTIPLICATOR DESIGN CONCEPT
SELECTION
Design parameters for wind turbine transmitters are based
on criterions laid out to system as a hole. Turbine
transforms the mechanical energy with relatively small
number of rotors rpm. Main goal is to maximally utilise
the available power of the wind. Turbine must work in the
optimal regime which depends on the current wind speed.
Larger wind turbines regulate the turbine speed by turning
the turbine blades. Induced power is monitored and if that
power is exceeded, blades are positioned to generate less
power.
Transmission ratio and regulation range are in correlation
with turbine speed, turbine diameter, number of blades,
generator poles pair number and frequency of induced
electrical energy.
Modern wind turbines can sustain wind speeds up to 80
m/s but the operating range is restricted to 425 m/s.
Limiting of power begins from wind speed of 16 m/s. The
important values for transmission are interval boundaries
Vmin = 4 m/s and Vmax = 16 m/s.
During development and verification of wind turbine
transmission the basic development criterions are:
transmission power, transmission ratio, regulation
boundaries, efficiency, transmission ratio change time and
specific power of transmission. Beside these development
criterions, transmission has to be very compact and
reliable. The connection between turbine and transmission
shaft needs special attention because of elastic
deformations of shaft supports and transmitter.
Beside previously noted, the operating temperature
change, cold start, difficult availability of transmission
components and unloaded operation state must be also
considered.
Wind turbine transmission concepts can be divided into
[1]:
123
1. Transmission with constant transmission ratio A significant flaw of noted concepts is that they employ
 Spur multiplicators with fixed rotation axes - hydrostatic or hydrodynamic CVT, which lowers
classical conception mainly surpassed. efficiency that is very important in wind turbines.
The author team came to idea to replace the hydrostatic or
 Planetary multiplicators stand alone or in combination
hydrodynamic CVT with metal belt CVT, which has
with spur pairs - actual conceptions. Planetary
much greater efficiency then perspective concepts. The
transmitters are connected in line or in differential
concept scheme of such transmission is shown on Fig. 1.
transmitter.
2. Transmission with variable transmission ratio
(CVT) - perspective concepts. These conceptions are
combinations of planetary differential transmitters
with variators (CVT).
Actual transmission types in wind turbines are given in
table 1.
Based on analyze given in [BAPT] it can be concluded Connection
that actual transmission concepts have lower mass and b to a
price than classical solutions.
All shown concepts include planetary gear transmission,
as stationary or differential (most often). Function of
differential transmission is to lower the torque transferred
via the variator as they cannot transfer significant torque.
Fig. 1. Scheme of new concept for power transmission of
Table 1. Perspective concept solutions of power wind turbine
transmission in wind turbine
The basic relation of such transmission concept is:
na = nh iahb + nb iabh iz iv (1)
HENDERSON GEARBOX
transmission, type AI, two
stage spur and differential
transmitter with hydraulic
Single stage planetary

where
= 0.920.96
im = 401000

iabh = -zb/za transmission ratio from a to b with h as

stationary,
brake

iz transmission ratio of additional spur transmission,

iv transmission ratio of variator.
By application of the basic relation and equations, which
connect torque on sun gear, planetary carrier and annulus
gear [4], the relationship between power on sun and
annulus gear is obtained.
transmission with motor or
Differential planetary

P ih i i
= 0.940.97
motor-generator

f (iabh , iz , iv ) = b = ab h z v (2)
im = 930

Pa 1 + iab iz iv
By minimizing the function (2) in relation to two
parameters (iabh and iz), optimal transmission ratios of
additional spur and differential transmission are obtained
in which the power flow over the variator is minimal.
iabh
and differential transmission with transmission, type AI, two stage spur
and differential transmitter with

VOITH WINDRIVE
Single stage planetary

hydrodynamic CVT

= 0.950.97
im = 12200

Pb/Pa
Two stage planetary transmission AI

WINDTEC/WIKOV/ORBITAL2
hydrostatic CVT Hendersons

iz
= 0.920.96
im = 401000
transmission

Fig. 2. Ratio of power transferred over sun gear and

variator in relation to transmission ratios of additional
geared and differential transmission

By lowering the flow of power over the variator the

regulation diapason is lowered also. It is necessary to find
the transmission ratios of additional geared and

124
differential transmission for which the power flow over
the variator would be minimal for a demanded regulation
diapason. The noted optimization was conducted via a
optimization software package developed by authors. The
input parameter for software optimization is the value of
regulation diapason, and as the result the values of
transmission ratios of additional geared and differential
transmission is obtained. The optimal values of
transmission ratios of additional geared and differential
transmission, for a defined value of regulation diapason
Dr = 1.5, are iz = 0.058 and iabh = -3. In the noted case, in
the nominal operating regime (iv = 1) the power flow over
the variator is 14.8% from the input power. Maximal
power over the variator is 25.8%, while the minimal is
4.2% from the input power. Nominal rpm of the planet
carrier is nh = 522 min-1, and it lays between nhmin = 450
min-1 and nhmax = 680 min-1. The actual regulation
diapason then can be calculated as: Fig. 4. Differential transmission with variator concept

nh max 680 Since for the purpose of project prototype production is

Dr = = = 1.51 (3)
nh min 450 necessary, it is assumed that all gear pairs have the same
module, mn = 2 mm. For the same reasons, due to
technological constrains for gears with external gearing
case-hardening steel is adopted, while for annulus gear
the nitriding steel is presumed.
Geometry calculation for all gears is according DIN 3960,
while strength calculation is according DIN 3990.
By application of multicriteria optimization in order to
increase specific power and efficiency and decrease mass
and volume in the same time, design parameters for
differential planetary transmission and multiplicator gear
pairs z1 - z2 and z3 - z4 are chosen. Calculation data for
differential planetary transmission are given in table 2 and
calculation data for additional spur gears z1-z2 and z3-z4
Fig. 3. Change of planet carrier rpm (input) in relation to are given in table 3.
change of variator transmission ratio

Minimal rpm of the annulus gear, which is reference for

calculation procedure of additional geared transmission is
nb = 28 min-1.

3. DESIGN OF DIFERENTIAL PLANETARY

TRANSMISSION

For specific design task as a part of project "Research and

Development of Compact CVTs for Wind Turbines"
(TR14004) financing of Ministry of Science of Republic
of Serbia, concept of combined CVT transmission is
determined first, Fig. 4.
Design input data must be in accordance with standards
for wind turbines, available wind speed and adopted
generator type so application factor of KA = 1,67 was
adopted according to BS 436 and ANSI/AGMA
standards.
As already noted the necessary transmission ratios for this
concept are:
 variator transmission ratio: iv = 0.25- 2
 differential transmission ratio: iabh -3
Fig. 5. Differential transmission with variator kinematic
 spur pairs transmission ratio z1 - z2 and z3 - z4 scheme
iz1 z 2 iz 3 z 4 0, 055; U z1 z 2 U z 3 z 4 18, 2.
In order to transmissions overall dimensions decrease and The prototype transmission components were calculated
reach uniform power distribution between gear pairs next for the worst-case scenario in which the torque on annulus
gear ratios [2] are adopted: iz1-z2 0.222 and iz3-z4 0.25. gear is the greatest.

125
Table 2. Cylindrical gear calculation for differential planetary transmission
Dimension Index Unit za zg zb
Number of revolution n min-1 1854,1 -1497,7 -28
Torque P kW 3,75 5 1,25
Gear profile according DIN 3972 III
Normal module mn mm 2
Number of teeth 16 15 -47
Face width b mm 284 26 28
Pressure angle at normal section n 20
Centre distance a mm 32 -32
Helix angle at Pitch diameter 0
Addendum modification coefficient x 0,2793 0,2757 -0,2757
Reference diameter d mm 32 30 -94
Base diameter db mm 30,070 30,070 -88,331
Operating pitch diameter dw mm 33,032 30,968/30 -94
Root diameter df mm 28,117 26,103 -100,103
Tip diameter da mm 36,897 34,883 -91,103
Transverse contact ratio 1,307 1,705
Overlap ratio -
Total contact ratio 1,307 1,705
Accuracy grade [Q-DIN3961] 6
Tooth thickness tolerance DIN 3967 E cd24 cd24 a28
Face load factor (contact stress) KH 1,47 1,57
Gear material 16MnCr5 16MnCr5 31CrMoV9
2
Contact stress H N/mm 855,92 559,93
Permissible contact stress Hkr N/mm2 1440 1440/1519 1265
Tooth root stress F N/mm2 122,78 124/118 107
Permissible bending stress Fkr N/mm2 596,31 430 666,31
Safety factor - flank SH 1,62 1,58/2,44 2,26
Safety factor - root SF 6,8 4,84/5,12 8,72
Tooth mass temperature Ttel 77,579 71,239
Integral-tooth flank temperature Tkon 93,818 73,895
Safety coefficient for scuffing (intg.-temp.) SSint 4,3 5,46
Oil ISO VG 320
Efficiency 0,966

Table3. Cylindrical gear calculation for gear pairs z1-z2 and z3-z4
Dimension Index Unit z1 z2 z3 z4
Number of revolution n min-1 28 113,4
Torque T Nm 426,3 105,3 22.2
Gear profile according DIN 3972 III III III III
Normal module mn mm 3 2
Number of teeth 81 20 90 19
Face width b mm 32 35 20 24
Pressure angle at normal section n 20
Centre distance a mm 160 112
Helix angle at Pitch diameter 15 8
Addendum modification coefficient x 0,735 0,387 0,679 0,345
Reference diameter d mm 251,572 62,117 181,769 38,373
Base diameter db mm 235,414 58,127 170,610 36,018
Operating pitch diameter dw mm 256,634 63,366 184,954 39,046
Root diameter df mm 248,480 56,940 179,484 34,752
Tip diameter da mm 261,560 70,020 188,248 43,516
Transverse contact ratio 1,402 1,4664

126
Dimension Index Unit z1 z2 z3 z4
Overlap ratio 0,879 0,4430
Total contact ratio 2,281 1,9094
Accuracy grade [Q-DIN3961] 6
Tooth thickness tolerance DIN 3967 E cd24
Face load factor (contact stress) KH 1,25 1,49
Gear material 31CrMoV9 16MnCr5 16MnCr5 16MnCr5
Contact stress H N/mm2 824,27 918,07
Permissible contact stress Hkr N/mm2 1118,32 1341,99 1449,95
Tooth root stress F N/mm2 256,91 211,23 287,73 215,15
Permissible bending stress Fkr N/mm2 647,50 590,54 596,85 588,86
Safety factor - flank SH 1,357 1,612 1,58 1,58
Safety factor - root SF 3,53 3,91 2,90 3,83
Tooth mass temperature Ttel 74,82 73,67
Integral-tooth flank temperature Tkon 85,14 81,53
Safety coefficient for scuffing SSint 4,74 4,950
Oil ISO VG 320
Efficiency 0,9864 0,9862

Based on performed calculation the 3D model and Fig. 7 shows the components of the planetary differential
technical documentation was made. with the output shaft. that is a connection with one of the
Fig. 6. shows the 3D model of the differential hausing. CVT belt pulleys.
Output shafts of the transmission, in accordance with the
kinematic scheme (Fig. 5), are vertical which ensures the
vertical position of the CVT, and thus beter lubrication
and lower losses due to interaction of the oil and the belt.

Fig. 7. Sun and planetary gears of the differential

transmission

Fig. 6. 3D model of differential transmission Fig. 8. Support of output shaft in the planet carrier

127
The output shaft is supported by two bearings, needle
bearings in housed in the planet carrier and the radial ball
bearing housed between output shaft and a carrier of the
annulus (or z1) gear.
and wind turbines. The prototype was designed for
maximum efficiency using the software optimization with
a goal to decrease the specific sliding in gears meshing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement to Ministry of Science of Republic of

Serbia for financing of project Research and Development
of Compact CVTs for Wind Turbines TR14004.

REFERENCES:

[1] MILTENOVI, V., VELIMIROVI M., BANI,

Fig. 9. Support arrangement of annulus gear z1
Annulus gear is manufactured as one part with gear z1. It
is supported by two radial ball bearings. Bearing inner
ring is connected to a sleeve on which, on the inner side,
the bearing of the output shaft are housed. Outer bearing
ring is housed by the transmission housing.
Sun gear and gears of the additional spur transmission z2
and z4 are manufactured as one part with their carrier
shafts.
Transmission prototype can carry out power up to the 5
kW. If the overall concept of transmission proves its
functioning trough prototype validation, the transferred
power of wind turbine transmission based on this concept
can carry up to 2MW, which is appropriate for modern
middle-sized wind turbines.
4. CONCLUSION
M.: Contribution to Development of Wind Generator
Continuously Variable Transmission, Balkan Power
Transmission 2009 (BAPT 09), Kallithea, Greece,
2009.
[2] MILTENOVI, V.: Mainski elementi - oblici,
proraun primena, Univerzitet u Niu, Mainski
fakultet, str. 762, 2009.
[3] STEFANOVI-MARINOVI J., BANI M.,
MILTENOVI A.: Selection of CVT Transmission
Construction Design for Usage in Low Power Wind
Turbine, Machine Design, Monograph on the
Occasion of 49th Anniversary of the Faculty of
Technical Sciences, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
Novi Sad, 2009, pp. 101-104.
[4] TANASIJEVI S., VULI A.: Mehaniki
prenosnici-Planetarni prenosnici i varijatori, (ISBN
86-23-43041-7), Mainski fakultet u Kragujevcu,
Kragujevac, 2006.
CORRESPONDENCE
Vojislav MILTENOVI, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
University of Ni
Mechanical Engineering Faculty
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
18000 Ni, Republic of Serbia
vojamiltenovic@yahoo.com

Basic elements of wind power plants are turbine, current

Miodrag VELIMIROVI, Ass. Dipl. Ing.
generator and wind power plant pillar. Since the number
University of Ni
of revolutions developed by impeller is usually
Mechanical Engineering Faculty
insufficient for generator work, power transmission-
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
multiplicator is necessary. In order to exceed 18000 Ni, Republic of Serbia
disadvantages of multiplicators with constant number of m_velimirovic@yahoo.com
rpm, power transmitters with variable transmission ratio
are predicted for usage in wind turbine for adjusting
turbine impeller work with generator work in wind Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI,
Ph.D University of Ni
turbine development researching. But such concepts
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
currently have a low efficiency, which is very important
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
in wind turbines.
18000 Ni, Republic of Serbia ia
Paper proposes the new transmission concept, based on jelenas@masfak.ni.ac.rs
metal belt CVT that in combination with planetary
differential gearbox increases the maximum output torque
of CVTs, and thus the power of wind turbine. Milan BANI, Dipl. Ing.
The concept was optimized with a goal of increasing the University of Ni
maximum power output by lowering the power flow over Mechanical Engineering Faculty
the CVT. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
Prototype of the proposed concept was designed by using 18000 Ni, Republic of Serbia
the up to date standards in the field of power transmission banicmilan@hotmail.com

128
 2. CONFIGURATION OF HYBRID
TRANSMISSION

Major components of the presented powertrain are found

in figure 1.

HYBRID POWERTRAIN FOR LIGHT

VEHICLE
Andrzej LECHOWICZ
Jerzy JANTOS

Abstract: The paper propose concept hybrid system which

can be used to light vehicle. This solution comprises only
three main components: internal combustion engine,
electric motor and planetary gear. The supervisor unit
receives commands from the driver and select the
operating mode to maximize performance and reduce Fig. 1. Hybrid powertrain for light vehicle
emission. According to the power demand of this vehicle
compare traditional powertrain with designed hybrid The major source of power to the vehicle is a combustion
engine (200cc)whose power curve is in presented in
system. Proposed system provides a greater range of the
figure 2.
power output on the wheels. Additionally, when driving at
low speed use only electric motor reduce emission in the 12

city.
10

Key words: hybrid system, hybrid vehicle, energy

8
management, powertrain.
Power [kW]

1. INTRODUCTION 4

2
Light commercial vehicles such as scooters and quads
require the automation of the powertrain system. The 0
most widely used solution in the vehicle system is based 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

on a simple mechanical continuously variable Engine speed [rpm]

transmission with flexible belts. The simplicity of the Fig. 2. Characteristic of the internal combustion engine
design is associated with low efficiency of the powertrain.
The limitation with regard to the controlled parameters of Electric motor/generator Lemco Lem-200 is applied to
the engine leads to the deterioration of the traction control the powertrain and its parameters are summarized
characteristic, increase fuel consumption and pollutant in table 1.
emissions. The paper proposes a different solution based
on a simple planetary gear with two degrees of freedom. Table 1. Parameters of the Lemco Lem-200
Electric motor is used to control the kinematic ratio of the Symbol Quantity Value
planetary gear. As a result, a completely automatic U Rated voltage [V] 84
transmission systems has been built which makes it Rt Armature resistance [m] 16,75
possible continuously change powertrain ratio and Lt Armature Inductance[H] 16
implement additional functions such as engine start, Km Torque constant [Nm/A] 0,185
power recovery or changing the direction of motion [3]. Ke Speed constant [rpm/V] 45
It should be emphasized that these tasks have been J Armature Inertia [kgm2] 0,024
implemented by using only one electric motor/generator I Rated current [A] 200
in a relatively simple system, whose main features are P Rated power [kW] 14,39
listed below. Ms Mass [kg] 11

129
Basic element, responsible for transmitting the power is a
simple planetary gear with two degrees of freedom (Fig.
3).

Fig. 3. Diagram of the planetary gear

Kinematics ratio of the planetary gear are determined by

wheel speeds in accordance with the relation

s c
r= , (1)
r c

where: s sun gear angular velocity,

c planet carrier angular velocity,
r ring angular velocity.
The relation between the angular velocities of individual
segments and the number of teeth of planetary gear are
described by the equation

zr
r= , (2)
zs

where: z s number of sun gear teeth,

z r number of ring gear teeth.

3. OPERATING MODES
The following operating modes are found in the examined
system:
 start and driving at a low speed using the electric
motor (fig 4a),
 engine start-up (fig. 4b),
 driving at an average speed with simultaneous battery
charging (rys.4c) ,
 driving at a high speed when electrical and internal
combustion engine operate simultaneously adding up
their power (fig. 4d) ,
 driving at high speed using only combustion engine
(fig. 4e),
 braking (Fig. 4f).
Energy flow in the diagrams is indicated by arrows. It is
possible to drive a vehicle using only the electric motor
(Fig. 4a) or using only the internal combustion engine
(Fig 4e). In most modes, two power sources are running
simultaneously, the electric unit can operate as an electric
generator (Fig. 4c) or electric motor (Fig. 4d).
B-battery, PG Planetary gear,
C- Power converter F Fuel,
M Electric motor E Combustion engine
V Vehicle
Fig. 4. Modes of hybrid system: a) start-up, b) start
engine, c) driving low speed, d) driving high speed, e)
driving high speed (only combustion engine), f)
deceleration/braking
The system is controlled by supervisory controller which
affects both the parameters of the combustion engine and
electric motor (Fig. 5). Selection of the operating mode
depends on the power requirements and the battery charge
level. Position of the accelerator pedal is interpreted as
torque demand on the wheels [4]. The supervisory
controller receives commands from the driver and
feedback signals from electronic control units (engine
control unit, electric motor control unit) to select the
operating mode and decide about power flow to the
wheels and to the battery.

130
Power from combustion engine and electric motor is Table 2. Parameters of the vehicle
transferred by two degree of freedom planetary gear.
Appropriate blocking one shaft of planetary gear allows to Quantity Value
use only one power source (combustion engine or electric
motor). In this case the planetary gear works as a gear set Curb mass [kg] 170
with one degree of freedom. Power is transferred only on Mass of battery and equipment [kg] 80
mechanical way, the transmission ratio is constant and the Driver mass [kg] 80
efficiency very high. Total mass [kg] 330
During start-up or low speed (Fig. 4a), shaft of the Length [mm] 1120
combustion engine is blocked. In this mode electric motor Width [mm] 800
converts chemical energy stored in battery to mechanical Wheel radius [m] 0,24
power to drive the vehicle. This mode allows to reduce Road friction coefficient [-] 0,9
pollutant emission because combustion engine is shut Air Drag coefficient [-] 1,8
down. By high speed, combustion engine alone drives the Frontal area [m2] 0,8
vehicle (Fig. 4e). Shaft of planetary gear linked to the
electric motor is blocked and the transmission is operated Rolling resistance determines equation
in engine mode. If the battery is low (Fig. 4c) shaft of the
electric motor is unlocked and electric motor operate as a FR = f r m g , (3)
generator to charge the battery.
where: f r rolling resistance coefficient,
m vehicle total mass,
g gravitational acceleration,

and air drag can be expressed as

v 2
FD = c x A (4)
2
where: c x equivalent drag coefficient of vehicle,
A effective frontal vehicle cross-sectional
area,
v vehicle speed,
mass density of air .

The power needed to overcome rolling resistance and air

drag
Fig. 5. Diagram of the control system PRD = v (c1 + c 2 v 2 ) (5)

where: c1 constant contains the rolling resistance

4. CHARACTERISTIC OF POWER DEMAND parameters,
c 2 constant contains a air drag parameters.
A quad vehicle has been selected for the purposes of the
analysis (Fig.6). Its parameters are summarized in Table For the adopted parameters the considered power losses
2. Traditionally, the top speed of this vehicle equipped in can be evaluated as a function of vehicle speed which is
a 200cc gasoline engine is about 50 km/h. shown in figure 7.
asphalt road
dirt-track
20

15
Power [kW]

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Vehicle speed [m/s]

Fig. 7. The summarized power losses due to rolling

Fig. 6. Quad vehicle resistance and air drag on road surfaces

131
Accounting for the constraints resulting from the
adhesion, the maximum tractive power
PT = v ( + f r ) m g , (6)
where: traction coefficient.
Demanded power for the vehicle is shown on figure 8. It
is limited by the maximum of tractive (PT) and maximum
engine power (PE) and also top speed of the vehicle
(vmax).
Fig. 8. Demanded power area
The power area for the traditional power train is shown on
figure 9 and for the proposed hybrid system on figure 10.
The power curve (Pw) in figure 8 was determined using
the PAAF device. It measures the longitudinal
acceleration in particularly developed road test and
determine the driving force and power on wheels [5].
Fig. 9. Power area in traditional powertrain
Fig. 10. Power area in propose hybrid system
It can be seen the power area in proposed hybrid system is
match greater than in traditional powertrain.
132
Due to simultaneously work of combustion and electric
motor the performance of considered vehicle a much
better.
5. CONCLUSION
The proposed power train system implements many
functions encountered in traditional systems using
multiple independent components such as clutch, gearbox,
starter or alternator. Power drive range offers far more
possibilities and opportunities for control is more
extensive. The research conducted now involves an
improvement of control algorithms and selection of
parameters, which will reduce the demanded power of
electric motor.
REFERENCES
[1] CENTA, G., Motor Vehicle Dynamics: Modeling and
Simulation, Singapore, World Scientific, 1997
[2] CHAU, K-T., Overview of power management in
hybrid Electric Vehicles, Energy Conversion &
Management 2002:;43 pp 1953-1968
[3] JANTOS, J., Control of the Transmission Ratio
Derivative in Pasenger Car Powertrain with CVT,
SAE Technical Paper Series, SAE 2001 World
Congres, Detroit, Michigan 2001, nr 2001-01-1159
[4] JANTOS, J., Interpretation and Scaling of
Acceleration Pedal in Passenger Car, Conference
Proceeding 8th Europen Automitive Congress, SAITS
01007, Slovak Society of Automotive Engineers,
Bratislava 2001, pp 113-120
[5] JANTOS, J., BROL, S., MAMALA, J., Problems in
Assessing Road Vehicle Driveability Parameters
Determined with the Aid of Accelerometer, SAE 2007
Transactions, Journal of Passenger Car: Mechanical
Systems, pp 1318-1324
[6] SHEU, K-B., Conceptual Design of Hybrid Scooter
transmission with Planetary Gear, Applied Energy
2007;84, pp 526-541
CORRESPONDENCE
Andrzej LECHOWICZ, M.Sc. Eng. -PhD
student in the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering at Opole University of
Technology.
a.lechowicz@doktorant.po.edu.pl
Jerzy JANTOS, D.Sc. DEng. Professor
in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
at Opole University of Technology.
j.jantos@po.opole.pl

GRIPPERS FOR INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Peter KOL
Jarmila ORAVCOV
Miriam MATOV
Abstract: The industrial robots are characterized as
electro-mechanical system by higher level of integrated
electronic. They realize predefined actions by flexible
acting and information exchanging with environment.
Its connection to manufacturing devices is used for
workpiece loading and unloading to these devices. One of
the most important part of industrial robots from view of
its usability is its gripper system
Key words: grippers, robots, manufacturing, assembly,
1. INTRODUCTION
The assembly has a specific state in manufacturing
process, because assembly imply major portion of high
toilsome and manual work in a term of their portion in
production total time. For their technical differentness and
heterogeneousness, actual assembly is make manual too,
because of automation assembly lag in higher
manipulating ability requirement for assembly devices by
joining parts. Often some assembly operation, which are
requested very complicated and very expensive device.
This problem may be partially solved by designing parts
especially for automated assembly.
The industrial robots are able to take, move, machine and
assemble workpiece. They are universal automated
devices realizing movements similar as a human arm.
Industrial robot are defined as a programmable,
multifunction manipulator designed to move materials,
parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks. The industrial robots has a follow base
characteristics and differ from other industrial devices by
these characteristic:
 target oriented,
 flexibility,
 programmability,
 automated working,
 information exchange between a robot and its
environment,
 acting to environment.
On base of today trends at a field of robotics was added a
new characteristics too:
 possibility to robot working in case of environment
changing to unknowable state,
 structure of robot have some intelligence and is
possible use this intelligence to activities planing and
realizing.
2. ROBOTIZED ASSEMBLY SYSTEM
A Considerable feature of assembly process realization is
flexibility of assembly system. There is the ability of
assembly system to adapt to changed requirements of
assembly (maybe modified article or new type of article).
Systems flexibility illustrates measure of versatility of
these systems. Flexible assembly systems are available to
perform other assembly operations. Versatility of
industrial robot can achieve provide for ability
reprogramming and automated exchange of gripper, or
technological head, which can use for technological
operations.
The diffusion of assembly automation towards
applications characterized by increasing complexity levels
and reduced product lifetimes requires solutions which,
besides high performances, guarantee high flexibility and
reconfigurability levels.
There are many industrial situations in which this
approach shows interesting application perspectives, for
example assembly processes which involve many
component insertion directions. In this case, employing a
robot as a general fixture allows for the elimination of
complex orienting and fixing devices, dedicated to a a
specified product, and using skilled robots which present
a preferential direction of insertion (i.e. Scara) for the
assembly of components. Such assembly cells are very
beneficial when small lots of many products have to be
assembled using a limited number of components.
Example of assembly robot for screwing is at Fig. 1.
Example of robotized assembly cell is shown at Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Assembly robot for screwing (laboratory usage)
The Industrial robot, which are able perform complicated
operation sequence, sense environment by sensors and
make a decision according to actual state we call as
industrial robot with adaptive behavior. Adaptive
industrial robot is defined as an industrial robot with
133
higher level of control, which are able change their
behavior during their running in order to condition quality
of operating all production system satisfied. Behavior
exchange is realizing for a consideration exchange state
parameters of environment. Monitoring of these
exchanges state parameters are realized by sensors, which
are part of adaptive robot.
Fig. 2. Robotized assembly cell
General structures of robotized assembly systems can be
divided into three main groups:
 Assembly systems, in which robots performs only
manipulation
 Assembly systems represents assembly center, in
which on the one place are performed manipulate,
assembly and assistant operations
 Assembly systems, in which assembly robot of higher
generation perform manipulate and assembly
operations
Fig. 3. Gripper exchange system (example)
3. GRIPERS IN ROBOTIZED ASSEMBLY
The end effectors of industrial robots as an interactive
part of robots design realize some very important
functions derived from base of robots using at concrete
case. One of end effectors function is manipulation tasks
realizing in technological process.
In this case the end effectors realize not only workpiece
moving, but often realize the workpiece positioning and
134
orientation at technological device workspace. (Fig. 3,
Fig. 4)
The other different function of end effectors may be
technological process realization in workpiece (milling,
drilling, screwing,...). End effectors can be design to
realize the measurement and quality control too.
Robotic technologies becomes to huge range of
applications so we can find spread spectrum of special
end effectors design. These special end effectors can use
in medicine, space applications, army and so much other
fields.
End effectors can divide by its function to:
 gripping end effectors gripers,
 technological end effectors,
 measuring end effectors,
 control end effectors,
 combined end effectors,
 special end effectors.
Fig. 4. Gripper changing system from SMC
A part of complex automated assembly process is an
automation of process control, automated transportation,
handling, feeding, interchange of workpieces and tools.
There are many technological sites existing, which match
given requirements. Besides obvious computer techniques
for controlling the manufacturing machines, automatically
working bins, loaders, conveyors, manipulators and
industrial robots are implemented step by step. As
industrial production is growing constantly, besides
implementing of the classical automated means, which
were mentioned above, manufacturing systems with
intelligent control are being installed.
Exploitation of automated manufacturing systems is
conditional by effectiveness of all subsystems, from
which is the automated manufacturing system created. All
subsystems are often developed together with certain
automated system, not to decrease parameters of whole
system.
4. CALCULATION OF GRIPPER FORCE
The shape and mass of manipulated part has influence to
gripping method. In case of mechanical grippers the
gripping method results from kinematics structure.
Optimal conception are combined from partial kinematics
schemes. Order of these schemes are designed by needed
movements in a frame of gripping positioning, orientation
and unlocking operations.
From construction point of view the M class griper
structure contain two or more clamping jigs. Shape of
these jigs are defined as a base shapes: cone, cylinder,
sphere, planar or its combinations. These shapes are used
in depending of manipulated part shapes. Principally all
of these gripers jig shapes can be use to gripping all
manipulated part shapes, but we must qualify these cases
by other points of view too. Difference between gripping
by individual cases of gripping jig shape will be in level
of other criteria achievement. In base of these
qualifications will be find the best solution of gripping
jigs shape for concrete manipulation and for concrete
objects. The goal is design the simples construction of
gripper with accent to small mas of end effector and
certain functions.
Very important criteria is achieving to high accuracy of
gripping. By adjustable range of gripping dimension we
can achieve a most flexible gripper. At case of adaptive
gripers is very necessary take mind to sensors mounting
in design time of gripers.
The gripers act to manipulated objects by clamping forces
Fju which has a critical role for they dimensioning in
design time. In general hold the follow equation (1):
n m
The next clamping jigs design criteria is a material of
manipulated objects. Quality of surface (roughness,
hardness and other) are affect to clamping jigs surface
type. By modification of clamping jigs active surface we
can modify friction between clamping jigs and
manipulated objects. This modification are realized by
various value of friction coefficient .
Clamping force value to cylindrical object longitude
centered gripping by planar clamping jigs (Fig. 5) is
possible calculate by follow equation (4):
1 cos 1
Fu = k m a1 + a2 + a3 (4)
1 + cos tg
where:
friction coefficient
ai partial gravity and instants accelerations in X, Y, Z
axis

F
j =1
ju = k . Fiz
i =1
(1)

where:
Fju clamping forces,
Fiz outer forces,
k safety constant,
Cumulative safety constant k are calculated by Fig. 5. Cylindrical object longitude centered gripping by
multiplication of partial safety coefficients. These partial planar clamping jigs
coefficients takes head to concrete factors of operation.
The cumulative safety constant are calculated by equation
(2): Clamping force value to cylindrical object longitude
eccentrically gripping by planar clamping jigs (Fig. 6) is
k = k1 .k2 .k3 .k4 .k5 .k6 (2)
possible calculate by follow equation (5):
3l 1 1 cos 6l 1
where: Fu = k ma1 + + a2 + a3 (5)
k1 coefficient of manipulated objects, b 2 1+ cos b tg
k2 coefficient of clamping type,
where:
k3 coefficient of manipulated object surface,
l length of gravity center excentricity,
k4 coefficient of clamping forces drifting
k5 coefficient of working cycle dynamics, b length of contact line between a jigs and object.
k6 coefficient of running cases.

The methods of clamping forces calculation are based on

critical stability in contact layer in cases of adverse
conditions of running. This calculation we can realize by
follow equations (3):
n n

Fju = Fmv .mv .in .in

j =1 m =1
(3)
where:
Fmv forces from actuators,
mv actuators effectivity Fig. 6. Cylindrical object longitude eccentrically gripping
i gearings effectivity by planar clamping jigs

135
5. CONCLUSION
The assembly has a specific state in manufacturing
process, because assembly imply major portion of high
toilsome and manual work in term of their portion in
production total time. For their technical difficulties and
heterogeneousness, actual assembly is make manual too,
because assembly has large reserves of automation aided.
One of the causes of automation assembly lag is higher
manipulating ability requirement for assembly devices by
joining parts. Often some assembly operations, which are
trouble free realizable by manual, by automation are
requested very complicated and very expensive device.
Robotized workplaces are used at several industrial
branches. Request to competitive and effective
manufacturing generate pressure to robotics design
centers. The end effector design must take head to lot of
special requests apart a common mechanical engineering
parts. Trends in this area is a continuous accuracy
increasing and develop a new methods to gripper design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was created thanks to the national grants:
VEGA 1/3193/06 - Multi functional manufacturing
and assembly cell.
REFERENCES
[1] JAVOROV, Angela - PECHEK, Frantiek -
ZVOLENSK, Radovan: Design of automated
disassembly devices. In: Annals of The Faculty of
Engineering Hunedoara. - ISSN 1584-2665. - Tom
VII, Fasc. 2 (2009), s. 53-56
[2] KOL, Peter - MATOV, Miriam -
VELEK, Karol: Modeling of clamping fixtures. In:
Academic Journal of Manufacturing Engineering. -
ISSN 1583-7904. - Vol. 5, No. 2 (2007), s. 65-68
[3] KOL, Peter - MUDRIKOV, Andrea -
CHARBULOV, Marcela: Flexible assembly cell
and material flow planning. In: Scientific Bulletin. -
ISSN 1224-3264. - Vol. XXIII : International
Multidisciplinary Conference. 8th Edition. Romania,
Baia Mare, Hungary, Nyregyhza, May 21-22, 2009
(2009). - Baia Mare : North University of Baia Mare,
s. 189-194
[4] KOL, Peter - VELEK, Karol: Montna
bunka. Assembly cell. In: Acta Mechanica Slovaca. -
ISSN 1335-2393. - Ro. 10, . 2-A / konf.(heslo)
Celottna konferencia s medzinrodnou asou. 8.
ROBTEP 2006. Jasn - Nzke Tatry, 31.5.-2.6.2006
(2006). - Koice : Technick univerzita v Koiciach,
s. 267-270
[5] MATOV, Miriam - ORAVCOV, Jarmila -
KOL, Peter: Gripping in robotized workplaces.
In: Machine Design. - ISSN 1821-1259. - 2009 : 49th
anniversary of the Faculty of technical sciences, Novi
Sad. May 18th 2009. - Novi Sad : University of Novi
Sad, 2009, s. 355-358
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[6] MUDRIKOV, Andrea - HRUKOV, Erika -
HORVTH, tefan: Model of flexible manufacturing
- assembly cell. In: RaDMI 2008 : 8th International
Conference from 14-17.September 2008, Uice. - ,
2008. - A-27
[7] RUAROVSK, Roman - VELEK, Karol -
KOL, Peter: Design and planning of
manufacturing and assembly systems. In: Scientific
Bulletin. - ISSN 1224-3264. - Vol. XXII (2008),
s. 413-418
[8] ZVOLENSK, Radovan - JAVOROV, Angela:
Technologick hlavice priemyselnch robotov s
integrovanm systmom automatizovanej vmeny.
Technological heads of industrial robots with
automated tool changing system. In: Acta Mechanica
Slovaca. - ISSN 1335-2393. - Ro. 10, . 2-A / konf.
Celottna konferencia s medzinrodnou asou. 8.
ROBTEP 2006. Jasn - Nzke Tatry, 31.5.-2.6.2006
(2006). - Koice : Technick univerzita v Koiciach,
s. 615-623
CORRESPONDENCE
Peter KOL,
Assoc. Prof., MSc. Eng., PhD.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Material Science and
Technology, Rzusova 2
91724 Trnava, Slovak Republic
peter.kostal@stuba.sk
Jarmila ORAVCOV, MSc. Eng.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Material Science and
Technology
Rzusova 2, 91724 Trnava,
Slovak Republic
jarmila.oravcova@stuba.sk
Miriam MATOV, Ing, PhD.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology
Rzusova 2, 917 24 Trnava,
Slovak Republic
miriam.matusova@stuba.sk

GEAR RATIOS OF PLANETARY
DOUBLE STEP MULTIPLIERS FOR
WIND TURBINES FROM MINIMUM
VOLUME CRITERION
Radu VELICU
Cristina BOZAN
Abstract: One of the main components of the transmission
of a wind turbine is the speed multiplier. Its role is to
increase the relative small rotational speed of the
propeller to the nominal relative high rotational speed of
the generator. This paper is dealing with optimal gear
design of three different types of double steps speed
multiplier with planetary units, usually met in the
construction of wind turbines transmissions. The first
step in optimal gear design of these kinds of transmissions
is choosing of gear ratios of the two gear steps.
Key words: gear ratio, minimum volume, planetary units
1. INTRODUCTION
The sustainable energy sources offer an inexhaustible
energy potential and are available immediately. This
development is an important contribution to protecting the
global eco-system and for improving the quality of life.
Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's
surface, and rotation of the earth.
Wind turbines are converting the mechanical energy of
winds into electric power by means of an electric
generator. The generator needs high rotational speed in
order to work with high efficiency.
Mechanical power transmission multiplying the input
angular speed under a constant transmission ratio are
called speed multipliers. Most wind turbines drive trains
include a speed multiplier to increase the speed of the
turbine shaft to the generator [3, 10]. An increase in speed
is needed because the turbines rotors turn at a much lower
speed than it is required by most electrical generators.
In order to define the basic notions that are to be used in
this paper, a two steps planetary unit and external
cylindrical gear is presented in Figure 1.
The multiplying ratios presented in fig.1 are :
 iMI = 1+ z3/z1 multiplying ratio in step I;
 iMII = z4/z5 multiplying ratio in step II.
Total multiplying ratio is iM = iMI iMII .
Fig. 1. Two - steps speed multiplier with planetary unit
and external cylindrical gear
By applying an inversion movement towards the carrier
[8], the planetary unit becomes a normal internal-external
gear unit with fixed carrier on which torques remain the
same with the planetary situation. The planetary unit is
dimensioned based on gear strength calculus of gear 1-2
(sun gear 1 satellite 2) considered as a normal external
gear. Torque at the sun gear 1 is T1 = Tinp / iMI, where Tinp
is the input torque in the planetary unit. There are two
cases on which the input data for gear strength calculus of
gear 1-2 must be determined:
 z2 > z1 when the pinion is the satellite 1; gear ratio is
uI = z2/z1 and torque at pinion is TpinionI = T1;
 z1 > z2 when the pinion is the satellite 2; gear ratio is
uI = z1/z2 and torque at pinion is TpinionI = T2 = T1/u;
For the second gear step, gear ratio is uII = iMII and torque
at pinion is TpinionII = Tinp / iM .
The process of optimization of a transmission with several
gears is mainly based on choosing the right transmission
ratio for each of the consisting steps of the transmission
[1, 3]. In order to optimize the choose of the transmission
ratios of the consisting gears of a transmission, different
criteria can be considered [4, 5, 6, 7]: minimal summed
centre distances, minimal volume of gears, minimal
length, minimal width, minimal weight, minimal area of
the frontal section of the transmission.
This paper is dealing with choosing the gear ratios of the
consisting gears of double steps speed multiplier, for three
different constructive solutions with planetary units.
Optimization is based on the criterion of minimum
volume of gears.
2. GEAR RATIO OPTIMIZATION
The process of optimization is mainly based on choosing
the right gear ratio for each of the consisting steps of the
transmission. There are analyzed the following
constructions of speed multipliers with planetary units:
137
 two steps planetary and external common cylindrical
gear speed multiplier (see Figure 1), for which the
volumes of gears are

V planetI = bI
4 (1)
[(
d w2 1 + s d w2 2 ) + (d w3 + 9.5 mn ) 2
d w2 3 ]

VextII =
4
(
bII d w2 4 + d w2 5 ) (2)

Vtot = V planetI + VextII ; (3)

 two steps planetary and internal cylindrical gear speed

multiplier (Figure 2), with the following volumes

V planetI = bI
4 (4) Fig. 3. Two steps planetary speed multiplier
[( )
d w2 1 + s d w2 2 + (d w3 + 9.5 m nI ) 2 d w2 3 ] Figure 4 presents the logical flow on the base of witch the
program was developed.
Vint II =

4
(
bII d w2 5 + d w4 + 9.5 mnII )2 d w2 4 (5)

Vtot = V planetI + Vint II ; (6)

Fig. 2. Two steps speed multiplier - planetary unit and

internal cylindrical gear

 two steps planetary speed multiplier (Figure 3), with

gear volumes

V planetI = bI
4 (7)
[( )
d w2 1 + s d w2 2 + (d w3 + 9.5 m nI ) 2 d w2 3 ]

V planetII = bII
4 (8)
[( d w2 4 + s d w2 5 ) + (d w6 + 9.5 mnII ) 2
d w2 6 I ]
Vtot = V planetI + V planetII . (9)

Calculus of volumes considers the ring shape of internal

wheels with a height of the crown of 9.5mn, as
recommended in [9].
Figure 5 presents the interface for input data and results of
the developed software. Fig. 4. Logical diagram

138
 Fig. 5. Main interface for optimization of gear steps of two steps speed multipliers

The main imposed restrictions for the consisting

cylindrical gears are [3, 6]:
 Number of teeth for the internal sun gear 3 is
determined from the condition of coaxiality z3 = z1 +
2z2;
 Avoiding the teeth profile interference;
 Achieving a minimum transverse contact ratio of
min=1.3;
 Choosing the minimal normal module according to the
applied treatment. (mnmin =1.5 mm, for case hardening,
respectively mnmin = 2.0 mm, for cementation or
nitrating);
 The actual stresses for the two main stress types Fig. 6. Optimized volume of gears for two steps speed
should not be bigger than the corresponding multiplier with planetary and external cylindrical gear
permissible stresses, H HP ; F1 FP1 ,
F 2 FP2 ;
 The gear ratio for common gears must be in the range
of (1.58) for external gears and in the range of
(2.510) for internal gears;
 The transmission ratio of a planetary unit must be in
the range of (2.5...13);
 Tolerance of actual transmission ratio relative to
imposed transmission ratio is 3% .

Calculations have been developed for a double speed

multiplier with the inputs presented in Figure 5. The a
diagrams from Figures 5 and 6 present the optimized
variation of the multiplying ratios of the consisting steps
and, respectively, the volumes of gears (V_I volume of
the first gear step, V_II volume of the second gear step,
V total volume) for the two steps planetary and external
common cylindrical gear speed multiplier (see Figure 1).
The diagrams from Figure 7 presents the optimized
variation of the multiplying ratios of the consisting steps
(a) and the volumes of gears (b) for the two steps
planetary and internal gear speed multiplier (see Figure 2)
depending on the imposed multiplying ratio.
The diagrams from Figure 8 presents the optimized
b
variation of the multiplying ratios of the consisting steps
(a) and the volumes of gears (b) for the two steps Fig. 7. Optimized gear step ratios and volume of gears for
planetary gear speed multiplier (see Figure 3). two steps planetary and internal gear speed multiplier

139

a Axis Gearing Used in Wind Turbine. Transilvania
b the Overall Dimension of Speed Multiplicators with
Fig. 8. Optimized gear step ratios and volume of gears for
two steps planetary speed multiplier
3. CONCLUSION
Based on the results presented in Figures 5 ... 8, few
conclusions can be drawn:
 In combination with external gear in the second step,
the planetary unit of the first step needs bigger
multiplying ratio (see fig. 5), but in combination with
internal gear or planetary unit in the second gear step
(see fig. 7 and 8), the first planetary unit step needs
smaller multiplying ratios;
 Multiplying ratio of the first planetary unit step iMI is
usually changing between two distinct values. These
values are 4.8 and 6.4, for planetary and external gear
solution (see Figure. 5) and, respectively, 3 and 4.8 for
the other two solutions (see fig. 7 and 8); Value iMI = 3
correspond to z2 < z1 and the other values correspond
to z2 > z1;
 For the imposed global transmission ratio in the range
of 10 ... 30, the volume has an increase of
approximately 50% in the case of planetary-external
(see Figure 6) and planetary-planetary (see Figure 8,
b) speed multipliers, but an increase of only 15% in
the case of planetary-internal speed multipliers (see
Figure 7, b);
 The volume of planetary-external gears speed
multipliers (see fig. 6) is smaller than for planetary-
internal and planetary-planetary gears speed
multipliers (see fig. 7 and 8);
140
 The non-uniformity of graphics comes from variables
with prescribed values (round number of teeth,
standardized modules), restrictions and mounting
conditions.
REFERENCES
[1] ABUID, B.A., AMEEN Y.M. Procedure of Optimum
Design of a Two-Stage Spur Gear System. JSME Intl.
J. Series C, Vol. 46 No 4, 2003, pp. 1582-1590
[2] BOZAN, C. A., MOLDOVEAN G., VELICU, R.
Structural Synthesis of Speed Multiplier with Fixed
University Bulletin, Brasov, 2008, pp. 75-80
[3] BOZAN, C. A., VELICU, R., Moldovean G.
Transmission ratio of double steps speed multipliers
for wind turbines. Proc. of Power Transmission,
Kallithea, Greece, 2009, pp. 149-154
[4] BOIDAR, R. Multicriterion Optimization of
Multistage Gear Train Transmission. Facta
Universitatis, University of Belgrade, Mech. Eng.
Vol.1, No 8, 2001, pp. 1107 1115
[5] MILOIU, G., DOBRE, G., VISA, F., VINTILA, H.
Optimal Design of Two Step Gear Units, Regarding
the Main Parameters. In VDI Berichte No. 1230,
1996, pp. 227-244
[6] MOLDOVEAN, G., BOZAN, C. A., VELICU, R. On
Cylindrical Gears used for Small Power Wind
Turbines. Proceedings of CSE Conference, Brasov,
Romania, 2008, pp. 463-468
[7] NGOC Pi V. A Study on Optimal Determination of
Partial Transmissions Ratios of Helical Gearbox
with Double Gear-Sets. Proceedings of World
Academy of Science, Vol. 27, 2008, pp. 113-116
[8] VELICU, R. Research on planetary power
transmissions. PhD Thesis. University of Braov,
Romania, 1999
[9] *** ISO 6336-3 Calculation of load capacity of spur
and helical gears. Calculation of tooth bending
strength, 2006
[10] *** Kisssoft AG Development plants.
www.kisssoft.ch.
CORRESPONDENCE
Radu VELICU, Prof., PhD. Eng.
Transilvania University of Braov
Faculty of Technology Engineering
Eroilor 29
500036 Braov, Romania
rvelicu@unitbv.ro
PhD Student, Cristina BOZAN
Transilvania University of Braov
Faculty of Technology Engineering
Eroilor 29
500036 Braov, Romania
crisy_ro@yahoo.com

ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL METHOD OF
CONNECTION OF ELECTRIC MOTOR
AND GEAR UNIT IN THE FRAME OF
UNIVERSAL MOTOR GEAR REDUCER
Sinia KUZMANOVI
Sava IANICI
Milan RACKOV
Abstract: Characteristic conceptual solutions of connec-
tion of electric motor and gear unit, in the frame of
universal motor gear reducer with helical gears, are
analyzed in this paper. The aim of this analysis is to
highlight the importance and benefits of particular
solutions. It is known that today almost all major
manufacturers of universal motor gear reducer use
special (reducer) motors. Smaller manufacturers com-
monly use standard (IEC) motors, although large
manufacturers, sometimes, also use IEC motors, espe-
cially when the customer request. The both of electric
motors have certain advantages which manufacturers of
motor reducer, with suitable construction solutions, want
to use in order to achieve some benefits in the market.
Today, in the recession time, when the placement of
universal motor gear units is significantly reduced, it is
necessary to conduct the narrowing range of gear reducer
and observe the possibility of structural changes to
existing solutions, primarily the connection of pinion and
electric motor, as one of the basic features for reducing
the number of different types of electric motors and the
number of pinions.
Key words: connection, motor gear reducer, electric
motor
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, the professional literature says almost nothing
about the problem of connection of electric motor and
gear reducer in the frame of universal motor gear reducer.
Maybe, it is because it is considered that this is not a
special problem, which should devote some more
attention, since the motor is connected as it is the most
preferable in particular case. However, that's not so.
Defining the method of connection is very important and
interesting problem, which must be given great attention,
not only because it directly affects the number of different
electric motors and the total number of necessary gear,
and thus the costs of production, especially on costs of
motor and gears storage (as semi-finished and/or spare
parts), but also because the method of connection strongly
affects the speed of delivery of new or rebuilt reducer.
Today, when the delivery terms of universal gear reducers
are very short (often only 72 hours) and when the costs of
universal gear reducer are very low (due to very harsh
competition), this issue must be given special attention.
2. THE AIM OF THE STUDY
The objective of this paper is to show possibilities and
ways of reducing the number of different types of electric
motors and gears, in the family of universal motor gear
reducer. This is necessary because the costs of a number
of different types of electric motors and gears, as well as
the costs of their storage, are very high and represent a
great burden for any small and medium manufacturers of
gear reducers.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
As it is known, the universal motor gear reducer can be
drive by special reducer electric motor or by standard IEC
motor. What motor will be used depends on the attitude of
the company manufacturer, as well as on specific
customer requirements.
Large manufacturers usually use special motors, which
are characterized by special flanges, special diameters of
shaft end, stronger bearings and better sealing solution, so
they have a number of advantages (simplier, cheaper and
more compact construction, the possibility of achieving
higher gear ratios, greater load capacity of motor shaft
end and better tightness). Since these manufacturers are
buying large quantities of such motors, they get them
quickly and with cost of standard motor, so that their way
of manufacture is fully payable. However, large
manufacturers usually have their own electric motor
factory, so that they have not a problem with buying
special motors.
Small and medium manufacturers are forced to use
standard IEC motors, mainly due to price and delivery
time, and all advantages of special motor trying to
compensate with suitable method of attachment motor
with reducer. Since it is very difficult to compensate all
special motor advantages, in practice we meet very
different construction solutions of connection gear
reducer with standard IEC motors, which are directly, or
through an adapter for IEC motors, mounted on the
housing of gear unit.
Large manufacturers, who use special motors, supply gear
reducers with standard IEC motors especially when the
customer's request. For example, when customers want to
install motors (on purchased gear units), in the case they
think they can do cheaper or faster service of their motors.
Also, when gear units are exported in the country that
have their own electric motor factory which is protected
by its government by high taxes from foreign
competition, and so customers do not want to buy a motor
gear reducer, but gear unit with adapter for IEC motors.
141
The adapters for IEC motors enable much simpler and
safer mounting of IEC motors.
Delivery of special reducer electric motors is highly
complicated because for each reducer size (shaft height)
they have specific dimensions of free end of the shaft and
specific size of flanges (usually 4 to 6), but they
undoubtedly provide multiple advantages of motor gear
reducers.
Application of the standard IEC electric motors, which
are directly (without an adapter for IEC motors) attached
to the housing, requires special partition plate and usually
a special ring and shaft seal (to ensure tightness). High
gear ratios on the first gear pair can not be achieved by
application of the standard electric motor. So the practice
is that a bushing is set on the free end of motor shaft and
relatively small pinions are impressed in it, which allows
a large gear ratio. However, in this case the pinion has the
big overhang, which significantly reduces its load
capacity (due to large deflection of shaft, limited strength
of shaft and limited capacity of bearings of standard
motor). Therefore, motor shafts are being shortened at
certain sizes of electric motors, but then it can no longer
speak of standard IEC motors. Shortening of shafts is
sometimes performed because of lack of space for the
installation of large motors.
In order to avoid a problem that occurs because it is not
possible to achieve high gear ratio on the first pairs, some
manufacturers do not produce single-stage gear reducer. It
doesnt represent a major problem for them considering
that the one-stage gear reducer is relatively little searched
on the market and particularly due to the fact that higher
values of gear ratio of single-stage reducer can cover a
smaller ratio of two-stage gear unit, but at some higher
price.
In addition, a limited number of first gear pairs requires a
different combination of gear pairs, usually less pinions,
small and inexpensive gears, but more larger and
expensive gears. This makes production and gears storage
more expensive, but significantly simplifies the purchase
and storage of electric motors, which price and production
costs in overall costs of motor gear reducers are quite
large.
It is a big problem with this solution because of the
clumsy construction of the motor gear reducer, especially
when stronger motors are used (with large flanges of form
B5) which are mounted to the reducer housing. It
especially disturbs compact construction so some
manufacturers do not use large motors or use flanges of
form B14.
4. DESCRIPTION OF WAYS OF SOLVING
PROBLEMS
Special reducer motors have multiple advantages, but
require, for the same motor power, manufacturing, and
storage of a large number of different motor types (for
smaller producers who dont have their own motor
factory). This really complicates the production, so small
and medium gear reducer manufacturers use them rarely.
They believe that application of standard IEC motors is
the simplest solution.
Only direct connection of IEC motors and reducer will be
analysed in this paper, since application of adapters for
142
IEC motors represents a particular solution usually used
by manufacturers which basic program is producing
special reducer motors.
The application of IEC motors can be implemented in two
ways.
4.1. Solution with Pinion Placed on a Bushing
The first solution is when a family of universal motor gear
reducers can consist of single-stage, two-stage and
multistage gear reducer. Connection of motor and gear
reducer is done by using appropriate partition plate and
pinion is placed on a bushing and attached on the shaft of
electric motor. In this case, there are several partition
plates (they can be with more complex form) but smaller
number of motors, and there are several bushings but less
different pinions. Company HORZ produces reducers
with this typical concepts solution.
In this case, adopted conceptual solution of the universal
gear unit has certain impact on the required number of
gear pairs. Namely, the universal gear reducer can be
produced in various ways, as single-, two-, three-stage
and multi-stage gear reducer. Single-stage reducers are
usually made in single-gear housing. Two-stage reducer
could be produced in a special housing for two-stage gear
pairs, or in the universal housing for two- and three-stage
gear pairs. Three-stage reducer could be produced in a
special housing for three-stage gear pairs, or in the
universal housing for two- and three-stage gear pairs, or
in a combination of two housings of two- and single-stage
gear unit, etc. Some manufacturers do not produce single-
stage gear reducer, because they are rarely required on the
market. Although there are those manufacturers who
produce single-stage reducers with a big gear ratio which
value overlaps with the area of two-stage reducer, and
thus, they can in a certain segment of gear ratio success-
fully compete with two-stage reducers. Of course, there
are those manufacturers who do not produce four- and
multi-stage gear reducer. However, regardless of the
construction, every multi-stage reducer has the first gear
pair, second gear pair, etc, so the number of gears a little
depends on the concept, but a lot of the largest size of
gear ratio, ie. the nominal torque of gear pair. If the gear
ratio is high (and low capacity), the offering of different
gear ratio is bigger, which is good and justified, but unfor-
tunately it causes a bigger number of necessary gears.
Construction of gear reducer has great influence on the
number of necessary gear. The number of gear pairs, for
the same shaft height of the housing, really depends on
the space available for accommodation of gears.
Therefore, the wider housings are now used, because they
enable larger shaft distances for the same mounting
dimensions of the housing. Then, the way of mounting the
pinion on electric motor shaft has also great influence on
the number of necessary gear. Today, the pinions are
often impressed in the shaft of electric motor in order to
obtain high gear ratio, or they are placed on a special
bushings mounted on electric motor shaft. The number of
necessary gear also depends on available technology.
Higher gear ratio can be achieved with modern
technology, so that the pinions can have teeth number less
than 10, also concept of paralel gear unit is abandoned,
high- and slow running gear chamber is opened to put a
big gears in it, etc.
 T 5
TN / fBmin
3 TN
1 will be adopted depends on the adopted gearing concept
TN / fBmax
2 However, as it has already been said, it is quite common
TN / fBmax2
4 that two sets of gears are offered for the same shaft height
i For two and multistage reducer, gear ratio is offered in a
Fig. 1. Schematic review of application field of universal
gear reducer according to torque values: 1 - the main
area, 2 the additional area, 3 - critical area (used only
for short drives), 4 - the area where the reducer is
oversized and 5 - critical area where breakdown of the
reducer happens immediately
i Total number of gear pairs 9,
total number of gears 92=18,
imax = 8 plus a number of pinions that are
mounted on different motors
(there are an average 5 motor
sizes) 94=36. Total number of
different gears 18+36=54.
imin = 1,25
1 In order to achieve higher gear ratio with this solution, the
1x Number of gear pairs
i Total number of gear pairs 9+2,
total number of gears
92+22=22, plus a number of
pinions that are mounted on
different motors (there are an
average 5 motor sizes) 94=36.
Total number of different gears
22+36=58
2 Total number of gear pairs 6,
1x 2x Number of gear pairs
Total number of gear pairs 9+1+2,
i total number of gears
92+12+22=24, plus a number
of pinions that are mounted on
different motors (there are an
average 5 motor sizes) 94=36.
Total number of different gears
24+36=60
3
1x 2x 3x Number of gear pairs
Fig. 2. Schematic review of gear ratio distribution for
(1) the first gear pair, (2) two-stage gear reducer
and (3) three-stage gear reducer
Very important task, regardless of whether such
manufacturer produces only single gears or reducers, is
defining the size of gear ratios (Fig.1) and number of gear
pairs (Fig.2-1) of single-stage gear pair. The values of
gear ratios are typically adopt from the standard line R10,
because in the case of application of line R20 there would
be too many first gear pair, especially the pinion, which is
made with various openings (that could be set to different
sizes of electric motors). The greatest value of the gear
ratio is adopted depending on the available technology
(pinion with the smallest teeth number) and adopted way
for mounting the pinion on the electric motor shaft.
Recently the highest values of gear ratio of the first gear
pair have been between 6.3 and 7.1 and today very often 8
and even up to 12.5 (Lenze). What the largest gear ratio
(large gear ratio and a small load capacity or vice versa).
of the housing.
row R20. These gear ratios for two-stage gear reducer are
usually obtained by a combination of two second gear
pairs (Fig.2-2). Gear ratios for three-stage reducer are
obtained by a combination of one second and two third
gear pairs (Fig.2-3), but it can also be differently.
Because of this solution, in some cases, the motor shaft is
being shortened and then it is not standard IEC motor, so
this concept will not be further considered.
4.2. Solution with Pinion Mounted Directly on a
Motor Shaft
The other solution, when IEC motors are used, is that
single-stage gear reducers are not used, but only two-
stage and multi-stage reducers are produced and the
pinion is placed directly onto the shaft of electric motor.
practice is to increase the axis distance on the first gear
pair, and thus larger gear wheel can be applied. Since in
this concept single-stage reducers are not used, diameter
of gear wheel is not limited by shaft height as on other
solutions. Of course, it affects a certain increase in
production costs (due to larger gear wheels), but their way
of production is still fully payable. Characteristic
representative of this solution is the company ROSSI.
i
total number of gears 62=12,
plus a number of pinions that are
mounted on different motors
(there are an average 5 motor
i1max = 8 sizes) 64=24. Total number of
different gears 12+24=36.
1
1x Number of gear pairs
i Total number of gear pairs 6+3,
total number of gears
62+32=18, plus a number of
pinions that are mounted on
different motors (there are an
average 5 motor sizes) 64=24.
Total number of different gears
18+24=42.
2
1x 2x Number of gear pairs
i Total number of gear pairs
6+1+2, total number of gears
62+12+32=20, plus a
number of pinions that are
mounted on different motors
(there are an average 5 motor
sizes) 64=24. Total number of
different gears 20+24=44.
3
1x 2x 3x Number of gear pairs
Fig. 3. Schematic review of gear ratio distribution for
(1) the first gear pair, (2) two-stage gear reducer and
(3) three-stage gear reducer when IEC motors are used
143
In this case, the values of gear ratio (Fig.3-1) are a little
different (usually there are not high gear ratio for big
powers in the frame of same shaft height) and the number
of first gear pairs is reduced (because small pinions can
not be mounted on the shaft ends of the larger electric
motors for direct connection of pinion and the end of the
motor shaft).
For two- and multistage reducer, gear ratio is offered in a
row R20. These gear ratios for two-stage gear reducer are
usually obtained by a combination of two second gear
pairs (Fig.3-2). Gear ratios for three-stage reducer are
obtained by a combination of one second and two third
gear pairs (Fig.3-3), but it can also be differently.
Determining the number of necessary (different) pinions,
with various openings, for the same gear ratio, is done
according to the diagram shown in Fig.4. Determining
procedure depends on the size of nominal torque and,
certainly, of the applied standard IEC electric motor.
Based on the power chart (Fig.4), electric motors are
defined which would be justified to connect with such
reducer, and also, openings in pinions and required
partition plate diameters are specified.
T PEMi max = const.
PEMi min = const.
TN
i i
Fig. 4. Schematic review of nominal torque changes
depending on the size of reducer gear ratio
(in logarithmic coordinates)
Only quadripolar (three phase asynchronous) motors are
considered in defining required motor power, because
they have the best starting characteristics and are the
easiest and fastest purchase. Different motors can be also
delivered as the motor gear drive, but usually at a higher
price.
Some manufacturers of gear reducer produce the output
pair with different direction of helical angle, for two- and
three-stage reducer, in order to decrease axial force on the
gear shaft of output pair, which strongly affects the total
number of gears. The other producers use a stronger
bearing (cylindrical roller bearings of the same sizes),
which can accept a much larger axial force and thus avoid
a large number of gears, which is certainly more favorable
solution.
Nominal torque value for each size of the gear ratio is
defined separately depending on the load capacity of
gears, keys, shafts, bearings and housings. Since there is
no standard in this field and if it is possible from the
standpoint of strength, it is allowed to shift torque values
up and down from the projected values. The final
definition of torque value must take into account the
characteristics of competitive solutions, in order to
provide mutual replaceability of gear reducers.
Based on the diagram (Fig.5), certain gear pairs of three-
stage reducer are differently loaded, which can make
144
following conclusions: (1) if two-stage reducer is
manufactured in the special housing for two-stage
reducer, and three-stage reducer is manufactured by
combination of two- and single-stage reducer, it follows
that the first smaller size of single-stage reducer will be
used for three-stage unit, which usually does not represent
any problem. The other case is (2) when the same housing
is used for manufacturing two- and three-stage gear
reducer (as most the case), ie. when the same output shaft
and gear wheel are used for two- and three-stage unit in
order to rationalize its structure. These output shaft and
gear will be used irrationally in two-stage gear unit (if the
first couples are kept in the three-stage reducer, dashed
line in Fig.5), or stronger first pairs must be used in two-
stage unit (which is the most common case), so that in
three-stage reducer the first pairs must be used from the
first smaller two-stage unit.
T T2 =T3 T T3
T2 <T3
Tem
1x 3x 1x 2x 3x
i i
Two-stage reducer Three-stage reducer
Fig. 5. Schematic review of necessary load capacity of
gear reducer for particular gear ratios of reducer
Some manufacturers define the same load capacity for
two- and three-stage gear unit. The others offer smaller
load capacity of two-stage reducer, despite the fact it
could be heavier loaded. It is because the output pairs in
two-stage unit rotate faster and thus bearings and gears do
not allow such heavy load, but also because in all stages
the same size of electric motor and same pinion is used,
ie. the opening diameters in the pinions are the same
(Fig.6). This is certainly justified solution and it should be
applied.
PEMmax = const.
T
TN3x
PEMmin = const.
i
Fig. 6. Schematic review of nominal torque and gear ratio
areas of gear reducer covered by one-, two- and three-
stage units for the same size of universal gear reducer
Some manufacturers mark priority ratio, which can imme-
diately offer, in order to reduce the number of pinions and
electric motors that need to keep in stock (these values are
usually bold in catalogues), while for the other ratios
(revolution number) they offer longer delivery time. This
offering way could be the solution for other manufac-
turers of gear reducers.
5. CONCLUSION
If series of universal motor gear reducers are reduced,
small and medium manufacturers of motor reducer (which
using the standard IEC motors) obtain some advantage in
the market according to manufacturers who use special
motors and do not have their own factory. It is because
they need to keep in stock a large number of different
motors and gears, in order to provide short delivery of
their gear reducers. Based on this analysis, small and
medium manufacturers who use a special reducer motors
will certainly be able to achieve a particular advantage in
the market by small constructive modifying their reducers
and starting to use IEC motors (with direct pinion placing
on to the shaft of IEC motor), with a little rise in the
production cost (due to the increased distance of the first
axis distance).
Special marking of priority gear ratios and corresponding
gears and motors is particularly interesting possibility
from the standpoint of "reducing" the required number of
gears and electric motors. With this solution, the apparent
reducing of number of different gears (motors) that
manufacturer need to keep in stock is achieved (especially
in the service - repair centers, which are usually located
near large markets). This is favorable for faster delivery
and easier and faster service (or repair) of gear reducers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The article was written within the collaboration on the
CEEPUS program CII-RS-0304-02-0910 - Technical
Characteristics Researching of Modern Products in
Machine Industry (Machine Design, Fluid Technique and
Calculations) with the Purpose of Improvement Their
Market Characteristics and Better Placement on the
Market realized between Faculty of Technical Sciences of
University of Novi Sad and Faculty of Engineering of
Eftimie Murgu University of Reia under the
coordination by prof. S. Kuzmanovi from University of
Novi Sad.
REFERENCES
[1] KUZMANOVI, S., GAVRI, L., How to Construct
Mechanical Gear in the Aim of Increasing Its
Competitiveness on the Market, "YEAR - CLOSE
MEETING - YCM /82", 23-25. October 1992, Gd,
and published in BULLETINS FOR APPLIED
MATHEMATICS - BAM 856 - 93 (LXV) pp. 261-
268
[2] KUZMANOVI, S., GAVRI, L., Possibility
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Reduction, "CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF
BALATON - CCB - Bf / 103", 13-16. May 1993,
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(LXVII) pp. 269-276
[3] KUZMANOVI, S., TRBOJEVI, R., NAVALU-
I, S., Defining the Loadability of Gear Reducers,
"CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF BALATON - CCB
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MATHEMATICS - BAM - 871 / 93 (LXVII) pp.
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[4] KUZMANOVI, S., TRBOJEVI, R., GAVRI, L.,
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Procedure Analysis, International Congress - GEAR
TRANSMISSIONS -95, Sofia, 26-28. September
1995, pp.125-127
[5] KUZMANOVI, S., Possibilities for More Efficient
Service of Universal Helical Gear Motor Reducers,
"Cetinje - Becici -Conference PC - 115 `96", 20-21.
July 1996, Cetinje, and published in BULLETINS
FOR APPLIED MATHEMATICS BAM - 1255-96
(LXXX), pp. 189-194
[6] KUZMANOVI, S., Analisys of Influence of
Connection of Electric Motor and Gear Reducer on
the Quality Level of Motor Reducer, TEHNIKA,
Mainstvo 53 (1998), pp M13-M18
[7] KUZMANOVI, S., NAVALUI, S., TRBOJE-
VI, R., Critical Analyzis Of The Typical Solutions
Of The Gear Elements In The Scope Of The
Universal Gear Motors, X Workshop on Supervising
and Diagnostics of Machining Systems INOVATIVE
AND INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING,
Wroclaw 1999, Karpacz, Poland, March 21-26.1999,
pp. 256-264
[8] KUZMANOVI, S., GAVRI, L., Tendenze
Contemporanee di Sviluppo dei Riduttori
Epicicloidali Universali, Convention dela
Transmissione di Potenza, 10-12 June 1999, Milan,
Italy
[9] KUZMANOVI, S., VERE, M., New Development
Trends Of Universal Gear Reducers, Journal of
Mechanical Engineering Design Vol. 9 No.1-2006,
pp. 6-15
[10] KUZMANOVI, S., GEORGIJEVI, M.,
Description of Method Defining Assortiments of
Universal Gear Reducers, International conference
Mechanical Engineering 2006 (Strojn ininierstvo
2006), 23. November 2006, Bratislava, pp. 332-338
[11] KUZMANOVI, S., SIMONOVSKI, P., Justifi-
cation Analysis Of Universal Gear Reducer
Assortment Extension, Mechanical Engineering,
Volume 28, Number 1, Skopje, 2009
[12] KUZMANOVI, S., RACKOV, M., Usual Possibile
Ways of Increasing of Speed Rations Values of
Universal Gear Reducers, ACTA TECHNICA
NAPOCENSIS, Technical Universty of Cluj-Napoca,
Romania, 2009, No. 52, Vol. III, pp. 221-226
[13] KUZMANOVI, S., VERE, M., RACKOV, M.,
Analysis of Characteristical Mounting Ways of Gear
Wheels in Universal Gear Reducers, Zeszyty
Naukowe Politechniki Poznanskiej BUDOWA
MASZYN I ZARZADZANIE PRODUKCJA,
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznanskej, Poznan
2009, No. 11, pp. 81-91
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[14] KUZMANOVI, S., Universal Gear Reducers with [20] VERE, M., BOANSK, M., New method in
Cylindrical Gears, University of Novi Sad, Faculty determination of correct mating teeth flanks profiles
of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, 2009. (in Serbian) of cylindrical gearing. In: Acta Technica Napocensis,
[15] KUZMANOVI, S., RACKOV, M., Development 2007, Vol. 2, No. 50, pp. 235-238
Tendencies of Universal Gear Reducers, Proceedings
of The 3rd International Conference Power
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Greece, pp. 145-148.
[16] RACKOV, M., TRBOJEVI, R., KUZMANOVI,
S., Analisis of Electric Motor Shaft Shape Influence CORRESPONDENCE
on Load Carrying Ability of Motor Gear Reducers,
Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Volume II, Sinia KUZMANOVI, Prof. Ph.D.
VNT Warszava 2001, 7-9 March 2001, Zakopane, University of Novi Sad
Poland, pp.129-138 Faculty of Technical Sciences
[17] RACKOV, M., TRBOJEVI, R., KUZMANOVI, Trg D. Obradovia 6
S., Influence of Gear Helix Angle on Axial Loading 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Capacity of Output Shaft of Helical Gear Units, 8th kuzman@uns.ac.rs
International Symposium on Interdisciplinary
Regional Research, Hungary-Romania-Serbia &
Sava IANICI, Prof. dr. eng.
Montenegro, Szeged Regional Committee of the
Eftimie Murgu University of Reia
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, April 19-
Faculty of Engineering
21, 2005
Traian Vuia Square 1-4
[18] RACKOV, M., TRBOJEVI, R., KUZMANOVI, 320085 Reia, Romania,
S., Justification Analysis of Application of Gears with s.ianici@uem.ro / decaning@uem.ro
Different Load Capacity for Universal Spur Gear
Units, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Design
Vol. 8 No.1-2005, pp. 32-35 Milan RACKOV, Ass. MSc.
University of Novi Sad
[19] VERE, M., BOANSK, M., OROKOCK, R.,
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Optimalizing Design of Cylindrical Involute Gearing
Trg D. Obradovia 6
from Scoring Point of View. In.:Zbornk
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
medzinrodnej konferencie Strojn ininierstvo 2002,
racmil@uns.ac.rs
Bratislava 2002

146
 THE DETERMINATION OF THE
THICKNESS OF TOOTH FACE SURFACE
LAYER FROM THE ASPECT OF WEAR
RESISTANCE
Pavol TKLY
Miroslav BOANSK
Attila VANYA
Abstract: This contribution deals with the determination
of minimum thickness of tempered layer of the
non-standard convex-concave (CC) gear on the base of
determination of the depth of maximum shear stress and
von Mises stress by Finite Element Method in ANSYS.
Key words: non-involute convex-concave (C-C) gearing,
shear stress, von Mises stress, single and double pair
contact, finite element method (FEM), thickness of
hardened layers, hard and soft coating.
1. INTRODUCTION
Gear wheels are the principal elements of geared
transmissions, on which are set high demands in load
transmission. Increasing of additional dynamical forces is
related to the increased performance, which express itself
with higher noise, vibrations, growing friction and
thermal load. These facts are increasing the chance of
gear wheel failure. Despite of the aforesaid factors it is
necessary to achieve the required (high) carrying capacity
of gears with maintaining the longest durability and
reliability. One possible way to increase carrying capacity
of the gearing is to minimize the surface failure of tooth
face. The significant role plays here mainly the magnitude
of contact pressure or reduced radius of curvature. It is
clearly manifested at the initiation of pitting, seizure and
plastic deformation, mediately it applies also to other
failures [1]. With a deliberate change of the gear
geometry it is possible to create a profiled tooth face in an
arbitrary shape, whereby the non-standard gear design is
made. The convex-concave (C-C) gearing also belongs
here. It is a spur gear type, where the path of contact is
assembled from two symmetrical, in some cases non-
symmetrical curves with inflexion point C. The center of
the curvature radius of the upper Sh and lower Sd arc is
not lying on the vertical join of gear wheels axis (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Convex concave (C-C) gearing [2]
To fulfil the requirements of the correct meshing it is
necessary to adhere the terms of convex-concave
engagement: the convex part of the tooth is
meshing/engaging with the concave part of the opposite
tooth and vice-versa [2]. Obvious is the meeting criteria
of the fundamental law of gearing, coefficient of meshing
duration 1,1 and a coefficient of tooth thickness at
the top land sa 0,2.mn. This gearing shows out lower
contact pressure in comparison with involute gearing (the
convex part of the tooth is meshing with the concave part
of the opposite tooth, same as in case of internal involute
gears) and lower sliding velocities [2]. The drawback of
these gears is the requirement of high accuracy.
Besides the properly designed geometry of the gearing it
is possible to increase the gear carrying capacity by
application of hardened layer (case-hardening, nitriding,
etc.) on the tooth surface. In regard to the deformation
processes leading to fatigue failure are the most important
mainly the shear stress components caused by
compression load, of which maximum value is located in
a certain distance under the surface [3]. The minimum
thickness of hardened layer should be greater then the
depth of maximum shear stress [4], high enough to not
exceed the value of yield stress on the boundary of the
layer and the base material [5]. To determine the depth of
maximum shear stress it is necessary to perform strength
analysis. Required standards are not available at non
standard transmission systems and therefore it is essential
to use modern calculation methods, e. g. finite element
method (FEM) and by means of computer modelling
carry on a strength control.
The objective of the solution is finding the maximum
shear stresses (SINT) and reduced von Mises stresses
(SEQV) and determination of the depth in which these
stresses are located. Assessed are the transition areas of
single- and double-pair mesh points B, D on the
meshing line. The fortification analysis is performed with
computational software ANSYS.
2. METHODOLOGY
The model creating technique is the same as in reference
[6]. The main parameters of the gearing (rkh, rkd, C, mn a
147
z1,2, hap*, cp*) were entered into the macro and based on
them the gear wheels were generated in AutoCad. The
generated drawing was imported to the system CATIA
V5, where the gear assembly was created. By means of
Digital Mock-up module were set two positions, in which
the fortification analysis will run position in point B and
and to every group of rk belongs one value of C (path of
contact pitch angle in point C): C = 6 a 23. Other
parameters : z1, z2, mn, hap*=1 (unit factor addendum),
cp*=0,25 (unit addendum clearance) are constant.
In tab. 1 are the modified values highlighted and with
a simple combination of these changing values we
obtained 108 types of analysed three-dimensional models
in two different areas.
From the IGES imported geometry in ANSYS a plane
surface was created with element PLANE 42 and
consequently it was extruded through the EXTRUDE
command, on which was applied a three-dimensional
element SOLID 95 (Fig. 3).

a) b)

Fig. 2. Rotation of gearing for the strength analysis a)

in point B, b) in point D [7]

position in point D (Fig. 2). A part of the gearing model is

used for the analysis, which was imported into ANSYS as
an IGES format. All gearings were created in plane XY
and the origin of the coordinate system is in the axis of
the pinion. The value of side clearance is: jw = 0,142 mm.
The teeth displayed on the lower part of the figure
belongs to pinion, which is rotating in counter clockwise
direction.
As C-C gearing is symmetrical, then the path of contact
(Fig. 1) has the radius of upper (rkh) and lower (rkd) arc the
same value (rkh = rkd) and (rk) can be used instead of rkh,
rkd . From all geometrical parameters required to design
gear wheels are created three groups of models with
different rk values (rk1 = 13 mm, rk2 = 17 mm, rk3 = 22mm)
a) b)
Fig. 3. Process of generation the 3D model
a) plane model, b) 3D model
The contact pair is defined as a surface-to-surface contact,
where the correct definition of target and contact surfaces
are of great importance, because the target surface can not
penetrate into the contact surface, but contrary is not true.
If it is assumed that the convex (+) surface comes into

Table 1. Parameters of gearings

rk [mm]
C m z1 / z2 D1 / D2 Da1 / Da2 Df1 / Df2 aw jw
13 17 22

[] [mm] [-] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

23 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,167 1,219 1,266
22 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,176 1,23 1,281
21 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,185 1,242 1,296
20 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,194 1,254 1,311
19 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,204 1,268 1,328
18 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,216 1,283 1,346
17 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,228 1,299 1,367
16 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,24 1,315 1,387
15 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,253 1,332 1,408
14 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,267 1,351 1,431
13 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,282 1,37 1,456
12 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,297 1,39 1,481
11 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,314 1,411 1,507
10 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,331 1,434 1,535
9 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,349 1,457 1,564
8 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,367 1,481 1,594
7 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,387 1,507 1,626
6 4 28 / 42 112 / 168 120 / 176 102,8 / 158,8 140 0,142 1,407 1,533 1,659

C - angle of the point C, m - modulus, z - number of teeth, D - diameter of the pitch circle, Da - diameter of the
outer circle, Db - diameter of the base circle, aw - axial distance, jw - backlash
148
contact with the concave (-) then the convex surface
should be the target surface (Fig. 4) [8]. For the point B
we consider gear as the target surface and pinion as the
contact surface and contrarily for point D. Element
TARGE170 was applied on the target surface and on
contact surface the element CONTA174 was used. The
dimension of elements in contact surfaces was set to
constant value of 0,15 mm, other elements had values as
it is shown on Fig.5 and after discretization free meshing
was applied.
Fig. 4. Defining the target and contact surface
Fig. 5. Element sizes
Fig. 6. Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are defined as it is shown on Fig.6.
The gear is fixed in the region of the shaft, the pinion is in
the area of the shaft mortised with the coordinate system
with RIGID command. The pinion can rotate around his
axis and is loaded with axis torque of 485 Nm. The
predefined coefficient of friction was set to the value of
0,01 [9]. Material properties are represented with elastic
modulus E = 2,1.105 MPa and Poissons ratio = 0,3.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As it was mentioned in fortification analysis were
evaluated two points located on the path of contact, which
are representing the end of double-paired meshing (point
B) and start of double paired mesh (point D). In these
points were evaluated the equivalent stresses by the HMH
hypothesis von Miesses stress (SEQV) and max. shear
stress (SINT).
Results of SEQV are displayed on the Fig.7 (for point B),
ere the maximum stress is in contact point and the second
maximum stress is generated at the dedendum circle of
pinion and wheel.
Fig. 7. Reduced von Mises stress (SEQV)
- overall view
Fig.8 shows detailed progress of stress, but in reduced
scale and therefore the contact area is coloured, which is
not graphically expressed.
Fig. 8. Reduced von Mises stress (SEQV)
- changed scale view
The same situation is shown on Fig.9 where the results of
SINT stresses are displayed (for point B). Maximum
stress is at the contact point and the second max stress is
at dedendum of pinion and wheel.
Fig. 9. Maximum shear stress (SINT) in point B-overall
view
Fig.10 is projecting the stresses with changed scale,
where the region of contact is not graphically expressed.
149
 Results of strength analysis in point B are displayed on
Charts 1,2.

Charts 2. Progress of depths SINT stresses

for rk = 13, 17 a 22 mm (bod B)

0,158
0,307
0,157
Angle C []

23

0,155
0,308
0,155
22

0,154
0,305
0,153
21

0,156
0,306
0,151
20
Fig. 10. Maximum shear stress (SINT) in point B -
changed scale view

0,158
0,152
0,31
19
Charts 1. Progress of depths SEQV stresses

0,156
0,302
0,156
for rk = 13, 17 a 22 mm (bod B)

18

0,153
0,305
0,154
Depth of maximum shear stress at point B
0,156
0,153
0,154

17
Angle C []

23

0,155
0,306
0,152
0,157
0,151
0,152

16
22

0,152
0,303
0,156
0,154
0,152
0,154

15
21

0,156
0,304
0,154
14
0,155
0,154
0,151
20

0,154
0,309
0,155
13
0,158
0,155
0,152
19

0,153
0,305
0,153
12
0,156
0,156
0,15
18

0,152
0,304
0,152
11
0,154
0,153
0,152
Depth of maximum von Mises stress at point B

17

0,302
0,151
0,15
10
0,156
0,153
0,153
16

0,301
0,153
0,15
9
0,153
0,154
0,15
15

0,301

0,151
0,149
8
0,154
0,155
0,151
14

0,145
0,15
0,3
7
0,155
0,154
0,152
13

0,306
0,155
0,149
6
0,153
0,153
0,15
12

rk=13
rk=17
rk=22
0,35
0,3

0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1

0,05
0
0,152
0,152

0,151
11

Depth [mm]
0,151
0,15

0,15
10

When comparing results obtained in case SEQV stresses

Charts 1, 2 shows that the stresses are increasing with the
0,151
0,153
0,149
9

increase of C, This applies for every value of rk1 to rk3.

The highest stresses are presented at rk2 = 17 mm at the
0,149
0,151
0,15

maximum depth, which ranges from h = 0,151 to 0,158

8

mm. The development of the curve shows some

0,152
0,149
0,15

irregularities, what could be caused by not properly

7

selected small element size or by free meshing. Chart 2

0,153
0,155
0,148

shows the progress of achieved depths for SINT stresses

6

for every value of rk1 to rk3. The line has rather a linear
trend with maximums ranging from h = 0,3 to 0,308 mm
rk=13
rk=17
rk=22
0,16
0,158
0,156
0,154
0,152
0,15
0,148
0,146
0,144
0,142

for rk1 = 13 mm.

Depth [mm] Depth of maximum shear stress (SINT) is bigger/larger
than the depth of von Mises (SEQV) maximum stress.

150
With projecting a trend line in Chart.2 for rk1 = 13 mm it Charts 4. Progress of depths SINT stresses
is possible to mathematically express the minimum for rk = 13, 17 a 22 mm (bod D)
required thickness of the hardened layer by mean of the
following equation (for point B):

0,318
0,303
0,161
Angle C []

23
0,0056
tmin = 0,3012.C

0,315
0,305
0,157
22
[mm] (1)

0,317
0,306
0,16
Results from the strength analysis in depth where the

21
maximum stresses are perform in point D are shown in

0,311
0,304
0,155
Charts 3, 4.

20
0,318
0,307
0,153
Charts 3. Progress of depths SEQV stresses

19
for rk = 13, 17 a 22 mm (bod D)

0,313
0,303
0,156
18
0,165
0,318
0,15
Angle C []

23

0,316
0,305
0,157
17
Depth of maximum shear stress at point D
0,367
0,151
0,161

0,306
0,159
22

0,31
16
0,344
0,154

0,312
0,309
0,159
0,16

15
21

0,308
0,304
0,154
0,311
0,152
0,162

14
20

0,309
0,307
0,153
13
0,318
0,155
0,156
19

0,311
0,308
0,151
12
0,313
0,156
0,153
18

0,305

0,152
0,3
11
Depth of maximum von Mises stress at point D

0,157
0,155
0,34
17

0,301
0,301
0,153
10
0,156
0,153
0,325
16

0,298

0,15
0,3
9
0,155
0,155
0,299

0,299
0,302
0,149
15

8
0,294
0,301
0,151
0,157
0,154
0,326
14

7
rk=13 0,298

rk=22 0,155
0,3
0,154
0,156
0,309

6
13

rk=17
0,35
0,3

0,25
0,2
0,15

0,1
0,05
0
0,151
0,153
0,311
12

D epth [mm]
0,151
0,149
0,3
11

When comparing the depths of every SEQV stress in

Chart 3 it is evident, that with increasing angle C the
0,151
0,316

0,15

depths of stresses are also slightly increasing. The depth

10

for rk2 = 17 mm and rk3 = 22 mm has almost the same

values, ranging from 0,147 to 0,165 mm. On the contrary
0,152
0,298

0,148
9

at rk1 = 13 mm are the maximum values of SEQV stress

depths ranging from 0,294 to 0,367 mm.
0,299

0,144
0,15

For SINT stresses displayed on Chart 4 is evident, that the

8

lowest depth values has models with rk = 22 mm, while

0,294
0,147
0,151

models with rk = 13 mm and rk = 17 mm has maximum

7

values ranging from 0,294 a 0,318 mm. The minimum

depth values applies for rk3 = 22 mm, ranging from 0,15
0,151
0,155
0,3

to 0,161 mm.
6

Depth of maximum von Mises stresses (SEQV) is slightly

rk=13
rk=17
rk=22
0,4
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0

larger than the depth of maximum shear stresses (SINT).

Depth [mm] With projecting a trend line in Chart3 for rk1 = 13 mm it is
possible to mathematically express the minimum required

151
thickness of the hardened layer by mean of the following [9] PAVLOV, M.: ANALZA METD NA RIEENIE
equation (for point D) [7]: NAMHANIA PREVODOVCH MECHANIZMOV
MOTOROVCH VOZIDIEL. Psomn prca
0,0282
tmin = 0, 2913.C [mm] (2)
k dizertanej skke, STU - Strojncka fakulta,
Bratislava
[10] FEDK M.: POVLAKY AKO MONOS ZVENIA
4. CONCLUSION NOSNOSTI OZUBENCH KOLIES, Dizertan
prca, STU - Strojncka fakulta, Bratislava, 2008
The presented contribution deals with von Mises stress
(SEQV) and maximum shear stress evaluation on the
nonstandard C-C gearing in two points on the path of ACKNOWLEDGMENT
contact. Analysed were 108 sets of gears with different
path of contact pitch angle in point C (C), which was The contribution was based on the financial support of
ranging from C = 6 to 23, and with different path of project solution VEGA 1/0189/09.
contact curvature radius (rk), ranging from rk = 13, 17, 22
mm. Created were 3D models, and on the point of contact
the element size of 0,15 mm was chose (it is
a compromise between the computation time and the
hardware potentialities of PC). Based on that the
minimum thickness of hardened layer is expressed by the
equations (1) and (2). A starting point for the design of
hardened layer can then be the most unfavourable
situation from equations (1) and (2) to prevent layer
failure and damage of the base material. Subject to further
research is the investigation of stress
conditions/specifications along the path of contact and the
possibilities of application of thin hard coatings
(multilayers, nanolayers) on C-C gearings, while results
in ref. [10] shows a benefit with application of TiN
monolayer. In strength analysis are also addresses
theoretical issues on application of mono- and multi-
layered coating on the generated 3D C-C model.

REFERENCIES

[1] K, R., VVRA, P.: STROJRENSK

PRUKA- STI STROJ A PEVODY, 2.st,
Praha, 1995
[2] VERE, M., BOANSK, M.: TERIA ELNHO
ROVINNHO OZUBENIA, Bratislava, 1999
[3] VOCEL M., DUFEK V. a kol.: TEN A
OPOTEBEN STROJNCH SOUST, Praha,
1976
[4] GLAUBITZ H.: DIE ZWECKMSSIGE
EINHRTUNGSTIEFE BEI
OBERFLCHENGEHRTETEN
GETRIEBEZHNEN. VDI-Zeitschrift 100, 1958, . 6
[5] LINHART V.: NOSNOST
NITROCEMENTOVANCH OZUBENCH KOL.,
Vzkumn zprva SVM Z-69-2132
[6] TKLY P., BOANSK M., TANEVSKI M.:
THE POSSIBILITY OF FEM AT STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS OF NON-INVOLUTE GEARING,
Monograph of Faculty of Technical Sciences
Machine Design for 2009, Novi Sad, 2009, ISBN
1821-1259, s. 217-222
[7] TKLY P.: STANOVENIE HRBKY VRSTVY
POVRCHOVEJ ASTI BOKU ZUBA Z HADISKA
ODOLNOSTI VOI OPOTREBENIU, Dizertan
prca, STU - Strojncka fakulta, Bratislava, 2009
[8] uvatesk prruka ANSYSu v.10
CORRESPONDENCE
Pavol TKLY, Eng. PhD.
Slovak Technical University
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Nmestie Slobody 17
812 31 Bratislava 1, Slovakia
pavol.tokoly@gmail.com
Miroslav BOANSK, Assoc. prof. Ph.D.
Slovak Technical University
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Nmestie Slobody 17
812 31 Bratislava 1, Slovakia
miroslav.bosansky@stuba.sk
Attila VANYA, Eng.
Slovak Technical University
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Nmestie Slobody 17
812 31 Bratislava 1, Slovakia
attila.vanya@stuba.sk

152

ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOMETRY
OVER THE CONTACT STRESS OF
STRAIGHT BEVEL GEARS
Bianca R. BUTUC
Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN
Radu VELICU
Abstract: The efficiency and durability of tracking
systems of PV platforms are depending on the
characteristics of the mechanical transmissions used to
perform the specific movements of these systems. Due to
the imposed features of these devices, straight bevel
gears, as component parts of the tracking systems, have to
run in specific conditions.
In order to optimize the straight bevel gears used in the
tracking systems of PV platforms, the paper presents the
analysis of the geometrical parameters influence on
contact stress and overall size of the straight bevel gear.
Key words: tracking system, straight bevel gears,
geometric factor, contact stress
1. INTRODUCTION
Straight bevel gears are often used as component parts in
mechanical transmissions of the azimuthal tracking
systems of PV platforms. Due to the imposed
specifications of tracking systems, the gears (cylindrical,
bevel or worm gear types) used in the mechanical
transmissions of the azimuthal tracked PV platforms, have
to satisfy certain conditions [2]: to run at a reduced
rotational speed, usually smaller than one rotation per
minute in order to allow a very precise positioning of the
platform; to have reduced running hours (approximately
500 hours over 20 years); to have a reduced overall size
and high efficiency.
In the imposed conditions, proper correlation between
geometrical parameters, bending and contact stresses
leads to an optimum bevel gear design, in terms of overall
size and reliability [10].
Contact stress of bevel gears it is particularly important,
often imposing gears overall size and durability [11]. The
results of numerous world wide researches concerning
bevel gears lead on development of international
standards like ISO 10300-1, 2, 3 and ANSI/AGMA 2003-
B97.
The aim of these standards is to regulate the strength
calculus of these types of gears. They take into
consideration numerous functional and constructive
factors that influence the gear overall size and both
contact and bending stresses.
Bevel gear strength calculus implies replacing straight
bevel gear with the virtual gear corresponding to the mean
frontal cones.
The relations used in the contact strength calculus are
determined considering theoretical calculus methods, by
adopting simplifying assumptions.
The real gears are different from the theoretical models.
As a consequence, the effective stresses appeared in the
real gear are also different from the theoretical ones. The
difference is adjusted using factors that take into account
the complexity of the real phenomena occurred during the
gearing process. Calculus factors are considering the
straight bevel gears geometry, their design, the design of
the mechanical transmission, teeth rigidity, shafts and
housing rigidity, manufacturing technology and gears
precision.
The influence of the straight bevel gear geometry on the
power losses has been analyzed in [5], in this paper being
presented the influence of the straight bevel gear
geometry on the overall size of it.
2. ON THE STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR
STRENGTH CALCULUS
Straight bevel gears are octoidal gears, as such are not
strictly involutes, because of the flat surfaces of the tool
flanks. These types of gears can be made only with non-
shifted profiles (xhm1=0 and xhm2=0) or zero shifted
profiles (xhm2=-xhm1).
The angle between the shafts of the bevel gears used in
the tracking systems of PV platforms is =90, so these
types of gears are orthogonal bevel gears.
At theoretical level, the wheels of the straight bevel gear
are replaced with cylindrical spur wheels (Figure 1),
which fulfil the following conditions [7, 9]:
Fig. 1. Virtual gear
153
 the pitch circle radius (d1,2/2) of the virtual wheels are Expressing tangential force Fmt as a function of pinions
equal to the generator lengths of the mean frontal torque T1, Fmt = 2T1 d m1 , mean diameter of pinion results
cones of bevel wheels; as a function of width coefficient R
 virtual gear module is equal to the mean module mm of
bevel gear; 2(Re 0.5b ) Re (1 0.5 R )
d m1 = 2 Rm sin 1 = = . (2)
 teeth height of virtual gear is equal to mean height of u +1
2
u2 +1
bevel gear teeth;
 tangential force from virtual gear is equal to the force For straight bevel gears =0, =0 and =, the length
from real bevel gear, which is calculated at the pitch of middle line of contact (Figure 3) is determined with the
diameter level. following relation [2]
The contact stress calculus relation is based on the Hertz 1
relation, thus leading to the distribution of the load on the lbm = 2b . (3)

mean contact length path. The position of load point
application takes account of the overlap ratio of the
virtual cylindrical gear , and it is situated between
inner point of single contact B and the middle point of the
action line M (see Figure 2). The point of load application
for straight bevel gear is the inner point of single contact,
B [4], similar with the case of cylindrical spur gear [6].

Fig. 3. Length of middle line of contact

Mid-zone factor is determined with relation [4]

Z M B =
tan
=
2 2
d a1 d a 2
1 2 1 2( 1)
d b1 z v1 d b 2 zv2

(4)
and zone factor ZH is expressed with relation

ZH = 2 sin (2 ) . (5)

The values of load sharing factor and gear factor are

ZLS=1, and ZK=0.8 [4].
Replacing the relations of the geometrical parameters of
bevel gears in the contact stress calculus (1) results

T1 K A K K H K H
H = Z E Z LS Z K Z g , (6)
8b(Re 0.5b )2
Fig. 2. Radius of curvature of tooth profile for B and M
where Zg represents the global geometric factor of straight
point [4]
bevel gear for contact stress . ZE, ZLS and ZK factors are
The relation used for contact stress calculus is constant and they do not influence the value of the
geometric factor Zg.
The relation for determining geometric factor is
Fmt K A K K H K H u2 +1
H = Z M B Z H Z E Z LS Z K , (1)
d m1lbm u
Z g = Z M B Z H
(u 2 + 1)3 2
, (7)
u 1
where Fmt represents the tangential force determined at
the mean diameter dm1 of pinion; lbm mean length of where represents the transverse contact ratio of virtual
contact; ZM-B mid zone factor; ZLS load sharing factor; cylindrical gear, determined with the following relation
ZK bevel gear factor. All the other factors are known. [7, 8, 9]

154
 2 2 2 2
d va 1 d vb 1 + d va 2 d vb 2 2av sin
v = . (8)
2mm cos

3. COMPUTER PROGRAM SIMULATION

Considering the procedures presented in the ISO 10300
[3, 4] and ANSI-AGMA 2003-B97 [1] standards, a
computer program has been developed for analysing the
influence of the geometrical parameters of the bevel gears
used in the azimuthal tracking systems of the photovoltaic
platforms, on contact stress, the results obtained by
running the computer program being presented in a Fig. 6. Tabular results display
graphical manner.
By means of an object orientated soft, the computer
program assures a friendly user interface, presented as
follows based on the frames.
The main menu, presented in Figure 4 is structured in
three sections: Input data, Calculus and Output data.
a.

Fig. 4. Main menu of the calculus program

In Input data section (Figure 5), the user has to insert data
b.
concerning pressure angle and the parameters needed for
determining the geometric factor of straight bevel gear. Fig. 7. Results section
Also, the user can select the variable parameter and the
ones with fixed values. 4. SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulations have been performed for three different
values of pressure angle : 22.5; 20 and 17.5 (Figure 8).

Fig. 8. Analysed situations

As shown in Figure 9, for each case, on x axis was chosen

Fig. 5. Input data frame
In Calculus section, based on the presented relations, the
geometric factor of straight bevel gear is determined. The
results obtained by running the computer program are
displayed in Output data section, in a tabular manner, as
presented in Figure 6.
In Output data the user can select to display the results for
each analysed case (Figure 7.a), or as a ratio between the
analysed situation and the reference situation (Figure 7.b).
as a variable parameter the profile shift coefficient xhm1,
and the number of pinions teeth z1 and gear ratio u,
represented the variable parameters for which the
geometric factor of the straight bevel gear was
determined.
In figure 10 it is presented the influence of the number of
pinions teeth z1 and profile shifted coefficient xhm1 on the
geometric factor, while the gear ratio u is 2.5 and pressure
angle is 20.
The increase of number of pinions teeth involves a
decrease of the geometric factor value, while decreasing
the profile shift coefficient xhm1 leads to an increase in
contact stress of bevel gear.

155

c Fig. 11. Zg_20 (xhm1, u)
Fig. 9. Variable and fixed values parameters
Fig. 10. Zg_20 (xhm1, z1)
The influence of the gear ratio on the geometric factor,
for the case of pressure angle of 20 is presented in
Figure 11. In the cases of pressure angles of 17.5 and
22.5, the influence of the geometric factor on the
contact stress has been analyzed having as reference the
geometric factor determined for =20. In this view, the
following ratio have been defined: Zg_17.5/ Zg_20 and
156
Zg_22.5/ Zg_20. Figure 12 presents the variation of the ratio
Zg_22.5/ Zg_20 depending on the profile shift coefficient xhm1
and the number of pinions teeth z1.
Analyzing Figure 12, it can be notice that, for pressure
angle of 22.5, an increase in number of pinions teeth z1
leads to a decrease of geometric factor value.
Fig. 12. Zg_22.5/Zg_20 (xhm1, z1)
The curve's slope vary with the number of pinions teeth.
An increase in number of pinions teeth determines a
decrease in curve's slope.
The variation of the gear ratio, presented in Figure 13,
influence the geometric factor in the same way as in the
above situation where the pressure angle was 20.
For the same number of pinions teeth, increase of gear
ratio leads to an increase of geometric factor.
The curve's slope vary with gear ratio modification, in
terms of curve's slope increasing with the increase of gear
ratio. Comparing, in terms of quality, the case of =22.5
with the reference case of =20, can be seen similarities
in the influence of the variation of z1 and u parameters on
the contact stress.
For both analyzed cases, the variation curves of z1 and u
geometric parameters have decreasing trends compared to
the increasing of profile shift coefficient xhm1 and
decreasing of geometric factor.
In terms of quantity, the influence of number of pinions
teeth z1 and of gear ratio u are significant for the situation
of pressure angle equal to =22.5.

Fig. 14. Zg_17.5/Zg_20 (xhm1, u)

Fig. 13. Zg_22.5/Zg_20 (xhm1, u)

Another case, presented in Figures 14 and 15, is the

influence of variation in the number of pinions teeth and
of the gear ratio on geometric factor, for pressure angle
=17.5.
Compared to the situation presented previously =22.5,
the variation of the number of pinions teeth and of the
gear ratio for =17.5 influence in same manner the
geometric factor.
Fig. 15. Zg_17.5/Zg_20 (xhm\1, u)
The increase of number of pinions teeth determines the
decrease of the geometric factor. Instead, the increase of
the gear ratio leads to an increase of geometric factor and 5. CONCLUSIONS
of the contact stress.
Adequate selection of parameters that influence the The results of this study provide information related to the
geometric factor of bevel gear can prevent deterioration of dependence between geometric factor of straight bevel
the active flanks of the teeth. gear and contact stress.

157
The most important conclusions can be outlined as [9] Velicu, D., Moldovean, Gh., Velicu, R. Proiectarea
follows: angrenajelor conice i hipoide. Brasov, Editura
 Due to wind action on the surface of PV panels, the Universitii Transilvania, 2004.
gears from the mechanical transmissions of the [10] Rey, G. G. An Optimized Approach to Straight Bevel
tracking systems are subjected not only to fatigue, but Gear Design. Gear Solutions, September 2004,
also to static load. In this case, bending stress is very pp.40-47.
important, as such it is recommended to choose [11] Tsai, S.-J., Wu, S.-H. Geometrical Design of
pressure angles of 20 or de 22.5, in order to obtain Conical Gear Drives with Profile-shifted
solid teeth with high resistance to bending; Transmission. Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World
 Compared to the situation of pressure angle of =20, Congress, Besanon (France), 2007.
higher pressure angle of =22.5 leads to decreasing
of geometric factor value Zg. Instead, lower pressure
angle of =17.5 cause an increase of geometric factor
value. For both cases the difference is relatively small,
under 5%;
 Increasing the number of pinions teeth z1 leads to
decrease of geometric factor and following, the
decrease of contact stress and of gear overall size;
 Increasing the gear ratio determines an increase of
geometric factor value.
This information allows the designer of tracking systems
for PV platforms to analyse and to asses the future
behaviour of the transmission, in terms of reduced overall
size and high strength resistance.

REFERENCES

[1] ANSI/AGMA 2003_B97. Rating the Pitting

Resistance and Bending Strength of Generated
Straight Bevel, Zerol Bevel and Spiral Bevel Gear
Teeth. American National Standard, 1997.
[2] Butuc, B., Moldovean, G., Gavrila, C.C. Computer
Program For Calculus Of The Straight Bevel Gears
Used In The Tracking Systems Of The Photovoltaic
Platforms. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference ADEMS09, Brasov 2009, pp. 205-210. CORRESPONDENCE
[3] ISO 10300-1. Calculation of load capacity of bevel
Gears. Introduction and general influence factors.
International Standard, 2001. Bianca R. BUTUC, Ph.D. Student.
[4] ISO 10300-2. Calculation of load capacity of bevel Transilvania University of Braov
Gears. Calculation of surface durability (pitting). Faculty of Technological Engineering
International Standard, 2001. Eroilor Str. 29
[5] Moldovean, Gh., Butuc, B.R., Bozan, C. A. On the 500036 Brasov, Romania
Power Losses of Cylindrical and Bevel Gears Used bianca.butuc@unitbv.ro
in Wind Turbines and Tracking Systems for
Photovoltaic Platforms. Proceedings of SYROM Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN, Prof. Ph.D. Eng.
2009, Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 337-350. Transilvania University of Braov
[6] Moldovean, Gh., Velicu, D., Velicu, R. On the Faculty of Technological Engineering
Maximal Contact Stress Point for Cylindrical Gears. Eroilor Str. 29
Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, 500036 Brasov, Romania
Besanon (France), 2007. ghmoldovean@unitbv.ro
[7] Moldovean, Gh., Velicu, D., Velicu, R. et al.
Angrenaje cilindrice i conice. Calcul i construcie.
Radu VELICU, Prof., PhD. Eng.
Brasov, Editura Lux Libris, 2001.
Transilvania University of Braov
[8] Velicu, D., Moldovean, Gh. Profile Modification
Faculty of Technology Engineering
Influence on the Contact Ratio for Straight Bevel
Eroilor Str. 29
Gear. Proceedings of the 2nd International
500036 Braov, Romania
Conference on Engineering Graphics and Design,
rvelicu@unitbv.ro
Galai 2007, pp. 229-232.

158

LOADS IN THE DISENGAGING
PROCESS OF THE SAFETY CLUTCH
WITH RADIALLY DISPOSED BALLS
AND DOUBLE PUNCTIFORM CONTACT
Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN
Silviu POPA
Livia HUIDAN
Abstract: The safety clutches with balls are frequently
used in the transmissions of machine tools, agricultural
machines, technological equipments, because of the
accuracy they limit the transmitted torque with and their
reliability. To avoid shocks at engaging and to reduce
wear, the purpose is to realize a surface contact or a
double punctiform contact between the balls and the
active rabbets. In this paper, the authors present a new
solution of a safety clutch with balls and active rabbets
with radially disposed balls, with double punctiform
contact, and analyze the loads which react on the active
clutch elements in the disengaging process.
Key words: safety clutches with balls, active rabbet with
balls, disengaging process, torque variation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The safety clutches with balls can have various active
rabbet shapes, the rabbets can be disposed radially or
frontally, depending on the available overall size. The
shapes most frequently used of the active rabbets are
trapezoidal, taper, cylindrical, with balls or spherical [1,
3, 9]. The safety clutch with balls analyzed in this paper
has a new design of the active rabbets, which consists of
two balls and a trapezoidal guiding canal of the balls
disposed in radial direction. This shape of the active
rabbet ensures a contact in four points with the rolling ball
when the engaging is complete and a double punctiform
contact in the disengaging and reengaging process. The
clutch description was presented in [5].
For the analyzed safety clutch, the variation of the torque
in the disengaging process is presented, depending on the
main geometrical parameters of the clutch, based on an
elaborated computational program.
2. ANALYSIS OF THE LOADS IN THE
DISENGAGING PROCESS
The purpose of this analysis is the determination of the
loads which react on the active clutch elements and,
implicitly, of the torque in the disengaging process. The
disengaging process begins when between the semi-
clutches a relative rotation motion appears, as a
consequence of the increase of the transmission torque, its
value exceeding the maximum one of the torque
transmitted by the clutch when the engaging a torque is
complete. At the end of the disengaging process, the
clutch transmits a torque realized only by the friction
between the balls and the surface the balls are moving on,
named remanent torque.
The determination of the reactions between the elements
of the safety clutch with balls and radially disposed
spherical active rabbets and of the torque transmitted by
this clutch in the disengaging process depends on: the
relative displacements between the elements; the range of
the relative rotation angle between the elements; the range
of the relative rotation angle between the semi-clutches;
the additional compression of the springs, assessed in [5]; it
is also considered that, during the motion, the friction
coefficient diminishes its value in comparison with the
state of rest.
Figure 1 presents the safety clutch with balls and active
rabbets with radially disposed balls, with double
punctiform contact, in the disengaging process, when
between the two semi-clutches there is a relative motion,
According to this operation situation, the forces which
react on the clutch are also presented. In calculus, the
centrifugal forces of the balls 2 and the pressure pins 5 are
also considered. From the analysis of other clutch
produced by some firms [3, 9], the ratio of the centrifugal
force and the spring force corresponding to one ball is
Fcf/F = k 0,05.
The relations to determine the torque Mtd transmitted by
the clutch in the disengaging process and the reactions
between the active elements of the clutch are obtained by
solving the balance equations of the system ball
pressure pin and the balance equation of the semi-clutch
3, and presented in Table 1. Between the balls and the
semi-clutch 3, the kinetic friction coefficient is
considered, and, between the pressure pin and the semi-
clutch 1, the friction coefficient 1.
Solving the system of equations presented in table 1, the
relations to determine the normal reaction Rn and the
torque Mtd, transmitted by the clutch in the disengaging
process, result. They are presented in table 2. To point out
the influence of the constructive and functional
parameters of the clutch on the torque transmitted by the
clutch in the disengaging process, a computational
program was elaborated, conceived to allow the analysis
of more clutches, namely of the safety clutches with
radially disposed balls and spherical rabbets [6, 7], with
spherical rabbets and pressure disk [4, 8], or with balls [5].
159
 y3 y1
1 dc

F R2
5 B-B

1R2
lc

Fcf5

[(db1+db
(db1/2) sin1
O5
1R1 B G5 Mtd db1

l2
lc/2

2)/2]c
R1 Rn

b
l1

db1 O2 Fcf2

os 0
1

0
Rn
dr1 G2 0
R'n

db
2

2
dr2 d 2'
b2

d b2
(dr1/2)sin( )
13
S21

3
1

R'n

D0/2

Mtd
B

/2)cos(13)
(dr1
3 13
13

x3
O3 x1

Fig. 1. Loads in the disengaging process

Table 1. Balance equations

Balance equation of the forces on x axis

F x1 [ ]
= 0 : R n' cos ( 13 ) + R n' sin ( 13 ) + R1 R 2 = 0 ;

Balance equation of the forces on y axis

F y1 = 0 : Rn' sin ( 13 ) Rn' cos( 13 ) F + Fcf 2 + Fcf 5 1 (R1 + R2 ) = 0 ;

Balance equation of the torque related to O2

M O2
(
= 0 : Rn' d r1 R1l1 + 1 R1d c + R2 l 2 1 R2 d c 2 = 0 ; )
Balance equation of the torque related to O3

M O3 = 0 : M td zRn' S 21 cos( 13 ) zRn' [S 21 sin ( 13 ) d r1 2] = 0 ;

Maximum relative rotation angle of ball 2 related to semi-clutch 1

D0
max = 3 max + arccos cos( a max 3 max ) sin 3 max ;
( d b1 + d b 2 ) cos 0 max

Maximum relative rotation angle in the disengaging process of semi-clutch 1 related to semi-clutch 3

D0 2 + Dm max 2 [( d b1 + d b 2 ) cos 0 ] 2
13 max = 3 max = arccos ;
2 D0 Dm max

Central angle of the profile of the active rabbet on the interior semi-clutch

D02 + Dm2 [(d b1 + d b 2 )cos 0 ] 2

3 = arccos ;
2 D0 D m

160
 Angle of the active rabbet where the rolling balls are mounted
D Dm cos 3
a = arcsin 0 ;
( d b1 + d b 2 ) cos 0
Range of values of the angle between the rolling ball position and the center of the balls in the active rabbet
d b2 d + 0.7d b 2
0 ( 0 min , 0 max ) ; 0 min > arcsin ; 0 max < arcsin b1 ;
d b1 + d b 2 d b1 + d b 2

Relation between the reactions Rn' and Rn

Rn' = 2 Rn cos 0 ;

Lengths between the forces which react on the clutch elements

l1 =
db ( )
sin 1 b ; l2 = lc + l1 , cu 1 a 5 0...10 0 ; b = 1...1.5 mm; l c = 1.25d c i d c = d b1 + (4...6 ) mm;
2

Maximum relative displacement of ball 2 related to semi-clutch 1

D0 + ( d b1 + d b 2 ) cos 0 (sin sin a )
S 21 = , with d r1 = d b1 cos 0 .
2 cos 13

z number of rolling balls.

Table 2. relations to determine the reaction Rn and the torque Mtd

Normal reaction Rn
F (1 k )
Rn = A;
2 cos 0

Torque Mtd transmitted by the clutch in the disengaging process

M td = zF (1 k ) A { S 21 cos( 13 ) + [S 21 sin ( 13 ) d r1 2]} ;

Spring force F
F = c (1 + S 21 ) ;
Spring deformation in the disengaging process S21
D0 (1 cos 13 ) + ( d b1 + d b 2 ) cos 0 (sin sin a )
S 21 = ;
2 cos 13

Dimension less coefficient A

A=
(l2 l1 ) cos cos 1 ;
(l2 l1 )sin( 13 1 ) [d r1 sin + (2l1 1d c ) cos( 13 )]sin 1
Friction angles and 1
= arctan ; 1 = arctan 1 , cu =(0.8...0.9)0; 1=(0.8...0.9)01.

c spring rigidity; 1 assembling spring elongation;

To point out the influence of the constructive and
functional clutch parameters on the torque transmitted by
the clutch in the disengaging process, a single ball is
considered. A higher number of balls influences only the
value of the transmitted torque and not its variation.
The variation of the torque Mtd in the disengaging
process, depending on the arrangement diameter of the
balls, is presented in Figure 6. The analysis of this
diagram leads to the following conclusions:
 The torque Mtd transmitted by the clutch in the
disengaging process has, first of all, an increasing
variation and, then, a decreasing variation, finally
reaching the value of the remanent torque;
 The increasing of the balls arrangement diameter leads
to the increasing of the torque transmitted by the
clutch in the disengaging process, Mtd, related to the
torque transmitted by the clutch in the complete
engaging operation situation, Mt0, but diminishes the
value of the relative rotation angle between the semi-
clutches, 13.

161

Fig. 2. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on the
diameter D0
The influence of the assembling diameter of the balls, Dm,
which form the active rabbet on the torque transmitted by
the clutch in the disengaging process is presented in
Figure 3. From this it results that:
Fig. 3. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on the
assembling diameter of the balls which form the active
rabbet, Dm
 The torque Mtd transmitted by the clutch in the
disengaging process, related to the torque transmitted
by the clutch in the complete engaging situation, Mt0,
increasing with the rising of the difference Dm
162
between the assembling diameter Dm and the
arrangement diameter of the rolling balls D0;
 For low values of the difference Dm, the torque Mtd
diminishes under the value of the torque Mt0, which is
a highly profitable case.
The influence of the balls diameter on the torque
transmitted by the clutch in the disengaging process is
presented in Figure 4. From this it results:
Fig. 4. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on
diameters of the balls db1 and db2
 The increasing of the diameter of the balls which form
the active rabbet and of the rolling balls leads to the
increasing of the torque Mtd transmitted by the clutch
in the disengaging process;
 The increasing range of the torque Mtd, related to the
torque Mt0, is in proportion to the increasing of the
diameter db1 and db2; exemplifying, the difference
between the curves 1 and 2, respectively between the
curves 5 and 6 can be followed through. The
increasing of the diameters is 4 units, in comparison to
the difference between the other curves where the
difference is only 2 units;
 The relative rotation angle between the semi-clutches,
13, raises with the increasing of the balls diameter.
The variation of the torque Mtd depending on the angle 0
of the clutch active profile is presented in Figure 5. From
this it results that:
 The variation of the torque Mtd is, first of all,
increasing and, then, decreasing;
 For higher values of the angle of the clutch active
profile (0 > 500), the variation of the torque
transmitted by the safety clutch is continuously
decreasing, increasing the disengaging sensitivity (the
maximum value transmitted by the clutch in the
disengaging process in this situations is given the
value of the torque Mt0);

Fig. 5. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on the angle
0 of the active profile
 The relative rotation angle between the semi-clutches,
13, diminishes with the increasing of the angle of the
clutch active profile.
The influence of the initial spring deformation, by
maintaining the same spring force through the
simultaneous variation of the spring rigidity of the spring
rigidity, on the torque transmitted by the clutch in the
process is presented in Figure 6. From this it results that:
Fig. 6. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on the
assembling elongation and the rigidity c of the spring
 The torque Mtd, compared to the torque Mt0,
diminishes in proportion to the increasing of the
assembling spring elongation;
 For high values of the assembling spring elongation,
the increasing variation of the torque Mtd, in
comparison to the torque Mt0, diminishes very much,
leading to an increased disengaging sensitivity of the
clutch.
In Figure 7, the variation of the torque Mtd depending on
the friction coefficients 0 and 01 is presented. From its
analysis it results that:
Fig. 7. Variation of the torque Mtd depending on the
friction coefficients 0 and 01
 The torque Mtd, related to the torque Mt0, diminishes
with the increasing of the friction coefficients 0 and
01, the decrease being more obvious in the case of 01;
 The lowest value of the torque Mtd, related to the
torque Mt0, is obtained when both friction coefficients
reach their maximum value (curve 4);
 At the end of the disengaging process, the influence of
the friction coefficients value on the torque
transmitted by the clutch is practically neglect able.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The safety clutches must allow the transmission of a
torque which ensures the running of the machine at full
capacity, but avoids the machine damage as a wrong man
oeuvres of the human operator [2, 9].
To fulfill these requirements, the design of a safety clutch
must consider the influences of the constructive and
functional parameters on the torque transmitted by the
clutch.
The diagrams in this paper present the variation of the
torque in the disengaging process depending on: the
arrangement diameter of the rolling balls; the arrangement
diameter of the balls which form the active rabbet; the
balls diameter; the angle of the active rabbet; the
assembling elongation of the spring, maintaining the
spring force and the friction coefficients constant in the
complete engaging operation situation.
163
REFERENCES
[1] Chiu, E., Moldovean, Gh. et al. Cuplaje mecanice
intermitente. Braov, Editura Lux Libris, 1998.
[2] Dropmann, C., Mustardo, A., Mechanical torque
limiters still make sense. Mechanical and electronic
overload protection each has its place, Machine
Design, June, 2003.
[3] Mayr Power Transmissions. K.490.06.GB. The
perfect Torque Limiting Clutch (www.mayr.de).
[4] Moldovean, G., Popa, S., Eftimie, E., Relative
Displacements in the Disengaging Process of the
Safety Clutches with Balls and Spherical Rabbets
Disposed Radial and Pressure Disk, Proceedings of
the Xth International Conference on Mechanisms and
Mechanical Transmissions, Timioara, 2008,
Scientific Bulletin of the Politehnica University of
Timisoara, Transactions on MECHANICS, Tom
53(67), Fasc. S1, p. 115-122.
[5] Moldovean, Gh., Popa, S., Huidan, L. Spring force
variation in the disengaging process of the safety
clutches with radially disposed balls and active
rabbets with balls. In: MACHINE DESING 2009,
Novi Sad, ADEKO, pp. 289 - 294.
[6] Popa, S., Moldovean, G., Loads in the Completely
Engaged Operation for Safety Clutches with Balls
and Spherical Active Rabbets Radially Disposed.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov,
Vol.1(50)- 2008, Series I, p.157-162.
[7] Popa, S., Moldovean, Gh., Comi, M. Safety clutch
with balls and spherical seats radially disposed.
Description. Geometrical elements. In: Proceedings
of International Conference TEHNONAV 2008 (CD),
Constanta, Romania.
164
[8] Popa, S., Moldovean, G., Velicu, R. Spring Force
Variation During the Disengagement Process in the
Case of a Safety Coupling with Radial Disposed
Balls, Spherical Rabbets and Pressure Disk.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference
Power Transmissions 09, Kalithea, 2009, pp. 241-
248.
[9] R+W Coupling Technology. Torque Limiters SK,
http://www.rw-america.com
CORRESPONDENCE
Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN, Prof. Ph.D. Eng.
Transilvania University of Braov
Faculty of Technological Engineering
Eroilor Str. 29
500036 Brasov, Romania
ghmoldovean@unitbv.ro
Silviu POPA, B.Sc. Eng., Ph.D. Student.
Transilvania University of Braov
Faculty of Technological Engineering
Eroilor Str. 29
500036 Brasov, Romania
popa_s_silviu@yahoo.com
Livia HUIDAN Ph.D. Segnor lecturer
Transilvania University of Brasov,
Faculty of Technological Engineering
Eroilor Str. 29,
500036 Brasov, Romania
lhuidan@unitbv.ro

ELASTIC AND SAFETY CLUTCH
Ioan STROE
Abstract: The paper presents a new type of clutch named
Elastic and Safety Clutch, that can accomplish the
functions of the elastic and those of the safety clutches,
but that is not a combined clutch. The clutch presented is
an elastic and safety clutch with metallic intermediate
elements. The paper presents the analytic modeling of the
torque moment in case of the elastic and safety clutches
with degenerated followers in lamellar bows equiangular
disposed.
Key words: mechanical transmission, clutches, elastic,
safety, simple.
1. INTRODUCTION
A condition imposed to the elastic clutches is that at the
breakage of an element, the clutch does not failure
immediately. If there is only an elastic element, the total
breakage of the clutch has to be inferred, in case of partial
fractures or the fissures. Another condition imposed to
elastic clutches is that the elastic elements that can rapidly
be destroyed, to be easily replaced if it is possible
without the clutch disassembling or the axial
displacement of the axle stubs.
The elastic clutch could take over, overloads up to a
certain torque value. Over this value, when the
transmission is not provided with a load disengagement
system, the elastic elements of the clutch are destroyed,
this corresponding with the placing of transmission out of
the operation.
The safety clutch fulfils (besides the main function of the
torque transmission) the function of torque limitation or
automatic interruption of the connection between the
coupled shafts, in the case of some overloads occurrence,
during the performance.
The safety clutches assure the transmission performance
up to the limit torque value, for what the safety elements
are designed. Over this value, it appears the relative
slipping between the semi-clutches, which involves the
mechanical transmission protection. Taking the data
above into consideration, it results the necessity of some
clutches, that by the associated functions to allow the load
disengagement before that the elastic elements to be
destroyed.
In the case of diverse applications, there can be combined
the simple functions, obtaining a combined coupling. In
this case, the combined coupling is obtained by the
connection, of two or more simple clutches, in a certain
manner, on purpose to accomplish accordingly the
imposed complex functional role of mechanical
transmission [1], [3].
2. STRUCTURAL SCHEM AND THE
GEOMETRICAL MODEL
Figure 1 present the structural scheme of an elastic and
safety clutch with metallic intermediate elements. The
clutch contains the following elements [2], [3]:
 the semi-couplings, 1 and 2;
 the equiangular cam 3, assembled on the semi-
coupling.
The elastic intermediate elements are executed from
spring steel, with a segments shape. The spring segments
are assembled in packets, the number of packets being
imposed by the cam type. The segments can have
different thickness and widths, depending on the
transmitted torsion moment, the cam width and the
maximum value of the axial displacement that can be take
over.
Fig. 1. The structural scheme
The equiangular cam represents the semi-clutch 2 and it
can be processing directly on the output shaft or it can be
assembled on the shaft. There can be used cams with
more profiled faces, as well different shapes of contact
surface.
Figure 2 present the geometrical model of an elastic and
safety clutch with metallic intermediate elements. It
considers the cam profile came definite by circular arc.
The calculus concerning the came radians of curvature are
being eliminated. The cam geometry is described simply,
by the circle radius, which define it, and by the distance
between the centres of these circles [2], [3].
The simplified model has the next premises:
 in calculus, the lamellas package is replaced by a
single lamella, represented in the geometrical model
by the median line;
 the lamella is considered free propped on a bolt and
jointed au the other;
165
 3.1. The torque moment on section M1M2
expression
For determining the torsion moment which can be
transmitted by the clutch on the sector M1M 2, the
geometric model presented in fig. 3 can be used. The
relative rotation angle between the semi-clutches is
included in the interval: , .
1 M1 M 2

Fig. 2. The simplified geometrical model

 the lamella bearings are considered punctiform, the

distance being L;
 the cam actuates over the lamella with a force Fn
orientated after the normal line, in the point of contact;
 the angular deformation of the lamella are small
(8.10);
 it considers that aver the lamella actuates only the Fn
force;
 the friction effects between the lamella and the
bearing are neglected;
 in the calculus of the torque moment there are
considered: the normal force Fn effect as well as the
friction force F effect;
 the normal force (Fn) is considered vertical, and the
friction force (Fn) will be considered horizontal
(Fo Fo)
Fig. 3. The geometrical model 1
According to fig. 3, the transmitted moment depends on
the force Fn and on the friction force Fn. If the friction is
neglected, the expression of the torsion moment is given
by the relation
( ) ( )
T = nFv x M 1 + y M T 1
(7)
The contact point of the cam with the lamella, which is
also the point where the force is applied, is modifying
( )
term the rotation angle 1 of the cam.

3. THE TORQUE MOMENT AND THE The explanation of the relation (7) assumes the
ELASTIC CARACTERISTIC ( ) ( )
explanation of the terms: Fv 1 , x M 1 , y M 1 . ( )
From the triangle ORO2 (fig.4) results:
In concordance with the adopted model, the torque
moment determination is made in two stages [3]:
a) The cam is in contact with the lamellas on the circle of
radius r1, so on M0M1 section;
b) The cam is in contact with the lamellas on the circle of
radius r1, so on M1M2 section.
IF = JD = KE = r1 (1)

OD = OE = OF = r0 (2)

O2 M 1 = r2 (3)

OO1 = a1 = r1 r0 (4)

OO2 = a2 = r0 (5)

O1O2 = a12 = r1 r2 (6)

The torsion moment and the elastic characteristic of the

clutch will be determined on the section M1M2. Fig. 4. The geometrical model 2

166
 ( )
x M = r0 sin 60o 1 ; (8) (
T 60o
1 ) = nF ( 60o ) x ( 60o ) + y ( 60o )
v 1 1 1

OR = r cos ( 60o ) ;
(15)
(9)
0 1 dT ( 1)
y = r cos ( 60o ) + r . (10) ( )
K 1 =
d ( 1 )
(16)
M 0 1 2
Knowing the coordinates of the tangency point
) = T 60o ' = dT 60o 1 (
( )
M x M y M , the arrow of the deformed medium fiber s2, (
K 60o
d 1 )= (( )) 1
1
becomes
(
s 2 = r0 cos 60o 1 1 + r2 .) (11) = nF ' ( 60o ) x ( 60o ) + y ( 60o ) + (17)
v 1 1 1

+ nF ( 60o ) ( x ( 60o ) ) + y ( 60o )

The expression of the vertical force can be written as ' '

(
r0 cos 60o 1 1 + r2
)
1

1 1
F ( 1) = 3EI l

( x (60 )) = ( r sin ( 60 )) =
v z 2 2
( ) ( )
1 o 1 o ' '
o o
r0 sin 60 1 + r0 sin 60 1
2 2 1 0 1
(18)
(12)
The expression of the torsion moment (7), after replacing = r cos 60o
0 ( 1 )
( ) ( ) ( )
( y ( 60 )) = ( r cos ( 60 ) + r ) =
the terms Fv 1 , x M 1 , y M 1 , becomes o
'
o
'

( ) ( )
1 0 1 0
T = nFv x M 1 + y M T 1 = (19)

= r0 sin 60 1 ( o
)
r0 cos 60o 1 1 + r2 ( )
( s ( 60 )) = ( r cos ( 60 ) + r )=
' '

= n 3EI l
o o
r
z 2 2 2 1 0 1 2 0



1
2
o
(
1
2
o
r0 sin 60 1 + r0 sin 60 1

) ( ) = r0 sin 60o 1 ( )
(20)

0
( 1 0 ) (
r sin 60o + r cos 60o + r
1 2 ( ) )} ( F ( 60 )) = o
'
v 1
(14)
Based on relation (13), it can go further to calculate the
elastic characteristic of the clutch.

=
3EI z l r0 cos (

=
( )
60o 1 + r2 r0 )
2 2
3.2. The elastic characteristic M1M2 expression 1

o
2 r0 sin 60 1
1
( o
2 + r0 sin 60 1

) ( )
Characteristic elastic clutch K 1 , is tangent to the ( ) 3EI l
z
curve moment, Fig. 5 =
4
1 o 1
( o
2 a1 sin 60 1 2 + a1 sin 60 1

) ( )
Nonlinear
2

Linear
Characteristic
{ r sin 60o
0 ( 1 ) 12 + a sin (60o )
1 1

Characteristic

{
2
1
(
a1 sin 60o 1 r0 cos 60o 1 + r2 r0
2 ) ( )
l
2 1

2 a sin 60o a cos 60o
1
1 1 ( )( ( ))
l
2 2
l
(
+ a sin 60o + a sin 60o
2 1 1
2 1 1


) ( )
Fig. 5. The characteristic clutch
1
(
2 + a sin 60o + r a cos 60o (21)
2 1 1 0
1 1


) ( ( )) }
By replacing the relations (18), (19), (20), (21) in the
Because the characteristic of the clutch depends on the relation (17), it is possible to determine and to represent
rotation angle between the semi-clutches ( 1 ) , in the the elastic characteristic of the clutch on the section
M1M2.
expression of the torsion moment, on the segment M1M2,
In fig. 6 and fig. 7 are presented the theoretical
the next terms will be derived
characteristics of the elastic and safety clutch with
x(1 ), s 2 (1 ), y (1 ), Fv (1 ) :
degenerate cam followers. These representations have at

167
the base the equations which determine the characteristic
on the two sections M0M1, M1M2.
By studying these diagrams, the next conclusions can be
formulated:
Fig. 6. The characteristic clutch for 120
Fig. 7. The characteristic clutch for 240
 the characteristic of the elastic and safety clutch is
( ) (
progressive for 0 26o , 60o 95o ; it is)
recommended that the clutch works only on the sector
M0M1, because on the sector M1M2 the functioning of
the clutch is instable and it produces the decoupling
from the charge;
 it is recommended that the calculus of the clutch to be
made for a torsion moment with variations of the
relative rotation angle in the interval 0 - 120, fig. 6;
 choosing values of the moment close to
( )
28o 30o Fig. 6, will conduct to charge
decoupling of the clutch, at the smallest variations of
the resistive moment (this situation corresponds to the
regulation of the spring pretension force at small
values);
 for adjusting the pretension force at high values, the
clutch will work with a relative rotation angle between
the semi-clutches of small values;
 when moment shocks are appearing, the clutch will
fulfill the functions of an elastic clutch being able to
take over relatively high variations of the resistive
moment.
In fig. 8 it is presented the characteristic of the clutch for
different values of the radius r2.
4. CONCLUSION
The analytic modeling of the torque moment in the case
of the clutch with degenerated followers and lamellar
bows disposed equiangular is based on the next
conditions:
168
 the modeling is made on a simplified geometrical
model;
 the cam profile is defined by circular arcs;
 the lamellas package is replaced by a single lamella,
represented in the geometrical model by the median
line;
 the lamella is considered free propped on a bolt and
jointed on the other;
 the came actuates over the lamella with a normal force
orientated after the normal line, in the point of contact;
 the friction effects between the lamella and bearings
are neglected;
 the angular deformations of the lamellas are small,
because the cams are small in comparison with the
opening of the lamellas bearings;
 in the calculus of the torque moment there are
considered: the normal force effect as well as the
friction effect;
 in the case of the degenerated came, with constant
raises, the torque moment is transmitted only by the
cam-lamella friction; the elastic and safety clutch
becomes a safety clutch by friction.
Fig. 8. The characteristic clutch
REFERENCES
[1] PAMPEL, W., Kupplungen, Band I Berlin, VEB
Verlag Technik, 1959.
[2] STROE, I., EFTIMIE, E., Elastic and Safety Clutch,
Editura Ecran Magazin Brasov, 2001
[3] STROE, I., Design Procedure of Elastic and Safety
Clutches using Cam Mechanisms. In Proceeding on
CD-ROM of Twelfth World Congress in Mechanism
and Machine Science June 17-21, Besancon France,
2007.
CORRESPONDENCE
Ioan STROE, Prof. Dr. Eng.
University Transylvania of Brasov
Faculty of Technologic Engineering
Department Design of Products and
Robotics
500036 Brasov, Romania
stroei@unitbv.ro

RISK OF SELECTING A TETRAHEDRON
FOR FEM STRUCTURAL MODELING
Miomir JOVANOVI
Predrag MILI
Goran PETROVI
Abstract: This paper deals with the accuracy problem of
applying the finite element of tetrahedron type. The
variable quality of modeling a solid continuum with a
finite element tetrahedron is presented through
several examples. The analysis is directed towards the
dependence of accuracy of basic finite elements on the
character of external construction load. The results of
numerous comparative FEM and control experimental
analyses are given. The presented examples show where
the precision of discrete models is compromised and
warn against the possibility of presence of large errors
in analyses.
Key words:
Tetrahedron, Brick, accuracy, FEM, analyses error
1. INTRODUCTION
The modern tasks of construction analysis are today
characterized by the highly complex geometry of models
which is most often demanded by the design. Nowadays,
the method of finite elements is in widespread practical use.
The constructions which are treated by this method are
most frequently subjected to automatic procedures of
generating finite element grids in order to reduce the model
development time. In automatic procedures of modern
software, the finite element tetrahedron is generally applied
for discrete continuum modeling. Such a small number of
nodes compared to the brick (an eight-node element) has a
varying success in describing the internal stress-strain state
of constructions. The reason for applying the tetrahedron is
in the fluent description of the complex construction
topology and the working speed of grid generator. This
familiar disadvantage of tetrahedron application is still
present in modern models since designers find the
automatic grid generation, which is supported by the
majority of software, much more efficient. On the other
hand, the demand for the model and analysis quality
imposes the need for constant comparative checking of
model accuracy.
The experience from numerous analyses has shown that a
good quality of modeling can be achieved using the
tetrahedron, which is most often in the function of
tetrahedron position in relation to external action and the
gradient of internal change of the stress-strain state. Let us
consider several simple comparative models in further text.
2. MODELS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL FORCES
Pipe systems under pressure are characterized by high
tensile stress and usually proportional expansion of
continuum-walls (of slightly variable thickness). Let us
observe a quarter of the pipe (with dimension
D/D0=2.56/2.5 m and interior preassure p=56.7105 Pa)
for feeding water to hydro plant turbines. These pipe
constructions are characterized by the proportional
expansion of walls due to the internal water pressure. The
large diameters of pipelines and the equal loading usually
cause membrane stress in walls and a very low degree of
bending. Starting from the geometry of concretely derived
objects, the example of determining the stress and
movement (expansion) of pipes was made by applying the
FEM analysis. Four grids were developed in the example.
The first two (M1 and M2) were modeled with an eight-
node finite element (brick) while the third and fourth
(M3 and M4) were derived using a four-node and ten-
node element (tetrahedron). At that, the first, third and
fourth grid had the same element size which accounted
for the equal number of grid nodes in M1 and M3. The
M2 grid was developed for monitoring the effect of
element size on model accuracy (convergence). There
were 64 times more elements in grid M2 since 4 more
elements were introduced into each of the element
directions of grid M1 for the 3D model continuum space.
The analytical value of stress in the circumferential
direction of the pipe was determined on the basis of
Relation 1 [1]. The theoretical stress on the inner pipe
wall in the circumferential direction from the pressure on
the inner pipe wall (thick walled tube) is:
D 2 +d 2 5 2.56 + 2.5
2 2
KN
c = p = 56.7 10 = 23.911 (1)
D 2 d 2 2.56 2 2.52 cm 2
Comparing the accuracy of the use of the brick element
(grid M1) and the use of the tetrahedron (grid M3)
showed good agreement of the analyses: the relative
difference between the numerical and analytical results
(1) was +0.581% and +0.964% at the same size of finite
elements, Table 1.
Fig. 1. Stress in Circumferential Direction model M1
169
According to this Table, the stresses obtained by the
tetrahedron were very close to the analytical results.
The finite element brick gave the results only slightly
closer to the analytical solution than the stresses obtained
by the tetrahedron in model M3. Model M4 gave even
better results with more movement degrees of freedom
and more nodes than model M1 and difference of
+0.385%.
Figure 3 shows a detail of grid M3 generated by
tetrahedrons. It is obvious that in these constructive
situations, the free expansion of a pipe under internal
pressure, the tetrahedron represents the internal stress
changes well. The highest quality solution was obtained
with the greatest number of movement degrees of
freedom 252,529 (model M2 with the finite element
brick) and difference of +0.170%.

V1 Output Set: MSC/NASTRAN Case 1

L1 Deformed(0.00152): Total Translation
C1
G1

Y Z
X

Fig. 2. Stress in Circumferential Direction model M2

Fig. 3. Model M3 tetrahedrons
Figures 1 and 2 show the layout of the grid and
circumferential stresses of models M1 and M2 derived by
the eight-node element brick.

Table 1.
BRICK ELEMENT TETRA EL.
Model ID M1 M2 M3 M4
Number of element 1040 66560 6240 6231
Element size [mm] 30 7.5 30 30
Node number 2244 84825 2244 12972
Grid on model 1 x 65 x 16 4 x 260 x 64 1 x 65 x 16 1 x 65 x 16
DOF 6532 252529 6532 38352
Stress in Circumferential Direction C
23.911 23.911 23.911 23.911
[KN/cm2]
Numerical FEM solution C [KN/cm2] 24.0499 23.9516 24.1414 24.003
stress on element 28 on element 66673 on element 7339 on element 9235
Relative difference numerical from
+ 0.581 + 0.170 + 0.964 + 0.385
analytical solution [%]
Ratio numerical and analytical stress
100.581 100.170 100.964 100.385
solution [%]
Total translation [m] 0.00151 0.00151 0.00152 0.00151

3. MODELS SUBJECTED TO BENDING F L

Mf 3 2000 0.8 N KN
f = = 2 2 = = 30 10 7 = 30 (2)
Wx B 2 2 0.08 0.012 m2 cm 2
Let us observe a thick truck spring band subjected to a
6
concentrated load in the middle and supported as a simple
Four grids were developed in the example. The first two
beam with a single moveable fulcrum. The dimensions of
(M5 and M6) were modeled with an eight-node finite
the band are BxxL=0.08x0.01x0.8m, and the arbitrary
element (brick) while the third and fourth (M7 and M8)
concentrated force F=200N. Such an elastic form is were derived using a four-node (tetrahedron). At that,
characterized by a distinct presence of the bending grids M5 and M7 had the same element size. The M6 grid
moment. As was the case in the previous example, four was developed for monitoring the effect of element size
analysis models were developed for this task: M5, M6, on model accuracy (convergence). There were 64 times
M7 and M8. For the comparative analysis of this model, more elements in grid M6 since 4 more elements were
in the control sense, it is most convenient to apply the introduced into each of the directions of the basic grid M5
linear bending theory. The component stress in the for the 3D model continuum space. Thereat, the tiniest
direction of band length, determined in the middle of band brick elements were generated by grid M6. The smallest
span by the linear theory, is defined by Relation 2. approximations of the continuous model were made by

170
that, so that this model corresponded to the highest brick. Figure 5 shows a detail of grid M7 (Solid Von
analysis accuracy. This was done in compliance with the Mises stress) generated by tetrahedrons.
principle of small movements since the models were set
in such a way that the translations (movements) of the
V1
L1 30170288.
C1

nodes were smaller than the size of finite model elements.

28308958.

123 26447628.

Comparing the accuracy of the use of the brick element 24586298.

22724969.

(grid M5) and the use of the tetrahedron (grid M7) 20863639.

19002309.

showed a large difference in numerical values of FEM 17140979.

solutions. The finite element brick in models M5 and M6 15279649.

12
1212
13418319.
1212
1212

gave the stresses which differ for 1.736% / 0.743% from 1212
11556989.

9695660.

the analytical solutions. The application of the tetrahedron 7834330.

in model M7 gave a difference of 71.572% of the

5973000.
Y
22.222
22.222
22.222
22.222 4111670.
22.222
22.222
Z 22.222
22.222

numerical in comparison to the analytical model. The

22.222
X 2250340.
Output Set: MSC/NASTRAN Case 1
Deformed(0.0016): Total Translation 389010.

stresses of the numerical solution M7 (obtained by Contour: Solid Von Mises Stress

tetrahedrons) were significantly lower and they accounted Fig. 4. Solid Von Mises stress M4 (Brick element)
for only 28.428% of the analytical solution. The
differences between the solutions of numerical analyses
V1
L1 9286880.
C2

(derived with the tetrahedron with four nodes) and the

8723701.

8160523.

solutions of analytical analyses were so great that the 7597344.

7034165.

former were considered inaccurate. Grid M8, formed out 6470987.

of tetrahedrons with the middle node at the sides, was of

5907808.

5344629.

high quality since the number of nodes in the model was 4781451.

4218272.

enlarged 6 times in relation to the starting model M5. The 3655093.

3091915.

difference of model M5 (regardless of bending) was - 2528736.

0.778% from the analytical solution. This analysis of

1965557.
Y
1402379.
X

many grids shows that even in the case of bending a Z

Output Set: MSC/NASTRAN Case 1
Deformed(0.000451): Total Translation
839200.

276021.

tetrahedron of ten nodes can be applied very successfully. Contour: Solid Von Mises Stress

Figure 4 shows the layout of the grid (Solid Von Mises Fig. 5. Solid Von Mises stress M6 (Tetra element)
stress) of model M5 derived by the eight-node element

Table 2.
BRICK TETRA
Model ID M5 M6 M7 M8
Number of element 640 40960 3840 4219
Element size [mm] 10 2.5 10 10
Node number 1458 52965 1458 8716
Grid on model 1 x 8 x 80 4 x 32 x 320 1 x 8 x 80 1 x 8 x 80
DOF 4329 158730 4336 26063
Analytic solution z [KN/cm2]
3,0000 3,0000 3,0000 3,0000
component stress
Numerical FEM solution z [KN/cm2]
2,94793 2,97772 0,85285 2,97666
component stress
Relative difference numerical from
- 1.736 - 0.743 - 71.572 - 0.778
analytical solution [%]
Ratio numerical and analytical stress
98.264 99.257 28.428 99.222
solution [%]

4. PRACTICAL RESEARCH
Modeling done on real structures are the main reason for
this paper. In numerous professional analyses of
researchers, the difference between numerical results
obtained by applying the FEM model with the tetrahedron
and experimental results is determined. An example
related to pipe systems is shown in further text [2]. A pre-
turbine pipe system (fork) of a hydro-aggregate in a
power plant was numerically analyzed. The fact that the
modeled structure was of great mass and complex
geometry with transitional wall thicknesses,
discontinuous pipe bends and seam details implied just
the selection of a basic tetrahedron (with four nodes) as
the element with which a really large discrete model
could be generated (developed). Of course, it is clear that
generating a discrete model is in itself useless if it leads to
incorrect or unconfirmed data. Therefore, the modeling
requires the use of discrete models of proven quality or
finding evidence of model accuracy [4, 5]. By this task, a
discrete model with the mass of 44,333kg was
automatically generated by a usual processor [3] which
worked efficiently only with four-node tetrahedrons. The
reduction of model error was searched for in the multi-
layer grid and very small finite elements. The FEM fork
model grid was characterized by 1,687,170 elements
whose average mass was 26.5 grams. The size of the
model and hardware limitations caused the application of

171
four-node tetrahedrons for discrete modeling. The
application of a ten-node tetrahedron would have led to a
model of tens of millions of finite elements which
demanded a stronger hardware platform than a PC
desktop working station and a superior grid generator.
In order to check the stress-strain state, a comparative
experimental examination of the system in the stationary
position under constant internal pressure was conducted.
Figure 6 shows the geometrical model of the fork in the
pipe with the layout of measurement points for
tensometric measurement.
Table 3 shows an isolated comparison of interesting
numerical (FEM) and experimental results on two
characteristic places on the fork: measurement point no. 9
in the pipe seam zone (where the thickness of the wall
changes) and measurement point no. 10 on the ellipse
(rib) of the fork. The results of stresses agreement in
applying the finite element tetrahedron (with four nodes)
were good where dominant tension or pressure occurred.
Where bending occurred, the obtained FEM stresses
differed greatly from experimental ones. A significant
difference appeared in measurement point 9 as a
consequence of the local bending of the transitional wall
thickness, thus making the application of tetrahedrons
locally inadequate. In measurement point 10 (the side of
ellipse), dominant normal edge stresses (parallel to the
contour) occurred, which led to numerically (by
tetrahedron) obtained results being experimentally
confirmed.

Table 3.
Relative difference
Equivalent
Von Mises numerical stress numerical from
experimental stress
Measurement point Element number (FEM) experimental
(R1/R2/R3)
[N/m2] solution [%]
[N/m2]

9 1688754 193464800 274333000 29.478

10 1688404 179536288 179497000 -0.022

R10
10.0

500.

R02
8.0 R01
R03 100.

R09

Fig. 6. Fork and Pre-Turbine Pipe of Hydro-Aggregate [2]

172
 Fig. 7. Detail of model grid Fork Hydro-Aggregate
5. CONCLUSION
1. Tetrahedron as a finite element is most easily
applicable in the discrete modeling software. That is
why it can be found in all grid modelers of finite
element software. This finite element must be used
carefully as the example presented in this paper show.
2. Tetrahedron does not show significant errors in
structural analyses of a continuum subjected to axial
loading. These are pressure tanks and pipe systems
without contact effects from other elements.
3. The presence of bending in constructions leads to
great differences in analyses accuracy which is usually
evinced by significantly lower stresses than theoretical
ones when applying four-node tetrahedrons. Results
obtained through ten-node tetrahedrons are of high
quality.
4. Differences in the quality of structural internal stresses
modeling come from the manner in which the
interpolation functions work within a tetrahedron. The
interpolation of the spatial stress state is conducted on
the basis of data from the four nodes, while it is
conducted on the basis of eight nodes in a brick. Also,
results obtained from ten-node tetrahedrons are much
better than those from four-node models. The
degeneration of tetrahedrons in automatic grid
generating can only deteriorate grid quality and lead to
even greater differences.
5. Finite elements method users must be well aware of
the character of internal spreading of structural stress
in order to be able to apply tetrahedron as modeling
element.
6. The ease that applicable software offers when
applying tetrahedron as grid modeling element often
leads to predicted the application possibilities of this
finite element for the identification of the exact stress
state.
7. The versatility of tetrahedron positions in a complex
continuum most frequently leads to a variable quality
of model accuracy, depending on the dominance of
internal effects. Where the transverse stresses are
dominant in the continuum, the analysis results are
much better. And where the bending stresses are
dominant, large errors are present just as this analysis
shows.
8. The application of tetrahedrons introduces the
shortcomings of post-processing distribution of stress
which can be observed by the dependence of stress on
the topological form of a grid. The distribution of
stress certainly depends only on the geometrical form
of the continuum and the loading manner, not the grid
topology.
REFERENCES
[1] WATKINS R. K., ANDERSON L. R., Structural
mechanics of buried pipes, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah, CRC press LLC, 2000.
[2] Strain-stress investigation of characteristic cross
section pipe system C3 in Power plant Peruica-
part 9, Mechanical Faculty Podgorica, July 2008.
(working material).
173
[3] MSC Nastran 2003, Linear static analysis, CORRESPONDENCE
MSC.Software Corporation, Santa Ana, 2004.
[4] BATHE K. J.,WILSON E., Numerical methods in Miomir JOVANOVI, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
finite element analysis, Prentice Hall, Englewood, University of Ni
1976. Faculty of Mechnical Engineering
[5] ZIENKIEWICZ O. C., ZHU J.Z., Adaptivity and Chair of Transport tec. and Logistics
mesh generation, International Journal for numerical Str. A. Medvedeva 14
methods in engineering science, Vol.32, 783-810, 18000 Ni, Serbia
1991. miomir@masfak.ni.ac.rs
Predrag MILI, B.Sc. Eng.
University of Ni
Faculty of Mechnical Engineering
Chair of Transport tec. and Logistics
Str. A. Medvedeva 14
18000 Ni, Serbia
pmilic@masfak.ni.ac.rs

Goran PETROVI, M.Sc. Eng.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT University of Ni
Faculty of Mechnical Engineering
This paper is financially supported by the Ministry of Chair of Transport tec. and Logistics
Science and Technological Development of Republic of Str. A. Medvedeva 14
Serbia, Project Nr. 14068. This support is gratefully 18000 Ni, Serbia
acknowledged. pgoran@masfak.ni.ac.rs

174

BALL BEARINGS STATIC
BEHAVIOR AND LIFETIME
Milan ZELJKOVI
Aleksandar IVKOVI
Ljubomir BOROJEV
Abstract: In the paper an analysis of the previous
research results related to the static behavior and life of
ball bearings is presented. In addition, theoretical basis
for the determination of deformation, stiffness, and
change the contact angle and life of ball bearings with
angular contact are shown. Based on that a nonlinear
mathematical model for analysis of the static behavior of
ball bearings has been developed. In this paper only
some of the outcomes of previous research are presented.
Presented results are related to the special ball bearings
with angular contact as follows: single-ball bearing for
main spindle assembly of machine tools and two rows ball
bearings (HUB unit bearings) for wheel cars.
Key words: Bearings with angular contact, HUB unit
bearings for wheel cars, Static behavior
1. INTRODUCTION
Roller bearings and/or bearing assemblies are now widely
distributed from cars, machines of all types, to the a large
number of other products. Although these bearings has
experienced its peak decades ago, is still, as in many other
areas, cannot say that there are no outstanding issues, ie.
interesting area for research. The need for different
construction roller bearings, with the development of
machining techniques, there is more to the fore, especially
since for the past few years, the internal structure is not
significantly changed, and the increasing demands for
speed, stiffness and bearing life are significantly
increased. This increase is particularly related to the
precision ball bearings with angular contact of support
main spindle machine tools, as well as special integrated
wheel car bearings (HUB unit bearings).
Rapid development of the care and machine tool industry
accelerated the standardization and mass production of
roller bearings. A variety of applications forced the
producers of roller bearings on extensive research
procedures, directed at bearings themselves, exploitation
conditions and specific machine requirements.
2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH REVIEW
By carefully observing the basic mechanism of roller
bearing, it is evident that it is based on the exploitation of
important mechanical properties of materials. It almost
seems that there is not a similar machine where the
element has so difficult exploitation conditions. The entire
load is transferred through several roller elements, which
realize the ring contact to the point or along the line.
Even at moderate loads, this causes extremely high
concentration of contact force / stress. Point of contact is
constantly moving with the turn of the rings, so that the
material is exposed and that the extreme conditions that
have to express the dynamic character of the load. Under
the influence of such loads, coupled parts can deformation
and based on Hertz theory, contact surface has the shape
of an ellipse [2], [7], [8], [11]. If the value of the raceway
radius is approximately equal to ball radius, the load
bearing increases, therefore reduce the maximum speed,
and vice versa [10]. In addition, there is rolling correction
profile raceway, so that the raceway of balls rolling
contact is realized in three or four points [20].
It should also be noted that the phenomenon of crossing
over the current roller elements from unload to the load
state is is present, followed by an intense pulse loads.
Roller bearing load is transferred through the roller
elements of the inner to the outer ring or vice versa. The
size, layout and transmitted to the load and stiffness for
each individual rolling body depends on the internal
geometry of bearings. Credible analysis of the distribution
of load and stiffness roller bearings should include non-
linear load and the connection between the contact
deformation and load. For the analysis and calculation of
bearing a different mathematical models are used.
Analysis of the developed models for the study of static
behavior of bearing has been shown that from the point of
wiev of design phase these models can be classified into
two groups as follows:
 the previous calculation (sizing and optimization of
basic geometric size);
 final calculation (check bearing behavior
identification).
In addition a review of previous research related to the
bearing behaviour identification are shown.
Lin [9] analyzes the displacement and the coefficient of
stiffness for radial ball bearings with angular contact from
the production of SKF. For the analysis John Harris's
method based on the theory of Hertz-contact has been
used. In order to compare the results obtained by the
mentioned method and Palmgren's empirical relations the
finite element method has been used.
Mullick [11] researchs radial stiffness of radial bearings
and boll bearings with angular contact using John Harris's
method and the finite element method. For solving
systems of nonlinear equations, using Newton Raphson's
method, while in contact analysis uses finite elements
method. The influence of sliding and gyroscopic moment
is neglected. The results showes that the relative
displacement and stiffness rings of bearings depend on the
radial, axial, the combined load and centrifugal force.
175
Antoine et al. [2], [3] propose two new approximate,
methods for determination the angle of contact on the
outer and inner bearing depending on the preloaded and
speed for special cases of elastic preloaded. Methods
based on the theory of Hertz-contact. They start from
assumptions that the force of preload constant and does
not affect on the speed and change the angle of contact. In
solving the system of equations, it is considered that a
certain speed, for a preload comes only to the cancellation
of the axial clearance, and that there is no axial
deformation
Since Hertz's contact theory based on a number of tabular
data, and it provides the basic input data for John Harris's
method, Kang et al. [8] modify this method. Using finite
element method and the empirical relationship (exponent)
between stress and strain in the theory of Hertz-contact
has been modified.
Bourdon A. at al. [4], [5] propose a general methodology
for modeling nonlinear behavior of ball and roller
bearings. Models og the stiffness matrix of complex
mechanical systems were developed, in order to predict
the static behavior, load and stress distribution. The
method was applied to determine the deformation of the
ring gear bearings for cars and helicopters. For all
considered cases of deformation of the ring bearings are
significantly influenced by the change of contact angle
and load distribution.
Sun M. K. at al. [15] investigated the relationship
between contact deformation, clearance and change of
stiffness bearing. The results obtained by analytical and
experimental method suggest that to determine the elastic
deformation of bearing elements must be taken into
account axial and radial clearances in the bearing.
Wei L. at al.. [21] investigated the influence of preload,
centrifugal force and gyroscopic moment on the bearing
stiffness. They concluded that if the value of contact angle
of ball and raceway exceed 8.9 , the value of the radial
bearing stiffness decreases with increasing speed.
Experiments have shown that by contact angle 40 and
revs of 15,000 rpm radial stiffness decreases more than
20%. They also noted that an increase in temperature
affects the increase in preload of bearing and increase the
natural frequency of oscillation.
Abele E., and V. Fredler [1], behavior of roller bearing
body at different speeds of the main spindle have been
investigated by analytical method. By increasing the
speed, centrifugal force reduces the contact angle on the
outside of raceway. On the other hand, on the inner ring
appears reduction of contact force with increasing contact
angle. Increasing the angle difference between the inner
and outer contact ring bearing stiffness decreases. At
maximum revs radial stiffness of the front bearing is
reduced to 1 / 3 of the initial value. In these conditions,
the rear bearing stiffness is reduced up to 40%. Stiffness
reduction is partially compesated by increase of the
temperature with rise speed (internal temperature
increases until the outer ring, for cooling, it remains the
same).
An important requirement for the assembly of the main
spindle, in modern machine tools is to achieve high
speeds. In conventional bearings contact angle on the
inner and outer ring exists a large deviation of the
increase speed due to centrifugal force. Axial
176
displacement of the inner ring (elastic mounted bearing)
and increasing the normal force in the area of contact on
the outer ring are typical effects caused by increasing
internal load bearing and reduction in bearing life Based
on these findings, Weck E. M. et al. [20] investigated the
bearings with the new internal geometry. Instead two
contact zones , these bearings have three or four zone
contact in order to ensure constant contact angle and
decrease the normal force load on the inner ring.
Wang L. at al. [19] investigated roller bearings with
ceramic elements which have been realized in the past
decade. Based on these studies it can be concluded that
the ceramic roller elements of the material (Si3N4), can
be used in extreme conditions. Compared with steel roller
elements, hybrid bearings have significant advantages in
terms of life. The smaller density of the material greatly
reduces the dynamic load on the body and the raceway
due to the smaller centrifugal force, especially in
machines where the high speeds are required.
Elastic displacements in bearing consist of: a) elastic
displacement between the body and roller bearing rings
and b) contact displacement on the surface of the inner
ring fitting on the sleeve and the outer ring in the hausing.
In previous works are taken into account only the elastic
displacement between the roller body and the ring in
terms of Hertz's assumption of an ideal form of the roller
body and rings, with the clearance. The influence of
centrifugal force, gyroscopic moment, and temperature on
the change of angle of contact and nonlinear bearing
stiffness have been less investigated. On the other hand,
the impacts of positive or negative clearance in the elastic
displacement are largely represented. Influence of
deformation on the surface fitting of the inner ring and the
sleeve, and the outer ring and a housing on elastic
stiffness of support has been introduced by Sun. M. K
[15]. For approximate determination of the deformation
due to elastic deformation of contact between the roller
body and rings, without knowledge of the geometry of
raceway for some types of bearing, are the terms proposed
by several authors Brandlein, J. [6], Tedric, A. H.
Michael, N. K. [16], Tedric, A. H. [17] as well as by
certain manufacturers of bearings - SKF [ 14]
Zaretsky E. V. at al. [22], on the basis of Ludenberg-
Palmgren theory, analyzed bearing life with ceramic and
steel balls. Under normal operating conditions the result
of life radial ball bearings and ball bearing with contact
angle have been shown. Bearings with steel balls under
the same load have longer life than the equivalent hybrid
bearings under the same conditions, according to these
relations. However, the experimental and experiential
data, the authors state that hybrid bearings have a much
higher life than the life obtained with Ludenberg-
Palmgren relation. This error appears from the
assumptions Ludenberg-Palmgren's no osculation of rings
and angles of contact are unchanged, and the destruction
caused by crack occurring under the surface contact at a
depth that corresponds to the maximum tangential stress
[10]. Inaccuracy of the first assumption can be shown
using the exact model of elastic-deformation of rolling
bearing on which is possible to determine the actual
contact load, or the equivalent dynamic load [16]. The
second assumption was justified for materials and
construction of roller elements which are used 30 to 40's
of last century, at the time when the above mentioned 2. Curvature difference:
theory emergences. Today, however as a result of 1 2

significant improvement of material, from which the r s 1
F( ) u = (2)
elements are made, bearing and increased accuracy of 1 2
4
production parts, usually bearing failures do not occur due r s 1
to the subsurface destruction, but due to the of surface d k cos 0
destruction and wear [12]. = (3)
dm

3. A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF BALL where is: dk-diameter of ball, ru i rs radius of inner, outer
raceway respectively, dm medium diameter of bearing, 0
BEARINGS initial of contact angle.
In the contact areas of the rolling body and raceway, but 3.2. Connection between deformations and load
the normal forces created stresses in the main directions,
On the basis of Hertz's contact theory [16] can be defined
which are far above normal in the other mechanical
contact load bearing:
elements. Static terms, support raceway-rolling body -
Q= Kn n1,5 (4)
raceway, the uncertain system. Such a system is difficult
Normally displacement between raceways that are under
to solve by the usual methods, and becomes very complex
load is the sum of displacement between the roller body
when taking into account the effects of clearance in the
and raceways
bearing and the contact angle changes due to effects of
From it follows [7]:
static force and centrifugal force and gyroscopic moment.
n = u + s (5)
In order to fully determine the static characteristics
bearing such as load in the bearing, elastic deformation, and the rigidity of bearing along the lines of contact, Kn,
stiffness and change the contact angle must be set of in the function of contact stiffness of roller body and
balance equations that are nonlinear. Solving the set of raceway:
3 / 2
equations that requires knowledge of the internal 1 2 / 3 1 2 / 3
geometry of bearings. Kn = + (6)
Ks Ku

3.1. The parameters of the contact surface In the above expression, Ks and Ku are the contact
Touch the two curved body is completely defined by stiffness between roller bodies, external or internal
Hertz's contact theory [7], [8] [9], [16], [17] (Fig. 1). For raceway.
the calculation of two body contact and surface pressures Two of the contact stiffness is a function of geometry and
occur at the same time, an important role radius of mechanical properties of materials bearing and can be
curvature (rI1, rI2, rII1, rII2) that the bearing is always determined from the relation [7]:
1
( s / u )
1/ 2
consistent with the main plane of curvature (Fig. 2). If we 1 k 1 s / u
K s / u = 1,6568 + (7)
observe the thrust bearing section, we can see that the ( )
3/ 2
*
s/u Ek Es / u
profile of body is more convex than roller body the profile
of concave curved paths, which means that the roller body 3.3. Determination of axial deformation, and the
and achieved raceway have contact at one point. This type contact angle of bearing due to axial loading
of contact exists at all ball bearings.
By ball bearings under the influence of axial load, the
load is distributed equally to all roller elements [16]. So:
Fa
Q= ; where Z number of roller body (8)
Z sin
If we neglect the effect of centrifugal force angle of
contact between roller body, external and internal
raceway is the same. Therefore, it is higher after preload
(Figure 2). Preload causes axial displacement a. Axial
displacement is a component of normal displacement n
roller body along the lines of contact (Figure 2) [16].
cos 0
n = B dk 1 (9)
cos
Fig. 1. Geometry of Fig. 2. Ball bearing where B is the total curvature raceway.
contacting bodies [16] geometry [17]

Assuming that both bodies have a common point of

contact have a common tangent plane and a common
normal line in which is load, contact between the roller
body and raceway the ball bearings with angular contact
is defined by
1.Curvature radius sum:
1 1 2
u = 4 (1)
dk rs 1 Fig. 3. Angular-contact ball bearing under thrust load [7]

177
Taking into account the relationship (4) and (9) the 3.4. Determination of deformation and the
contact load could be obtained as [8] [17]: contact angle of the bearing due to the
cos 0 combined load
Q = K n A3 / 2 1 (10)
cos
In many cases, on the bearing (especially in the HUB unit
Substituting relations (9) in relation (10), is obtained:
bearings) act combined loads (axial and radial), which
Fa cos 0 substantialy change load, deformation and contact stress
= sin 1 (11)
ZK n A3 / 2 cos on the roller bodies. When on the roller body acts contact
load under certain angle, center of curvature of raceways
Stability and convergence of the function largely depends
are fixed versus the appropriate raceways, while the
on the initial angle. In order to predicted angle be equal to
distance between the centers of raceway increases (Figure
nominal contact angle, relation (11) must be expressed
4)
through cos:
2 / 3 1

Fa
cos = cos 0 1 + (12)
ZK A3 / 2 1 cos 2
n
Relation (12) could be solved by numerical method for
the condition (0) = 0. Previous relationship is valid for
the case when a preload is known. Axial shift a is related
to n and the Figure 3 is determined as:
a = ( A + n ) sin A sin 0 (13)
or Fig. 4. Ballraceway contact : a) before applaying load,
A sin ( 0 ) b) after applaying load [16]
a = (14)
cos
s = A + n + s (21)
In the case of two rows ball bearings with angular contact, n = u + s = s A (22)
as is the case for an HUB unit bearing, on both raceways
will undergo axial deformation, due to preload that Based on Figure 5 and 6 can be determined the position of
provides contact between the roller body and the the center of the inner and outer raceway in radial
raceways. Increasing the external load bearing direction in the uncharged condition.
relationship between the deformation decreases, and thus
pre aims to reduce the deformation of the bearing the
additional external load. In this situation the total axial
deformation of the bearing 1 is:
1 = p + a (15)
and the bearing 2:
p a > a
2 = (16)
0 p a
If we take into account the external axial load acting on
the bearing, then from relations (11):
Fa cos 0 cos 0
= sin 1 1 sin 2 1 (17)
ZK n A3 / 2 cos 1 cos 2 Fig. 5. Loci of raceway Fig. 6. Ball bearing
or if the previous relationship is expresed by cos2 groove curvature radii showing ballraceway
function, we obtain: centers before applying contact due to axial shift of
1/ 2
load [17] inner and outer rings [17]

1 cos ( 2 )
2
dm d
cos 2 = (18) Ru = + ru k cos 0 (23)
F 1 + cos 2 (1 ) 2 2
a

ZK n A
1/ 2
cos 2 1 while:
combination of relations (15) and (16), is obtained: Rs = Ru A cos 0 (24)
1 + 2 = 2 p (19) where: dm-medium diameter of the bearing, ru-radius of
inner raceway, dk- diameter of ball, 0 initial of the
Replacing relations (15) for the 1 and relationships (16)
contact angle, A- distance between the center of the outer
in relation to 2 (14) gives:
and inner radius of raceway.
2 p sin (1 0 ) sin ( 2 0 ) If the inner ring not rotates, then the outer ring and the
= (20)
A cos 1 cos 2 center of the outer raceway move. The distance between
Relationships (18) and (20) are solved for the 1 and 2 by the center of curvature (s) inner and outer raceway is
numerical methods. Axial deformation p and the contact determined by [3]:
1/ 2
s = ( A sin 0 + a ) + ( A cos 0 + r cos )
angle p due to preload can be obtained from relations 2 2
(25)
(12) and (11) where in this case p= a i cos= cosp.

178
where the: a = a / A i r = r / A . In the previous 4. DETERMINATION OF THE BALL
expression: a and r are axial and radial deformation of BEARING LIFE
the bearing, -angle of the zone load.
Substituting relations (25) in (22) gives the bearing Based on the analysis of modern solutions of the bearing
stiffness in the direction normal to the raceway [17]: and bearing assemblies, for further detailed analysis
themselves of the bearing was chosen HUB unit bearing
1/ 2

n = A ( sin 0 + a ) + ( cos 0 + r cos ) as a special case of the two rows ball bearings with
2 2
1 (26)
angular contact. As these types of the bearings are
working with variable load, to calculate the equivalent
Based on Hertz's contact theory for the relationship dynamic load the expression [14 ] should be used:
between deformation and load, you get a contact load of
the roller body in any position [7], [8], [9]: P = 3 t1 PI 1 + t2 PI 2 + t3 PI 3 (38)
Q = K n 3/ 2
n (27) where PI1-the equivalent of the load bearing, when the
Whereas Kn is the stiffness bearing along the lines of vehicle is moving in a straight path, PI2 - the equivalent of
contact, obtained on the basis of Hertz's contact theory. the load bearing, when the vehicle turns left; PI3 the
Therefore: equivalent of the load bearing, when the vehicle turns
3/ 2 right and t - the proportion of straight or curve driving.
2 1/ 2
Q = K n A3 / 2 ( sin 0 + a ) + ( cos 0 + r cos ) 1 (28)
2

Bearing life is determinated by the new theory [14], by

the relation:
For any position of ball contact angle is determined p
from [7]: C
Lhna = a1 a23 f t h , (39)
sin 0 + a P
sin = 1/ 2
(29) where:C [kN] - dynamic capacity; P [kN] - the equivalent
( sin + )2 + ( cos + cos )2 dynamic capacity; p=3 for the ball bearing; ft
0 a 0 r

or temperature factor; a1 - a factor bearing failure
probability; factor a23 (a23 by FAG-, or aSKF - by SKF)
cos 0 + r cos contains in itself interdependent factors influence material
cos = 1/ 2
(30) (a2) and working conditions (a3).
( sin + )2 + ( cos + cos )2 Dynamic bearing capacity significantly depends on the
0 a 0 r

geometry of raceway and bearing contact angle, ie the
If the normal load on the roller body resolved into axial preload and external load. Angle contact bearings are
and radial component over the contact angle is obtained: changed during operation due to the rotation roller body
Qa = Q sin (31) and the load. For these reasons, for accurate
Qr = Q cos (32) determination of the bearing life, dynamic capacity is
necessary to determine over relationship [4]:
Axial and radial load bearing is equal to the sum of the
( )
0,3

components of the normal load, and [17]: C = i 0,7 C3,33 + C3,33 (40)
=
where C- dynamic capacity of the rotating ring and is
Fa = Q sin
=0
(33)
determined from [4]:
(1 ) i cos 0,7 Z 2 / 3 D1,8 J r
0,41 1,39
= 2R r
1/ 3 ( ) (41)
Fr =
=0
Q cos (34) C = 98,1
D rR

(1 + ) J1

From the conditions of static equilibrium is obtained: while C- dynamic capacity of the non rotating ring and
3/ 2
is determined from [4]
2 1/ 2
( sin 0 + a ) + ( cos 0 + r cos ) 1
2
( cos + r cos ) cos (35)
(1 ) i cos 0,7 Z 2 / 3 D1,8 J r
= 0 0,41 1,39
Fr K n A 2R r
(42)
1/ 3 ( )
=0 C = 98,1
( sin + )2 + ( cos + cos ) 2 1/ 2
=0
0 a 0 r D rR (1 + ) J2
and where: R- radius of the corresponding raceways, r- radius
3/ 2
2 1/ 2
( sin 0 + a ) + ( cos 0 + r cos ) 1 ( sin 0 + a ) raceway; D-diameter ball; coefficient obtained from the
2
=

Fa K n A
=0 ( sin + )2 + ( cos +
0 a
Relationships (35) and (36) are a nonlinear system of
equations with unknown a and r. Relationships can be
solved by numerical method. After determining the
deformation can be determined maximum load of the
rollerbody for = 0 from the relation:
Qmax . = K n A3 / 2 ( sin 0 + a ) + ( cos 0 + r )
2
Substituting a and r in relation (29) or (30) determines
the change of contact angle depending on the external
load.
(36)
=0
cos )2
1/ 2 relation (3); i - number of rows of roller body; -contact
0 r angle. In the case of single rows ball bearings with
angular contact, the contact angle is determined from the
relation (12), if it is axial loading. In the case of combined
load contact angle is determined from the relation (29) or
(30). When it comes to two rows ball bearings with
angular contact the contact angle is determined from the
3/ 2 relation (18) and (20) in case of axial load or combined
2 1/ 2
1
(37) load case from the relation (29) or (30), assuming no
effects of centrifugal force and gyroscopic moment, and
the angles of both raceway identical. Z-number of roller
body in a raceway, Jr., J1 and J2 integrals for bearing load
and the corresponding ring.

179
5. REVIEW OF RESEARCH RESULTS The figures 10, 11, 12 show changes in deformation,
stiffness and the contact angle due to the effects of
The mathematical model (R.M.M.) for the analysis of external axial load for bearing 7011, and for three preload
static behavior and determination of the ball bearings life sizes (small, medium and large).
was developed in MATLAB programming system. For
solving nonlinear equations Newton method has been
used. The model is verified on two special types of
bearings as follows: single rows ball bearings with
angular contact 7011 and three preload sizes (small,
medium and large) and the HUB unit bearing, as a special
case of two rows ball bearings with angular contact. Some
results of deformation due to changes in static contact
angle, the ball bearings with angular contact, have been
compared with the results obtained by finite element
method (FEM) and Palmergan's empirical relations (P.) Fig. 10. Change of axial deformation, depending on the
Results of bearing life were compared with results external axial load for different preload case
obtained by preliminary experimental tests.
5.1. Change the angle of contact and deformation
due to external forces and preload
In Figure 7 is shown change of the contact angle of ball
bearings with angular contact type 7011 due to the effects
of preload. In Figure 8 and 9 are shown changes in axial
deformation and stiffness depending on the preload for
the same type of bearings.
Fig. 11. Change of axial stiffness depending on the
external axial load for different preload case

Fig. 7. Change the angle of contact due to the action of

preload
Fig. 12. Change of contact angle, depending on the
external axial load for different preload case
In Figure 13 changes of radial and axial deformation
depending on the radial load at a constant axial load for
the HUB unit bearing 32x58 are shown. Figure 14 shows
the changes of radial and axial deformation depending on
the axial load at a constant radial load for the same type of
bearings.
Presented load conditions correspond to exploitation
conditions for a specific type of bearing vehicles. Change
Fig. 8. Change of axial deformation, depending on the of the contact angle, depending on the angle of the load
preload zone of individual roller body for different values of axial
load is shown in Figure 15

Fig. 9. Change of axial bearing stiffness depending on the Fig. 13. Change of axial and radial deformation,
preload depending on changes in radial load

180

Fig. 14. Change of axial and radial deformation,
depending on changes in axial load
Fig. 15. Change the contact angle, changes depending on
the angle of load zone for different values of axial load
5.2. Bearing life
To determine HUB unit bearing life, using the developed
mathematical model, the relation (39), (40), (41) and (42)
have been used, with the determination of contact angle
used relation (18) and (20). At this stage of the
investigation is supposed that change of the contact angle
occurs because of preload, or that the vehicle is moving
straight. From this, it follows that the bearing assembly
operates only after the radial load, which does not cause
change in contact angle. This assumption is a
consequence of the conditions of experimental studies in
order to the terms of the mathematical modeling be closer
as much as possible to the experimental conditions of the
preliminary examination.
Based on experimental tests was calculated failure
probability distribution of the bearing and the actual
(testing) bearing life (L90) with 10% probability of failure
(reliability 90%) based on the known Weibull relations.
Table T.1 presents the results of the bearing life obtained
by experimental testing and of the bearing life obtained
by mathematical modeling.
Table 1. Comparison results of bearing life, obtain
experimental and computer method
Bearing life [h]
Experimental L90 Matematical L
789 819
From the previous table it can be concluded that there is
no great difference between the experimental testing and
mathematical modeling to determine the bearing life. Past
results should be viewed with particular caution because
the experimental conditions do not correspond to
exploitation. The analysis of the results obtained by
mathematical modeling to conclude that the exploitation
conditions (mixed load) bearing life significantly
decreases to 240 [h] or 120.000 [km]. It should be noted
that the projected lifetime is usually somewhere between
these bearings 70.000-100.000 [km] depending on vehicle
type.
6. CONCLUSION
The paper presents a cross-section study of static behavior
of bearings as well as works related to the determination
of the bearing life. Additionally the theoretical basis for
defining mathematical models for determining
deformation, stiffness, changes in contact angle and the
determination of bearing life with angular contact are
shown . Also, some research results of the static behavior
of bearings, and verification of mathematical models of
bearings for special applications and single-ball bearing
with angular contact, for support the main spindle of
machine tools and two rows the ball bearing with angular
contact for support a car wheel are presented. From the
results it can be concluded that the mathematical model
satisfactory describes the static behavior of ball bearings
from the point of deformation and stiffness. Based on the
results of ball bearings life, it could be concluded that it is
necessary to design and develop experimental stand for
testing HUB unit bearing that would fully meet its
exploitation conditions.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is part of the research on projects of "Research
and Development of Roller and Bearing Assemblies Their
Components," TR 14048, financed by the Ministry of
Science and Technological Development of the
Government of the Republic of Serbia.
CORRESPONDENCE
Milan ZELJKOVI, Prof. PhD.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
milanz@uns.ac.rs
Aleksandar IVKOVI, Assistant MSc.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
acoz@uns.ac.rs
Ljubomir BOROJEV, Prof. PhD.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
borojevl@uns.ac.rs

BEARING HOOKS MANUFACTURING
PROCESS INNOVATION
Miroslava KOTLOV
Svtopluk MEIAR
Mria KAPUSTOV
Abstract: The article points on innovation of bearing
hooks production by suggestion of forming line. It was
suggested change of previous manner of production and
material of produced bearing hooks as well. In previous
manner of production the unfinished surface of semi
product in form of roll sheet was galvanic zinc coated, it
was thereafter sheared on needed length with shearing
machine, followed punching in fixture, roll bending by
sequence bending by help of fixture. Suggested device is
dedicated for processing of zinc coated roll strip in
automation production cycle. Device enables the
automation work flow which includes the uncoiling of
strip, feeding and leveling of strip, punching of holes and
shearing of strip, roll bending of pressed part, repeated
feeding of strip by leveler. Device consists of two-sided
uncoiler without drive, feeding leveler, block of forming
tools, rotary roll head. It is possible to set production of
hook according to required dimensions; forming line is
able so produce several dimensions of hooks with several
numbers of holes. The bearing hooks from suggested
original zinc coated roll stripe have higher surface
quality without defects. With using of suggested device it
is possible savings of four or five workers, to achieve
repeated pressed part precision, increasing number of
produced parts per hour, less manual work, little work
place, better organization of work, increasing safety of
operation, minimized noise level, reducing of production
costs and production time.
Key words: bearing hook, bending head, forming line
1. INTRODUCTION
Using of individual simple tools with manual attendance
is characterized by lowest initial costs, but in conditions
production in large series and mass production is such
solving economic unsuitable (requirements for number of
machine, tools and workers). In many cases in production
large series and mass production is the most effective
using of forming line. Implementation of production by
forming line enables innovation of established manner of
production, increase produced parts quality, decrease of
production costs, decrease of manual work, abbreviation
time from material inlet into production to output of
finished products, less intermediate operation supplies,
improvement of working conditions and so to reach
increase productivity of production and working
convenience of workers.
In technical praxis are processed usual and special sorts of
metallurgical semi-product. Operative factor of elements
selection is shape and form of initial semi-product. It uses
in sheet metal forming as semi products table of sheet,
roll sheet, the more advantage is processing of roll sheet.
The sheet in tables grips, turns over and rotates badly, so
there is very advantageous the vacuum operating devices
for each single table. The tables are transported in bundles
on frames and palettes by high lift truck or by cranes. At
dividing tables on stripes with table shears, there is
disadvantage of different quality of stripes on border and
inside of table. Processing of sheet stripes claims a grip
and feeding of each sheet into feeding or straightening
device. The roll sheet provides the best possibilities for
mechanization and automation of production process.
Mechanization and automation of production process of
rolls processing make possible following operations:
unwinding of sheet from roll, straightening, cleaning and
oiling of sheet, feeding into machine, stamping, stripping,
storing and displacement of pressed pieces, in the case of
stamping with scrap it is coiling of continuous scrap or its
dividing and removal abolition of part scrap. Handling
with rolls is simpler with help of trucks and crane.
Storage of sheet rolls can be warehoused in shelves on
mandrels stickers, or one roll can be stored on another
one.
2. DEVICES FOR AUTOMATED FORMING
PROCESSES
Processing of roll sheet by forming in line is applied
especially in mass production of small so middle large
pressing parts, or in preparing of pieces semi-products.
Forming line can be consisted with universal machines or
dedicated machines, eventually also both brands. Forming
lines can have variable degree of automation. To lesser
production volumes can be rentable lines only
mechanized with part. Forming line is possible divide
into:
 lines with operating staff
 automated lines
Structure of most such forming lines has standard
character, it consist of one so three forming presses,
eventually other main production device, uncoiler, coiler,
feeder and another mechanization and automation
devices. Unwind reels serve for unwinding of sheet strip
from roll. Their task is to release disengage equally
needed sheet length for processing. According to the
manner of roll processing they work either continually
(continual line), or periodic (in rhythm of line). Unwind
reels can be with drive and without drive, they can have
brake. Two-sided unwinding reels make possible to
shorten time needed for exchange of roll. While one
183
mandrel is in work position, the other is in preparing
position. The cradle is used for roll of sheet with mass
over 100kg. The roll of sheet is put on rollers; the rollers
are bedded on roller bearing. Equable unwinding is
achieved by arrangement of straightening machine, which
regulates unwinding by how feeder feeds strip into
machine. Effects of unwinding can be possible to resume
into following points: improvement of feeding, better
quality of pressed parts, less wearing of functional parts
of stamping die and mechanization and automated
devices. The sheet in random divided curvature is at
straightening bended at opposite direction about of known
value between two rows alternative distributed rollers,
between that is deflected. Input rollers serve in roll
application into straightening machine. Strip leading is at
transfer across straightening machine assured by lathes,
pulleys or rollers, they are converted according to
thickness of straightened sheet.
Example of forming line for processing of sheet in roll is
on the figure 1.
Fig. 1. Example of simple forming line with uncoiler
3. PRODUCED PART AND PREVIOUS
TECHNOLOGY OF ITS PRODUCTION
Semi-product for bearing hooks production is from zinc-
coated strip from usual construction steel. The hook
serves for tack and as support of hung gutter. The hook is
component of hung system, system consists of hung head,
hung corner, hung kettle and hung gutter. Length of
pressed part before roll bending is 620 mm, radius of roll
bending is R100, pressed part has five holes with diameter
5 mm, width of trip is 30 mm, thickness of trip is 4 mm.
Bearing trough hook is on figure 2.
Fig. 2. Produced part bearing trough hook
184
Previous manner of production
Initially unfinished surface of semi product in form of roll
sheet was galvanic zinc-coated, thereafter it was sheared
at needed length on shear, following punching in fixture,
roll bending by sequence bending by help of fixture.
There were four workers needed in that production.
Disadvantages:
 different quality of zinc coated (creeping of zinc coat,
different thickness of zinc coated layer)
 quality of shearing and bending is influenced by
human factor
 low productivity of work (300 350 pieces/hour)
4. SUGGESTION OF PRODUCTION AND
DESCRIPTION OF SUGGESTED DEVICE
Automation of production was realized in first place on
ablation of inscribed defects of previous job production. It
was enhanced production from zinc coated roll semi-
products. Next it was suggested the new technological job
of production, it was suggested automation of work flow:
 uncoiling of strip
 feeding and leveling of strip
 punching of holes and shearing of strip
 roll bending of pressed part
 repeated feeding of strip by leveler
Description of suggested forming line
Forming line is dedicated for processing of zinc coated
roll strip in automation production cycle. It enables
production of bearing hooks by using of roll bending
technology, it is possible to set production of hook
according to required dimensions. Forming line consists
of following parts:
1. two-sided uncoiler without drive
2. feeding leveler
3. dedicated machine for bear hooks production with
block of punching tools and rotary roll head
Fig. 3. Two-sided uncoiler without drive
On the figure 3 is two-sided uncoiler without drive
decelerated by shoe brake. Pneumatically operated arm
defends against spontaneous unrolling of roll.
Feeding leveler is on the figure 4, it serves for
rearrangement of strips from roll in their next
technological processing. Mentioned device enables to
work in line in interoperation with other devices.
Fig. 4. Feeding leveler
On the figure 5 is photography of dedicated machine with
hydraulic controlled tools for punching (maximum 5
holes) and shearing of required length from strip semi-
product and with rotary bending head for roll bending.
Rotary bending head is on figure 6 and block of tools for
punching and shearing of stripe is on figure 7.
Fig. 5. Dedicated machine with block of forming
tools and rotary roll head
Forming line is manually operated by help of electro
elements, placed on operating panel of machine
switchgear. Introduced automated forming line is able to
produce several dimensions of hooks by several number
of holes and different length, these hooks will be used as
component of gutter systems assembly.
Fig. 6. Rotary bending head
1 rotary bending disks, 2 body of rotary bending head
Work automation of production device enables to achieve
big economic profit, especially in area of effectivity of
work, decreasing of production costs and increasing of
quality production. Expected economic profit of
suggested automated production line is possible to
summarize into following areas:
 increasing of work production - device enables
according to sizes of hooks to produce 6 to 8 pieces
per minute
 production innovation by automation feeding is
reached in comparison with previous savings of 4 till
5 workers
 achievement of repeated pressed part precision -
system minimize possibility of human invention into
quality of production. In previous manner of
production created 25% faulty of pressed parts are
caused by displacement of backstop at shearing,
inaccurate embedding at bending naises at bending
and so incorrect shape of pressed part
 increasing safety at work, minimized noise level,
minimized possibility of occupational accidents.
5. CONCLUSION
The producers in aspiration to sustain their market
positions or acquire new markets for their production are
forced to increasing of production quality and minimizing
of the production costs and time. The way to achieve
these aims is using the new modern automated flexible
production lines.
Today production is characterized by implementation of
automation in all production levels. By using of forming
lines as it introduced, it is possible to reach a significant
production quality and increasing production effectivity
and at the same time decreasing of production costs and
shortening of production time.
185
 [9] UGROV, J. Deforman stavy materilu pri
vrobe tenkostennch rotanch siastok. In
MAT/TECH automobilovho priemyslu. Koice: SjF
TU, 2005, s. 103 106. ISBN 80-8073-400-3.
[10] UGROV, J. Stroje, nstroje a prpravky pre
rotan tvrnenie. In Nov trendy v prevdzke
vrobnej techniky. Preov : TU Koice, 1998, s. 165
170. ISBN 80-7099-371-5.

Fig. 7. Block of tools for punching and shearing of strip

This article was created with support of MANUNET

project of ERA-NET scheme - Multivariate optimization
of the metal spinning processes research and
development (project 7. RP E MANUNET 2008-SK-
001)

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186

KINEMATIC ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
OF COMPLEX MECHANISMS WITH
HIGH CLASS KINEMATIC GROUP
Maja AVI
Milan KOSTI
Miodrag ZLOKOLICA
Abstract: High class kinematic groups are commonly
present as the consisting components of complex industrial
mechanisms. Their geometric and kinematic description can
not be done in a standard way. Due to the extensive use of
computers, development of efficient analytical methods gains
more importance. In this paper a new method for describing
this class of mechanisms is proposed. The basic idea is to
decompose the high class kinematic group to second class
kinematic groups. This method is very efficient and quickly
gives accurate solutions.
Keywords: high class kinematic group, kinematic
analysis, kinematic synthesis
1. INTRODUCTION ANALYSIS AND
SYNTHESIS
In search for mechanism that can fulfill certain task it is
interesting to examine those with kinematic groups of higher
classes because they can offer multiple solutions. Existence
of multiple solutions means that high class kinematic group
and therefore, the whole mechanism, can be assembled in
various configurations which can be further optimized.
As the position analysis is performed on the level of
kinematic groups, the complexity of the problem depends on
the structure of the mechanism being analyzed, namely on
the class of the kinematic groups creating it. For the second
class groups of the different forms the analytical relations
determining positions of the moving links have been derived
in the explicit form [1]. Determination of the links position in
the higher class groups is more complex, which results from
the complex structure of such mechanism. Most of the
methods used so far lead to a system of highly nonlinear
equations which makes finding the explicate solution
impossible. Numerical methods are commonly applied for
solving this system of equations [2]. Application of these
methods has many problems:
 For the method convergence, the starting values of
variables must be close to exact solutions which
require sketching of system configuration.
 Absence of convergence exists when system is very
close to singular positions.
 Non-linear equations always have multiple solutions,
number of which is unknown.
Method presented in this paper can easily overcome
mentioned problems. The basic idea of this method is to
decompose the high class kinematic group to second class
kinematic groups (dyads). System of equations are
obtained from the kinematic constrains in the linkage.
Position of the mechanism is obtained through fixed point
iteration method [3], [4].
Kinematic mechanism synthesis deals with the design and
development of new mechanisms that can fulfill desired
kinematic task taking into account existing constraints.
Generally, kinematic synthesis can be:
 Type synthesis determination of the type of mechanism
that has to perform desired behavior
 Quantitative synthesis examination of motion
determination and definition, inspection of degrees of
freedom
 Dimension synthesis calculation of mechanism design
parameters (link lengths, coordinates of fixed points etc.)
and initial position. Mechanism structure is known
(previously determined through type and quantitative
synthesis). Three general tasks of dimension synthesis, as
are defined in literature, are: path generation, motion
generation and function generation.
Dimension synthesis can be realized through graphical or
analytical methods. Graphical methods are used for physical
observation and visualization of the problem of mechanism
design and prediction of its behavior in the real process.
Their main back draw of graphical method is lack of
flexibility, repeatability and precision. On the other hand,
analytical methods are less intuitive but offer precise values
for mechanism parameters and can be implemented on
computer thus shortening calculation time.
Again, high class kinematic group will be decomposed to
second class kinematic groups (dyads). Synthesis of high
class kinematic group is now treated as combination of
several mutually dependent synthesis sub problems.
System of equations, formed in previously described way,
is solved numerically (using MATLAB) and design
parameters of mechanism are obtained.
Theoretical concepts for kinematic analysis and synthesis of
second class kinematic groups will be presented before solving
complex mechanism with high class kinematic group.
2. GENERAL CONCEPT OF KINEMATIC
GROUP ANLYSIS
2.1. Kinematic analysis of the second class
kinematic group
Position analysis of high class kinematic group will be
performed by using standard modules group of
equations describing particular type of dyad.
Module form will be explained, especially its input and
output parameters which becomes very important when
establishing relationship between standard module and
specific problem. Module equations are derived following
187
principles presented in [1]. Two modules with its graphic Positions of external joints B1 and B2
r r
presentations will be introduced, each describing one rB1 ( x B1 , y B1 ), rB 2 ( x B 2 , y B 2 ) , angular position of the
typical second class kinematic group. Some other guide 2k ( 2 k ) and angle between the guide 2k and the
modules are described in [5], [6] and [7].
General form of the dyad consisting of two links connected sliding link 2 are known, while position of middle joint B3
by rotational joint is presented in Fig. 1. External joints B1 has to be determined. Vector equation describing dyad is:
and B2 are of the rotational type so this type of dyad is r r r r r r
rB1 + r1 = rB 2 + r2 k + r2 = rB 3 (5)
called RRR type. Positions of the external joints B1 and B2
r r Unknown distance r2k can be calculated as:
rB1 ( x B1 , y B1 ), rB 2 ( x B 2 , y B 2 ) are known, while position
of the middle joint B3 has to be determined.
r2 k 1 2 = 2 2 2 + r12 (6)

where:
= (x B 2 x B1 ) + r2 cos( 2 k + )
= ( y B 2 y B1 ) + r2 sin ( 2 k + ) (7)
= cos 2 k + sin 2 k
Sign represents two possible dyad assembly confi-
gurations. Now, position of joint B3 can be obtained as:
x B 3 = x B 2 + r2 k cos 2 k + r2 cos( 2 k + )
(8)
y B 3 = y B 2 + r2 k sin 2 k + r2 sin ( 2 k + )

Position angle of link 1 is:

Fig. 1. Dyad (type RRR)
y y B1
1 = arctan B 3
(9)
Vector equation describing dyad is: x B 3 x B1
r r r r r
rB1 + r1 = rB 2 + r2 = rB 3 (1)
2.2. Kinematic analysis of the third class
After some transformations position angle of link 1 can be kinematic group
obtained as:
General case of the third class kinematic group with
y B 2 y B1 r2 + B B 2 r2 vectors describing its position is presented in Fig. 3.
1 = arctan arccos 1 1 2 2
(2)
x B 2 x B1 2r1 B1 B2

Sign represents two possible configurations of dyad
assembly (Fig. 1. - full and dotted line). Now, position of
joint B3 is calculated as:
x B 3 = x B1 + r1 cos 1 y B 3 = y B1 + r1 sin 1 (3)
Beside position of joint B3, output parameter can also be
position angle of link 2 in the following form:
y yB2
2 = arctan B 3
(4)
xB3 xB 2
Dyad presented in Fig. 2 consists of two links connected
by rotational joint, first links end joint is rotational and
second ones is translational (type RRT).

Fig. 3. Vectors describing position of the third class

kinematic group

It is of the RR-RR-RR type - central link 4 is connected

by rotational joints with binary links 1, 2, and 3, which
are furthermore, connected to the rest of the mechanism
by the rotational joints also. Points A, B and C are called
internal, and D, E and F external ones. Positions of all
external points are known while positions of the internal
points A, B and C have to be determined.
In order to perform position analysis the third class
Fig. 2. Dyad (type RRT) kinematic group will be decomposed into three second
188
class kinematic groups which will be analyzed using
modules described in II. A.
r r r r
STEP 1 start, assuming 1, r1 ( 1 ) , rA (10, r10 , rA0 )
First, initial value for angle 1 has to be assumed. Position
of point A can be then calculated as:
r r r
rA = rD + r1
r First dyad sign
STEP 2 forming first dyad, obtaining rB0
Links BA and BE form a dyad described by:
r r r r r
rA + r41 = rE + r2 = rB
This equation corresponds to eq. (1) in modul describing
RRR dyad. Using equations (2)-(3) position of point B is
obtained. Since angle 2 has two completely distinctive
solutions (see eq. (2) signs ) there will be also two
r acceleration analysis - following procedure described in
solutions for both 41 and rB . One sign i.e. one solution
r 2.2. but using expressions for velocity and acceleration
(2, 41, rB ) has to be chosen in order to continue.
r 2.3. Real solutions and convergence existence
STEP 3 forming second dyad, obtaining rC0
Links CF and CB form a RRR dyad:
r r r r r
rB + r42 = rF + r3 = rC
Using equations (2)-(3) position of point C is obtained.
Again, the angle 3 has two distinctive solutions leading
r r
to two solutions for both 42 and rC . One set (3,42, rC )
has to be chosen in order to continue.
r r
STEP 4 forming third dyad, obtaining r11 , 11, rA1
Now, a dyad of type RRR (links AC and AD) is formed:
r r r r r
rC + r43 = rD + r1 = rA (13)
Using equations (2)-(3) position of point A is obtained.
r
One solution for 1 and thus for 43 and rA has to be chosen.
r r
With chosen 1=11, new value r11 for vector r1 is
obtained. Difference between new and starting value is an
error vector:
r r r
r11 = r10 r11 (14)
r r
Second iteration is initiated with 11 ( r11 , rA1 ), in order to
r r
obtain 12 ( r12 , rA2 ). The succeeding iterations are done
in the previously shown way. The procedure is interrupted
when the following condition is met:
r
r1n < (15)
In this way error vector is significantly reduced in each
r
iteration - vector r1 converges towards its accurate value
(solution) and so does angle 1. In most cases only few
iterations are necessary for the condition (15) to be met.
This method is known as fixed point iteration method ([3]).
All three dyads (Eqs. (11)-(13)), which this third class
kinematic group is consisted of, have two solutions
(assembly configurations), so there are, in total, 2 3 = 8
different sets of vector equations that can describe the
mechanism.
It is very important to emphasize that, using previously
described procedure; each set of equations gives a unique
solution for each kinematic parameter, which means eight
different mechanism configurations. Real solutions are
determined by examining, one by one, all of the eight sets.
Table 1. Eight sets of equations describing eight possible
mechanism configurations
(10) Set of equations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ - + + + - - -
Second dyad sign + + - + - + - -
Third dyad sign + + + - - - + -
(11)
Presented above is an example of third class kinematic
group but method is applicable to any high class
kinematic group ([5],[6]).
Presented method is developed primarily for position
analysis; nevertheless it can be also used for velocity and
kinematical parameters instead ([5]).
Procedure presented in 2.2. implies that the solution for 1 is
going to be obtained by solving equation of the following form:
(12)
1 = f ( 1 ) (16)
Before implementing fixed point iteration method to solve
Eq. (16) for 1, necessary conditions for method
convergence have to be investigated [3]. Analytical form
of f (1 ) can be extremely complex, so combination of
numerical and graphical procedures is used.
Starting with arbitrary 1, through Eqs. (10)-(13) value of
y = f (1 ) is calculated. In this way, varying 1 from 0
to 360, graph of f (1 ) is plotted where non real values
are omitted. Figure 4. presents its four possible forms:
f1 (1 ) to f 4 (1 ) . Real solutions of (16) are found as
intersection of f (1 ) graph and line y = 1 . From Fig.4.
it can be seen that sets 1 = f1 (1 ) , 1 = f 3 (1 ) and
1 = f 4 (1 ) give real solutions for 1. Since interval of
1 in which we seek the solution is not prescribed, it is
not important that f 4 (1 ) is defined for all values of 1,
while other three are not.
Initial value of 1, which will be used in fixed point
iteration method, is picked from closed interval around
the intersection point of f (1 ) and y = 1 , for example
for function f1 (1 ) interval will be [300,350] . In that
way first necessary condition for convergence is fulfilled
300 < 1 < 350 300 < f1(1 ) < 350 . Second condition
is that f1 (1 ) has to be continuous in [300,350] and
that can be easily checked from the graph. The third
condition - max f1' (1 ) < 1 in the interval, can be checked
visually, but also calculated and plotted as shown in
Fig.4.
Three necessary conditions for solution existence and thus
procedure convergence are fulfilled so there exist a unique
solution for f1 (1 ) = of (16) in [300,350] and for any
initial guess from [300,350] iteration procedure will
converge to .
189
 relative displacement are given while link lengths,
position of fixed points and mechanism initial position
have to be determined. This is typical three position
motion generation synthesis task.

Fig. 4. Procedure for checking fixed point iteration method

convergence necessary conditions
Fig. 6. Complex mechanism - motion generation
It is obvious that a graph y = f ( 1 ) has to be plotted for
each set of vector equations (Table 1.) in case of third class In Fig. 7. complex mechanism is presented in two precise
kinematic group (Fig. 3.) there will be eight of them. Set that positions. The basic idea will be to decompose the third
does not lead to real solution is automatically discarded. For class kinematic group to second class kinematic groups
other sets, fixed point iteration procedure is invoked with (dyads), so, synthesis of high class kinematic group is
now going to be treated as combination of several
initial value for 1 picked from interval observed on the
mutually dependent synthesis sub problems.
particular graph. Unique solution for 1 and thereby for all
other kinematic parameters of the third class kinematic group
can be calculated with prescribed accuracy.

3. GENERAL CONCEPT OF KINEMATIC

GROUP SYNTHESIS

Mechanism shown in Fig. 5. is a complex mechanism

consisting of two kinematic groups: the first class kinematic
group - input link 2 and the third class kinematic group
links 3, 4, 5 and 6. It is of the RR-RR-RR type - central link
4 is connected by rotational joints with binary links 3, 5, and
6, which are furthermore, connected to the rest of the
mechanism by the rotational joints also. Points A, B and C
are called internal, and D, O1 and O2 external ones.

Fig. 7. Two-position synthesis of complex mechanism

Dyad W1Z1 defines first part of the mechanism. Vector

Fig. 5. Complex mechanism with third class kinematic group equation passing through both precision positions can be
written as:
r r r r r r
Central link 4 has to move through three prescribed w2+ z 2 (r2 r1 ) z1 w1 = 0 (17)
positions (often called precision positions) (Fig. 6.). Three
position of point P on central link 4 and angles of its or, in polar notation:
190
 r r
we i (+12 ) + ze i (+ 12 ) (r2 r1 ) we i ze i = 0 (18)
After transformations (23) becomes:
( ) ( ) r r
we i e i12 1 + ze i e i12 1 = (r2 r1 ) (19)
Projection of (24) on x and y gives following two scalar
equations:
wcos(cos12 1) wsin sin12 + z cos(cos12 1)
z sin sin 12 = p2 x p1x
wsin (cos12 1) wcos sin12 + z sin (cos12 1)
z cossin 12 = p2 y p1y
Parameters 12 , p2 x , p1x , p2 y , p1 y are known while w, ,
12 , z , have to be determined from system (20).
Dyad U1S1 defines second part of the mechanism. Vector
equation passing through both precision positions is:
r r r r r r
u 2 + s2 (r2 r1 ) s1 u1 = 0 (21)
Corresponding scalar equations are:
u cos(cos 12 1) u sin sin 12 + s cos(cos12 1)
s sin sin 12 = p2 x p1x
u sin (cos 12 1) u cos sin 12 + s sin (cos12 1)
s cos sin 12 = p2 y p1y
Parameters 12, p2x , p1x , p2 y , p1y are known and u, , 12
s, have to be determined from (22).
Last vector equation is somehow different as it passes
through three links V1T1Q1 in two precise positions:
r v v r r r r r
v2 + t 2 q2 (r2 r1 ) + q1 z1 w1 = 0 (23)
v cos(cos 12 1) v sin sin 12 + t cos (cos 12 1)
t sin sin 12 + q cos (cos 12 1) q sin sin 12 =
= p2 x p1x
v sin (cos12 1) v cos sin 12 + t sin (cos12 1)
t cos sin 12 + q sin (cos 12 1) q cos sin 12 =
= p2 y p1y
Parameters 12 , p2 x , p1x , p2 y , p1 y are known and v, , 12 ,
t , , 12 , q, have to be determined from (24).
So. for two position synthesis there exist, in total, six
scalar equations - systems (20), (22) and (24) and
eighteen unknown design parameters:
w, , 12 , z , , u, , 12 , s, , v,, 12 , t , , 12 , q, .
It is obvious that values for some of them have to be
adopted previous to final calculations. For example, one
can adopt explicit values for eight parameters and
calculate remaining ten ones, or, on the other hand can
define some additional constraints and prescribe less
number of parameters.
Presented procedures can be applied to any number of
given precision points ([8]), but number of scalar
equations and unknown design parameters will vary for
each particular case.
It is possible to prescribe a plurality of precision points
(problem of trajectory tracking) which will eventually
lead to a situation when there are more scalar equations
than design parameters. Presented method is also
applicable but obtained system of equations have to be
solved using optimization calculation techniques.
4. CONCLUSION
Numerous methods are developed for dyad analysis and
synthesis, but because sometimes simple mechanisms can not
fulfill desired requirements it is justified to consider
(20) application of mechanism with more complex configuration.
In this paper a method for position analysis and synthesis of
the mechanisms with high class kinematic groups is proposed.
When performing an analysis mechanism is decomposed
to its constitutive parts (kinematic groups). Kinematic
analysis is then performed for each kinematic group
separately, strictly following the order of the mechanism
assembly. For the second class kinematic groups of the
different forms the analytical relations determining positions
of the moving links have been derived in the explicit form.
As for high class kinematic groups, basic idea of method is
to decompose it the to second class kinematic groups
(dyads). System of equations describing its position are then
obtained from the kinematic constrains in the linkage. Its
solution is obtained through fixed point iteration method.
(22)
Analysis of each kinematic group can lead to multiple
solutions, so mechanism configurations are obtained as
combinations of the corresponding kinematic group solutions.
The procedure that allows easy recognition of real solutions
and choosing initial parameter values that ensures
convergence of fixed point iteration method is developed.
Proposed method for analytical synthesis efficiently deals with
mechanisms with high class kinematic groups. Basic idea is to
decompose the high class kinematic group to second class
kinematic groups (dyads). Synthesis of high class kinematic
group is now treated as combination of several subsequent
synthesis sub problems. Using complex algebra principles
systems of equations are formed and, afterwards, solved
numerically (using MATLAB) and design parameters of
(24) mechanism are obtained. Typical dimension synthesis problems
can be solved in this way, but also some additional constraints
may be added and in combination with standard set of equation
various engineering optimal synthesis problems can be formed
and solved using some of optimization techniques.
Presented method is simple and user friendly, so it
enables fast and efficient tool for mechanism design.
REFERENCES
[1] SUH, C. H., RADCLIFFE, C. W., Kinematics and
Mechanism Design, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
[2] ZLOKOLICA, M., POZNANOVIC, N., KOSTIC,
M., AVIC (KOLARSKI), M., Kinematic Analysis
Of Mechanisms Containing Kinematic Group Of
Third Class, Proceedings of the 9th World IFTOMM
Congress, 1995., pp 799-802
[3] HADI, O., Fixed Point Theory Basics (in Serbian),
Institute for mathematics, Novi Sad, 1978.
[4] AVI, M., ZLOKOLICA, M., KOSTI, M., On
Kinematical Description of Kinematical Groups as
Compound Part of the Mechanical System, Proceedings
of the 1st Internat. Conf. on Computational Mechanic,
Belgrade, 2004., (CD Rom) pp 1-6
191
[5] ZLOKOLICA, M., WISUTMETHANGOON, W., CORRESPONDENCE
NGAMSRITRAGUL, P., AVI, M., KOSTI, M.,:
Kinematic Of Complex Mechanism With The Maja CAVIC, M.Sc. Eng
Kinematic Group Of The Third And Fourth Class, University of Novi Sad
Proceedings of 11th World IFTOMM Congress, Faculty of Technical Sciences
2004., Tianjin, pp. 1204-1208 Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
[6] AVI, M., ZLOKOLICA, M., KOSTI, M., On 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Kinematical Description Of Four Class Kinematical scomaja@uns.ac.rs
Groups As A Part Of The Complex Systems,
Proceedings of the International Confernce on Milan KOSTIC, M.Sc. Eng
Engineering and Environment, 2005., Novi Sad, (CD University of Novi Sad
Rom), T4-2.4 pp 1-5 Faculty of Technical Sciences
[7] AVI, M., KOSTI, M., ZLOKOLICA, M., Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
Position Analysis Of The High Class Kinematic 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Group Mechanisms, Proceedings of 12th World mkost@uns.ac.rs
IFTOMM Congress, 2007., Besancon, (CD Rom) pp.
1-6
Miodrag ZLOKOLICA, Prof. PhD. Eng
[8] AVI, M., ZLOKOLICA, M., KOSTI, M., About University of Novi Sad
Analytical Synthesis Of The Mechanisms With High Faculty of Technical Sciences
Class Kinematic Group, Proceedings of the 1st Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
International Congress of Serbian Society of 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Mechanics, 2007., Kopaonik, pp 125-130 mzlokolica@uns.ac.rs

192

CONSTRUCTIONS AND CALCULATIONS
RELATED TO NON-CONVENTIONAL
ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR
EARTH AND SPACE
Milesa SREKOVI
Mirko DINULOVI
Vasko FOTEV
Abstract: Modern technologies related to:new types of
laser engines, Space waste removal, non-conventional
devices for atmospheric discharge protection,
contemporaneous stands on quality of energy devices and
other topics related to these problems are investigated in
this paper. The objective is to introduce potential
problems related to technologies stated above and to
present the potential equipment. For sometime now,
ecology and equipment needed for ecosystem preservation
have been in the focus of many researchers. On the other
hand the development of functional and efficient
apparatus is still on-going process. There are many
unsolved problems related to in-depth understanding of
processes starting from material characteristics, pressure
distribution invoked by laser pulses in vacuum,
propagation and material-laser interaction in general.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are quite a few of papers related to lasers, Cosmos,
energy and rockets, ecology, transfer energy, etc..[1-25]
One of the possibilities is to use laser to evaporate liquid
hydrogen fuel, which reduces the mass of the fuel up to
eight times. Another method would be to use laser
electromagnetic coherent energy conversion into electric
energy followed by chemical transformation into
electrostatic field energy, when fuel particles are ionized.
Power unit is reduced and the laser beam would be used
as nuclear reactor capable of ionizing large amount of
fuel, but the size of the rocket would be very large. Based
on this idea the gaseous dynamic laser followed. If the
methods of energy transformation are more efficient the
laser powered rockets would be more economically
affordable and comparable to classic rockets [1-4].
2. LASER DEFLECTION OF SPACE OBJECTS
There are two main attributes related to lasers when space
object deflection is concerned. These are agility and
efficiency. Laser action is immediate with relatively low
losses, vast amounts of energy are being delivered and
even with moderate energy transfer a lot can be achieved.
(Term moderate, in this context, is used for space object
deflection action not as a power definition which is far
from theoretical and obtained maximal power for short
pulses in atto and fs frames. ) However, lasers designed
for these applications are still planned and only a small
parts of them are realized projects yet, generally speaking.
The Earth is under constant threat of asteroid and comet
collision impact. Laser object deflection can be used to
prevent such occurrences. Also mutual object impacts
velocities and collisions in Space are not safe for the
Earth itself, since large mass debris may fall on the
Earths surface as a results of object collision in Space.
This debris is under constant investigation by
international teams, and usually impact velocities are of
great concern, since even small objects traveling at large
velocities may cause great damage. Object deflection
velocities are under constant development. Simple
economical analyses show that laser based deflection
systems for NEO (Near Earth Object) became affordable
in recent years. Statistical observation of Earth crossers
kinetic energy is the object of constant observations Figs.
1,2,3 [2-3]. Main reason for this is to resolve small and
large object deflection by various methods. Laser
deflection is in competition with nuclear energy and is
also related to nuclear weapons. With present laser
projects it is possible to efficiently deflect NEO objects
up to 100m in diameter.?! One of the principal problems
is to use and to control the laser induced ablation jet.
Laser can address multiple objects at the same time. High
power lasers are still very expensive to design , maintain
and operate and many new designs are still being
considered. Active material, pumping and needed optical
systems are discussed (chemical lasers, CO2 laser,
Nd3+:Yag and other types and pumping from solar energy
to nuclear pump and from laser based in orbits to ground
lasers). Besides that, power beaming, launching payloads
have also to be analyzed. In general LEO and NEO
problems, current aerodynamics to rockets technology has
to be considered [5-10].
Another problem is the extraction of valuable materials
from space objects by high power laser beams. The
problem of laser-material interaction can be characterized
by modeling and experimentation in the Earth
environment. There are lot of activities in laser-material
processing of various kind which can be the basis for laser
asteroid interaction. In this context the choice of model
(for deflection or material extraction) is the principal idea.
One approach would be to obtain pressure and
temperature fields or other parameters (pulse and energy
exchange, etc.) for evaluation of laser-material interaction
[11-15]. Analysis of temperature distribution is to relate
laser incident energy with output channel:melting,
evaporation, phase transformation of various degrees,
nucleation, heating, annealing, thin films formation, thin
film removal, hardening, welding, obtaining gradients
dE/dx, dm/ dE (specific energy losses and specific mass
removal), disintegration , explosion initiation etc. [16-24].
The tasks are complex and some fundamental approaches
cover mechanics, thermodynamics, optics, quantum
electronics, hydrodynamics, similarity laws with analyti-
193
cal and numerical methods since it is not possible to
obtain closed form solutions for the majority of funda-
mental equations [13,18,19,24]. For energy transfer from
laser beams to Space objects and exchange of kinetic
energy mechanical approach can be used. This theory is
well known in micro and macro Cosmos problems.
However, various types of energies are included as well
as different types of forces (nuclear, gravity, chemical
etc.)
Fig. 1. Dynamics of equivalentt yield and NEO impact
parameters [2]
Fig. 2. The power, aperture and hardware costs as a
function of mirror diameter for 10 years 10% irradiation
of 500m [2]
Geometry of the problems under investigation is linked to
central force scattering theory. The principal magnitudes
are: scattering angle (), Earth mass (M),gravity constant
(G),velocity of NEO (up to infinity,v) and scattering
parameter (b),Fig 4.Compared to nuclear solutions (wea
pons, explosives) or rocket interception, laser systems are
in the advantage due to energy transfer at light velocities.
Hybrid solutions are also under consideration.
Laser deflection has other space applications starting
from debris clearing to satellite deflection with good
coupling parameter. One point of view is to design high
power laser for NEO. Problems involved depend on the
laser type. Some of them are of large sizes, related to bulk
shapes and some issues are in array, matrix or segmented
construction. One approach would be to implement new
quantum generator types into existing solution with
194
optical and mechanical systems and the other one is to
include laser engines [4, 29, 30]. The question of
appertures, mirror size and element distribution from
ground to satellite stations are more important and still
being the object of discussion.
Fig. 3. Kinetic energy and earth crossers statistics [3]
Fig. 4. Space object deflection geometry
2.1. Asteroids, Comets, Neo Objects Threats And
Deflection
Many people remember (Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter)
and other events when small objects can provoke
catastrophic damages too. There are ~ 2000 NEO objects
that could be detected and followed. There is variety of
sizes and yield impact factors and large time interval for
the events like with extinction dinosaurus, Tsunami,
syberian Tunguska etc. These events resulted in great
damages on Earth. The object with only a few meters in
diameter hit the atmosphere every month and these should
be detected by missile warning systems. All these
occurrences are related to large yield energy compared to
nuclear explosions. As a result of these processes a
material is melted and this impedes photo synthesis and
injects microparticles into the stratosphere which stay
present for months or years and with heating processes
influence flora and fauna.
Laser pulses propagate with small losses and with
relatively moderate energy can perform object deflection.
Laser-material interaction is linked with NEO deflection.
The fluence for object heating, ionization and evaporation
is sought.
Once beyond boiling point material is blown and ablated.
The ejected material carries part of the impuls (energy).
Invoked pressures are of several atmospheres , result in
object acceleration and deflection. This is the principal
difference of nuclear solution 1000 times greater. Large
pressures reduce efficiency coupling of chosen methods.
It is important that small objects scales with time as t2,
and larger ones with t2/3 and nuclear relationship with t1/3.
In general in deflection system planning, laser cost
doubles the total cost [2]. Fig 2. shows P, Aperture (A)
and total cost. Some simple relationship is Co=aA+pP
,where A and P are parameters given for chosen time (for
example 10 years, 10% irradiation, 500m-objects for
defined aperture). Some stands are for small apertures the
mirror price is small, the power price is dominant. ( prices
are 1$/W x 230MW for 25m).For large mirrors aperture
price is dominant and the power price is small (145m
,$210M.). For small objects the price for large mirror is
high and for large ones the price drops. Different projects
meet at 2 km. For higher objects the prices are higher
compared to small objects. [2].
Fig. 5. Object deflection possibility versus s irradiation
time for various powers expressed in MW[2]
Fig. 6. Object diameter and laser irradiation [2]
2.2. The Deflection Possibilities
The simple evaluation for power and apertures require
maximal diameter which deflected by designed systems.
For Ds>D , D=2pfCt2P2 /a(r)2 Re and for Ds<D,
D=(2fCt2P / Re )1/3 [2]. Calculations are performed for
various powers P (=10, 30 and 100MW) and availability
the curve for 1MW is subjected for 30m objects for 10
years. Aperture could be A=Pp/a =10 000m and the
mirror diameter 100m after that it rises to 10 Km for 100
years. 30 MW curve follows small optical differences.
100 MW laser could deflect in 5 years 1Km-objects. 10
MW laser requires 50 years. The evaluations are trough
the respective equations between detection time, object
diameter and laser power. Nuclear based solutions can be
found in references. The most interesting facts are the
cross sections of analyzed dependencies Figs. 4-6. Rocket
interceptors require more energy and are not so efficient.
Laser coupling processes have the major function. Free
electron lasers (FEL) could be used for NEO deflection in
the future. Power prices and flexibility of pulse structure
are suitable for this application. Time before impact is
very important and therefore velocity increment is of the
order V = Re/t, to avoid Earth collision (or other).
Depending on the frequency of occurrence, velocity
increment is ten times smaller for ten times higher period.
Note that these are the minimal system requirements.
Besides that the suitable combination and object sizes
should be taken into the account.
Fig. 7. One of rare Laser Flight Experiments [25]
Fig. 8. One of Laser Pulsed Vulnerability Systems [25]
The new topics concerned with mentioned problems are
also laser powered lightcraft flights to unlimited altitudes
and pulsed laser vulnearability. Testsystems (PLVTS),
Figs.7,8.
195
3. LASER MATERIAL INTERACTION and 1 = 2 2 (4).
MODELING
The left hand side matrices can be approximated by:
1
[ ] {u }i = {R es n+1 }
One of the problems in laser material interaction is to
[Bn +1 ]i + KTn+1 i i
obtain the temperature field, especially in the zone of the n +1 (5).
laser spot during complete laser pulse and also after the t
laser activity. In recent years, in fluid mechanics and heat
transfer problems analysts have tried to model laser
1
t
[Bn+1 ]i + KTn+1 i [ ] 1t [B ] + [K ] n Tn (6),
material interaction using traditional finite difference met
where, [KTn] is the tangential stiffness matrix evaluated at
hods to obtain numerical solutions for temperature
previous time step.
distribution. However, there are many problems that
N
remain using this methodology. Solutions to problems [ ]
K Tn [K n ] + 4[Rn ]{un + Tabs } n
3
(7).
with complex geometries, multiply connected domains un
and complex boundary conditions always cause difficul The residual vector is
{R } ={P }+{N } [K ] {u } {R } {u
ties. Finite element methods can lighten these difficulties.
With finite element formulation higher order approxi
es i
n+1 n+1 n+1
i
n+1
i
n+1
i
n+1
i i
n+1 }4
+Tabs +
mations are possible and more complex geometries can be (8).
1({P} +{N } [K ]{u } [R ]{u +T } )
1 4
modeled using quality irregular meshes.

n n n n n n abs
In laser material interaction, the analyst often calculate
the temperature field distribution as a first step. Analysts
3.2. Analysis
must be able to model environmental boundary
conditions, represent complicated geometry, and analyze A rectangular thin aluminum plate is subjected to single
variety of materials apart from simple constant property laser pulse. Finite element mesh is generated, and in Fig.
isotropic materials. As a second step in the thermal 9, domain is presented. The pulse laser regime is selected
analysis the time to stationary temperature field may be for the analysis. The pulse shape is modeled as modified
required. Finally, the values of thermal stresses developed triangular function, Fig 10. This approximation could be
in material are sought. Only in a few special cases, finite applicable for Q-switch regime and usually is applied in
difference methods can model this problem adequately. laser processing problems. Really, the Q-switch shape is
Finite element method proves to be more versatile in laser more complex function containing three principal parts
material interaction modeling. and various characteristic relaxation times. Another
approximation would be function. Note, that thermal
3.1. Transient Analysis Without Phase Change modeling for very short pulses for atto and fs regimes, has
The general equation to solve in heat transfer transient to include certain modifications: the modification of
analysis (temperature field is a function of time), without respective constants, for example, taking only electronic
phase change, has the following form:

[B]u + [K ]{u} + [R]{u + Tabs }4 = {P} + {N } (1),

o

where:[B] heat capacity matrix, [K] heat conduction
matrix, [R] radiation exchange matrix,{P}vector of ap-
plied heat loads that are constant or functions of time but
not function of temperature, {N}vector of nonlinear heat
loads dependent on temperature, {H} enthalpy vector,

{ H }={dH/dt},{u}-vector of grid point temperature,

{ u }={du/dt},Tabs-absolute temperature scale adjustment
required for radiation heat exchange or radiation Fig. 9. Finite element mesh of aluminium plate subjected
boundary conditions when other temperature units are to laser pulse
specified in deg F or deg C.
For each time step, in transient analysis the equilibrium parts or using other models, for example hydro-dynamic,
equation is solved by Newmarks method with adaptive instead of thermal models. In the present analysis the
time stepping. Based on this integration scheme the time regular triangular laser pulse shape is changed by small
derivative for nodal temperatures at the (i+1)-th iteration plateau addition shown in the Fig 10. In this analysis the
of the (n+1) time step is expressed as: temperature field distribution is obtained and presented in
Figs. 11, 12 in the zone of laser impact. The plate is
i +1
o
u n + 1 =
t
{
1 i +1
} 1 o
u n +1 u n + 1 u n (2)
subjected to single laser pulse: modeled as explained: by
performing the transient analysis. The complete
temperature distribution is presented in Fig 13. Laser
where heating is characterized by high temperature gradients
i +1 i comparing to regular processes occurred in the material
o o
= u n + 1 + {u n +1} (3)
i
u n + 1 itself depending on their thermal properties (boiling,
melting points, phase transition temperature of various

196
degrees, specific transformation heats) and mechanical
ones (moduli of elasticity, optical characteristics, etc).
Note that this is valid for oven heating where linear
regime is applicable where the constant value is
independent of laser fluence. For non-linear cases laser
intensity has to be included in thermal, mechanical and
optical parameters besides temperature dependences.
point of view interstellar ionized hydrogen, interstellar
mists, cosmic dust could be treated as earth objects, center
of scattering. The diagnosis of these far objects could be
treated with Mller matrix, Stockes vectors etc. as sphere,
atmospheric particles, clouds or bacteria, biopolymers etc.

Fig. 11. Obtained temperature field at 0.0001 s of laser

irradiation

Fig. 10. Laser pulse shape used for thermal analysis

4. CONCLUSION

High power laser systems in the service of Earth defence

from the ecological, energy points of view are analyzed in
this paper. These problems are presently in the focus of
many researchers and the problems require
multidisciplinary approach. Due to complexity of topics
only some general stands are analyzed. Since the Fig. 12. Obtained temperature field at 0.04s of laser
interaction of laser beams with material is one of irradiation
important parts in laser deflection, laser-solid material
interaction was modeled. That approach is the basis for
temperature, pressure and stress fields calculations. This
kind of modeling could present one of the inputs to unit
ejected mass with the collision theories, gravity law, etc.
First , energy conversion (high efficiency and light
conversion ) has to be achieved for projected laser
stations and for rockets which use laser beam energies.
From the economical point of view laser solutions have to
be more efficient than current solutions. Chemical and
gaseous- dynamic are competitive, besides FEL and other
types of lasers. The first propositions with CO2 lasers Fig. 13. Temperature distribution graph
began with conversion of chemical and thermal energy
directly in high monochromatic and directed Since Icarus times and wax wing burning, from
electromagnetic beams. Space stations including Moon , Konstantin Beljaev and Jules Verne up to Den Browns
orbital, solar etc. were the subject of many discussions, Point of deception (deceptions and Space crystals) science
analyses and technical patents. Solar technology in and fiction are together. Earth boundaries are passed long
pumping conversion and other processes mixed with time ago (and atmosphere) and from Von Brown and
superconductivity or RF generation etc. are involved. Michener visions of engineers of various profiles mixed
Pure power philosophy approaches, the questions of with reality. In times of first aerospace designers,
power stations and energy quality are also discussed. Mikoyan, Gurevich, Tupolev, Ciolkovski...mixed with
Some stands are that coherent energy (Amplification by pioneers of quantum electronics. Lots of questions
stimulated emission of radiation) processes are of the remain open: ballistic missile defense, national defense,
highest quality, chemical and thermal are most affordable. antisatellite ,antiballistic weapons, test vulnerability
The direction of conversion should be positive, but the systems, , militarization of Space, but these already
reality requires optimal solutions. The analogy in power developed technologies could be used in more humane
chains [1] for nuclear, chemical and laser (ASER) purpose, to prevent (or organize) the protection from
processes are unavoidable. natural disasters and accidents with atmospheric lightness,
First ideas sought for the possibilities for natural, Tsunami, earthquakes, meteorites and to extract precious
chemical laser in Space. In the sixties the topics were metals, to perform isotope selection and to concentrate
Space masers and they were discussed besides quasars, nuclear waste. According to material analysis using
relict thermal radiation and pulsars. Theoretical treatment modern laser spectroscopies, the history of the Earth
could be based to the absorption, scattering etc. From this could be followed. But this is History!?

197
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of efficient environmentally improved houshold gas
appliances, THERMAL SCIENCE, vol.10, p.89-
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FIDANOVSKI Z., DINULOVI M., Nd3+:YAG
Laser interaction with pure metal foils, LASERS 99,
pp.421-428 (2000).
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Medicine, Dentistry and Industry, PROC. LASERS
97, pp. 254-256 (1998).
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MIRE VSKI J, OKI B., IVKOVI M.,.
BUGARINOVI A, Quantum generators,
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751,Mc Lean, ( 2001)
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CORRESPONDENCE
Milesa SRECKOVIC, Prof. Dr Sc. Eng.
University of Belgrade
School of Electrical Engineering
Bul.kralja Aleksandra 73
11000 Belgrade, Serbia
esreckov@kondor.etf.bg.ac.rs
Mirko DINULOVI, Doc. Dr.Sc.Eng..
University of Belgrade
School of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11000 Belgrade, Serbia
mdinulovic@mas.bg.ac.rs
Vasko FOTEV, Doc. Dr.Sc.Eng..
University of Belgrade
School of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11000 Belgrade, Serbia
vfotev@mas.bg.ac.rs

INFLUENCE OF MICROCLIMATE ON
THE OPERATIONS TIME STANDARD
Miroslav CAR
Mario PRLJAN
Abstract: Theoretic hypotheses of Work Study, Time Study
and Ergonomics are encompassed in the work of man,
along with the influence of applicable microclimatic
parameters (air temperature, relative humidity, flux
velocity and air pollution). Values of applicable
microclimatic parameters and determined coefficients of
environment influencing on the operator's work have been
measured in application, with the belonging duration
times, along with the production time and norms.
Keywords: work study and ergonomics, time study,
microclimate, operation, time standard
1. INTRODUCTION
In first part, some theoretical hypotheses of the
wholesome area of the Work study, especially Time study,
the multidisciplinary area of Ergonomics, along with its
belonging relationships with Work study, are introduced.
In the second part, theoretical hypotheses of the
environment influence and microclimatic on mans work,
the general and the applicable and measurable influencing
microclimatic parameters. In the third part the
microclimatic measuring procedure is explained, along
with environmental influence for two chosen operations
in the chosen firm. Finally, in the same part, the norms
and production time calculation procedure is derived for
the chosen two operations in the technological production
procedure for steel armature for reinforced concrete
columns.
2. THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES OF WORK
STUDY, TIME STUDY AND ERGONOMICS
2.1. Work Study, [1, 2, 3]
Structure contains two basic parts, Work simplification
and Time study, helped by Ergonomics. First basic part
has the goal to find the most economic way of working
with main tasks: to determine the existing way of work
for the process and for work places, to analyze the
existing way of work, along with the suggesting, carrying
out and controlling of the new way of work. Second basic
part has the goal to determine realistically needed time for
the average operator, along with main tasks: to determine
the existing way of working, to analyze the losses and
decrease them, measuring values of the new time
normatives, along with the follow up on the norm
realization. Purpose of both parts is: work humanization,
tiredness diminishing and increasement of operators
safety, along with expenses decreasing and system and
process production increasing.
2.2. Time Study [1, 2, 3]
Total work time, needed to perform some job, that was
given by a work decree, contains following elements:
beginning-finishing time, technological time, auxiliary
time and additional time, with wide representation due to
the direct ties to the theme of the article.
Additional time is time of compensation, that was
acknowledged to the worker due to the appearance of
necessary loses, that were not caused by him, but which
caused him to be unable to finish the work in the
deadline. It is expressed in percentages of production time
with help of three coefficients, which have their fatigue
and environment influence acknowledged that bigger than
whats considered normal, while with the help of one
variable the justified technological-organizational loses
are acknowledged. Those are:
a) fatigue coefficient: because of too big psychic and
physical fatigue during the work day, brief periodical rests
are needed, otherwise it comes to absenteeism, worker
fluctuations and sick leaves, due to the exhaustion.
Influential parameters on the value of the fatigue
coefficient are: fatigue due to load managing, fatigue due
to abnormal body state and fatigue due to the work
monotony;
b) environmental influence coefficient: in the work
period, the worker is exposed to the environmental
influence, to human influence and to the milieu that
surrounds him, that can negatively influence the worker,
increase his energy consumption and diminish his
performance. Biggest influence, from the environmental
position, on the workers performance and on his health,
has: temperature, humidity, air pollution (gasses, dust,
smoke) and all kinds of emissions.
If the damaging environmental influences are a
consequence of the technological process, then the time
needed for periodical displacing and recovery from those
damaging influences must be added to the production
time, expressed with help of environmental influence
coefficient.
In enclosures 1. to 4. references [1] and in enclosures 2. to
5. references [2] the fatigue coefficient values and
environmental influence can be read;
c) additional coefficient of the additional time: it changes
in correlation to organizational state of the firm, where
every firm can have different ways of work organization,
or rather the belonging processes in the basic process
activities, depending on the work type, whether the
employees are male or female, etc. With better work
organization, these losses can be decreased, and with that
the production time, especially with WDS and RDS
application.
199
There are different ways of production time determining:
through experience, by measuring (flux and reversible
method), with formulas, diagrams and graphs, PDT
(Predetermined Times, based on the basic moves or micro
moves, the most common are MTM and WFS and others,
with special conception Maynard Sequence Technique
MOST, along with the methods Work Day Sheet WDS
and Ratio Delay Study RDS, which are used for the work
losses analysis.
2.3. Ergonomics, [1, 3, 4]
Ergonomics (germ. Ergonomie) is an area which through
multidisciplinary research of individual and synergistic
action of technique, technology and environment on
human, along with the interdisciplinary principles
application in different areas and disciplines (in anatomy,
physiology, work medicine, work safety, biomechanics
etc,, especially in Work study) makes possible for two
purposes to be achieved : successful and humane work.
There are several different definitions, of which the most
common is about the harmonization between elements in
the system man- work place- methods- environment,
that acknowledges the important element of predominant
harmonization of other elements in the man system. The
principles determined by ergonomic research are applied
in Work study.
Basic types of ergonomics are: conceptual (represents the
preventive and the cheapest shaping of ergonomic scales
in the beginning of work system construction, with tasks
on improving the conditions of work and life in humane
and economical areas), systemic (main task is to take
accounts on function harmonization between man and
machine in the "man-machine-environment" system; all
dimensions/point of views of the working system have to
be represented, which means that there must be
cooperation of everybody who can help the optimal
designing of the working system), correctional (in later
period of the work system development removes the
misgivings from the starting period of its development),
software or, alternatively, cognitive, communicational and
organizational ergonomics, along with the software
psychology (its task is to develop the criteria and methods
for qualitative grade and the comparison between
different software products, with purpose of their practical
improvement for application) and hardware (in
comparison to software ergonomics, the hardware one is,
in its substance, "classical" and it doesnt deal with work
contents, yet it works with technically-physical
components of the computer system.
3. THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES OF
ENVIRONMENT AND MICROCLIMATE
INFLUENCE ON OPERATION
PERFORMING, [1, 4, 5]
The climate in the work place is one of the most
important assumptions of mans health, his satisfaction
and work result. Climatic conditions in work plants can't
be changed according to individual wishes, because the
environment first and foremost depends on technological
process and on products, which are sometimes dependent
on climatic conditions. Under work place climate,
200
following parameters are implied: temperature, relative
humidity, movement (or flow) of air, additional matters in
the air (waste matter like wood chips, dust, gasses), along
with odors and electrical state of air.
A man under physical strain produces more or less body
heat. According to that, when under easier exertion,
effective temperature must be higher, while under harder
strain, the temperature must be lower. Human organism
also strives to establish constant body temperature. Body
temperature of the man constantly gets higher, even
without any working. If the temperature of the
environment is high and the body cant surrender its
temperature to it, then a heatstroke can happen to the
human organism. If the temperature of the environment is
too low, then the body always gives away more heat than
it produces, which can lead to hypothermia. There are
body defense mechanisms and those are: while the body
temperature is dropping: heat transference through blood,
the chills, which causes continuous muscles contraction
and decontraction, which in turn creates considerable
body heat, or rather with body temperature rise causes
sweating, which in turn causes cooling of the body and
the loss of energy through sweat evaporation. Also, there
is a physical heat exchange through radiation, by which
body surrenders its heat to environment, but also accepts
it: through guiding (conduction), as immediate heat
transference onto the medium; by flowing (or
convection), where heat is drained with air currents. For
these natural mechanisms to work easily, microclimatic
conditions have to be minded, along with other physical
factors that influence mans work, and those are: air
temperature in degrees C, relative humidity in %, air
fluctuation velocity in m/s, heat emission u W/m, air
pressure in mbar, level of personal activity, or body heat
production in W/m and body protection with help of
work clothes (Clo). Unpleasant climatic conditions in
work place are caused by: too high temperature
differences between effective spatial temperature in walls
and floors (radiation, conduction), radiation asymmetry,
too warm or too cold floor, too big of a temperature
difference between head and legs levels, draft that arises
because of the difference in the air fluctuation velocity.
This is possible to prevent by correctly constructing work
space, by using the rules that need to be followed,
depending on the air exchange per person, on temperature
and relative humidity of the air, and on the air fluctuation
velocity. At normal air fluctuation, the usual determining
process from references [1, 2] is used.
4. THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES
APPLICATION ON THE CHOSEN
INDUSTRIAL OBJECT, [6, 7]
4.1. General approach to the application of
microclimatic parameters value measuring
Measurable parameters, with measurable devices and its
measurable areas are:
a) air temperature and relative humidity
Instrument for air temperature and relative humidity
measuring TESTO 625, ser. number BO 2465;
b) air temperature
Measurable areas: span -20 C - +60 C, dividing of
scale on 0,1 C, punctuality of 0,2 C on 25 C
c) air relative humidity
Measurable areas: for span 0% - 10%, resolution of 0,1%,
punctuality of 3%; for span 10% - 90%, resolution of
0,1%, punctuality of 2%; for span 90% - 100%,
resolution of 0,1%, punctuality of 3%
d) air flux velocity (different of pressures)
Digital thermoanemometer 425 TESTO, ser. number BO
2466; Measurable areas: span 0,1 m/s 9,99 m/s,
resolution of 0,01m/s, and punctuality of 0,05 m/s.
Conditions of inspection: date of inspection, outer
climate conditions (heat, transferring, winter age,
description of natural ventilation of measuring space, heat
exertion of the measuring place, type and employment
work intensity.
Type of measuring: direct watching
Description of workspace, where inspection of work
processes that flow, has been done and the description of
Fig. 1. Machine for steel bars cutting
equipment, which is used for work. In the main hall are
hall machines for armature steel processing (bending
The second in order is work place and operation, where
machine, cutters of armature steel, lathe machine,
bending of cutoff rods into rectangular shape is done, and
transport tables). Natural lighting of the hall is performed the bending machine is used, made on the idea of manual
through windows. Artificial lighting is performed through reinforcement tool for rods bending. Machine in the
lighting bodies with mercury light bulb and neon lighting. middle has rotating disc with central axe. In the disc,
In the hall, the electrical infrared heaters are installed, but there are holes for thorns between which the 3 rods
in office of the manager the electrical radiator is set up. bundles are put in, on the ends of work table, there are
The main hall is not a cooling system. Ventilation in the moving thorns that ensure counter support, so that the
main hall is only by natural way and flows from the rods would bend. Power of the shaft is a 3 kW
director of the door of the hall. electromotor, figure 2.
Although there are work places one beside the other in In work place, there is one worker that delivers needed
production chain (distance between work places is nearly material from the wagon, which is parked, near the
5 m) they are in the same room, where microclimatic machine. Just bending is performed three times, until the
parameters are measured. fork shape is achieved (rectangular shape). Bent rods are
then put on the wagon for shipping, and the second
4.2. Work place choice and climate influence worker manipulates them and drives them away to the
measuring composition.
The firm for technological process of steel forks
production for reinforced concrete columns. Two chosen
work places in technological process follow one behind
the other, and transport between these two work places is
done by manual wagon, and then after, to the work place
of bending the cut off rods in rectangular shape.
The first in order is work place and operation of steel rods
cutting off with diameter 16 mm on the set length, and for
cutting, the cutting machine is used, that works by
principle of shear cuts, figure 1. Machine is run by
electromotor, powered by 5 kW. The hydraulic pressure of
30 Mpa is realized. The capacity of simultaneous cutting
is 20 rods of 12 mm and 6 rods of 28 mm. During
inspection, a group of 7 rods has been cut, their length 4
m and diameter 16 mm. Work place is located on the
beginning of production chain. Two workers perform
work, where one of two workers performs rods delivery
during cutting at the end of the bundle, then both of them
raise the whole bundle and put it in space for cutting, Fig. 2. Machine for bending steel rods
measure it on the determined length, then one worker
after pressing the start button turns on the hydraulic Parameters for work place 'cutting' of steel rods: air
scissors with the leg pedal (pedal is assured of temperature t = 24 C; relative humidity RH= 43,5 %; air
unintentional starting with the metal frame). After cutting, flux velocity v = 0,3 m/s (normal speed); air pollution,
they put the material on the wagon. percent of dust particles in the air is 0,9 mg/m, which

201
means that the dust in under the allowed level, meaning
that it is normal; effective temperature determined from
the table for relative humidity of 45% is 19,5C;
environmental effect coefficient for normal effect of dust
and for calculated effective temperature is 1,1.Parameters
for work place of the steel rods bending: air temperature, t
= 24C; relative humidity, RV= 45,9 %; air fluctuation
velocity, v = 0,2 m/s (normal velocity); air pollution, dust
particles share in the air is 0,9 mg/m, which means that
the level of dust is normal; effective temperature,
determined from the relative humidity table of 45%
(addendum 3 from [1]), is 19,5C; environmental effect
coefficient is 1,15.
4.3. Measuring, analyze and calculate of time
standard, time performing and norm
In phases of preparing and measuring, the first operation,
cutting is divided on four standard elements: (1) taking of
7 steel rods and putting them in space for cutting, (2)
measuring the determined cutting length, (3) starting the
machine by pressing the button and leg pedal, cutting, (4)
putting away the cut rods on the shipping wagon, but the
second operation, bending, is divided on two standard
elements (1) taking the 3 rods bundle, putting it in and
measuring, (2) bending by pressing on the leg pedal (3
times). Previous data is noted in the documentation, as
well as later measured data by the chronometer.
In analysis phase, for both operations are calculated errors
of the time analyst inside the set limits; especially are
analyzed the distribution of time and devotion evaluation,
of total six standard elements, number (4) in the first
operation and (2) in the second and those are separated in
the procedure, only two standard elements from the first
operation, number (3) which is performance, mainly, by
the machine, number (2) in which exist Hi-square test
with significant deviation of frequency. The rest of
analysis confirms the predetermined assumptions.
The calculation procedure was done of production time
and of the norm, where with the inclusion of measured
time values and microclimate parameters, the following is
established:
Operation 1: cutting
t1 = ti (1 + Kd ) = 106,1 (1 + 0,18) = 125,2 VJ = 45.1 s;
Operation 2: bending
t1 = ti (1 + Kd ) = 71,61 (1 + 0,18) = 84,5 VJ = 30.4 s;
5. CONCLUSION
There have been exhibited the theoretical hypotheses of
Work Study, ergonomics and Time Study, as well as
microclimate influence on man's work in production
plants. In the chosen production plant, inspected is (non)
existence of difference between the work done time with
the environmental effect and work time without the
influence of the environment. With help of professional
services, the microclimatic and other parameters
important for the environment are determined, and based
on them, the quantitative environmental work effect is
expressed, or more precisely, the norm has been
determined, which takes into consideration the
environmental effect coefficient and fatigue coefficient. It
202
has been determined that those coefficients increase the
production time by about 23%, and by doing that, the
norm also increases.
REFERENCES
[1] TABORAK, D., Studij rada (Work Study), Orgadata,
Zagreb, 1994.
[2] FATOR, V. et al., Prironik za tudij dela in asa
(Manual for Study of Work and Time), Skupnost
izobraevalnih centrih, Ljubljana 1993.
[3] CAR, M., KRZNAR, M., IMON, K., STUDIJ
RADA Zbirka zadataka i rjeenja I (WORK STUDY
Book of problems and solutions I), Liber, Zagreb,
1991.
[4] MIKI, D., Uvod u ergonomiju (Introduction to
ergonomics), FSB, Zagreb,1997.
[5] SINGLETON, W.T., prijevod s francuskog Uvod u
ergonomiju (translation from French - Introduction to
ergonomics), Institut za dokumentaciju zatite na
radu (Work safety documentation Institute), Ni
1976.
[6] Poslovnik o postupcima, uvjetima i metodama
obavljanja poslova zatite na radu poduzea CS
(Rules on procedures, conditions and methods on
thework safety performance of CS firm), Zagreb
2004.
[7] PRLJAN, M., Zavrni rad na PDS strojarstva FSB
(Graduation thesis at PDS FMENA), Zagreb 2009.
CORRESPONDENCE
Miroslav CAR, Docent Dr.sc. Eng.
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture
I. Luia 5
10000 Zagreb, Croatia
mcar@fsb.hr; car.miroslav@gmail.com
Mario PRLJAN, baccalaureus student
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture
I. Luia 5
10000 Zagreb, Croatia
masprljan@gmail.com
 is the beginning of a lot of new ideas and is the innovation
source. Technological knowledge may be created with the
use of various methods. The enterprises may use the ready
technological solutions which are offered by the
surrounding or take actions within the company (own
research background). The biggest effects are brought by
the use of both sources of innovation technologies
together. Decisions to introduce new technologies (radical
innovation or improvement) [1] have strategic importance
for manufacturing enterprises.

2. STRATEGIC TECHNOLOGY
MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF Enterprises started to manage the technologies because

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN the technology as a resource is the significant source of
advantage over the competition. In Fig. 1 the simplified
MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISES IN model of technology management in an enterprise is
POLAND presented.

Boena GAJDZIK
1. Enterprise
strategy

Activity direction
Abstract: The article presents the assumptions
concerning the introduction of the innovative technologies 2. Technological Life cycle of
in manufacturing enterprises. Global economy is audit a technology
characterised by a huge diffusion of innovations and
transfer of technologies. The enterprises co-operate with
the surrounding in order to gain new innovations. New 3. Technological
technological solutions help the enterprises to get strategy

Feedback (information)
advantage in the competition. The main aim of the article
is to present the strategic approach to innovation
management. Moreover, on the basis of statistic data the 4. Plan of technology transfer
structure and sources of innovations were presented in
the sector of manufacturing enterprises in Poland. In the
end of the article the outline of the World Class 4a). Own 4b) Technology
Manufacturing - WCM concept is presented the concept research B+R transfer
to which many manufacturing enterprises in Poland are
heading.

Key words: technology, innovations, diffusion of 5. Knowledge chain

activity problem solution activity
innovations, technology transfer

1. INTRODUCTION 6. Additional knowledge

The present situation on today's Polish market prompts

the manufacturing enterprises to continually seek to 7. Realization of technological Innovation
improve their specific primary and secondary operations,
develop new products, consolidate position in the existing
markets and penetrating new ones, implement new 8. Model of innovation 9. Competitive
business management systems, improve the quality of transfer analysis
products, expand production mix, manage resources
efficiently within budgetary constraints, cut business
management costs, etc. The above mentioned activities
8a) closed 8b) open Environment
undertaken by manufacturing enterprises are an example
of innovations. Innovation creating something new,
unique, never before done. Innovation is driven by the
ability to spot market opportunities and to take Fig. 1. Strategic technology management [1,2,3]
competitive advantage of them.
There are various areas of innovations and the basic area Starting point to devise the technology management
in the manufacturing enterprises is the technology. The assumptions in an enterprise are the assumed points in the
word technology is usually associated with the knowledge development strategy. On the basis of the so-called big
on how to produce given goods () [1]. This knowledge strategy a document entitled technological strategy is

203
being elaborated. Basic planning assumptions are created expansion of the according to the
on the basis of the gathered information on the situation technological system schedule
and the possibilities of the enterprise in the field of by new sets (devices,
innovative solutions introduction. Technological audit is a machines)
systematic, objective and documented method of phase lasts from 7 to
possessed technologies identification, particularly those, 10 years
which decide on the competitiveness of the manufactured Technological
goods [1]. Additionally, the enterprises conduct the limitations big need of
analysis of the life cycle of a technology. It is assumed (decline phase) conservation, repair
that the active phase of technology in case of many high failure frequency, and renovation
manufacturing technologies lasts from 5 to 10 years. In
drop of devices services,
this phase the technological development of the
productivity, introduction of new
equipment and software takes place. New solutions of
big number of techniques of
motion maintenance are introduced and each of the 5.
interventions motion
devices reaches their maximum performance.
After a few years of the uninterrupted use of a technology cost rise of defects and maintenance,
first repair needs appear and decisions are made to breakdowns increase of
conduct the repair-conservation works (schedule). monitoring (electronic functioning cost of
Technical parameters of the used technology lose the registration of events) motion maintenance
qualities of the innovation as the time goes by. The phase lasts for service
enterprises look for new technological solutions. The minimum 3 years
analysis of life cycle of a technology enables the Withdrawal of
manufacturing enterprises to go on to a new technology from the
manufacturing technology smoothly (Table 1). market
(withdrawal phase) lack of service
back-up (repairs)
Table 1. Life cycle of a technology in reference to motion technology does not
have innovative due to technological
maintenance in a manufacturing enterprise 6. reasons (lack of
qualities,
parts kit) and
Technology life cycle Actions concerning further maintenance of
No economical reasons
phase motion maintenance the technology is
(unprofitable)
unprofitable
Transfer of a new
technology big need of phase lasts from one to
(gaining phase) specialised service a few years
connected with the
two basic sources of Source: Own study
1. introduction of a
technology transfer:
new technology in The assessment of the condition is referred to the
inner and outer
a company potential possibilities and a gap is set (difference,
the phase lasts for a
minimum of 1 year deviation). This difference is the basis for development of
designing of the a plan of gaining a new technology. There are two basic
work flow with the sources of new solutions creation, that is the inner the
Technological start-up own units of research and development and the outer the
(preparation phase) use of new
technology that is purchase of ready solutions. With the introduction of new,
technological better technological solutions in enterprises, a new
from the creation of
2. preparation of knowledge potential is created. The innovation here is the
the notification
production substitution of the present solution with new solutions.
about the order
the phase lasts for a few Package of knowledge possessed by the enterprise
placement by a
months concerning the innovative technological solutions, new
client to its
realisation products and production processes as well as the
corresponding organisation-management solutions may be
high level of
Full use of technology the source of information exchange with the surrounding
reliability of all
(active phase) open model of innovation sharing. Basic assumption of
processes connected
high efficiency and the model: take advantage of allowing access to our
with motion
reliability of knowledge and broad cooperation with other entities in
maintenance,
technology, the process of searching of technology transfer channels.
3. system of
The opposite of the open model is the closed model
maximum performance preventive actions
subjected to strict regulations concerning intellectual
of devices, (precautionary
property [1]. The last stage of technology management is
phase lasts from 5 to 10 against breakdown
the assessment of innovativeness of the implemented
years or shut-down)
technological solutions. Basic subject range of the
assessment can be applied to two areas: the outer and the
Technology commonly actions concerning inner value-added chain of an enterprise. During the
4. applied motion maintenance analysis of the new technology place in the outer value
(classic phase) performed chain the following are analysed:

204
1. The influence of innovative technology on the 2. Intramural
situation of enterprise on the market. expenditures on
2. Level of innovativeness of technology in reference to 2256 2408 1684 2832
research
the solutions available on the world market, the equipment
European market, the national and local market. 3. Expenditures on
3. The relation of a given technology to other the acquisition
technological solutions used in the outer value-added of disembodied 1080 1404 1352 1348
chain. technology and
4. The place of the implemented technology in the outer know-how
value-added chain. 4. Expenditures on
5. Service back-up and the possibilities of technological the acquisition
support for lengthening the life cycle of a technology. 26408 34392 38972 47580
of instruments
6. Possibilities of achievement of world class standards and equipment
in the area of production through the implemented
innovative solutions (WCM World Class In the Fig. 3 innovation enterprises in Polish industry in
Manufacturing). 2005-2007 (enterprises which introduced new or
The inner analysis (on the contrary) allows for the significantly improved products and process) were
assessment of the particular technical parameters of presented.
implemented solutions in various aspects, for example the
use of the natural resources of the environment, the needs
of the capital, possibilities of reaching a higher quality
level of goods, simplicity of use, the level of automation Innovation
of works, the safety of work. enterprises
36,7%

3. INNOVATIVENESS IN STATISTIC
Other
APPROACH enterprises
63,3%
On the basis of statistic data, the key innovation trends in
Polish industry are presented here. The scope of the Fig. 3. Innovation enterprises in Polish
analysis were the years 200-2007. The values given in the industry in 2005-2007 [in% of total
local currency (Polish zloty) were converted to the enterprises] [4]
currency of the EU (euro), the used exchange rate was the
mean value of the last few years, which equalled 4 zloty = Moreover in the Fig. 4 share of ales due to
1 euro. The first area of analysis was the capital technologically new and improved products in sold
expenditure of the enterprises and it was stated that the production of industrial products in Poland during 2005-
expenditures rise steadily (Fig. 2). 2007 was presented.
100000 80892
80000
in mln euro

58680 66232 New and

60000 48939 improved
40000 products
20000 14,7%
Other
0
products
2000 2005 2006 2007 year
85,3%

Fig 2. Expenditures on innovation

Fig. 4. Share of sales due to technologically
activity in Polish industry [4] new and improved products in sold production
of industrial products in Poland during
In recent years in Poland also the inner expenses on the 2005-2007 [4]
research and development (R&D) activity increased,
expenses on purchase of research equipment, on purchase 4. TOWARDS WCM WORLD CLASS
of ready technology and on machines and devices MANUFACTURING IN POLISH
(Table 2). METALLURGICAL SECTOR
Table 2. Other expenditures on innovation activity in The WCM approach is a kind of problem solving
Polish industry [4] philosophy in manufacturing enterprises. The concept was
Expenditures Years developed many years ago in the USA and Japan. In the
[in mln euro] group of metallurgical enterprises functioning on the
2000 2005 2006 2007 Polish market the WCM is implemented in ArcelorMittal
1. Intramural Poland. In order to reach the WCM the enterprise
expenditures on 5158 4906 4833 5384 modernised the technology completely. In June 2009 it
R+D activity began the transformation of the existing concept of TPM

205
(Total Productive Maintenance). The concept of World
Class Manufacturing is based, on the one hand on the
improvement of production effectiveness and the ways of
managing an enterprise and, on the other hand on the
enterprise functioning cost reduction. The integration of
those two aims requires the improvement of functioning
of an enterprise in two key areas of activity: operational
area and market area. In the operation area there is the
production, inner and outer logistics, storage, purchase
and post-purchase service. The market area is built of
units which deal with marketing and sales. On the line of
contact of those two areas the decrease of action
effectiveness often occurs. World Class Manufacturing,
through the actions coordination, planning and control
systems and successful communication allows for the
improvement of effectiveness in each of those areas and
on the line of their contact. The improvement of work
efficiency requires a good design as well as
implementation of forecast and production planning
processes together with introduction of simple job
organisation tools and motion management. In reference
to market action the emphasis is put on effective and
coherent communication with the surrounding. Both
sections of the enterprise should cooperate in order to
provide the customers with the quality [5]. The basis here
is the pull strategy and systems of quality management
(TQM) Fig. 5.
FOUNDATIONS:
Pull strategy
TQM
Border between fields
of activities
Operation
activity
Market activity
purchases
production sale
logistics marketing
store
services
Improved processes
Targets:
reduction of costs
increase efficiency
client satisfaction
Fig. 6. The structure of WCM
In order to achieve WCM ArcelorMittal in 2009
produced about 18 totally new types of steel. There were
92 thousands of tonnes of new products in total. In 2010
the enterprise will continue to work on steel with bigger
strength and low content of sulphur. The future of the
company is also the production of metal sheets which are
hot rolled, oiled and etched. In 2010 the demand is
estimated on the level of 60 thousand tonnes. Apart from
the modification of chemical composition of the
metallurgical products attention was turned also to the
extension of the range of goods for final recipients, for
example car industry (products with proper thickness and
width) [6]. Next to product innovations shown in brief
here on the example of ArcelorMittal Poland SA, the key
206
change areas in metallurgical industry in Poland include:
the use of electric and converter furnaces to produce steel,
where at the same time the use of open-hearth furnaces
(O.H. furnaces) (51) and old-fashioned blast furnace (8)
was stopped, the use of bow casting machine method was
increased (production of steel produced with the use of
this method increased from 7.6% in 1990 to about 90% in
2009) [7].
5. CONCLUSION
In the article some problems of transfer technological
innovation were presented. Innovation in enterprises are
effective, although not necessarily simple way in securing
competitive advantage and business growth for
enterprises. Addressing competitiveness concerns of
globally competing industry implies the need for
manufacturing enterprises to implement new and
innovative solutions. These innovations are associated
with products, production processes, technology, labour
organization, primary and secondary operations, business
management policies, sales technologies, services (e-
commerce) etc. Innovations in todays globally competing
environment may vary widely across markets. In the
paper some of them were characterised.
REFERENCES
[1] SANTAREK K. (red) and others, Transfer
technologii z uczelni do biznesu. Tworzenie
mechanizmw transferu technologii. PARP, Warsaw
2008, p. 7 19.
[2] BRDULAK J., Zarzdzanie wiedz a proces
innowacji produktowych, SGH, Warsaw, p. 96,
GAJDZIK B., Zmiany w zarzdzaniu wspczesnym
przedsibiorstwem hutniczym, Hutnik- Wiadomoci
Hutnicze Nr 3/2007, s.145-151.
[3] GAJDZIK B., Proces innowacji produktowych w
przedsibiorstwie hutniczym, Hutnik-Wiadomoci
Hutnicze Nr 3/2009, s. 210-215, GAJDZIK B.,
Zarzdzanie innowacjami w przedsibiorstwie
produkcyjnym, International Conference Modern
Problems of Enterprise Management, AGH, Bielsko-
Biaa 2010.
[4] Statistical Yearbook of Industry, Central Statistical
Office, Warsaw 2008, pp. 405-419
[5] GAJDZIK B., Metallurgical companies tend towards
World Class Manufacturing (WCM), Hutnik-
Wiadomoci Hutnicze 2010.
[6] www.arcelormittal com.
[7] GAJDZIK B., The metallurgical enterprises after
restructuring process, Silesian University of
Technology, Gliwice 2009.
CORRESPONDENCE
Boena GAJDZIK, D. Sc. Eng.
Silesian University of Technology
Faculty of Materials Science and
Metallurgy, Department Management
and Informatics Science
40-019 Katowice, Poland
bozena.gajdzik@polsl.pl

DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOOL WEAR
CONDITION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
MODEL IN TURNING
Aco ANTI
Milan ZELJKOVI
Petar B. PETROVI
Abstract: Acquiring qualitative and timely information on
the tool condition in the real time presents a necessary
prerequisite for identifying a degree of tool wear, which
significantly improves the stability and the quality of the
machining process. This paper deals with defining a
model for the tool wear classification system with a
special emphasis on the module for gathering and
processing vibration acceleration signal by applying
discrete wavelet transformations (DWT) in signal
decomposition. The paper presents a model of the
developed fuzzy system for tool wear classification. The
system comprises of three subsystems, those being:
subsystem for data acquisition and processing, subsystem
for tool wear classification, and subsystem for decision-
making. The selected method for feature separation is
presented within the subsystem for data classification and
processing. The selected model for a fuzzy classificator is
shown within data classification and clustering, as well as
the classification evaluation in experimental laboratory
conditions. The applied model has been tested for
longitudinal and transversal machining operations.
Key words: Tool monitoring, wear, feature extraction
1. INTRODUCTION
In a completely automated production, timely detection of
cutting tool fracture and wear degree is marked as an
essential step towards the improvement of productivity
and economy in contemporary machining. It has been
estimated that the accurate and reliable system for fracture
detection and tool wear condition monitoring can lead to
the increase in the cutting speed for 10-50% and to the
pause shortening with the accurate stopping anticipations,
contributing to the overall machining savings between
10% and 40% [1]. Developing monitoring systems that
would work in real time is a main direction in supervising
tool condition and machining process in contemporary
automated production. Quality information on tool wear
degree in real time presents a necessary prerequisite for
tool stability identification. More intensive researches
linked to the development of the intelligent systems for
tool monitoring in the cutting process were introduced in
1990s with the application of multisensor approach, i.e.
wear classifiers based on artificial intelligence algorithms.
The initial research in this area presented a hypothesis
that the application of these methods should result in
industrially applied solutions for tool wear monitoring in
turning. Scheffer and Heyns [2] emphasise that the
majority of systems utilize forces, acoustic emission and
vibrations, or the combination of these signals. The
confirmation of this fact is explicitly stated by Dutta et al.
[3], as well as Balazinski et al. [4]. Indirect methods for
tool wear monitoring and the techniques for sensor signal
acquisition and processing present the main research
directions in most active experimental researches, and
they perform it by utilizing signals of cutting forces,
vibrations and acoustic emissions. In addition, in order to
determine tool wear condition, direct visual methods have
been employed as well. However, these methods have
application limitations in practical conditions in real time.
2. TOOL WEAR MONITORING
Wear monitoring has the task of protecting the machining
process from unpredicted deviations through simple
managing steps. Wear monitoring implies a strategy that,
based on managing input values into the machining
system, enables rapid reaction to the appearing deviations
during the process.
Tool wear condition is usually defined as a geometric
alteration. Direct monitoring methods, like optical
methods utilized for direct measuring of tools geometric
parameters, have been developed by [6]. Indirect methods
for tool wear monitoring are used to perform the
correlation degree monitoring between sensor signal and
the accompanying occurrence. This approach has the
advantage of being less complicated in the sense of
appropriateness for practical application. In contemporary
machine tools, sensors can be installed in various places,
like multi-positional tool support, spindle or some other
place on the machine. Furthermore, monitoring the
cutting dynamics can provide the insight into the tool
wear condition, which is especially indicated in tool entry
into and exit out of the process.
In order to research tool wear and machining processes, as
well as their influence on the mechanical system of tool
machine, various sensors of a wide range of reliability are
utilized today. In laboratory research there is a number of
realized diverse technical solutions with a various
numbers and types of sensors. Sensors for force
monitoring are one of the most applied signals in
laboratory research and practical application for
monitoring the processes of turning and milling. The
alteration in cutting forces is directly reflected onto the
machine precision and machining quality. Force control
can directly influence the improvement of machining
quality and the durability of tool stability. Vibration
measurements are performed utilizing accelerometers,
which are utilized for measuring vibration frequencies
and amplitude within the structure of the machine, main
207
spindle, tool and workpiece [5]. The alterations during the
machining process can be observed in the alteration of
vibration structure, based on which the correlation with
the quality of the processed surface and tool stability [7]
can be established. Acoustic emission signal is based on
several diverse phenomena. There are two types of
signals: continuous and transient. Continual signal type
appears with plastic deformation in plastic material, while
the broken signal appears at the beginning of the
formation of initial crack or the formation of fractured
chip.
2.1. Systems for tool monitoring
Most of the researches performed in the area of the
development of tool monitoring systems have tendency to
emphasise the kind of machining and the operations to
which the developed system can be applied, and not the
types and kinds of input signals, methods and techniques
for signal processing and feature extractions. In this
manner the boundaries of research application in the area
of tool monitoring systems are artificially limited,
especially when focused only onto certain processing
types [1].
As suitable algorithms in setting the multisensor system
model, it is recommended to utilize artificial neural
networks, fuzzy logic (split logic) and their combination
(hybrid systems). The possibility to recognize shapes and
analytical functions can also be observed through
machining processes as adjoining elements of the process.
The application of the concept for developing tool
monitoring system, known as pattern recognition, can be
realized in three steps. Sensor signal x(t) is determined in
advance with noise elimination, and the filtered data are
separated into the input function. Then, the information
relevant for sampling classification are extracted from the
input signal x'(t) into the vector function y(t). The aim of
feature extraction is to improve the characteristics of
various classes of tool wear repressed due to filtration.
Final step is to define tool condition and perform final
classification. Input information vector y(t) is defined as
one of K conditions of tool wear, C1, C2, ... , Ck, and in
classification it is based on the applied type of
classification criterion [8, 9].
2.2. Methods and techniques in feature
extraction
Input sensor signals and data for the system depend on
processing methods and time-frequency signal
decomposition. The utilization of the Short-Time Fourier
Transform (STFT) in combination with wavelet
transformations provides highly satisfactory results in
their performances in relation to other time-frequency
methods [1, 9]. The application of wavelet
transformations in processing and analyzing signals
gathered on the machine can be successfully employed to
analyze diverse dynamic non-stationary signals of
mechanic systems as well, proving the accomplishment of
this method in feature extraction. It has been observed
that time-frequency methods are very satisfactory for
feature extraction that would otherwise, on applying some
other methods, remain unidentified. The area demanding
additional research activity is the integration of machine
tool dynamics and the correlation between cutting process
208
and tool monitoring system. Little has been performed to
exploit these pieces of information in tool wear
monitoring systems. There is a set of methods that could
be utilized for generating machine tool dynamic models
for the purpose of the integration with tool monitoring
systems. The usage of mathematical models provides a
potential to expand the comprehensiveness of tool wear
monitoring systems considering dynamic characteristics
of machine tools.
Wavelet transformation is the most utilized and the most
important method for analyzing signals in time-frequency
area. It actually provides the possibility of signal analysis
on a local level, which is particularly significant with
processing non-stationary signals. Transformation
procedure is based on comparing wavelet functions of
certain width (frequency) defined by a scanning
parameter (s) with signal elements of equal width in a
determined time interval (t-k). The scale should be
inversely defined considering signal frequency:
* t
(, s ) x(t )
1
dt
s s
(1)
where is translation parameter, s is scale parameter, x(t)
is signal being transformed, is frequency composition of
the signal x(t) in the determined time interval k and with
the scale s, and * is scaled and translated projection of
the original wavelet (t). When the s original function of
the determined scale is utilized to perform the total signal
analysis, the procedure is repeated for other scale value,
i.e. time interval. If the signal contains a spectral
component responding to momentary scale value, the
multiplication of the wavelet function and the signal at the
place where the component exists is a relatively high
number.
Parallel to the development of a cutting tool wear
monitoring model, analyses have also been performed of
the features of various types and shapes of wear
identification parameters in relation to wear degree
evaluation quality. It can be stated that, with low
frequency signals (force, motor power), the most present
are parameters from time domain, and then from
frequency domain, as well as statistic parameters. With
high frequency parameters, like acoustic emission or
vibrations, the first place is taken by parameters from
frequency domain, followed by statistic parameters and
parameters from time domain. The lowest presence is of
parameters from time-frequency domain. The analysis of
the available papers illustrates that the parameter selection
process in most cases has a goal to select optimal
parameter number, and only then to select the most
suitable parameter set in respect to recognizing the
influence of each parameter individually onto the degree
of tool wear. It can be observed that the problem of
analyzing and selecting wear parameters has been treated
in several manners in literature. Mostly, there is no
explanation linked to their selection. The analysis of a
number of papers that separate a set of parameters which
had been analyzed and chosen based on the degree of
correlation with the wear process refers that the most
applied methods are: SFS (Sequential Forward Search),
SBS (Sequential Backward Search), PCA (Principal
Component Analyzes) and their mutual correlation. A
number of methods utilize so-called sequential parameter
selection which implies their mutual independence in tool
wear evaluation, the other segment being the selection of
parameter combination. Generally stating, in contrast to
the combined approach, with individual parameter
selection the number of parameters has less influence on
model complexity and the increase of demands for
supplementary analyses. Conversely, certain situations
demonstrate that mutual parameter influence can result in
higher correlation degree with wear dynamics than in the
case of individual approaches.
3. LABORATORY MODEL FOR TOOL
WEAR MONITORING SYSTEM
Previous experiences in developing diverse system
models based on the application of artificial intelligence,
presented in literature, have served as a fine initial basis
for developing a new model. The analysis of mentioned
models provided an insight into the advantages and
drawbacks of certain models, which was taken into
account when developing a new model. Considering the
previously stated facts from the introduction, the
following demands have been set prior to establishing a
new laboratory system:
 The use of sensors for measuring vibration
acceleration in order to provide better detection of
dynamic characteristics of cutting process and their
implementation into the monitoring system.
Fig. 1. Presentation of the developed system structure for tool wear classification
 The use of new algorithms for the application of
artificial intelligence in the field of tool wear
monitoring, based on the employment of a priori
knowledge on tool wear condition.
 The detection of satisfactory manner to select vectors
with input characteristics utilizing transformations in
time-frequency domain.
The consideration and application of these demands lead
to the development of a tool wear monitoring system
model presented in Figure 1.
System model can basically be observed through three
segments united into one entity. The developed segments
(subsystems) of the laboratory system for tool monitoring
are as follows:
 Subsystem for signal acquisition and processing,
 Subsystem for fuzzy classification,
 Subsystem for decision-making.
Sensor segment of the module for data acquisition and
processing comprises of the accelerator for measuring
vibration acceleration installed on the tool handle.
Subsystem for data acquisition and processing also
contains A/D card NI USB 6281 18bit, 625 kS/s, which
receives analogue information from the existing sensor,
converts them into digital information, and transmits them
into the measuring database in the computer. To manage
the card, Matlab software system has been employed. The
system enables defining speed of data sampling and other
necessary functions for the operation of subsystem for
acquisition.
209
3.1. Subsystem for acquisition and processing
The structure of the subsystem for acquisition and
processing can be observed through three phases
presented in Fig. 2. In the first phase of data acquisition,
gathering data from sensors is performed together with
the selection of a filtration band. In the concrete situation,
low-pass Butterworth filter is applied to perform the
filtration of various noise types that define measuring
signal.
Fig. 2. Subsystem for acquisition and processing
The second phase is feature extraction. The main goal of
feature extraction is to significantly decrease the
dimensions of raw data received from sensors in time
and frequency domains, and simultaneously to maintain
relevant information on tool condition in extracted
features. The matrix of the spectrogram S of signal s(n)
consists of columns acquired as the square of the Discrete
Fournier transform (DFT) module of windowed signal
s(n). Spectrogram parameters are shape and length, as
well as the degree of overlapping/alpha between two
adjacent window functions w(n). By averaging all the
columns in the matrix of the spectrogram S the estimation
of the signal force spectrum is achieved. Since, due to
previous analyses, it has been established that the signal
force spectrum is not satisfactorily discriminative feature,
spectrogram normalization has been performed in such a
manner that the estimation of the signal force spectrum is
subtracted from each column of the matrix S. Afterwards,
the following steps have been performed:
 Separation of certain spectrogram range (~20 kHz to
~45 kHz),
 Treatment of the spectrogram as a two-dimensional
signal,
 Application of selected filters from LM filter bank,
 Calculation of appropriate statistic parameters from
the values acquired by filtration,
 Formation of features that are to be utilized for
classification in the next subsystem.
210
Classificator training should basically employ the
maximal number of features, which is not always the best
option due to the fact that certain less significant features,
in the sense of their lower discrimination role, can have
negative influence onto the training algorithm
performances. In order to improve the accuracy and the
efficiency of the applied classification algorithm and to
decrease the demands for computer performances of a
tool wear monitoring system, the selection of optimal
number of significant features in the final model has been
carefully elaborated and defined in the third segment of
the module for acquisition and processing.
Within the performed researches to filter vibration signal
spectrum, the Leung-Malik LM set has been employed,
presenting the multi-scale and multi-oriented filter bank
with 48 filters. There are 36 filters from the first and
second Gaussian function derivative in 6 orientations and
3 scales, 8 filters acquired in the application of Laplace
operator on two-dimensional Gaussian function, and 4
filters of Gaussian function shape. The shapes of the
applied filters, in individual scales, for extracting features
from the frequency signal spectrum, are presented in Fig.
3.
Scale 1 Scale 2 Scale 3
Fig. 3. Shapes of selected filters of transversal orientation
for feature extraction
On the appliance of the separated filters in the high-
frequency spectrum segment of the shot vibration signal,
one obtains the following signal spectrograms in
individual scales presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Separated spectrum segments in scale with
parameters (window 256 and 3/4 overlapping)
3.2. Defining input characteristics vector
Considering the examined methods for feature separation
presented in literature, i.e. the applied solutions for
separating input characteristics vectors, for the input
system vectors in this paper the following statistic
parameters have been selected: mean value, mean value
deviation variance, asymmetry coefficients (Skewness)
and flatness coefficients (Kurtosis), known in statistics as
central moments. In probability theory and in statistics, k-
th moment of the mean value (or k-th central moment) of
the real random variable X is the amount (k) = E [(X -
E[X])k], where E is the expectancy operator. For the
continual univariate probability distribution with the
probability density function f(x), the mean value moment
is .
 (k ) = E [ ( X E ( X )) ]= ( x )
k
+

k
f (x ) dx
where t is a real number. Bearing in mind that M(t) 1 + tX
+ t2X2/2! + t3X3/3! + .... if n =E(Xn) is n-th moment from
(2) X, one can write the expectation:
Since the distribution function is unknown, expectation
2t 2 nt n
evaluation is executed, where: M (t ) = 1 + 1t + + ... + + ... +
1 N 2! n!
E (x ) = xi
(6)
N i =1 (3) Since the coefficient t is in the Taylor series M (0)/n!,
n n

[ ( X E (X )) ]= N1 N
k where M n is n-th derivative from M, then n = M n(0).
1 N
(x ) = E k
xi xi Characteristic function is being approximated via
i = 1 N i = 1 moments, and moments present the input characteristics
(4)
The moment of the generated function of the random vectors for a fuzzy classificator. Distribution is acquired
variable X can be written as: on the basis of first four moments for frequency spectrum
M (t ) = M X (t ) = E e [ ]
tX
(5)
bands applying DFT.

Table 1. Overview of a segment of calculated central moments in individual scales

for the inserts with various wear degree

Wear band width Wear band width Completely

Central moments New insert
0.25mm 0.55mm degraded tool
Scale 1
1. c.m. mean -0.13794819926 -0.12472823415 -0.11436530596 -0.12541743628
2. c.m. variance 4.33004452633 1.61527765463 0.59496679855 1.00174617608
3. c.m. skewness -1.47780598530 -0.96825146333 -0.41422192202 -1.21663428609
4. c.m. kurtosis 0.11382051257 0.06486639025 0.04587497758 0.12541445114
Scale 2
1. c.m. mean -0.22383778716 -0.18795982515 -0.16372339460 -0.18678597239
2. c.m. variance 3.06549712564 1.23954201485 0.36939617833 0.63390553200
3. c.m. skewness -1.17290133182 -0.77377167145 -0.48294701146 -1.06014195154
4. c.m. kurtosis 0.08259091746 0.05210368214 0.04575176375 0.08659298047
Scale 3
1. c.m. mean -0.30352420900 -0.23958936267 -0.20836828770 -0.24357300170
2. c.m. variance 1.56893965739 0.75401003960 0.17995614785 0.33778890834
3. c.m. skewness -1.07040434106 -0.63626635922 -0.57505774822 -1.13331518583
4. c.m. kurtosis 0.06757675981 0.04609144501 0.04589097543 0.07824611322

From the presented results, one can observe the central
moments orientation, inspected by the frequency of
formed chip lamellas acquired in machining with the tool
with various degree of tool insert wear in individual filter
scales. The exception appears with the orientation
deviation with the insert with the highest wear, which can
be attributed to the fact that the insert is completely
degraded and that the chip type alteration has occurred
with this insert.
3.3. Subsystem for tool wear classification
Recognizing shapes by the application of mathematical
tasks comprises of two defined phases: transduction phase
and classification phase. Let be a set of physical objects
(the term object refers to physical items and processes).
These objects can be characterised by a finite set of
parameters relevant for the classification task. Each of
these parameters, or a couple of them, refers to the
specific object features q . Each object parameter can
be measured by utilizing a certain measurement
procedure, and certain features can be measured as well
after employing randomly complex measurement
procedures m related to these features. In such a manner,
object q can be related to mathematical object x = M(q) =
(m1(q), ..., mq(q)) X, where mi(q) denotes the value of
i-th feature. Feature i of the object q and the appropriate
set X are related to the mathematical shape of all objects.
These mathematically generated objects x are referred to
as samplings.
The second phase of the shape recognition process is the
sampling vectors classification. Classification means that
the given mathematical object x can be awarded by a class
of similar or partially similar objects. Therefore, in the
rigid shape recognition, the membership value to each
feature is assigned with the coefficient zero or one, (x),
while with the fuzzy recognition patterns, the value
between zero and one is assigned to each sampling in the
membership function F(x). Hence, in the fuzzy shape
recognition, the classes of similar objects belong to a
~ ~
dispersed set F ( F is a class mark). The evaluation of
the membership of the object x in a class can be regarded
as a degree of its similarity to the object representative of
the class. The best known standard algorithm for solving
this problem is the fuzzy c-mean algorithm. For the
procedure of tool wear classification the Fuzzy c-mean
algorithm has been applied. The employed algorithm has
been realized within the software environment Matlab.
Algorithm model utilizes the following optimization
model:

211
 m [5] ANTI, A., Prepoznavanje stanja pohabanosti alata
min J m (U , V , w) = uik Dik + wi (1 uik )
c n c n
m 2
{U ,V } i =1k =1 i =1 k =1
(7)
where:
V = {v1 , v 2 ...vc } R cp - prototype vector, and vi R p -
point of i-th prototype.
Fig. 5 presents the survey of the classification process
results after employing fuzzy c-mean (FCM) algorithm.
Presented results refer to the fact that the application of
such classificator model can achieve the satisfactory
accuracy in tool wear estimation.
Fig. 5. Cluster centre distribution for the combination of
features variance and kurtosis
4. CONCLUSION
The main conclusion that can be observed is the fact that
the presented classification model type demonstrates a
highly distinctive demand for qualitative larger number of
input information vectors. Furthermore, the necessary
prerequisite for appropriate classificator performance is
the application of a larger number of process parameter
combinations in the procedure of initiating and stabilizing
model structure.
REFERENCES
[1] REHORN, A.G., JIANG, J., ORBAN, P.E., State of
the Art Methods and Results in Tool Condition
Monitoring: A review, International Journal of
Advance Manufacturing Technology 26, 2005, pp.
693710.
[2] SCHEFFER, A., HEYNS P.S., An Industrial Tool
Wear Monitoring System for Interrupted Turning,
Mechanical Systems & Signal Processing 18, 2004,
pp. 12191242.
[3] DUTTA, A.K., PAUL, S., CHATTOPADHYAY,
A.B., Fuzzy Controlled Backpropagation Neural
Network for Tool Condition Monitoring in Face
Milling, International Journal of Production
Research, 38 (13), 2000, pp. 29893010.
[4] BALAZINSKI, M., CZOGALA, C., JEMIELNIAK,
K., LESKI, J., Tool Condition Monitoring Using
Artificial Intelligence Methods, Engineering
Applications of Artificial Intelligence 15, 2002, pp.
7380.
212
za obradu rezanjem primenom neuro-fazi klasi-
fikatora, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Novi Sad, 2010.
[6] CASTEJON, M., ALEGRE E., BARREIRO, J.,
HERNANDEZ, L.K., On-line Tool Wear Monitoring
Using Geometric Descriptors From Digital Images,
International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 2007.
[7] CHAE, J., PARK, S.S., High Frequency Bandwidth
Measurements of Micro Cutting Forces, International
Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47, 2007,
pp. 14331441.
[8] ANTI, A., HODOLI, J., SOKOVI, M.,
Development of a Neural--Networks Tool-Wear
Monitoring System for a Turning Process, Strojniki
vesnik Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 52 11,
2006, pp. 763-776.
[9] KUNPENG, Z., YOKE S.W., GEOK S.H., Wavelet
Analysis of Sensor Signals for Tool Condition
Monitoring: A review and some new results,
International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 49, 2009, pp. 537553.
[10] ANTIC A., PETROVIC P., ZELJKOVIC M., The
Impact of Worn Out Tool on the Character and Type
of Chip Formation, 26th Symposium on Advances in
Experimental Mechanics, Proceedings,
Montanuniveritet Leoben, 2009, pp. 1-2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper presents a segment of the research on the
project Research and Development of Ball and Bearing
Assemblies and Their Components, project number TR
14048 (Researches in the field of technological
development for the period 2008 2010) financed by the
Ministry of Science and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia, and the Doctoral dissertation titled
Recognizing Wear Condition of Tools for Cutting by
Applying Neural-Fuzzy Classificators.
CORRESPONDENCE
Aco ANTI, MSc. Eng.
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
antica@uns.ac.rs
Milan ZELJKOVI, Prof. D.Sc. Eng
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
milanz@uns.ac.rs
Petar B. PETROVI, Prof. D.Sc. Eng
University of Belgrade
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Kraljice Marije 16
11000 Beograd, Serbia
pbpetrovic@gmail.com

WORK TIME STRUCTURE MEASURING,
THE TOOL FOR STATE DETERMINING
AND PROCESSES MANAGEMENT
Goran LULI
Miroslav CAR
Abstract: Work and non-work/ losses areas and its
belonging times do Work time structure WTS, with basic
unit one work day or one work shift for its establishing
and analysis. Every structure of work time for physical
and/ or mental work can be, most often, established by
means of famous methods FWD (Figure Work Day) and
RDS/ WSM (Ratio Delay study/ Work sampling method).
By knowing possibilities, aims and results, more rational
making decision and processes management is assured to
experts. In introduction, the application is performed on
examples from aeronautical industry.
Key words: Work time structure WTS, WTS measuring,
making decision, processes management, aircraft industry
1. INTRODUCTION
Basic processes of belonging systems are: technological,
productive and business. Activities of work and non work/
losses in aforementioned processes can be classified by
analytical procedures according to three criteria: on
hierarchical levels of composed parts, on composed
elements of process and operations, and on manual,
machine and machine-manual work on basis structure of
work subject. For all work elements, it is possible to
associate corresponding time, which can be established by
measuring, determining and designing approaches and
corresponding methods, techniques and procedures. Work
and non work/ loses activities and its belonging times
form Work time structure WTS, with basic unit of one
work day or one work shift of its establishing and
analysis. Every structure of work time for physical and/or
mental work can be, most often, established by means of
famous methods FWD (Figure work day) and RDS/ WSM
(Ratio Delay study/ Work sampling method), by knowing
possibilities, aims and results, more rational making
decision and processes management is assured to experts.
Previously exhibited hypotheses from the introduction are
applied on examples from aeronautical industry.
2. WORK TIME STRUCTURE
2.1. Basic characteristics
The Definition of the notion WTS frequently isn't even
given, or isn't given explicitly, but is, frequently,
expressed implicitly, by means of two groups of work
time/day characteristics, and those are: the content of
some theoretical characteristics (aim, purpose and
conditions of application, affecting factors on elements
and structure characteristics, etc.) and the dominant
quotations of method existence and application
techniques (FWD and RSD/ WSM).
About the previous starting definitions witness also the
works of some of the most familiar researchers of the
Work study area, of which, for instance, one has been
shown: During work (shift), the workers spend the time
on different jobs, on the break, on the delays that appear
for different causes, etc. Research of the WTS is a
necessity, because of different purposes, of which the
most important are shown here. For the previous purposes
to be realized, all forms of spending have to be classified
according to the same-typed groups (categories), in
harmony with the same objective characteristics, to
systematize them and then also analyse it, [1].
Beyond starting the previous definition of WTS, given in
[2], but in accordance with the necessary basic
characteristics in definition content, his own suggested
definition was given, with the following form and
content: "The WTS represents the belonging individual
kind, sub-kind or the type, or their combination, structure
projecting with established permanent or changeable
work time (static part of the structure), which is expressed
in a time or percentile amount, for the chosen (non)
activity of the worker and/ or the equipment, expressed by
means of the corresponding components ratio of the
physical and mental/ mind acting in the prevalent material
modification and/ or in the prevalent information/
administration modification, along with adequate
individual form, or their combination, the usage (elements
of technology, dynamics, etc.) of the available equipment
capacity and/ or time worker fund for the belonging type
of projecting structure (dynamic part of the structure) in
the conditions of the existence of watched systems and
processes without significant deviations, and all because
of the accomplishment of the proposed aims and
purposes. The results of the individual and/ or interactive
influences of the mentioned factors are expressed for
periods of the basic calendar or business/ work terminal
unit. Measuring unit is one working shift and/ or one
work day, where the sum of average components
proportion of structure amount to 100%, and the sum of
time amounts are duration time of work shift and/ or work
day. Situation of more work shifts in one work day is
solved theoretically and practically in more different ways
and different than situation with one shift as a starting and
basic measure to more, most often four, shifts and
different alternative forms, taking into consideration the
mathematical-statistical, physiological, sociological,
psychological, economic and other requested and realized
hypothesis and conditions, [3].
Aims and purpose, applying possibilities relatively, Work
time structure WTS, really, represent reasons of needed for
213
WTS application, application areas relatively, and this
ones would be numbered ten at least.
2.2. Basic elements of WTS
Every solution and system and process model changing of
work subject in product is possible, in the first level and
toward one explicit criteria, to show for: the
complementary pairs of chosen structure level the
belonging measure of system and process and measured
parameter, by example in level of layers Work W and
Non-work/ Losses NW/ L, components of total work time
structure and production cycle, expressed in percent % for
p and q and in measuring time units MTU.
Single areas of Science have their own views on work,
and one such with complementary pairs of ideas, and
which is not finished, is shown in [9]. Basic deal is on
kinds of work from the view of work subject. The first
kind, as a consequence of historical justified reaction,
consist subkinds of work aims and tasks, conditions and
work design, with total of 20 pairs. The second kind,
which necessarily takes into account the consequences of
work, consists of subkinds view, education, request of
work and organization, total 18 pairs.
For research, there are three models with complex or
integrated views or criteria that are chosen, and because
of limited span of the paper for it, only an introduction to
models with criteria structure and some features is
exhibited.
Models and its characteristics
Model 1: Classification of process according to
hierarchical and horizontal correlation of components of
work and losses, [10]
Model 2: Classification of (work and non-work, along
with the belonging) process times and their components,
[11]
Model 3: The Classification according to the criteria
composed elements work and non-work belonging times
of operation and processes, [12, 13]
2.3. Methods, techniques and procedures of
measuring: theoretical hypothesis [7, 8]
2.3.1. Method WDF, [7, 8, 9]
Definition: WDF is a method of duration time measuring
of individual activities in order they appear during the
entire shift.
Technology: Work place and/ or worker do individual
activities, and time analyst, who spends his entire shift
beside mentioned entities, follows, notes down and
measures the duration time of the entities by means of a
chronometer/ stopwatch, a watch or some similar
instrument for time measuring, using the flux method
without the performance rating, and writes the results
down into the measuring list.
2.3.2. RDS/WSM, [7, 8, 9]
Definition: RDS/WSM is a method of mathematical-
statistical overseeing of the phenomena by means of their
frequency, which is based on the sampling theory by
counting from the two-layered discontinued groups, for
which the random variable can receive only integer
values.
Mathematical-statistical basis: The result of the
phenomena overseeing, mathematically defined, belongs
214
to the discontinued random variable, whose belonging
integer values do discontinued series of numbers. A
typical representative of the discontinued distribution is
the binomial distribution.
2.4. Possible areas and results of WTS,
application backgrounds for making decision
and processes management
Aims and purpose of applying for WTS, really, represent
reasons for need of its application, application areas
relatively. The most important of previously mentioned,
without tendency of exhibition for its explanation
according to importance degree, knowing which are
fitting together with adequate results of WTS of cited
ones, are:
1) impact/ influence of structure and belonging elements
on business success
One such element is time losses in work. This parameter
is in correlation with facts, that the most influencing
factor on growing of production and productivity are not
equipped with machines, instruments and other
equipment, new investment and new machines will be
used to apply existing bad organization relatively, non
rational work method relatively, by whose existent losses
will multiply, but these are ways of equipment using,
behaviour of men and in firm and its including in
problems solving, and that means influencing factors
degree of technological development and new work
method application, better work organization (more
rational work method) and diminishing of all losses,
optimal use of work time.
Although losses are necessary phenomena in every work,
only that is the question of its structure and amount.
Taking of diminishing action request, at first, establishing
of existing status (percent of work and losses), and then
its quantifying, besides of activities classifying structure,
on justified (aforementioned ones can be, and have to be
planned and acknowledged in norm) unjustified (that ones
dont have to be planned and acknowledged in norm, even
thought they exist),
2) impact of higher prioritised parts of structure on
business success
It is not unimportant which part of structure is to be
chosen for analysis and rationalization, because the parts
of this structure have different impacts on business
success.
The impact of losses establishing and analyzing of its
causes is more important than the impact of work
establishing, and that means it is possible to reach some
effects by its rationalization, but more often, more
important and greater effects can be realized by
rationalization of losses. More precisely, it is not
necessary to rationalize exclusively work elements
(preliminary-finishing work/ time, technological
work/time, auxiliary work/time) as long as in the existing
work method (in new work method it can be, or it is,
necessary and justification because of new equipment,
new technology and etc.) exists reasonable possibility of
acting on losses rationalization.
3) impact of the chosen part of the structure on
appearance of adequate investment amount.
The analogous starting hypothesis about an independent
variable is valid here (part of structure), expressed in
starting position of previous 2), with difference that
dependent variable is a result of an adequate amount
investment.
By rationalization of losses, it is possibly easier to reach
the greater degree of realizing some of work study
purpose (work humanization, diminishing of fatigue and
growing of security, as well as diminishing expenses and
growing of production, along with negligible investment
or even without ones, but work rationalization which
often requests change of technology, and by doing so,
provokes appearing of investment in determined amount.
4) impact of using capacity and fund of work time
structure on employment, inflation and some of the other
business parameters.
Once, when the full employment is reached and factories
produce near maximum of capacity, every added growing
of spending can influence on growing price on basis of
more growth (progressive) rate. The reason is simply in
the fact that the balance of supply and consumption is
disturbed;
5) importance of structure in work study tasks
Time study (determining, measuring and design) is a part
of Work Study area. The second task in order consists of
analysis of losses in work and its rationalization, and it
can be considered a necessary reason for direct analysis of
structure.
Solely by analysing and rationalizing of losses, the degree
of work possibilities is established, and then that would
be growing of production and productivity, but filling the
others aims and purpose of work study;
6) impact on finding of priority causes of losses in work:
Even when the structure and amount of losses are
established, aim is not realized. It is needed, even
desirable, to establish priority cause and causes of losses
and find inside the production or business system the sub
systems, which are the greatest producers of losses and
which should get the most attention in the future;
7) influence on uncovering reserves of capacity and/ or
time fund,
Even when structure of losses is established, aim is not
realized. It is needed, even desirable, from established
structure and amount of losses to conclude uncovering of
needed and not needed times, just like the uncovering of
existing reserves, savings, beside establishing of the work
time usage, and the purpose of possible growing
effectiveness of production or business system, etc.;
8) expressing of realized production by adequate
indicators, (14, M.Klarin, 1984.)
All activities in the firm management can be expressed by
the realized production, where it is necessary to take in
consideration the natural and financial indicators, and
mention that it is possible to express in quantitative mode
by measure of degree of using capacity and degree of
using time fund, what is not always possible across
economical indicators and applying of the analytical
method of weighting for production factory and losses,
whose ways give only general figures about the level of
the organized firm;
9) design of backgrounds of comparison for different
structures
One of the most important purposes, practical use of
knowing hypothesis about structure relatively, is watched
in the following facts, (15): Problem of partial
establishing of work time structure is watched in a series
of realized researches. Such approach has a consequence,
beside some of the others, impossibility of objective
comparison for different work day structure between
firms, and toward (1), belonging branches and areas of
activities by different parameters. In this way, it declines a
possibility of finding adequate legalities of establishing of
the work day structure and its applicability in industry and
wider, in society. Mentioned problem is watching in (12):
When such capacity measuring would be organized in a
single expert Unions' and compare single similar firms, it
would be given very useful data about real use of single
machines, departments especially. By analysing the
aggregated data and establishing of firms with the best
use of capacity, simultaneously with the least losses, it
would be performed in such a way that the rest of firms
can find themselves inside those limits. On conferences,
which will be organized by unions, it would be possible to
reach between interested firms agreement about
transferring experience of better firms, the ones with less
percent of losses, and vice versa. This way, much faster
growing of productivity would could happen (time
saving, and growing of production and productivity), and
in this way, this union would assure help to more of
weaker firms;
10) importance and position of work time structure in
system and processes of work study
2.5. Application of measuring WTS in aircraft
industry
On basis of backgrounds from [9], application of
measuring WTS is shown in the introductions for research
in the chosen firm for general repairing and servicing of
aeroplanes and helicopters and the belonging radio,
electronic and communicating equipment.
WORK PLANNED LOSSES
UNPLANNED LOSSES
13%
22% 65%
Fig. 1. Groups of activities in %, WDS method
In Service for production, department of machine tooling,
a research by one machine and operation (lathing and
milling) in manufacturing of reserved parts for general
repairing and service of flying objects is chosen, where
measuring of WTS only for method FWD is performed,
of total two applying methods, in duration some greater of
three days/ shifts for every of total two references, [10].
3. CONCLUSION
Activities of work and non work/ losses in
aforementioned processes is possible by analytical
procedures to share according to three criteria: on
215
hierarchical levels of composed parts, on composed
elements of process and operation, and on manual,
machine and machine-manual work, according to the
structure of the work subject. Corresponding times can be
associated with all work elements, which can be
established by measuring, determining and projecting
approaches and corresponding methods, techniques and
procedures. Work and non-work/ losses activities and its
belonging times form the Work time structure WTS, with
its basic established unit of one work day or one work
shift. Every structure of work time for physical and/ or
mental work can be, most often, established by means of
famous methods FWD (Figure Work Day) and RDS/
WSM (Ratio Delay study/ Work sampling method).
Knowing possibilities, aims and results, more rational
making decision and production management is ensured
to experts (designer, planner, technologist, chief of
manufacturing and etc.)
Previously exhibited hypotheses from the introduction are
applied on examples from aeronautical industry.
[8] TABORAK, D., Studij rada, etvrto izdanje (Work
Study, the fourth edition), Orgadata, Zagreb 1994.
[9] CAR, Miroslav, KRZNAR, M., IMON, K., STUDIJ
RADA- Zbirka zadataka i rjeenja I (engl., WORK
STUDY- Collection of Tasks and Solutions I), prvo i
drugo izdanje (engl., the first and the second edition),
Liber, Zagreb 1983. and 1991.
[10] KLARIN, M., Utvrivanje stepena korienja
kapaciteta primenom modifikovane MTZ
(Establishing of Using Capacity Degree by Applying
of Modified RDS, Knowledge Book, Beograd 1975.
[11] LULI, G., Usporedba dvije metode klasine
strukture radnoga vremena u sustavu zarkoplovstva
(engl, Comparison for two methods of work time
classical structure in aircraft industry), Zavrni rad
na Preddiplomskom studiju strojarstva of FMENA,
Zagreb 2008.

REFERENCES

[1] ZAHAROV, N.N., Tehniko normiranje procesa

rada (engl.,Technical Determining of Incentive Time
in Work Process; russ.,Tehnieskoe normirovanie
truda u mainostroenii, Magiz, Moskva 1959.),
Panorama, Zagreb 1964.
[2] CAR, Miroslav, Prouavanje mogunosti primjene
metoda utvrivanja strukture radnog dana na
neproizvodni rad, (Analysing of possibilities of
applying Work time structure establishing on
nonproductive work), Zbornik radova (engl.,
Proceedings of papers), FSB VI, Zagreb 1980., 201-
217.
[3] CAR, Miroslav, SEUEK, Ivan, Introduction into the
Development of Projecting and using Modes of Work
Time Structure, Computer Integrated Manufacturing
and High Speed Machining CIM 2001, 7th
International Scientific Conference on Production
Engineering CIM 2001, Editors: Roko Cebalo,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture in University of Zagreb, President of
CSPE & Herbert Schulz, PTW in Technische
Universitt Darmstadt, Germany, Lumbarda/Korula,
14-15.06.2001., Croatia, VI-013 do VI-024 CORRESPONDENCE
[4] HILF, H. H. H, Arbeitswissenschaft, Carl Hanser
Verlag, Munchen 1957. (Nauka o radu/ Knowledge Goran LULI, mag. ing.
about Work, Otokar Kerovani, Rijeka 1963.) University of Zagreb
[5] URAEVI, A., Unapreenje proizvodnje I, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
udbenik Sveuilita u Zagrebu, (engl., Advance of Naval Architecture
production, University in Zagreb), Zagreb 1971. I. Luia 5
[6] GAPAROVI, V., Proizvodne karakteristike 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
obzirom na proizvodnost, projekt (engl., Production goran.lulic@gmail.com
characteristics concerning productivity), project Miroslav CAR, Docent Dr.sc. Eng.
2.08.01.05.07 Proizvodnost rada u razvoju University of Zagreb
socijalistikog drutva (Work productivity in Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
development of socialistic society) SIZ-a za znanost, Naval Architecture
Zagreb 1988. I. Luia 5
[7] BUCHBERGER, ., TABORAK, D., Studij rada 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
(Work Study), NIP Varadin, Varadin 1966. mcar@fsb.hr; car.miroslav@gmail.com

216

BASIC DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
Miriam MATOV
Erika HRUKOV
Abstract: Technology designer deals causalities of
manufacturing processes. It is not limited to various
methods and sub-processes, but deals with the
requirements of the project with all the elements that
influence the course of the production process. By specific
analysis of these elements can reduce the time needed to
designer work which will take less time solving the
appropriate production system.
Key words: projecting, material flow, workstation design
1. INTRODUCTION
When designing the production systems have received
increased attention to issues of functional and spatial
relationships. These relations result in the processing
layout, respectively to spatial solutions. Zonal and spatial
studies are important for automated systems and
workplaces where is created high spatial concentration of
production functions.
1.1. Functional and spatial areas of workstation
in manufacturing systems
Area limited space where is realized specific functional
activity respectively complex manufacturing process.
Sub - area limited space within the frame of area in that
is realized only specific elementary functional unit of
manufacturing process (tool manipulation, enumeration
and etc.) respectively in which is one of workstation
elements.
During detailed inspection, it seems advisable to analyze
the technological workplaces that are functional and
spatial areas:
 Technological area as space where are performed
technological operations on workpieces,
 Manipulation area as space where are performed
manipulations (operational and intermediate
operational) with workpieces, tools and waste,
 Directing area as space in which are performed
controlling operations,
 Area of maintenance as space in which is realized set
up, maintenance, servicing and etc.
1.2. Spatial arrangement of manufacturing
workstations and systems
On the basis of combination algorithm originated
elementary variants of manufacturing workstation
arrangement:
 Manufacturing equipments and operator have the
uniform position this example is typical for majority
of workstations in manufacturing production (standard
sole operator platform) most often use,
 All elements of workstation are stationary in
operated position of one machine are realize all
operations the example are workstations with NC
machining centers and automatic machines.
 Stationary position have only manufacturing
equipments workstations with multi-machined
maintenance,
 Manufacturing equipments and products have
stationary position multimachined maintenance of
NC machined centers and automatic machines,
 Only maintenance has stationary position special
type of that are vertical mills with a few machines
positioned on rotary plate and they are rotating,
 Only product has stationary position production of
large and heavy objects
 Product and maintenance have stationary position,
 All elements of workstation are active - it means
moving.
Spatial arrangement of manufacturing equipments in the
workstation is depend on several points. Most important
are:
 Minimum transport paths,
 Minimum of storage and additional places,
 Effectiveness of manipulation operations,
 Respect to base engineering conditions (energies,
lighting, resistance of floors, all distributions, etc.)
Transport system achieves material and component
transport between workstations, manipulation system
connects the workstations with transport system. The aim
of storage system is continuous manufacturing feeding of
material and manufacturing equipments. The next task of
storage system is ranging of variety in capacity
workstation running and their output capacity.
What? defining the material that will be transported
(physical properties, volume)
Where? When? identification of needed manipulation
and transport activities
How? Who? correct method definition for transport
Which system? suitable solution design of material flow
Aim of material flow designing is minimalization of
transport, manipulation and storage. For this is necessary
to make simpler the system to minimum, it means take a
minimum of costs and time. In this dependence is needed
to resolute:
217
 Workstations and their capacities not suitable  Storages
capacity choosing originate not balanced material Pallet and supported units are used for storage
flow, hoarding, necessarity of intermediate storages material and construction of complex supported units that
and buffers and additional manipulation activities make possible economics manipulation by suitable
 Information flow and controlling system correct mechanization during complex storage process. For
directing of manufacturing inputs to system, example they are all kind of pallets, supports, storage
synchronization of marketing, of manufacturing and boxes and conveyors.
expedition, coordination of manufacturing system
Storage devices devices observed to positioning and
directing with transport system,
storage of material freely positioned or positioned in the
 All elements of manufacturing system must be storage units. They are various types of shelfs and buffers.
designed in the mutual relationship and most ideal is
when these all relations will be simulated in model Service manipulation equipments observe for
before starting simulation. realization of storage outputs and inputs, transport
During designing of particular elements is necessary to operations in ware housing. Various types of transport
remember the main aim of project is not transportation or boxes, shelf storages and stacking derrick cranes are the
storage of material. These activities are only necessary typical elements of this group.
mistakes, because they cost money and do not add value  Manipulation devices and robots,
to the material. The best project is with minimum storage,  Machines.
transport and manipulation.
Next principles that are necessary to observe in detailed Organizational structure of manufacturing system:
elements designing of material flow:  Stationary,
 Trying to product transportation in higher volumes  Shed with no organizational transport,
(pallets, cartons, containers),
 Maximum usage of surface and spaces,
 To respect ergonomics and safety requirements,
 To minimalize energy and negative influence to
environment,
 To use gravitation everywhere is possible with respect
of safety and quality,
 To integrate data flow with real material flow.
In designing of material flow are often solved follow Fig. 2. Example of shed structure
levels:
1. Transport between centers in factory (maybe  Shed distributor transport,
connecting to external supplier in system of Just in
time),
2. Transport within the frame of manufacturing center,
3. Transport and manipulation in the frame of
manufacturing cell.
Regarding to third point of schedule was prepared the Intermediate
project of EU 2008/ 2.2/ 01 named Laboratory of flexible storage
manufacturing systems with robotic operation applicated
in the no drawings supported manufacture with main aim
to find the most suitable variants of directing of material,
information and manipulation flow. For laboratory design
as complex of particular manufacturing elements is
necessary to solve and design all subsystems and the Fig. 3. Shed distributor transport
limits.
For designing flexible manufacturing system is needed to  Nested structure,
detail solve and follow design concrete subsystems:
 Pallet transport system

Fig. 1. Combination of roler conveyor and chain Fig. 4. Nested structure (1, 2, 3 numbers of machines
conveyor and devices)

218
 Line transport.
Fig. 5. Line transport structure
2. PROJECT IN INSTITUTE OF
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM AND
APPLIED MECHANICS
The project aim is to build a prototype of flexible
manufacturing cell, capable of fully automatic operation
in the manufacture of various product types. Operation of
the various production machines is performed by
industrial robots. An important feature of this production
system is the integration to CAx laboratories that already
exist in the Institute of manufacturing systems and applied
mechanics. We would like to use our laboratory for
design of 3D models of particular products produced in
the manufacturing systems. The integration will be
achieved into the no drawings supported manufacture and
thereby substantially reduced production costs and
especially the acceleration and streamlining of the
production itself.
Fig. 6. 3D system model
Implementations of the project make to possible
performance and enable modeling of different situations
in the production and management. Understanding of
unexpected situations with their impact on the production
and its management understanding will reduce production
costs and increase efficiency.
3. CONCLUSION
This process analyse leads to asked progress of
manufacturing structures and production processes. On
the basis of present analysis needs of technological
project realisation is possible to direct it into a system of
production preparing. Detailed spatial arrangement of
manufacturing devices and workstations is organizational
activity influenced on material moving in the
manufacturing process, on controlling and directing
methods of technological operation sequence and
following to effectiveness of production.
Solving of this project we hope that will have these
following benefits:
 Shortening the time of interim products and delivery
times of materials,
 Increase productivity by reducing critical places and
eliminating production shortfalls caused by the lack of
material,
 Increasing capacity by increasing the utilization of all
machines,
 Reduced operating costs and capital investment,
 Draft assembly process of assembling a selected
simulation and verification in the programming
environment system,
 It made possible to evaluate the changes before they
are even implemented, by this there is significant
reduce this risk.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was created thanks to European Union project
named Laboratory of flexible manufacturing systems
with robotic operation applicated in the no drawings
supported manufacture.
REFERENCES
[1] DANIOV, N., Identifikcia jednotlivch objektov
v inteligentnej vrobno-montnej bunke. In: ERIN
2009. Education, Research, Innovation: Sbornk
pednek. - 3.ronk mezin. konference mladch
vzkum. pracovnk a doktorand. - Ostrava, April
1-2, 2009. - Ostrava: VB-Technick univerzita
Ostrava, 2009, ISBN 978-80-248-1982-2, pg. 1-5
[2] DANIOV, N., Intelligence in roboted assembly.
In: RaDMI 2007: Proceedings on CD-ROM of 7th
International Conference "Research and
Development in Mechanical Industry - RaDMI
2007", Belgrade/Serbia/, 16-20 September 2007. -
Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School of
Trstenik, 2007, ISBN 86-83803-22-4, pg. 569-574
[3] RUAROVSK, R. & ZVOLENSK, R.:
Technological devices of flexible manufacturing cell.
In: First forum of young researches: In the
framework of International Forum "Education
Quality - 2008", Proceedings. 23. April, 2008,
Izhevsk, Russia. - Ievsk: Publishing House of ISTU,
2008, ISBN 978-5-7526-0355-6, pg. 194-200
[4] JAVOROV, A., ZVOLENSK, R. & PECHEK,
F., Methodology and design of automated
disassembly device. In: MMA 2009. Flexible
Technologies: Proceedings of 10th international
scientific conference. - Novi Sad, 9.-10.10. 2009. -
Novi Sad: Faculty of Technical Sciences, 2009, ISBN
978-86-7892-223-7, pg. 210-213
[5] ZVOLENSK, R., VELEK, K. & KOL, P.,
Design methodology of automated disassembly
device. In: Machine Design. - ISSN 1821-1259. -
2009 : 49th anniversary of the Faculty of technical
sciences, Novi Sad. May 18th 2009. - Novi Sad:
University of Novi Sad, 2009, pg. 7-10
219
[6] CHARBULOV, M., MATOV, M. &
CAGOV, D., Intelligent production systems and
clamping systems for intelligent production systems.
In: MMA 2009. Flexible Technologies: Proceedings
of 10th international scientific conference. - Novi
Sad, 9.-10.10. 2009. - Novi Sad: Faculty of Technical
Sciences, 2009, ISBN 978-86-7892-223-7, pg. 194-
197
[7] PECHEK, F. & CHARBULOV, M.,
Stavebnicov upnacie systmy. In: Strojrstvo -
Strojrenstv., ISSN 1335-2938, Vol. 12, no. 9
(2008), pg. 191/5-192/5
[8] HOLUBEK, R., VELEK, K. & RUAROVSK,
R., Elements automatized operating devices and their
construction for existing variety manipulation.
In: Annals of MTeM for 2009 & Proceedings of the
9th International Conference Modern Technologies in
Manufacturing: 8th - 10th October 2009, Cluj-
Napoca, Romania. - Cluj-Napoca: Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca, 2009, ISBN 973-7937-
07-04, pg. 305-309
CORRESPONDENCE
Miriam MATOV, Ing, PhD.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology, Rzusova 2
917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic
miriam.matusova@stuba.sk
Erika HRUSKOVA, MSc. Eng., PhD.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Material Sciences and
Technology, Razusova 2
917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic
erika.hruskova@stuba.sk

220

SENSORS APPLICATION IN THE
INTELLIGENT ASSEMBLY AND
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Nina DANIOV
Karol VELEK
Abstract: The objective is generally to present application
of sensors at the intelligent manufacturing and
assembly systems. In this contribution is to present
specific design of monitoring systems at the intelligent
assembly and manufacturing systems, which is situated at
the Institute Production Systems and Applied Mechanics.
The monitoring system is designed for two subsystems of
intelligent system. At the designed monitoring system are
used into mechanic, inductance, optical, pressure, and
camera sensors.
Key words:
system, assembly, manufacturing, sensors, monitoring
1. INTRODUCTION
Complexity of intelligent assembly and production
systems is characterized mostly by their structure, element
connection and system environment. For function of
intelligent production and assembly systems is necessary
to receive a number of visual, acoustic and tactile
information.
In the intelligent assembly and production is necessary to
identify and prepare the information mostly about
function of basic technical devices (robots, assembly,
production assistant devices), about controlling and
blocking functions. Realization of these functions
checking is provided by sensorial systems. At the
technical praxis are termed sensorial systems as
monitoring systems.
2. FUNCTIONS OF MONITORING SYSTEMS
APPLIED TO INTELLIGENT ASSEMBLY
AND MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
One of the application areas of monitoring systems is the
area of intelligent assembly and manufacturing.
Equipping of assembly and production systems by sensors
is one of the basic levels of increasing of automation and
machine intelligence. Sensorial systems provide scanning
and monitoring of various functions of assembly and
production process, assembly technology, properties of
assembly objects, mounted parts and properties of
environment.
Realization of monitoring functions provide suitable
sensor sorts, whereupon the supervisory systems provides
the control interventions. Sensors are the basic devices for
capturing of information and their transformation. On the
present monitoring systems have reserved structures,
which are realized according to application or purpose.
On the figure 1 is intelligent robotic agent.
Fig. 1. Robotic agent
Basic functions of sensors applied to monitoring systems
are specified in the following groups:
1. Monitoring of handling devices status:
Deals mostly about monitoring of assembly robot status.
Monitoring of information of robot arm motions,
velocities, accelerations, temperatures, pressures, status of
electronics etc.
2. Monitoring of external environment:
For monitoring are used from simple sensors of object
presence.
3. Monitoring of the status of assembly and production
machines, assembly units, supply units and other
active elements of assembly and production system:
There is necessary to identify status of program steps and
status, which can affect reliability and safety of units and
devices running. Deals about information: turn on and off
of working units, status of important surfaces etc.
4. Monitoring of interactions:
Deals about information file of operations, at which
participates minimum of two elements of function system
(e. g. removal of parts out of moving conveyor). Purpose
of interaction information scanning is in evaluating of
system connections, which are determining for proper
function.
Among the most important interaction information fall
the geometric reading (mutuality of position), temporal
reading (present and temporal shift) and non-regular
function reading (breakdowns) [1].
221
3. PROBLEMS IN APPLICATION OF
MONITORING SYSTEMS
Basic problems, which relate to application of monitoring
systems in assembly and production, is possible to divide
to following groups:
 specification of necessary identification and
monitoring tasks,
 definition of basic parameters, which about to be
identified and monitored,
 choice of suitable physic principles for parameters
reading,
 selection of suitable sensors and sensorial systems for
application in specific application conditions.
Selected sensor in the monitoring systems must meet
technical, economic and operative indices. Factors, which
affect their selection are multiple and multilevel. Center
of the sensors application is mostly in production and
assembly, where the monitoring systems enable
identification individual technical elements, workspaces
of system machines.
On the figure 2 is intelligent production and assembly
system.
Fig. 2. Intelligent production and assembly system
Intelligent manufacturing and assembly system is situated
at the institute production systems and applied mechanics,
faculty of material science and technology [2].
This intelligent manufacturing assembly system is created
of some bearing subsystems such as:
 Industrial robot with Cartesian kinematics
 Shelf storage system
There are five manufacturing phases integrated in the
intelligent production and assembly system
 storage (semi products storage and storage of final
product just before its shipping),
 transport and manipulation (transport and
manipulation of semi products and products),
 manufacture (manufacturing of single semi product to
the final product),
 assembly (assembly of single final product in to the
one final product assembly),
 shipping.
222
Manufacturing phases realization are provided by
monitoring systems. There are designed sensors for
individual subsystems and phases.
4. SENSORIAL EQUIPMENT APPLIED AT
THE INTELLIGENT SYSTEM
Sensorial equipment applied in production and assembly
system:
 magnetic sensors,
 mechanical and electric microswitch sensors
 optical sensors,
 pressure sensor
 inductance sensors,
 color sensors,
 camera sensor.
4.1. Identification elements presence at the
workspace of intelligent system
Inductance sensor SIEN M8NB-PO-K-L is used for
presence identification elements in grippers and buffers.
On the figure 3 is specific designed inductance sensor and
additional sensors, which are used in the praxis.
Fig.3. Inductance sensor SIEN M8NB-PO-K-L
Inductance sensors are used in case, that technical
realization instruments, mostly intelligent assembly
systems, are in direct contact with object of assembly.
Important are especially sensors which enable control of
the object presence, identification of grasp force,
monitoring of the starting position of assembly tools, let
us say other functions. With inductance sensors are
equipped tentacles, position table, transporting units,
other units and devices.
These sensors are generally in cylindrical or angular cases
with digital, analog inputs, with connectors, or fixed with
cable, e.g. for machining, packing and transporting
devices.
4.2. Identification single specific elements types
at the workspace of intelligent system
For identification of single elements types in the
workspace of intelligent system, was designed
identification system, which is using color sensing
sensors. On the figure 4 is color sensing sensors.
 4.4. Identification of parts at the workspace of
Cartesian robot
For recognizing of the orientation, kind of objects,
detection of edges are used visual sensors of various
kinds. Optical sensor SOEG-RTH-M18-PS-K 2L on the
figure 6 is used as sensor for identification of parts at the
workspace of Cartesian robot.
Specific example: (sensor of parts identification at the
pneumatic fixture).
Fig. 4. Color sensing sensor
This application is using two such sensors with type:
SOEC-RT. Used sensor is able to sense three color kinds,
which are then placed to the sensor memory. Individual
elements are equipped by color labels.
Two sensors are sensing color label combination and so
they are able to separate nine possibilities.
Example of such sensing is presented on the table1.
sensors identification:
color sensor 1: red, blue, yellow Fig. 6. Optical sensor SOEG-RTH-M18-PS-K 2L
color sensor 2: red, blue, yellow
All designed and presented sensors fall into group of tactil
Table 1. Sensed colors combinations sensors.
4.5. Power identification at the workspace of
sensor 1 sensor 2
Cartesian robot
red red Present tactile sensors are conceived primarily on the
basis of pressure and force measuring. Output signals are
red blue
treated to signals suitable for proper level of control [5].
red yellow On the figure 7 the sensors of pressure and force
measuring are shown.
blue red

blue blue

blue yellow

yellow red

yellow blue
yellow yellow

4.3. Positions identification of single elements of
workspace at the intelligent system
Electric microswitch S- 3-BE-SW on the figure 5 is used
at the system as sensors of elements identification.
Specific example: (sensor of jaws identification at the
pneumatic fixture).
Fig. 7. Sensors of pressure and force measuring
At the intelligent system was used pressure sensor
PSE510-M5 as sensor for power measuring and pressure,
which is possible to see on the figure 8.

Fig. 5. Electric microswith S- 3-BE-SW Fig. 8. Pressure sensor PSE510-M5

223
Specific example: (sensor for power control of clamping).
Thanks to modern construction are pressure sensors for
environment, where the explosion of gases, steam, or
other materials can occur. Sensors have been constructed
that they are able to carry the strictest demands in
potentially explosive environment [3].
4.6. Final positions control of single elements
Other tactile and proximity sensors are also the magnetic
sensors. Magnetic sensors DM9-BL on the figure 9 is
used as sensor for identification of final position at the
workspace of cartesian robot.
Specific example: (sensors of final position for jaws in
the pneumatic fixture).
Fig. 9. Magnetic sensors and sensors of type DM9-BL
These types of sensors proved thanks to their high
switching distance. Their usage is applicable to
identification of objects in plastic bins, identification of
objects in high temperature areas etc. Among magnetic
sensors the cylindrical magnetic sensors are important
novelty. Magnetic cylindrical sensors serve mostly to
detect of motion areas in pneumatic cylinders, they detect
position of the piston in pneumatic cylinder. These
sensors are noted by high precision of switching and very
practical assembly into all common pneumatic cylinders.
On the figure 10 is possible to see workspace of
intelligent system with designed sensors [4].
Fig. 10. Workspace of intelligent system with designed
sensors.
Some of new solutions are founded on sensors coating
(prosensitive rubber, piezoelectric ceramics etc.).
Coatings are on surfaces of tentacles and other active
parts.
5. CONCLUSION
Permanent increasing of automation level and
optimization of automated manufacturing is conditioned
by way of gathering and treating large amount of
information about assembly objects, basic building
elements, manufacturing processes and system
environment. It appears, that necessary requirement for
solution is implementing of machine intelligence elements
to manufacturing process. To the basic elements of
224
machine intelligence belongs visualization (monitoring),
through which is possible to observe system status and
changing conditions of environment. To evaluation of
present status in area of monitoring system creating is
possible to approach from entire large range of aspects,
which result from wide spectra of solutions. Results of
entire research of monitoring systems gain ground mostly
in robotized systems field with machine intelligence and
in basic technological processes. In term of application
are monitoring systems applied mostly in technological
processes of assembly, welding and inspection function.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper was realised by feasibility study:
VEGA 1/0206/09 lntelligent assembly cell
REFERENCES
[1] JAVOROV, A.: Assembly and manufacturing cell.
In: RaDMI 2007 : Proceedings on CD-ROM of 7th
International Conference "Research and
Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2007",
Belgrade/Serbia/, 16-20 September 2007. - Trstenik :
High Technical Mechanical School of Trstenik, 2007.
- ISBN 86-83803-22-4. - pp 599-602
[2] KOL, P., MDRKOV, A.: Hmotn a
informan toky v prunej vrobnej bunke. Material
and data flow in flexible manufacturing cell. In:
Materials Science and Technology [online]. - ISSN
1335-9053. - Ro. 7, . 3 (2007)
[3] ZVOLENSK, R., Desing of automated disassembly
devices .In: RaDMI 2007: Proceedings on CD-ROM
of 7th International Conference, Research and
Development in Mechanical Industry - RaDMI
2007, Belgrade/Serbia/, 16-20 September 2007.
Trstnik: High Technical Mechanical School of
Trstenik, 2007. ISBN 86-83803-22-4, pp 149-153.
[4] CHARBULOV, M., PECHEK, F., Modular
clamping systems .In: RaDMI 2007: Proceedings on
CD-ROM of 7th International Conference, Research
and Development in Mechanical Industry - RaDMI
2007, Belgrade/Serbia/, 16-20 September 2007.
Trstnik: High Technical Mechanical School of
Trstenik, 2007. ISBN 86-83803-22-4, pp 697-700
[5] MAJERK, J., - BAJK, ., CAD/CAM systems aid
by computer, 2008, Strojrstvo, Vol. 12, No. 11,
2008, p. 108 109, ISSN 1335-2938
CORRESPONDENCE
Nina DANIOV Ing., PhD.
Slovak University of Technology in
Bratislava
Faculty of material sciene and technology
in Trnava
Paulnska 16, 917 24 Trnava
nina.danisova@stuba.sk
Karol VELEK, Prof. Ing. CSc.
Slovak University of Technology in
Bratislava
Faculty of material sciene and technology
in Trnava
Paulnska 16, 917 24 Trnava
karol.velisek@stuba.sk

ULTRASOUND SYSTEMS IN
MACHINING TECHNOLOGIES
Frantiek PECHEK energy with the frequency given by the used convertor, or
Marcela CHARBULOV
Angela JAVOROV
Abstract: This article deals with the structure of
ultrasound system which wobbles technological tools by
using the ultrasonic resonance within a machining
process. By effect of these ultrasonic vibrations, we can
intensify and improve the machining process. Perspective
technological fields of possible powerful ultrasound
application are mainly: ultrasonic turning, milling,
grinding, honing, superfinishing. Tools cutting wedges
are for these purposes positioned in antinodes of
compressional stationary undulation resonance
ultrasonic systems. Basic elements forming this system
are: ultrasonic generator, convertor, concentrator, and
waveguide.
Key words: ultrasonic generator, convertor,
concentrator, waveguide, ultrasound machining
1. INTRODUCTION
Among the foremost tasks which are needed within the
development of ultrasound technology, we can begin with
permanent increasing of ultrasonic tool resonator safety,
working life and efficiency.
Ultrasonic resonators need to be conceptually solved so
that it would be possible to increase the stability of their
output parameters, with the possibility of broad
adjustment in praxis within their utilisation in many
different methods of machining technologies.
2. ULTRASOUND SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS
Ultrasonic machining technology requires the application
of ultrasonic tool resonator that is a part of an ultrasonic
resonance system and also the cutting machine is
connected to it. Ultrasonic resonance system includes
more independent parts that act like one system. Resonant
frequency has to be the same for all parts of this system.
Ultrasound resonance system consists of ultrasonic
generator, convertor, concentrator and waveguide.
Fig.1 shows built-up ultrasonic tool resonator with the
tool.
Fig. 1. Ultrasonic tool resonator
2.1. Ultrasonic generator
When defining the machining system with the support of
ultrasound, necessary energy supply is covered by
generators. Ultrasonic generator turns the electric energy
with mainline frequency of 50 Hz to high-frequency
more precisely emitter, within the frequency of 20 kHz up
to 700 kHz.
Ultrasonic generators need to be worked out by a simple
circuit connection and simplicity of their setting to the
powered ultrasonic convertor or emitter.
Nowadays, ultrasonic generators are worked out by using
the automatic power and frequency control that copies all
changes of ultrasonic convertor (or emitter) characteristic
values by the influence of their acoustic load change.
Each generator has a central control and a brought-out
connector for the remote control.
Ultrasonic generator turns the electric energy with the
mainline frequency of 50 Hz to high-frequency energy
with the frequency given by the used convertor, or more
precisely the emitter, within the frequency of 20 kHz up
to 700 kHz.
2.2. Ultrasonic convertor
Ultrasonic convertor is driven by ultrasonic generator and
it functions as an electric energy transducer that turns it
into a mechanical energy. Mechanical harmonic deviation
is generated by the convertor at the longitudinal direction
as a source of forced longitudinal vibration for the
ultrasound system.
Ultrasonic converter is a transducer of electric energy to
acoustic energy and it generates acoustic waves. Acoustic
waves extend from the ultrasonic convertor to the place of
technological process by competent elements of acoustic
resonance system.
For applying the powerful ultrasound within mechanical
technologies, magnetostrictive and piezoceramic
ultrasonic convertors are used.
Lately, piezoceramic convertors have practically replaced
magnetostrictive convertors because of their simple
construction, high energetic efficiency, availability and
utility for high performance within the ultrasound
applications. Piezoceramic convertors are based on the
piezoelectric effect when the piezoceramic discs change
their parameters in pulsating electric field.
Central screw provides mechanical preload of
piezoceramic discs and operating point of pulsating
mechanical stress shifts into the pressure area where the
ceramics shows higher level of hardness and therefore, it
is possible to achieve higher performance (as we can see
on Fig. 2).
225
 D0 d

c) conic

x0
a)
D0 d

d) catenoid

Fig. 3. Geometric figures of basic concentrators

b)
Besides the basic figures of mechanical concentrators, so-
Fig. 2. Model of the piezoceramic transducer with called compound two-part and three-part are used as well.
constant crosswise section They compose of the combination of previous basic types
a) symmetric arrangement of transducers piezoceramics with cylindrical waveguide, for example cone cylinder,
b) asymmetric arrangement exponential cylinder, cylinder exponential - cylinder,
and so on, as it is shown e.g. in the Fig. 4
2.3. Ultrasonic concentrator
Ultrasonic concentrator concentrates energy of
mechanical vibration on its output head and this is
followed by increase in mechanical deviation amplitude.
It is the most important feature of the ultrasound
resonance system. Besides the amplitude transformation
towards higher values, it also enables optimal impedance
adjustment between the convertor and corresponding
technologic application.
Changes in concentrator cross-sections take place
according to certain mathematical relations of which it is
possible to figure out the required form and length. Most
known are concentrators of circular cross-section with
vibrations amplitude gain according to the following
sequence: gradual cylindrical, exponential, conic, and Fig. 4. Compound concentrator scheme
catenoid, as it is shown in Fig. 3.
Among the important features within the application in
l1 l2 the ultrasound resonance system, it is necessary to
include: node plane placement, stress amplitude course,
mechanical deviation amplitude course, point of stress
D0 d amplitude maximum value etc.
In the Fig. 5, there are different types of ultrasonic
l concentrators with the tool.

a) gradual cylindrical

x0

D0 d

l
Fig. 5. Types of ultrasonic concentrators with the tool
b) exponential mounting design

226
Curved concentrators - resonance system has several base
resonant frequencies acting at different directions
concerning the axle tangle of the concentrator, its end and
its placement in the measuring device according to the
Fig. 6. Directions are specified as: basic direction in the
axle, right, horizontal, vertical and slant direction.
Flat ultrasonic curved concentrators were also designed /2

for grinding wheel cleaning. At present, NC and CNC

techniques allow us to design curved concentrators with
geometrically similar planes along the entire length of
concentrator.

=0
R 743,4
=60
/2

=120
/2
R132
R66

a)
/2
=0

=60
Fig. 7. Schemes showing the principle of the ultrasonic
L =120
resonance undulation and radial US resonators cross
/2 transformation

b)

=0

=60

L =120
a) b)
/2

c)

Fig. 6. Curved half-wave resonance ultrasonic

concentrator figures scheme c) d) e)

Radial ultrasound (US) resonators are designed and tested
for the radial vibration of the wheels that have middle or
large diameters. They are designed according to the
principle which is presented by visual demonstration in
the Fig. 7. This is a principle of longitudinal US
resonance undulation transformation in the slim
waveguide to longitudinal concentric US resonance
undulation in a wheel or disc that is put on the body of
slim resonance waveguide, according to the schemes
showed in the Fig. 7.
Radial US concentrators are suitable for excitation of the
radial longitudinal vibrations.
Radial ultrasonic resonators with axial-radial undulation
transformation can be designed with different position of
the wheels or slim cylinders on the body of slim
waveguides. Results of particular solutions are models
and test samples of radial ultrasonic resonators. These
enable us to solve the applications of powerful ultrasound
in the field of materials machining and moulding.
Fig. 8. Schemes of radial ultrasonic resonators with slim
ultrasonic transformers and wave guide ducts for
transversal transformation of the axial longitudinal
undulation into the concentric radial resonance
undulation in wheels and discs
a) Scheme of radial ultrasonic system with axial
ultrasonic convertors of the slim waveguide system.
b) Symmetrical resonance solid with the wheel placed on
the body of the slim waveguide in the node plane between
neighbouring antinodes.
c) Asymmetric position of the wheel on the free head of
the slim waveguide between the node plane and antinode
plane at the coordinate x.
d) Asymmetric position of the wheel on the free head of
the slim waveguide in the output antinode plane of the
axial longitudinal undulation.
e) Symmetric resonance solid with the position of the
wheel on the body of the slim waveguide in the antinode
between neighbouring node planes.

227
Models of resonators are in the Fig. 8. For adjusted values
of deviations amplitudes in the antinodes of slim
waveguide 10 m are achieved deviations amplitudes
values on the perimeters of wheels 6 to 8 m. Notable and
the most effective solution of the radial ultrasound
resonators is the design according to the Fig. 8e where the
wheel is in the symmetric position between two node
planes of the slim waveguide or in the antinodes at the
free end of the slim waveguide. Value of the radial wheels
amplitude is close to the value of axial amplitudes in the
antinodes of the slim waveguide. Quoted briefly described
arrangements of ultrasonic resonators can be effectively
utilised within the construction and building of machines
and devices for ultrasound machining and materials
moulding.
2.4. Ultrasonic waveguide
Ultrasonic waveguide is a special ultrasonic concentrator
with zero gain of mechanical deviation amplitude and has
often a constant cross-section profile. Its main task is the
extension of resonance system for requirements of
technical realisation. In the Fig. 9, there is a scheme of
ultrasonic waveguide.
S1 S2
S1=S2=konst.
(u=0)= (max)
/2
Fig. 9. Scheme of the ultrasonic waveguide
Special arrangements of the ultrasonic resonance system
include a combination of following parts: convertor,
concentrator and waveguide.
Effective solution is the integration of the waveguide into
the convertor and by it the length of all resonance system
is shorten and the spatial demand is reduced.
World trend of the ultrasound systems producers leads to
a modular solution within ultrasonic convertors and
generators. This enables to combine power level of
sources for a particular technology.
3. CONCLUSION
Special solutions of the ultrasonic resonance system form
combinations of its individual parts, convertor,
concentrator and waveguide and integrate to one whole.
By this effective solution it is possible to shorten the
overall length of tool resonators and following the special
solutions of ultrasonic systems, they enable us to reduce
the spatial demand, especially within the limited space.
REFERENCES
[1] vehla, ., Figura, Z.: Ultrazvuk v technolgii. Alfa,
Bratislava, 1984.
[2] vehla, ., Abramov, O., Chorbenko, I.: Vyuitie
ultrazvuku v strojrstve. Alfa, Bratislava, 1986.
228
[3] Tolnay, M., Gregu - Kollr, J., Mihalk, P.:
Kontrukcia nstrojov pre ultrazvukov obrbanie.
In Tools 2000: Medzinrodn konferencia. Trenn,
Vstavisko TMM, a.s., 12.4.2000. - Bratislava: STU
v Bratislave, 2000, 185-188.
[4] Dilinger J., Tolnay M., Mihalk P.: Resonating
Systems of Power Ultrasonics Cross
Transformation. In Volume of MACHINE
ENGINEERING, Slovakia, SjF STU, Bratislava,
1997.
[5] Mihalk P., Liptk O., P P.: Research of
Ultrasonics to Drilling of Hard Fragile Materials by
Grinding Diamond Tools. In Volume of Research
Works, Slovakia, SjF STU, Bratislava, Vol. 15,
1977, 105-122.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper was created thanks to the national grants:
VEGA 1/009/ 08
Optimized systems and processes of performance
ultrasound.
CORRESPONDENCE
Frantiek PECHEK,
Assoc. Prof., MSc. Eng., PhD.
Slovak Univ. of Technology in Bratislava
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava
Institute of Production Systems and
Applied Mechanics, Department of
Technological Devices and Systems
Trnava, Slovakia
frantisek.pechacek@stuba.sk
Marcela CHARBULOV, MSc. Eng.
Slovak Univ. of Technology in Bratislava
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava
Institute of Production Systems and
Applied Mechanics, Department of
Technological Devices and Systems
Trnava, Slovakia
marcela.charbulova@stuba.sk
Angela JAVOROV, MSc. Eng.
Slovak Univ. of Technology in Bratislava
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava
Institute of Production Systems and
Applied Mechanics, Department of
Technological Devices and Systems
Trnava, Slovakia
angela.javorova@stuba.sk

DESIGN OF PROFILED CUTTING
TOOLS BY APPLYING PROGRAMMING
SYSTEMS
Bogdan SOVILJ
Sneana RADONJI
Juliana G. JAVOROVA
Ivan SOVILJ-NIKI
Abstract: Design and construction of products is a
complex development - research engineering activity of
special importance, both for manufacturers and users. In
modern manufacturing systems with automated
production and automated design and construction of
products and technological processes, the need for
automated design and construction and automated
selection of cutting tools exists. Hob milling is one of the
most complex machining processes. It uses at the most in
working of serration of spur wheels thanking to high
productivity of the process. This paper contains
automated calculation for a hob milling tool for serration
of spur wheels, made using programming language
Visual Basic. Based on this calculation, 3D model and
technical documentation of the hob milling tool was
created using software Pro/Engineer.
Keywords: profiled cutting tools, hob milling tool,
designing, construction, modern programming systems
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern production means market-oriented production,
does not accept the independent relationship between
production and market, emphasizes the inseparable
connection between their parts, suggesting the need for
establishing a circular flow. Ensuring productive
prerequisites to satisfy existing need and creating the
necessary conditions for continuous research for new
products represent the primary task of the contemporary
production [6]. General trends in the metal processing
industry in terms of serial and mass production in
manufacturing operations of cutting processing are based
on the application of high-productive equipment and
cutting tools of high durability. Modern production
systems in the metal processing industry is characterized
by: expanding range of products, increasing the frequency
of changes in production programs, requirements for
continuous improvement of technical characteristics of
products, reducing their production deadlines, constant
need to raise the technological level of products, reducing
production costs, etc. Increasing the efficiency of metal
machining is one of the main directions of development
of modern mechanical engineering. Successful resolving
of goals is connected with the research of working
conditions of cutting tools as one of the most important
participants in the process of metal machining.
Application of new materials (Figure 1) and optimal
geometric parameters of cutting tools as well as the
optimal working conditions provide the lowest product
cost and the highest productivity.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Fig. 1. Impact of new tools materials on productivity
To raise the technological solutions to a higher level there
is a need to solve all the elements optimally. It achieves
by automated design and construction, which represent a
new way of product designing and constructing. Design
and construction of product is a complex development -
research engineering activity of special importance, both
for manufacturers and for the immediate users. In modern
manufacturing systems with automated production and
automated design and construction of products and
technological processes of their development the need for
automated design and construction and automated
selection of cutting tools is emphasized. Design and
production of cutting tools and accessories, depending on
the type of production, makes 50 - 80% of the total time
needed for preparation of production. Reducing the time
the corresponding expenses reduce. This is achieved by
applying new methods of organization, design,
construction and manufacture of cutting tools accessories.
2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
CUTTING TOOLS
Products of human labor arise from the need. Recognizing
the need a man thinks over how to satisfy the need. From
observing the need to the finished product a way is long
and very hard. Focusing product development process on
the development of cutting tools is particularly significant
finding the ways to improve product quality. There is no
doubt that the quality of designing and constructing is one
of the important factors of cutting tools quality and one of
the most important requirements in the product
development. Design and construction can be defined as a
unique process of processing and transforming of
229
information. The process starts with collecting of
information (project task, literature, standards,
calculations). It is continued by processing of information
(analysis, synthesis, distribution, combination, etc). The
process ends with the creation, presentation and
submission of information (final sketches, drawings,
tables, instructions). The existence of many different
constructions and originality of each kind of construction
separately, based on varying degrees of complexity and
the principles of performance, allow deviation from the
methodology, procedure and sequence of design and
construction stages shown in Figure 2. In some cases it is
possible to omit certain phases or activities, or vice versa,
the inclusion of additional activities in certain phases of
the design and construction. In combination, variation,
selection and decision it is very often reached for
additional activities (modeling, simulation, experiment,
etc.) in order to get optimal solution [3,15].
Fig. 2. Stages of design and construction
Cutting tools remove a relatively thin layer of material
and thereby give to workpiece the required shape and
dimensions. The price of cutting tools has a significant
portion in the cost of operation. Effectiveness and
productivity of cutting tools greatly depend on the
material of cutting part of cutting tools and special
attention should be paid during its election. When
designing and constructing cutting tools necessary data
are data on workability of workpiece, on the form and
dimensions of processed surfaces, the required accuracy
and tolerance of surface for processing of workpiece
material and its technological characteristics, and it is
230
often required technical data of machine tools at which
processing will be done. Based on these data adopts the
kind of cutting tool, its construction, the material of
cutting part of cutting tool and the basic parameters of
cutting tool are adopted. After that the tool life of cutting
tool is determined as well as required accuracy, deviations
are indicated and a working drawing is made. When
designing and constructing cutting tool the main part of
working time is spent on the calculation of cutting tool.
Calculation of cutting tools by hand requires a lot of time.
In order to reduce the time needed for design and
construction of cutting tools automated design and
construction of cutting tools is introduced, supported with
automated calculation. Unsuspected development of
computers led to the stage of designing and constructing
supported by computer. Reliable storage of information,
with sufficiently large memory capacity and speed of
reliable manipulation of information are defined a
significant place for computers in the process of
designing and constructing. The development of CAD
(Computer Aided Design) technology, the development of
CAD tools and technologies, applied in the process of
designing and constructing are the significant possibility
of automation of the process. Development of methodical
design and development of computer technology have
created systems for automated design and construction by
applying computer applications (CAD, CAM, CIM,
expert systems and others)[6, 7, 9, 10, 13]. The ultimate
goal of these systems is the integration and automation of
all engineering activities in CAE (Computer Aided
Engineering). Computer aided modeling as the next phase
integrates joint consideration of functions, geometry and
technology and interactive links that exist between them.
Users module with interactive constructional logic
allows to constructor an automatic generation of
geometry.
Fig. 3. Developmental stages of construction
With the spread of awareness about the real human
abilities and mans potential possibilities there was a
significant development and essential changes in the
design and construction. Developmental stages of
designing and constructing in the past two hundred years
are shown in Figure 3 [15]. High quality cutting tools are
essential for economical production. Production of these
tools requires detailed research, design and construction
for each individual case.
Process of cutting tools design supported by a computer is
possible only under the condition that the task is set
correctly. Designing of cutting tools is most often
performed in the order given in [4,5,13].
of gears and for manufacturers of hob milling tools as
well. Operation of serration, grooving, making rag wheel,
screw thread, etc. usually represent the bottleneck of
production, especially in the higher types of production,
and for some of the above mentioned processing
operations are used for processing cutting tools shown in
Figure 5 are used. Therefore, it is always present and
obvious necessity for research and development of
optimal design of tools for processing, and optimal
conditions of these processes, especially hob milling,
which is the most common used in manufacture of
mentioned profiles. In Figure 6 integral hob milling tool
is given, and the Figure 7 shows hob milling tool with
inserted teeth.

Fig. 4. Influential factors in the design of cutting tools

Design and construction of cutting tools represents a set

of activities, whose aim is to obtain unique information
on the basis of that it is possible to develop a tool. Such
information is in most cases presented by a working
drawing with the accompanying technical documentation Fig. 5. Cutting tools
or by NC code, depending on available funds work.
However, the process of design and construction can be
considered as successful one only if the final product
meets all the requirements set in front of it, implying that
this process is completed only after verification of full
functionality of cutting tool. The influential factors on the
process of designing and constructing of cutting tools are
given in Figure 4.

3. AUTOMATION OF HOB MILLING TOOL

CALCULATION FOR MANUFACTURING
OF SERRATION OF SPUR WHEEL
Fig. 6. Integral hob milling tool
Hob milling, as one of the most complex machining
processes, is the most applied in processing of serration of
spur wheel due to high productivity of the process.
Complicated kinematics and geometric relationship
between hob milling tool and workpiece create a series of
difficulties and problems that prevent optimal usage of
tool and machine, such as: determining the optimal
cutting speed and displacement, determining the rational
durability of hob milling tool, the maximal and evenly use
as many teeth of tool, determining more productive
geometry of hob milling tool, etc. Improving the process
of hob milling is significant and useful for manufacturers Fig. 7. Hob milling tool with inserted teeth

231
Hob milling tools are used for making serration of gear teeth HF and pitch of teeth sp. Then click on the
straight, oblique and helical gear and for making worm button "Calculate" and the program out all the parameters
wheels for external conjugation with involute profile. Hob of hob milling tool (Figure 10).
milling tools are usually made as single-thread especially
if they are used for finishing. For the rough and
preliminary treatment they are made with two or more
threads due to faster processing. They are made as one
piece for module up to 5.5 mm, (6 - 15) mm from as one
part or with inserted teeth, and for the module of 16mm
the most rational manufacture is with inserted teeth.
Lately hob milling tools are made with inserted teeth and
for smaller module values, too. Construction of hob
milling tool with inserted teeth allows savings in material
costs over 50%, greater durability of tools for over 60%,
reduction of serration costs for over 25%, and increasing
of process productivity for 1.5 times compared to the
integral hob milling tool. Manual calculation is the
starting point for writing of program. The program is
written in the programming language Visual Basic 6.0.
Application of Visual Basic for automated calculation of
cutting tools is acceptable for the case that such
Fig. 9. The appearance of the users interface after
calculations are often used [15]. Thus, in these cases,
entering the requested data
automated calculations will give a lot of savings in time.
In Figure 9 one can see that the entered data are: tooth
gear module m = 3, 25 mm, contact angle = 20 , height
of the head of gear tooth ha = 3.25 mm, height of root of
gear tooth hf = 3.79 mm and thickness of the teeth on the
pitch circle sp = 5.105 mm. After this the user clicks on
the button "Calculate" and get all the desired data for
given hob milling tool (Figure 10).

Fig. 8. The appearance of one part of the program for

automated calculation of hob milling tool

If the algorithm used for writing of program is correctly

formulated, and if after that the program is written
correctly, the optimal solution will always be obtained as
the output. The main problem that occurs in these
calculations is the proper setting of the algorithm and the
Fig. 10. The appearance of the interface after the user
logic that will enable accurate solution of the given task.
clicks on the button "Calculate"
Review of the users interface of the program that
perform automated calculation of hob milling tool for Comparing manual and automated calculation can be seen
production of serration of spur wheel by the method of the advantages and disadvantages of both ways of
relative rolling is given in addition. In Figure 8 a part of calculation.
the program written in Visual Basic that performs
automated calculation of the above cutting tools is shown.
In Figure 9 and 10 appearance of the users interface is
4. MODELING OF HOB MILLING TOOL
presented. User should check the button in the upper right FOR PRODUCTION OF SPUR WHEEL
corner of the screen, whether it is a milling tool for rough SERRATION BY USING THE
or finishing of gear serration. Also in the green box user PROGRAMMING SYSTEM
should enter the basic parameters of gear that will be "PRO/ENGINEER 2001"
made with that hob milling tool (Figure 9). The user
enters following values: tooth gear module m, the contact Program system Pro/ENGINEER provides a lot of
angle , the height of the head of gear teeth ha, the root of opportunities to user in the designing process. Its Feature

232
module allows the user a view of 3D models and rapid
development of technical documentation on the model,
but only after the user knows well the majority of
commands which this software system offers. Based on
parametrical and associative design, the program allows
very easy and quick changes of shape and dimensions of a
given model, which is automatically registered on the
components and databases where the part is located. In
Figure 11 the appearance of modeled hob milling tool in
the programming system Pro / ENGINEER is given
[1,2,15].
A number of advantages of Pro / ENGINEER (referring
to the module Feature) in comparison to other similar
software systems, provide to user the ability to model the
most complex 3D models with much less effort and time
and on the basis of them to make a technical
documentation quickly and easily. Using this software the
job of a constructor becomes easier, productivity
increases and quality of work and therefore the overall
quality of future products are improved.
Fig. 11. Appearance of hob milling tool after the circular
pattering of teeth
5. CONCLUSION
Modern production cannot be imagined without the use of
cutting tools. Modern approaches of automated design
and construction of cutting tools require a very wide
range of knowledge by the designer. Designer and
constructor in addition to general knowledge of geometry
of cutting tools, materials used for its production,
workability of workpiece material, kinematics and
geometry of the machine at which cutting tool will be
used, etc. also has to possess very good knowledge of a
programming system intended for automation of
designing and constructing of cutting tools or product.
Based on theoretical analysis by using Visual Basic 6.0
and the system Pro / ENGINEER the program for
calculation, design and construction of hob milling tools
for processing of serration of spur wheels with straight
teeth was created. Created program allows simpler, more
efficient and more accurate design and construction of
hob milling tool for processing of serration of spur wheels
with straight teeth. Using the system Pro / ENGINEER in
the design and construction of cutting tools connectivity,
communication and information exchange is realized at
the same plane with the largest manufacturers of cutting
tools and all the research centers at this point of time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is within the project "Development of
progressive technologies for processing back surface of
prophile tools to CNC machines", the number of TR
14059 Ministry of Science and Technology Development,
Republic of Serbia , 2008 and also CEEPUS II project
CII-RS-0304-01-0809 - "Technical Characteristics
Researching of Modern Products in Machine Industry
(Machine Design, Fluid Technics and Calculations) with
the Purpose of Improvement Their Market Characteristics
and Better Placement on the Market"
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[14] TANASIJEVI, S.: Tribological proper design, Technical Faculty
Mechanical Engineering, Kragujevac, 2004. Ljubiski kej D/6
[15] WALCE, W.: Visual Basic 6, Mikro knjiga, Beograd. 32000 aak, Srbija
snezar@tfc.kg.ac.rs

Juliana G. JAVOROVA,
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng.
University of Chemical Technology and
Metallurgy, Department of Applied
Mechanics, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blvd.,
1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
july@uctm.edu ; julianata1@abv.bg

Ivan SOVILJ-NIKI, PhD student

University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Science
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Srbija
diomed17@yahoo.com

234

CUTTING PROCESS AND MACHINE
TOOL INTERACTION ANALYZE
Pavel KOVA
Marin GOSTIMIROVI
Milenko SEKULI
Abstract: To fully understand the manufacturing system,
e.g. vibrations, deflections or thermal deformations, the
interactions between the cutting process and the machine
tool also have to be analyzed. The paper presents the
current state of research in cutting process and machine
interactions for a wide variety of cutting processes.
Cutting with defined and undefined cutting edges are the
key processes. The emphasis is on understanding,
modeling and simulating all modes of interaction.
Additional needs of research in processmachine
interaction are identified for future projects.
Key words: Modeling, simulation, cutting process-
machine tool interaction
1. INTRODUCTION
Higher cutting speeds, improved machine-tool concepts,
wider contact and greater degrees of forming should
enable processes to be carried out more economically.
The problem is that when optimized manufacturing
concepts are developed, the machines operate particularly
fast, but they either do not meet the requirements in terms
of part quality or else the machine components and tools
have short service lives.
In many cases, the reason for such problems is not due to
the incorrect planning of machines or processes, but
rather due to additional effects that can only be explained
by the interaction of machine and process the results of
such effects, using various processes as examples:
 Poor quality of product
 Short life and machine components
 Re-engineering of machine tools and process revitable
 Reduction of machining performance
In research, these productiontechnical processes and the
mechatronic structures involved, i.e. the machine tools
have been dealt with separately up to now. However, in
recent years it has been considered increasingly necessary
to treat processes and structures in an integrated way,
thereby overcoming the widespread independent
treatment of such systems. Observations generally
originate in details and certain specific mechanisms of the
interaction.
The possible interactions between machine and process,
shows that process loads (Fi, Q) influence machine
response:
 Workpiece quality (tolerances)
 Wear of tool and machine elements
 Productivity of machine
The continuity of interaction, i.e. the continuous and
mutual influence exerted by machine and process, results
in the often unpredictable effects of the interaction in
many cases, predictions can only is made by means of
complex simulations. The challenges arising from this
were recognized many years ago, but were at first
investigated only tentatively.
2. MODELLING
2.1. Structural behaviour of machine tools
The task of machine tools and their components is to
generate the movements and forces necessary for
executing a process. It is presupposed that the available
forces are great enough and the movements fast and
precise enough to complete the process successfully.
However, disturbances that take effect during the process
may negatively influence the behaviour of the machine. In
general, such disturbances are forces, moments or heat
input.
The relationship between the thermal load of the machine
and the thermal drift of the cutting process is very
complex. Due to the inaccurate knowledge of heat
sources, thermal boundary conditions, mechanisms of
heat transfer, etc., precise prediction of the behaviour of a
standard machine tool at the design stage is very difficult.
Some models offer a reliable correlation between thermal
load and displacement, but the metrological effort as well
as the model complexity is high.
Fig. 1. Research on machine tool behavior [2]
The correlations between force and displacement are
easier to handle because in general the force acts solely at
the tool centre point. The measurement of the correlation
between force and displacement in static and dynamic
cases has already been state of- the-art for a long time.
Nowadays it is also possible to simulate the determination
235
of machine behavior. The relevant advances were noted in
[2]. Fig. 1 summarizes the possibilities of the computer-
supported analysis, prediction and design of a machine
tool.
2.2. Cutting processes
In cutting, many parallel developments have been carried
out. The move towards faster processes may be one of the
most important fields of research have summarized these
process developments for cutting respectively Fig. 2
shows other important fields of research. Overviews of
the various modeling approaches are given in [4].
Fig. 2. Research on cutting process [4]
As a basis for modeling processmachine interactions,
forces are of high relevance. FEM models are currently
used to predict process forces. Due to unclear effects at
the clearance face of cutting tools and due to the unknown
grain geometry in grinding, the quality of the results is
often inadequate. Empirical models give more exact but
less general results.
Thermal effects in grinding influence the quality of the
machined part [8] contain the state-of-the-art with respect
to friction, temperature and cooling in grinding processes.
In cutting, dry machining is an option for a large variety
of materials. In cutting, the material of the workpiece and
the tool can completely change the process behavior. New
workpiece materials and coatings of cutting tools have
therefore been researched extensively. Byrne et al. give a
broad overview of these and other developments in the
cutting process [7].
3. DEVELOPMENTS DESCRIBING
DEFINED CUTTING EDGE
PHENOMENA
3.1. Analysis of interaction phenomena
In last two decades the interaction of machine and process
in defined cutting edge machining has been studied
intensively. Many analyses recognized the need to take
into account the relevant interactions in the machine-
process system while carrying out a simulation of
production processes and outlined the importance of
simulation, including necessary interactions for the
planning and adjustment of modern production systems.
236
No production model, i.e. complete simulation of a
process and a machine, is possible without a consideration
of mutual influences between them. Witt [14] carried out
comprehensive research relating to the interactions
between the components of complex production machines
(Fig. 3). He argued in favour of extending established
simulation tools by incorporating the relevant interaction
between the machine tool, the workpiece and the cutting
process, as this is essential for reliable process planning
and optimization at the machine development stage.
Fig. 3. Interaction and their analysis in machining with
defined cutting edges [14]
By taking into account the interactions in a machine tool
as shown in Fig. 3, the manufacturing process includes,
per definition, a workpiece, a manufacturing technology
and a tool. The machine tool unites a machine structure,
controls and clamping fixtures. These interactions are
common to different production machines and must be
regarded as a system when analyzing performance and
optimizing process parameters. In machine tools such as
lathes and milling machines, the direct interaction of the
machine structure with the numerical control system
greatly influences the dynamic behavior of the machine
and hence the characteristics of the process. This behavior
must be represented very accurately for the integrated
simulation of industrial machining processes in order to
minimize errors from machine modeling. Another
interaction occurs at the interface of the mechatronic
system and a machining process between the cutting edge
and the workpiece. This interaction determines the quality
of a part, possible tolerances and stock removal rate,
which might be limited by process instabilities. In order to
achieve a comprehensive evaluation on the basis of
simulation, the influence of machine tool properties on
the process and of the process on the machine tool must
be precisely depicted. Unacceptable simplifications might
lead to significant errors in simulation results and thus to
faulty conclusions relating to the process behavior.
Certain criteria are needed in order to assess and approve
cutting processes. On the one hand, process stability and
processing time are important characteristics, as they
indicate productivity and profitability. On the other hand,
the surface quality and machining tolerances for a
machined part are also of significance when carrying out
an evaluation. To assess a production process using
simulation the latter must represent the properties of a
process with sufficient accuracy. In order to carry out this
task, all the above-mentioned interactions must be
considered in an integrated simulation system. In the
literature, there are sources focusing either on the
machining process or the machine tool modeling, as well
as approaches analyzing the interaction of the two.
3.2. Identification of model parameters
3.2.1. Machine tool
A study of the interactions between a process and a
machine requires appropriate methods to represent all the
necessary properties of the objects modeled. On the
machine tool side, the integrated models providing data
on static and dynamic behavior of the structure must be
appropriately parameterized. According to Witt [14],
there have been no approaches to date which enable the
parameters of machine elements in multi-body models,
i.e. stiffness and damping coefficients, to be identified in
a reliable way without subsequent verification using
measured data. The dynamic behavior is determined by
impacting the machine tool structure with a dynamic force
and measuring the response in the form of a displacement.
The measured frequency response function (FRF) is used
as a basis for the subsequent curve-fitting procedure,
which decreases the amount of data in FRF by
mathematical approximation of the curve. Comprehensive
treatment of measurement procedures is presented in [2].
The number of uncertain parameters in complex machine
tool models is generally very high. A manual correction
of the values is extremely complicated and impractical.
Considering this, Altinats et al. developed a method for
optimizing multi-body model parameters on the basis of
measured frequency response functions [2]. This method
is not suitable, however, for carrying out an optimization
of all the parameters at once. Only the vibration modes
should be selected which are determined by certain
components. For instance, the parameters of the
anchoring elements may be optimized by observing that
range of the frequency response function (FRF) where
such vibrations might occur. Beginning with a certain
initial value, the different parameters can be optimized
iteratively.
3.2.2. Process
On machining process side, accurate modeling is of great
importance for achieving a reliable simulation of
production processes. Beginning with the pioneering
research of Kienzle, many approaches for predicting
cutting forces, e.g. mechanistic, linear, etc., were
developed. In recent years, many analyses were carried
out with the aim of improving force models for different
processes.
Modeling of machining processes was expanded for non-
trivial cases like ball-end milling, milling with helical end
mills, etc. A method for prediction of cutting forces in
milling on the basis of empirically determined specific
cutting forces. The latter were calculated from the
measured milling forces, which were subsequently related
to the engagement-dependent undeformed chip area. The
dynamics as well as damping of the process is not
considered in this model.
The displacement of the milling tool was measured
directly during the process by means of contact-free
sensors. Following this, the frequency response of the tool
was determined by means of impulse hammer testing. On
the basis of known displacement in stable and unstable
processes and compliance of the tool, conclusions about
the process forces were drawn. The authors used a
mechanistic model on the basis of specific cutting
pressure coefficients for predicting forces. The model
does not include the influence of process dynamics and
tool wear. The latter was proposed a model for calculating
cutting forces in an orthogonal cutting process under
consideration of friction in primary and secondary shear
zones. Rapid development of new production processes,
e.g. HPC (high performance cutting) machining, is
leading researchers to reconsider some established models
that do not cope with the relevant requirements of modern
machining processes.
3.3. Simulation approaches
The state-of-the-art simulation of cutting processes under
consideration of machine and process properties can be
carried out along with different methods. When
simulating the interactions between a machine, workpiece
and process, a distinction is generally made between
simulations using a substitute model of machine
properties and a coupled simulation, as revealed by Witt
[14] in Fig. 4. The substitute model combined with a
suitable force model implies a representation of machine
properties. Many approaches use some analytical models
to represent the cutting process combined with machine
properties in the form of frequency response functions,
which are either measured or simulated. By means of
curve-fitting, the frequency response function can be
represented in a suitable form in the time domain. Such
process simulations using measured FRF are carried out
in [1, 9] in order to simulate the process forces, process
stability and resulting workpiece surface in turning and
milling, as presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Overview of simulation approaches [14]
Altintas addressed the analytical modeling of milling
processes [5] (Fig. 5). The authors deal with an analytical
calculation of the milling force, identification of
workpiece and tool defections and their use in the milling
process simulation. They solved the problem of varying
dynamics in milling by means of Fourier series expansion
of periodic terms and Floquets theorem. Possible
implementation of the theory for modeling other
processes, such as milling with variable pitch cutters and
five-axis milling, are discussed in [5].
237

Fig. 5. Stability simulation in milling [2]
3.4. Co-simulation
The coupled simulation was defined as a relatively new
approach, permitting simultaneous usage of two different
simulation environments with data exchange by means of
a suitable interface. This section deals with the latest
developments in coupled simulation. Brecher and Witt
presented an approach for simulating a machining
process, including interactions between a machine tool
and a cutting process [3]. They argued in favor of better
quality predictions relating to process forces and stability
boundaries (Fig. 6). Later on, Brecher et al. presented a
method for the coupled simulation of a flexible multi-
body machine tool structure with a three-dimensional
FEA-based turning model. The authors stated that the FE
calculation of process forces without further optimization
is very time intensive. A simplified model on the basis of
approximated characteristic diagrams was thus used for
the coupled simulation. This approach allowed the surface
roughness of the machined workpiece to be determined.
Fig. 6. Co-simulation of machine tool and process [3]
Three different approaches were used to carry out a
coupled simulation of machine and process. The first one
deals with the FE-based process coupled with a substitute
model of a machine and workpiece. The second approach
employed an FE model of a machine and the cutting
process. The third one incorporated a flexible multi-body
model of a machine structure and an analytical model of
the process. The results obtained from these approaches
were compared, thereby revealing the limitations and
providing suggestions for further improvement and
carried out a finite element simulation of the cutting
process and coupled it with the modeled elastic structure
of a lathe. As a result of this, a more accurate calculation
238
of the cutting forces and more precise chip formation
could be modeled.
3.5. Tool wear and process damping
Tool wear is often claimed to be the reason for some
discrepancies in the modeled and real characteristics of
machining processes, e.g. process forces and damping,
since this nonlinear effect requires non-trivial modeling
approaches. A number of recent scientific articles propose
different methods for modeling tool wear and process
damping. The research [6] deals with a practical
identification of the influence of vibratory cutting
conditions on tool life. The results indicated significant
reduction of tool life due to chatter (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Chatter effect on tool life [6]
Zah and Schwarz [13] presented an innovative force
model which considers dynamic material behavior,
nonlinear friction ratios as well as dynamic tool wear
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Consideration of tool wear model [13]
4. DEVELOPMENTS DESCRIBING
UNDEFINED CUTTING EDGE
PHENOMENA
4.1. Analysis of interaction phenomena
As a high-precision machining process, grinding
determines the surface roughness, the shape and the
dimensional accuracy of workpieces, and directly
influences the quality of the finished parts. Due to the fact
that grinding processes are generally placed at the end of
the whole process chain, grinding inaccuracy often results
in rejects and high costs. On the one hand, grinding
irregularities occur as burning, grinding commas, hairline
cracks on the workpiece surface or geometrical
deviations. On the other hand, the causes of these
grinding irregularities can include dynamic instabilities in
the machinegrinding wheelworkpiece system, such as
chatter vibrations or dynamic defections.
In the case of regenerative chatter, the vibration is related
to the surface waviness that was generated earlier during
the process itself, re-entering the grinding area. A special
characteristic of the grinding process in comparison to the
other metal-cutting processes described earlier is that not
only the workpiece but also the grinding wheel can be the
bearer of the regenerative effect.
The regenerative effect on the workpiece side is
characterized by rapidly increasing vibration amplitude,
which can be seen and measured on the workpiece. In
contrast to the vibrations caused by the effect on the
wheel side, increase much more slowly.
The machine model and the process model can be
combined in two different ways for grinding to generate a
complete interactive simulation approach. In the model
integration technique, both parts are modeled in the same
simulation environment. In this type of simulation, a
simplified process or machine model is usually integrated
into an existing enhanced model of its counterpart. If both
models run simultaneously in different simulation
environments and communicate with each other in
synchronized cycles, the technique is called co-
simulation. In this case, complex machine and complex
process models that might have been developed
independently may be combined.
Fig. 9. Process-machine interaction in grinding [12]
Fig. 9 represents the closed-loop description. In the upper
part, the dynamic system compliance is described. It
consists of the dynamic machine behavior, the contact
compliance as well as the grinding wheel and workpiece
behavior. The calculation of the process models, such as
material removal, wheel wear, workpiece surface and
grinding forces, is shown in the lower part of Fig. 9. In
macroscopic model approaches, those calculations are
usually carried out separately, whereas in microscopic
model approaches, the calculation of some physical
effects may be combined, for example material removal
and surface generation with single-grain models.
The system shown can become unstable and chatter can
occur due to the re-entering workpiece and the grinding-
wheel surface in the contact kinematics. Alternatively, an
abrupt change in material removal in speed-stroke
grinding leads to a dynamic defection in the grinding zone
and thus to marks on the workpiece surface.
4.4. Model integration
Developed the 2D simulation model is represented in
[11]. The goal of this work was to analyze nonlinear
oscillation in external cylindrical grinding. He thus
created a model in a single simulation environment that
integrated the simulation of the grinding contact and
system dynamics. Extensive dynamic FEM and
experimental studies of the workpiece and the grinding
wheel carried out presented in [12]. The contact and
abrasion simulation is a conventional macroscopic
approach with a process model from regression analysis
of grinding tests. The roughness of the grinding wheel
contour is generated via random radius variation across
the perimeter. However, abrasive and possibly irregular
wear of the grinding wheel is not considered. The
abrasion of the workpiece is calculated from the material
evaporation in the penetration zone.
The calculated forces from the penetration zone provide
the input values for the dynamic calculation of workpiece
and machine, leading to the dynamic movement of
machine parts. From the new dynamic position, the new
contact zone is recalculated which, in turn, provides new
grinding forces.
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In cutting, there is a long tradition of viewing the process
and the machine tool as an interacting system.
In all disciplines, there are more or less four important
steps in the research of processmachine interaction.
 First comes the understanding of the modes of
interaction. What are the relevant aspects of behavior?
How can the interaction be measured and assessed?
 Secondly, a concept for modeling the interaction is
needed. Where are the interfaces between the process
and the machine tool? How can all modes of
interaction be included?
 Thirdly, abstraction of the models is necessary. What
are the relevant interaction phenomena? How can exist
process and machine models be used for the modeling
of these phenomena?
 Lastly, modeling leads to methods of simulating
processmachine interactions, which is generally the
goal of the research projects. Prediction of interaction
results through simulations can help to improve
machines and processes in order to obtain a more
efficient production system.
As in a feedback loop, the simulation results can be
compared with observed experimental data. This enables
the researcher to gain a closer understanding of the details
of processmachine interactions, starting the four steps
again. Currently and in future projects, this approach will
be supplemented with cross-functional research.
REFERENCES
[1] ALTINTAS Y, WECK M., Chatter Stability in Metal
Cutting and Grinding. Annals of the CIRP 53(2),
(2004), pp 619642.
[2] ALTINTAS Y, BRECHER C, WECK M, WITT S.,
Virtual Machine Tool. Annals of the CIRP 54(2),
(2005), pp 651674.
239
[3] BRECHER C, WITT S., Simulation of Machine [12] SCHUTTE O., Analyse und Modellierung
Process Interaction with Flexible Multi-Body nichtlinearer Schwingungen beim
Simulation. Proceedings of the 9th CIRP Auenrundeinstechschleifen, Dissertation, (2003),
International Workshop on Modeling of Machining University of Hannover
Operations, Bled, Slovenia, (2006), pp 171178. [13] ZAH M, SCHWARZ F., Consideration of Tool and
[4] BRINKSMEIER E, AURICH J, GOVEKAR E, Workpiece Temperatures in a Modular Cutting Force
HEINZEL C, HOFFMEISTER H, KLOCKE F, Model. Proceedings of the 1st International
PETERS J, RENTSCH R, STEPHENSON D, Conference on PMI, Hannover, Germany, (2008), pp
UHLMANN E, WEINERT K, WITTMANN M., 353361.
Advances in Modeling and Simulation of Grinding [14] WITT S Integrierte Simulation von Maschine,
Processes. Annals of the CIRP 55(2), (2006), pp Werkstuk und spanendem Fertigungsprozess,
667696. Dissertation, (2007), RWTH Aachen University.
[5] BUDAK E., Analytical Models for High
Performance Milling. Part I. Cutting forces,
Structural Deformations and Tolerance Integrity.
International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture 46, (2006), pp14781488.
[6] BUDAK E, KAYHAN M., Investigating Effects of
Chatter Vibrations on Tool Wear in Turning. CORRESPONDENCE
Proceedings of 4th CIRP International Seminar on
Intelligent Computation in Manufacturing Pavel Kovac, Prof. D.Sc. Eng.
Engineering, Sorrento, Italy, (2004), pp 679684. University of Novi Sad
[7] BYRNE G, DORNFELD D, DENKENA B., (2003) Faculty of Technical Sciences
Advancing Cutting Technology. Annals of the CIRP Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
52(2):483507. 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
[8] MALKIN S, GUO C., Thermal Analysis of Grinding. pkovac@uns.ac.rs
Annals of the CIRP 56(2), (2007), pp760782.
[9] INSPERGER T, EDES B, MANN B, STEPAN G.,
Marin GOSTIMIROVI, Assoc. prof.
The Effect of Run out on the Chatter Frequencies of
Ph.D. University of Novi Sad
Milling Processes. Proceedings of the 9th CIRP
Faculty of Technical Sciences
International Workshop on Modeling of Machining
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
Operations, Bled, Slovenia, (2006), pp 301 314.
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
[10] MOREAU V, COSTES J, FORES C., Investigation
maring@uns.ac.rs
on Tool Dynamic Behavior in a Milling Process
Using Displacement Sensors. Proceedings of the 10th
CIRP International Workshop on Modeling of Milenko SEKULI Asist. prof. Ph.D.
Machining Operations, Calabria, Italy, (2007), pp University of Novi Sad
485490. Faculty of Technical Sciences
[11] GOSTIMIROVIC M., MILIKIC D., Control of the Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
thermal effects in the grinding process (In Serbian), 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
FTN, Novi Sad, (2002), 183 milekos@uns.ac.rs

240

EXAMPLES OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS
AND THEIR USE IN OPTIMIZATION OF
TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Rbert KOHR
Slavomr HREK
Abstract: This article deals with the optimization of
parameters of technological systems exploiting genetic
algorithms. Two examples are presented - the first
consists of a single-parameter optimization of worm
gearing, while the second part deals with multi-criteria
optimization of a clutch break.
Key words: genetic algorithms, single-parameter
optimization, multi-criteria optimization, MATLAB, worm
gearing, clutch brake
1. INTRODUCTION
The majority of optimization problems can be formulated
as single-criterion, non-linear problems, often highly
bounded. When compared to traditional optimization
methods, evolution algorithms have two advantages: no
limits are imposed on the optimized problem and the
target function can be multinodal and disconnected,
solution area can be non-continuous, etc. and they can be
used to solve problems with the following variable types:
continuous, integer, discreet combined with continuous,
discreet variables.
The general form of a nonlinear problem for single-
criterion optimization with boundary conditions is as
follows:
(1)
, (2)
, (3)
(4)
where, f, g1, g2,...., gm1, hm1+1, hm1+2,...., hm are functions
or real values defined on En, X is a subset of En and x is an
n - dimensional real vector composed of x1, x2,...., xn
values. The defined problem must be solved for values x1,
x2,...., xn, which adhere to given restrictions and at the
same time to minimize function f. Function f is called the
target or fitness function. Each boundary condition
is called inequality constraint and each
boundary condition is called equality
constraint. Group X can usually contain upper and lower
quantity limits, which is called dimensional constraint.
Vector , which adheres to all given constraints, is
called a permissible problem solution. A complete set of
these solutions is called permissible region (area). The
aim of a bounded optimization (nonlinear programming)
is to find a permissible point x in such a way that
f (x ) f (x ) for each permissible point x. Such a point is
then called optimal solution.
In comparison to linear programming, conventional
optimization methods for nonlinear programming are very
complex and rather ineffective. Research in last years has
shown that evolution methods are best suited for solving
nonlinear programming problems. This article outlines the
process used in two example applications.
2. OPTIMAL DESIGN OF A WORM
GEARING
The aim of this example is to design optimal setting of
worm gearing while minimizing power loss (fig.1). The
worm wheel and worm gearing are used to transfer power
in transmissions with non-intersection shafts. The worm
wheel is made of hardened steel (42CrMo4) and the screw
wheel is made of bronze (GzSnBz12). The angle between
both shafts is equal to 90. The gear ratio is equal to 1/15
and the worm wheel consists of three threads. A part of
power is transformed to heat due to friction. The target
(fitness) function is composed as power-loss function
with respect to border conditions, such as linear pressure
exerted onto worm wheel teeth, bending stress of tooth
and permissible bending of worm wheel shaft.
Fig. 1. Worm gearing scheme
Mathematical model definition/creation
Power loss P is formulated as:
P = Pi Po (5)
where Pi is the input power and Po is the output power
m a z g ww
Po = Fn (cos n cos n sin n ) (6)
2i
where Fn is the normal force represented by equation (7),
n is the loading angle, n is the screw angle, is the
friction coefficient, ma is the module, zg number of teeth
of the worm wheel, ww is the screw angular speed and i is
the transmission ratio.
241
 Ft1 shaft screw, g4(x) is boundary condition where output
Fn = (8) power is lower or equal to input power multiplied by total
cos n sin n + cos n
transmission efficiency, Ft2 is axial force of the worm
where, wheel defined via equation (15), bog is the width of the
2 Pi worm wheel as defined via equation (16) and FtR1 is the
Ft1 = (9)
2 total radial force (17).
n dow
60 Ft 2 = Fn (cos n cos n sin n ) , (15)
where, Ft1 is the tangential force defined by equation (9), bo g = 0.45 (do1 + 6 ma ) , (16)
n is the number of screw revolutions and dow is the
diameter of the worm wheel. FtR1 = Ft12 + Fr12 , (17)
Goal (fitness) function Fr1 = Fn sin n . (18)
The goal function is obtained by entering parameters into
where , Fr1 is the radial force.
equation (5):
Fgoal = F (z g , n , ) = Pi Obtained worm gearing optimization results
To obtain optimal results it is necessary to correctly setup
m a z g ww (9) individual GA parameters. One of the most important
Fn (cos n cos n sin n ) parameters is the cross-over rate. This parameter
2i significantly influences the quality of obtained results.
Design variables For this reason a solver was constructed that will run the
Number of teeth of the worm wheel zg 21 z g 80 genetic algorithm 21 times with cross-over
Friction coefficient 0.03 0.05 values pc = 0 : 0.05 : 1 . Figure 2 shows cross-over values
Screw angle n 15 n 25 with best results and these are further used for subsequent
calculations using other parameters.
Input parameters
Po = output power [kW],
n = number of revolutions of the screw [RPM],
i = transmission ratio
a = axial distance of transmission gear [mm],
L = distance between worm wheel bearings [mm],
ma = module [mm],
zw = screw teeth
dow = screw diameter [mm],
dfw = root diameter [mm],
= total transmission efficiency,
n = loading angle [],
E = modulus of elasticity [N/mm2],
I = cross-section moment [mm4].
Values of input parameters:
Fig. 2. Cross-over values
Po = 11 [kW], n = 720 [RPM], i = 15, a = 200 [mm], L =
330 [mm], ma = 7 [mm], zw = 3, dow =71 [mm], dfw =
Figure 3 shows the target function during 100 generations
55[mm], = 0,92, n = 22,5 [], E = 2,1.105 [N/mm2], which in case of GA represent individual calculation
I = 449000 [mm4]. iterations. Values in blue are average target function
Equations for boundary conditions values, while black values represent best obtained values.
Boundary conditions are to be fulfilled during the It is evident that the optimal value of target function lies
optimization process. They define areas of permissible in the interval 0,8 kW to 0,95 kW, which coincides with
problem solutions and are defined as: calculation results shown in table 1.
( )
g j = z g , n , 0 , where, j = 1,... is the number of
boundaries, (10)
g1 (x ) =
Ft2
2.5 3.6 0 (11)
bog ma z g

g 2 (x) =
Ft2
30 0 (12)
ma bog
F L3
g 3 (x ) =
df1
tR1 0 (13)
1000 48 E I
g 4 (x) = Po Pi 0 (14)
where g1(x) represents linear pressure exerted onto the
tooth of the worm wheel, g2(x) is bending stress of tooth
of the worm wheel, g3(x) is the permissible flexion of Fig. 3. Goal function pattern

242
Figure 4 shows individual vector data with best value of Evaluation graph (figure 7) shows evaluation of each
target function in each generation. individual in each generation and a corresponding
evaluation histogram is shown in figure 8.

Fig. 4. Best individual

Figure 5 shows the average distance between individuals

in each generation. Fig. 7. Individual evaluation

Fig. 5. Distances between individuals

Figure 6 shows minimum, average and maximum values

of target function in individual generations and is similar
to figure 5, with the addition of worst values of the target Fig. 8. Evaluation histogram
function.

3. CONCLUSION

Table 1 shows parameters necessary to setup the GA

along with obtained solution results. The GA was run ten
times with various settings. Column number 9 contains
best obtained results, which are more suitable than results
obtained via analytic methods, where zg = 46, = 0,0390,
n = 16,280 and P = 1,362 kW. It is also evident that the
GA results are worse than analytic results in case
incorrect or unsuitable parameters are used, which
highlights the importance of selecting correct parameters.
Best obtained results using GA show the strength of this
method in various applications, including optimization of
devices such as the mentioned worm gearing. The
resulting power loss is 0,4811 kW lower than in case of
analytic methods and represents total power savings of
Fig. 6. Range almost one third.

243
Table 1. Results of optimization of worm gearing and Vsr max = maximum relative friction speed [mm/s],
individual GA settings = friction coefficient,
= material density [kg/mm3],
s = safety coefficient,
Mvstup = input moment [N.mm],
Mt = resistive friction moment [N.mm],
n = input RPMs [rpm],
pmax = maximum permissible disc pressure [MPa],
tmax = maximum stoppage time [s],
Fmax = maximum load force [N].

4. DEFINITION OF MULTI-CRITERIA
OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

The majority of real life optimization problems require a

simultaneous optimization of more than one goal
function. In this case it is often impossible to assure that
certain values of design parameters lead to optimal
results. In order to assure a satisfactory design it is
necessary to define certain compromises between the goal
functions. This process is call multi-criterion
optimization. The general formulation of multi-criterion
Fig. 9. Multi-disc clutch brake
optimization problem is similar to a single-criterion
optimization: Design variables
min f (x ) = [ f1 (x ), f 2 (x ),......., f n (x )]T n = 2,3,...., is the Design variables vector
number of goal functions (19) x = [Rvnut, Rvon, A, F, Z]T , where:
g i (x ) 0 , i = 1,2,...., m1 (20) Rinner = inner disc diameter [mm],
hi (x ) = 0 , i = m1 + 1,...., m = (m1 + m2 ) (21) Router = outer disc diameter [mm],
x X (22) H = disc width [mm],
where, f, g1, g2,...., gm1, hm1+1, hm1+2,...., hm are functions of F = load force [N],
real values defined on En, X is subset of En and x is an n Z = number of friction surfaces.
dimensional real vector with elements x1, x2,...., xn.
Definition of goal (fitness) functions
Advantages of GA in multi-criteria optimization are the
Goal functions vector f (x ) = [ f 1(x ), f 2(x )] , where:
T
same as in single-criteria optimization, however they are
capable of producing pareto optimal (compromise) f 1(x ) = break weight [kg],
solutions during a single algorithm run. This gives the f 2(x ) = break stoppage time [s].
designer the possibility to choose from a wide variety of
compromise solutions and makes the overall selection Both functions are minimized during the optimization
process easier. process. Goal functions are calculated as follows:
( )
f 1(x ) = Rvon 2 Rvnut 2 H (Z + 1) (23)
5. DESIGN OF MULTI-DISC CLUTCH J z
f 2( x ) = t h = (24)
BRAKE Mh Mt
where:
The goal of the discussed optimization process is to find
an optimal set of parameters for the design of a clutch 2 R 3 Rvnut 3
Mh = F Z von2 , (25)
brake shown in figure 9. MATLAB was used to solve the 3 Rvon Rvnut 2
optimization process along with the GA optimization
toolbox. Jz =
1
2
(
m Rvon 2 + Rvnut 2 ) (26)

Input parameters necessary for calculations and input angular speed is:
Rvnut min = minimum inner disc radius [mm], n
= . (27)
Rvon max = maximum outer disc radius [mm], 30
R = minimum radius difference [mm],
Hmin = minimum disc width [mm], Definition of boundary conditions
Hmax = maximum disc width [mm], Definition of linear boundary conditions:
= disc distance in non-loading state [mm], Inner disc radius cannot be smaller than the following
Lmax = maximum length [mm], minimum:
Zmax = maximum number of discs, g1 (x ) = Rmin Rvnut 0 , (28)

244
Outer disc radius cannot exceed the following maximum: Exerted (load) force cannot be higher than Fmax:
g 2 (x ) = Rvon Rmax 0 , (29) g16 (x ) = F Fmax 0 . (47)
Distance between outer and inner radius cannot be smaller
than the following minimum: Input parameters used in the optimization process
Input parameters were defined as:
g 3 (x ) = R (Rvon Rvnut ) 0 , (30) Rinner min = 60 [mm], Router max = 130 [mm], R = 20 [mm],
Disc width must be larger than the following minimum: Hmin = 2[mm],
Hmax = 4 [mm], = 0,7 [mm], Lmax = 45 [mm], Zmax = 10,
g 4 (x ) = H min H 0 , (31)
Vsr max = 12000 [mm/s],
Disc thickness must always be smaller than the following = 0,5, = 0,000007850 [kg/mm3], s = 1,5, Minput =
maximum: 45000 [N.mm],
g 5 (x ) = H H max 0 , (32) Mt = 4000 [N.mm], n = 225 [RPM], pmax = 1 [MPa], tmax =
5 [s], Fmax = 1500 [N].
Number of friction surfaces cannot be larger than the
following maximum: Input parameters for the proposed genetic algorithm
g 6 (x ) = (Z + 1) Z max 0 , (33) Population size = 1000,
Cross-over level = 0,75,
Number of friction surfaces cannot be less than 1: Mutation level = 0,01.
g 7 (x ) = 1 Z 0 . (34)
5.1. Optimization results
Definition of non-linear boundary conditions:
Figure 10 shows output values of two goal functions -
Total break length cannot exceed the following
break weight and break stoppage time for sixty
maximum:
generations. Figure 11 shows output variables values for
g 8 (x ) = (Z + 1) (H + ) Lmax 0 , (35) sixty generations.
Pressure boundary condition is defined as:
g 9 (x ) = p rz p max 0 , (36)
where:
real pressure prz is:
F
p rz = , (37)
S
Friction surface S is:
(
S = Rvon 2 Rvnut 2 , ) (38)
Temperature boundary condition is defined as:
g10 (x ) = p rz v sr p max v sr max 0 , (39)

where:
average relative friction speed vsr is:
Rsr n Fig. 10. Target functions
v sr = , (40)
30
And mean friction radius Rsr is:
( 3
2 Rvon Rvnut
3
)
Rsr =
(
3 Rvon 2 Rvnut 2
,
) (41)

Relative friction speed boundary condition is defined as:

g11 (x ) = v sr v sr max 0 , (42)
Break stoppage time boundary condition is defined as:
g12 (x ) = t h t max 0 , (43)
Output moment must be higher than input moment
multiplied by the safety coefficient:
g13 (x ) = s M vstup M h , (44)
Stoppage time cannot be lower than 0:
Fig. 11. Variable values
g14 (x ) = t h 0 , (45)
Exerted (load) force cannot be lower than 0: Figure 12 shows cross-over values, of which best values
(pc 0,3 and 0,75) were used to calculate optimal results.
g15 (x ) = F 0 (46)
The graph was obtained based on 21 GA executions for

245
the given example, where the cross-over value was varied based on tournament selection, in which case no other
in steps of 0,05 within an interval of <0,1>. method (compared within the scope of this article) offered
equal or better results.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work was supported by the Slovak Research and

Development Agency under the contract no. APVV-0505-
07.
This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency
of the Ministry of Education of Slovak Republic and the
Slovak Academy of Sciences under the contract no. V-10-
034-00 and V-10-036-00.

REFERENCES

Fig. 12. Cross-over level http://www.matlab.com

Table 1 list partial results and pareto (compromise) results

are shown in graph 13. A total of 37 pareto optimal
solutions were found, of which nine are listed in the table.
Solution n.1 has maximum break weight and minimum
break stoppage time, whereas solution n. 37 is the
opposite minimum break weight and maximum break
stoppage time. When evaluating these results one must
take into account disc dimensions and quantity thereof
(see table 2).

Fig. 13. Compromise (paret) solutions

CORRESPONDENCE
Table 2. Results of clutch break optimization
Ing. Rbert KOHR, PhD.
Dept. of Design and Machine Elements
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of ilina
Univerzitn 1
010 26 ilina, Slovak Republic
robert.kohar@fstroj.uniza.sk
Ing. Slavomr HREK, PhD.
6. CONCLUSION Dept. of Design and Machine Elements
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Based on the obtained results and individual comparisons, University of ilina
one can state that genetic algorithms present a viable Univerzitn 1
optimization method for select technical problems. The 010 26 ilina, Slovak Republic
best results were obtained when using genetic algorithms slavomir.hrcek@fstroj.uniza.sk

246

OPTIMIZATION THE PROCESS OF
BIMETALS LAMINATION AND THE
TABLES PLATING USING THE
ASYMMETRICAL ROLLING
Vasile ALEXA
Erika Monika POPA
Abstract: The introduction in practice of new rolling
technologies imposed by the market economy is not
possible without a permanent theoretical and practical
research on metal pressure working and without sound
knowledge of the main cinematic and force laws of the
rolling process. In spite of the achievements, some aspects
related to deformation, kinematics and dynamics of the
rolling process still remain unsolved. We organized to
clarify some problems related to this field helps in
familiarizing the young experts in plastic deformation
with the new theoretical and practical developments on
asymmetrical rolling.
The research suggested by this project has both a
theoretical and a scientific importance for the
contribution to the study of force parameters, particularly
the distribution pattern of contact pressure on
asymmetrical rolling; moreover, it is technologically
important for the establishing of a reduction pattern in bi-
metal rolling.
In order to achieve these goals, we suggests an
appropriate installation and the carrying out of active
experiments, aiming at obtaining original data on
longitudinal asymmetrical deformation. The results of the
research will make a contribution to the clearing of some
ambiguous problems related to the kinematics of the
rolling process using rolls with different diameters.
The work involves the use of research means observing
the real technological conditions and represents a model
of fusing fundamental research with practical application.
Keywords: optimization, asymmetrical rolling, bimetals
lamination, tables plating, double reversing mill,
algorithm, force parameters
1. INTRODUCTION
The reference literature dealing with the theoretical and
practical aspects of rolling technologies approaches the
symmetrical rolling, i.e. the case where both rolls are
driven similarly and have equal peripheral and angle
speeds, the rolled material is homogenous and is moving
evenly, while the friction conditions are identical for each
roll, which is an abstraction as compared to the real
rolling conditions.
Under these ideal conditions the strains and deformations
in the cross section of rolled rods, as compared to the
median axis, are symmetrically distributed, which does
not correspond to the real conditions in current practice,
not even in the case of working square profilers between
smooth rolls. In more complex situations, the deviations
are particularly high, as the deformation takes place in
passes; it goes the same in a series of special processes
when rolls are of a different diameter, on rolling bi-metals
metal plating, etc.
In spite of the achievements, some aspects related to
deformation, kinematics and dynamics of the rolling
process still remain unsolved. As a result, sometimes,
important practical solutions are given without sound
scientific grounds. Moreover, some theoretical solutions
need experimental confirmation; until now, the following
problems related to asymmetric longitudinal rolling are
still nuclear:
 pressure distribution along the length of the contact
arc rolls-rolled material when the rolls have different
diameters;
 the influence of lateral forces on the distribution of
normal pressures along the contact arc, for rolls with
different diameters;
 the study of particularities involved by the
introduction of a single roll in the process;
These issued are the target of the study herein. At the
same time, for practical calculations we need to know the
force parameters and the process rate.
The main sources of errors consist in accepting the
friction and pressure constant along the contact arc, as
well as in ignoring some technological factors of the
working process.
The classical theory of rolling draws its conclusions from
the balance of exterior forces, while modern theory
analyzes the balance conditions of a volume element of
the material existing in the deformation area. A cupola-
shaped pressure distribution along the contact arc
(Nadais solution) is in our opinion closer to reality and is
going to be checked in this project.
Some researchers have brought essential improvements to
the pressure calculation theory in the asymmetrical
process, considering that the sections that are flat before
rolling get curved in the rolling area according to the
advance rate of the metal particles. Also, it was
considered that friction varies according to different laws
along the arc. So, the researchers have accepted that the
gliding friction cannot prevail along the contact arc and it
must be admitted that there is an area where adherence
friction arises. A change of the friction variation rules
determines a modification of the pressure distribution
diagram and its calculation will be done differently for the
gliding and for the adherence areas. There are in this
domain a few analytical solutions, but as they are not
based on experiments, their area of technological
applicability is rather narrow.
The difficulties caused by the simultaneous action of the
factors mentioned above have led to asymmetrical rolling
247
being little studied either theoretically or experimentally,
particularly from the standpoint of pressure distribution
on the contact surfaces between the metal and the rolls.
2. THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
For above-mentioned purpose, the research was done on a
170 mm double reversing mill built and installed in the
laboratory of plastic deformation unconventional
technologies at the Engineering Faculty of Hunedoara.
The rolls are operated with a 33 [kW] continuous current
motor, n=1400 [rot/min], using a reducer, pinion stands
and universal bars; the rolling speed is from 0.3 to 0.8
[m/s]. The roll bearings are conical-roller-angles.
For research purposes and in order to obtain a large
turning fork (scope) between the working diameters ratio,
the mill was equipped with two special-built rolls of 140
[mm] and, respectively, 170 [mm], bearings, pointlike
force detectors for the contact stress, rolling force and
side effort detectors, as well as with devices for fixing the
real length of the springs of contact between the rolls and
the metal material.
Fig. 1. A 170 mm double reversing mill (view of front)
Fig. 2. The installation for the research
on the force parameters of the symmetric
and asymmetric longitudinal rolling process
1 140 [mm]- A divided head superior roll; 2 170 [mm]-
B divided head inferior roll; 3 R = 70 [mm] - segment for
the superior roll; 4 R =100 [mm] - segment for the inferior
roll; 5 device for registering the real length of the contact
springs; 7 superior roll bearing; 8 rolling force (F) detector;
9 side force (X) detector.
In Figure 1 the view of front of a 170 mm double
reversing mill is presented. Figure 2 shows a general view
of the installation, which has been built by the author of
248
this paper and which, compared to all the other mills,
allows a simultaneous registering of the symmetric and
asymmetric rolling process parameters, which are the
rolling force (Fd and Fa), the side efforts (Xd and Xa), the
pressure on the surface of contact with the superior roll
(ps) and the with inferior one (pi), the real lengths of the
springs of contact with the superior roll (ls) and with the
inferior one (li).
Fig. 3. Section of rolling rolls
The two rolls (Figure 3), having diameters of 140 mm and
170 mm, are made of OL 50-forged and normalised steel.
Both of them have two antipodal longitudinal channels. In
order to install the pointlike detectors (the specific rolling
pressure), a 24 mm - diameter orifice has been drilled in
the centres of the channels of both the superior and the
inferior roll.
Heads A and B of the rolling rolls have a special dividing
system that serves at fixating, on the oscilograme, the real
length of the springs of contact between the material and
the rolls and the position of the geometrical plane of
exiting from between the rolls.
We drilled a 25 mm orifice through the first and second
roll axis to the centre of the plate, which serves at the
evacuation of the cables of the pointlike detectors that
record the rolling pressure.
The symmetric and asymmetric rolling processes were
obtained by introducing various radii segments into those
particular channels, which allowed us to get the following
ratios between the working diameters of the superior roll
(Ds) and the inferior one (Di).
Ds 170 160 150 140
= ; ; ; [mm]
Di 170 180 190 200
The manner of fitting the segments on the rolls, in order
to obtain these combinations, is provided in figure 9. The
rolls must be fitted in such a way that the measuring of
each rolls rolling pressure is made in the same plane.
The constructive particularities of the force poitlike
detectors for measuring the pressure at the contact
between the metal rolling material and the rolls are related
to:
 the diameter of the pins used for these detectors is pre-
set at 1.13 mm. This determines the oscillograph to
perform the recording directly in finite units of
measurement [N/mm2];
 there is a 0.5 mm radial game between the pin steel
bar and the body of the detector. This excludes the
possibility of the gauged part of the pin getting stuck
in the orifice of the segment when installing the
detector.
 the body of the pointlike detector, which is made of
brass, has four longitudinal cuttings of 2 mm each, in
order to insure the necessary sensitivity and a more
homogenous pressure distribution per section.
Their usage in the experiments proved to be easy, without
Fig. 5. Dialog Box for the Input Data
requiring the amplification of the impulses. They have
little overall dimension which is extremely important Once the data input to the computer by the user, the
and the necessary sensitivity and impact resistance etc. program performs a series of calculations, being capable
Their operating principle is based on changing the true of drawing families of curves, specific for the parameters
resistance of the Tensometrical Bridge stuck to the walls under consideration. The software has been created for
the calculation of force parameters on rolling copper and
of the pointlike detectors, because of the force that
aluminum. For example, one can draw dependencies
compresses the pin when it enters the deformation area
related to the force and respectively the momentum of
and expands the detector walls.
rolling according to the relative reduction, both for copper
Modifying the resistance determines an unbalance of the and aluminum. Also, one can visualize families of curves
current in the tensometrical diagram, which was initially representing the variation of the force and momentum of
balanced. The current variation curve, recorded by the rolling, according to the relative reduction for different
oscillograph, is, in a certain proportion, the representation thickness values of the entering plate.
of the pressure developing on the surface of contact
between the material and the rolls.
The unbalance of the poinlike detector bridges was
recorded on the oscillograph 120 mm-wide band. The
detector sensitivity and the oscillograph band moving
speed were pre-set in such a way that the curve scale on
the oscillograph band are large enough, that is, the curves
should be tall and wide enough to be easily read.
In order to obtain the pressure distribution curves as close
to the real one as possible, the pin must have a minimum
possible dimension both in the direction of the bar width
and in the direction of rolling. Fig. 6. Rolling force depending relative reduction, for Cu
The force detector pin must have the same hardness as the (1) , respectively Al (2) rolling
roll segments, that is about 70-80 Shore units. This is the
reason why they are made of the same steel type and are
subjected to hardening. The pin head is adjusted by taking
into consideration the surface of the segment and is
performed after fitting by grinding.

3. THE STUDY
Starting from a soundly founded and well structured
mathematical material, based on vast knowledge from the
reference literature, the authors have developed an
efficient algorithm for the calculation of the force
parameters in rolling, skillfully using the programming Fig. 7. Rolling momentum depending relative reduction
means offered by IT at present. for Cu (1) , respectively Al (2) rolling

Fig. 4. Main Window

Designed as an intuitive, user friendly interface, the

program based on the algorithm mentioned above allows
the automatic calculation of force parameters in the Fig. 8. Rolling force depending relative reduction, for Cu
rolling process, for a series of input data. (1) rolling, for different values of thickness

249

Fig. 9. Rolling momentum depending relative reduction
for Cu (1) rolling, for different values of thickness
The automatic calculation for the force magnitudes of
rolling shows a series of advantages related firstly to the
possibility of real time visualizing the modifications
arisen in the variation pattern of specific curves, alongside
with the variation of the input parameters used in the
dialog box of the program.
This program allows obtaining acceptable results for the
force parameters calculated, the results being comparable
to those obtained experimentally, by direct measurements.
After having carried out the numerical simulation of the
process, we passed on to the next target of the project,
namely the experiments proper. The data collected along
the industrial experimentations have been analyzed and
processed by means of calculation programs, in order to
obtain results and conclusions comparable to those
obtained by simulation. Also, the next activity in the work
program consists in checking the results of the research in
industrial practice, the conclusions being made public in
various forms (studies, papers, attendance of international
conferences, etc.)
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research directs to the effectuation a good
documented study about the procurement through [6]
laminate the bimetals and the material metallic veneering
of the new method, scilicet longitudinal asymmetrical
rolling. One from the sources of breed the productivity
bar mills, funded out already in exploitation, is an [7]
intensification of material a metallic decrease and the
rational reduced the total on crossings. Therewith, the
increase of the decrease is retardation, in a series cases; of
ignorance the date considering to the possibility the
equipment the mechanic of lamination supported the
growth of the task.
The thing is complicated to the asymmetrical lamination,
when deformation on vertical becomes spotty (the
lamination in groove, the veneering through lamination,
the lamination of the bimetals). The objectives are
orientated about:
 specification the method who define the surface of
contact semi-product - roll;
 study of the decrease between roll;
 study the flexure of bars rolling to exit among rolls;
 perfecting the experimental assessment method of the
pressures of contacts, fallow the graphic
representation, the diagram of casting and the pressure
from zone of thing;
 study the which factors influences or modifies the
tensional schemes volumetrically;
250
 comparison falled across the laboratory with one from
practice.
The experimental installation is can use as much in aim
investigatory, for the settlement correlations between the
technological parameters and the force have the process
of lamination, quotient and in productive aim for the
execution veneering, or laminations of bimetals prompted
of customers.
The applicative research activity is directed to the
knowledge broadening in order to use this knowledge for
developing new technological processes or for improving
significantly the existing technological processes.
REFERENCES
[1] Dariusz RYDZ, Henryk DYJA, Marlena
KRAKOWIAK - The influence of the thickness of a
bimetallic layer on the distribution of the relative flow
rate in asymmetrical rolling, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, volume 138, issues 1-3, 2003,
pp. 120122
[2] D. RYDZ - The optimal conditions for production of
bimetallic plate St36K + 0H13J in asymmetrical hot
rolling, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, volumes 157-158, 2004, pp. 609612
[3] A. KAWAEK - The theoretical and experimental
analysis of the effect of asymmetrical rolling on the
value of unit pressure, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, volumes 157-158, 2004, pp. 531-535
[4] HWANG Y M, CHEN T H, HSU H H. - Analysis of
asymmetrical clad sheet rolling by stream function
method, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 1996, 38(4), pp. 443460.
[5] YANG, L.-m. JIANG, Z.-y. ZHU, H.-t. LIU, X.-h.
TIEU, A. K. - Experimental study on asymmetrical
rolling with work roll edge contact, Journal of
Materials and Metallurgy, 2006, vol 5, part 3, pp.
208211
ALEXA, V., RATIU, S., KISS, I. - Theoretical and
experimental analysis of the rolling strain in the
deformation area, Metalurgia International,
No.5/2005, pp. 20...28
ALEXA, V., RATIU, S., KISS, I. - Calculation
program for the determination of force parameters in
rolling, Annals of the Faculty of Engineering
Hunedoara, 2003/3, pp. 149...154
CORRESPONDENCE
Vasile ALEXA, Lect. D.Sc., Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei,
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
vasile.alexa@fih.upt.ro
Erika Monika POPA, Assist. Eng.
University Politehnica - Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
Revoluiei 5, 331128, Hunedoara,
Romania
erika.popa@fih.upt.ro

CONTRIBUTION TO THE USE OF
CAD/CAE SOFTWARE FOR SOLUTION
OF CHOSEN FORMING
TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS
Bohumil TARABA
tefan HAJDU
Abstract: The paper deals with the prediction of bending
parameters quantification for molded part made from low
carbon steel. Dimensions of molded part were defined
and material properties of steel were obtained from
experiment. The geometry of bending device was assigned
by the rules for bending technology. The analysis of the
bending parameters (bending and calibration force,
bending work and springback angle) were assigned
analytically (mathematical model based on forming
theory) and computer modeling in scientific-technical
computer aided engineering (CAE) software. The
simulation models were generated as contact structural
task with large nonlinearity behaviors. Obtained results
contain stress-strain states, bending force, bending work
and springback angle prediction..
Key words: FEM, CAE, forming, bending, computer
modeling
1. INTRODUCTION
Modeling is generally explores objects using artificially
generated objects. The engineering modeling has
undergone a long evolution - since traditional practices
into modern system solutions. To the defined technical
object (TO) is created the proposed object (PO). As a
result of creative process is then generation of material
object (MO), i. e. model which is similar to TO and
consistent with theory of similarity relation [1]. Computer
modeling was used for forming technology with
orientation on bending processes. The solved technical
object (TO) was the technological process of sheet metal
bending with shape U. The creation of proposed object
(PO) was consisted from classical approach from theory
of forming technology and numerical analysis. The
computer simulations were processed with software
Ansys. From obtained results were evaluated retaliations
between various approaches and chosen parameters of
bending process.
2. THEORETICAL BASE [2,3,7]
Theoretical base for bending proposed object (PO) is
applied for calculation of blank length, bending force,
calibration force, bending work and springback angle.
Length of blank is equals to the length of neutral line lp at
point of bend and total length of undeformed segment.
For the length lp is a mathematical relationship
lp = r [m] (1)
180
where is acute angle [90] and r is radius of the neutral
line, r = R + xs, x is a ratio of material thickness to the
location of the neutral line [-] (x = 0.39), s is material
thickness [m] and R is radius of punch curvature.
For calculation maximum bending force is uses
relationship
bs2
Fb = Rm C [N] (2)
2L
where b is width of sheet metal [m], L is bending arm [m],
(L = 2r + 1.15s), Rm is failure strength of material and C is
a factor taking into account several parameters including
friction, C = 1,6 1,8. The chosen value of C = 1.7. The
technological gap for U shape bending is setting up to
value 1.15s.
Calibration bending force is used by equation: Fcal= (2.0
2.5) Fb. The chosen value was 2.5. The bending work W
is described in the classical theory with the formula
W = Fb h [J] (3)
where h is length of the punch displacement and is
coefficient of the diagram fullness, = 0.5 0.6. An
expression for the springback angle can be takes as
L Re
= arctg 0.075 [rad] (4)
(1 x )s E
where E is elasticity modulus of steel and Re is yield
stress (Re = 225.22 MPa).
3. SIMULATION MODEL
The simulation model was created for proposed model of
technological bending process in stages: a) geometrical
model, b) material model, c) generation of contact pair, d)
constraints defining, and solution procedure setting. For
the analysis of the simulation models was applied the
interpretation code Ansys [4].
Geometry of the sheet metal part is in Fig. 1. Length of
unfolded part was obtained with help of equation (1) and
was compared with length of unfolded part in software
Catia V5 [5]. Length of unfolded sheet metal was 108.16
mm.
Fig. 1. Geometry of sheet metal
251
 Fb dynamic friction coefficient in interval from 0.12 (slick
surface) to 0.52 (dry surface). The constraints of the
Punch
simulation model were defined with displacement ux = 0
on the nodes of mesh with coordinate x = 0 and uy = 0 for
nodes on base plate of die, location y = 0. The punch
displacement in the vertical direction was 27 mm and was
Blank used for load step 1. The displacement was defined on the
top nodes of punch. Computational procedure was static
with solution control by large displacement static [4].
Die
The value of springback angle was obtained from
unloaded model, in the load step 2 the punch was moved
back into initial position and in the load step 3 the bended
blank was pushed out of die. The value of springback
Fig. 2. Design of bending tools angle was obtained from results file of displacement. Two
states of formed blank were compared, first was loaded
The geometrical model of bending tool is based on the state and second unloaded state.
tool design showen in Fig. 2 and was created in two-
dimensional plane x-y. Mapped mesh of simulation model 4. OBTAINED RESULTS
was generated on the base of dimensions sheet metal part
and technological gap, Fig. 3. It was applied plane From results files were chosen data witch are
element Plane182 with plane-stress behavior. representative for solved task. Fig. 6 shows bending force
Fb dependence on punch displacement. Maximal bending
uy = 0 27 mm
force witch was obtained from numerical analysis is 7271
N at punch displacement 0.013 m. Fig. 6 is showing
Generated contact
forces: maximal bending force by (2) Fb = 7134 N and
calibration force Fcal = 17835 N and the bending work
(area under curve) also.

Generated contact

uy = 0

Fig. 3. Generated mesh for Ansys

Sheet metal part is made from low carbon steel

STN 411373 (DIN 1.0036). Elasticity modulus of steel is
210 GPa and Poisson's ratio is 0.3. Strain-stress curve for
used material was obtained from experiment. The failure
strength Rm is for applied material 430.15 MPa. The curve
which was used in the calculation is in Fig. 5. It was used
nonlinear material model with multi-linear kinematic Fig. 6. Bending forces and bending work dependences on
hardening. punch displacement

Figure 7 shows the shape geometries of the solved

bending process. The maximum of bending force arises at
the configuration in detail D. The deformed shape at
finish of bending process is shown in Fig. 7 (left).

D
Fig. 5. Strain-stress curve for used material

Generated contact pair between parts Punch-Blank and

Blank-Die was of standard type node to surface. The
contact conditions between the blank and the tools were
described using the Coulomb friction model. Friction
coefficient between blank and other parts of bending tool Fig. 7. Geometry shapes of the bending - deformed shape
was taken account 0.3. By [6] was possible to consider for max. Fb (right), bending process finish (left)

252
The contour plots of equivalent von Mises stresses and
von Mises total strains are in Fig. 8.
A Bending work
B Coefficients of
a) b)
Fig. 8. Detail D: a) Contour plots of equivalent von Mises
stress [MPa], b) von Mises total strain [-]
Fig. 9. show selected stresses behavior in state of
maximum bending force across blank thickness between
points A and B.
Fig. 9. Stress dependence [MPa] in relation to blank
thickness between points A and B
In Fig.10 is plotted the value of springback angle of sheet
metal part in relation to release location of punch in die
before ending of complete forming process.
Fig. 10. Springback angle as the punch displacement
function
The results comparison from theoretical base and
numerical simulations is in Table 1.
Table 1. Obtained results comparison
Analysis type
Parameter Theoretical
Ansys
base
Bending force
7134 7271
Fb [N]
98.1 108.2
W [J]
0.55 0.61
fullness [-]
Springback angle
2.65 2.18 0.46
[]
5. DISCUSSION
Bending process data of sheet metal were calculated with
help classical approach and were compared with results
obtained from software Ansys.
The results comparison Ansys vs. obtained results of the
theoretical base gives very good agreement at bending
force quantification. It was obtained relative error 1.9 %.
The maximum bending force was determined by the
relation 2, in which is used the value of the ultimate
strength of sheet metal material. In the analysis of stress
in the numerical simulation at the maximum bending
force in bending blank obtain not the value of the ultimate
strength, Fig. 9. Then the correctness of calculating the
max. forces depend on the choice of appropriate values of
the coefficient C. Numerical analysis gives a clear view
on this result to determine the max. force. Course of force
is known from numerical analysis as a function of punch
displacement. The calibration force is taken as 2.5 times
the max. forces. From results of numerical analysis is
likely that the calibration force at the end of punch stroke
is higher and reaches the value of 31,200 N. By
comparison of bending work is relative error 10.3 % and
the coefficients of fullness is with relative error 10.1 %.
The result is a recognition that the coefficient of fullness
of the relationship (3) was chosen to be the upper limit of
the recommended range. The chart in Fig. 9 shows that
ratio of material thickness to the location of the neutral
line (x = 0.39) is in good agreement with numerical
calculations. Numerical simulation demonstrated the
complexity of calculating the springback angle by
analytical relations. In Fig. 10 is shown as changing the
springback angle in locating punch between the beginning
and end of stroke. Into the value of 25 mm punch
displacement is springback angle in good corelation to the
results of equation (4). With increasing force, Fig. 6,
decreases the value of springback angle. The value of
springback angle in calibration forming process of sheet
metal part is 0.46.
6. CONCLUSION
System approach of the modeling of chosen problem from
forming technology deepens knowledge of solved
process. Based on the processed analysis, methodology
used simulation model creation and computational
procedure can use the experience gained to examine the
parameters for any of the shaping process. Effective
exploitation of actual software must be supported with
wide range of theoretical knowledge.
253
REFERENCES ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

[1] JANEK P., ONDREK E.: een problm This paper was realised with the support of grants: VEGA
modelovnm. Modeling problem solving. Brno, 1/0721/08 and VEGA 1/0256/09.
VUT Brno, FS 2001.
[2] KOSTKA, P.: Metal Forming. 1. vyd. - Bratislava :
STU v Bratislave, 2002. - 117 s. - ISBN 80-227-
1801-7
[3] BLIK, J., KAPUSTOV, M., ULK, A.: Forming
Technology: Instructions for exercises. Bratislava:
STU Bratislava, 2004. ISBN 80-227-2099-2.
Available on the Internet: (https://sweb.mtf.stuba.sk)
[4] Ansys Theoretical Manual, Release 10.0. (2005).
Available on the Internet:
http://www.tsne.co.kr/intra/data_center/ansys/theory.
pdf Accessed 2010-02-20 CORRESPONDENCE
[5] CATIA V5: Konstruktionsprozesse in der Praxis.
Munchen: Hanser Verlag, ISBN 3-446-22970-1, Bohumil TARABA,
2005. Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng.
[6] LS-DYNA theory manual, LS-DYNA Support, 2005. Slovak University of Technology in
Available on the Internet: Bratislava, Faculty of Materials
http://www.dynasupport.com/manuals/additional/ls- Science and Technology, Institute of
dyna-theory-manual-2005 beta/view Accessed 2010- Production Systems and Applied
02-20 Mechanics, Department of Applied
[7] BURCHITZ, I.A.: Improvement of Springback Mechanics, Trnava, Slovak Republic
Prediction in Sheet Metal Forming. Copyright by bohumil.taraba@stuba.sk
I.A. Burchitz, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2008.
ISBN 978-90-365-2656-2 tefan HAJDU, PhD. Eng.
[8] MAEK, B., BEHLOV, M., MAHN, U., Slovak University of Technology in
MEYER, L.W.: Application of FEM simulation Bratislava, Faculty of Materials
for the support of design and optimisation of Science and Technology, Institute of
forming processes. XXVI. Verformungskundliches Production Systems and Applied
Kolloquium: Tagungsband. 10.03.-13.03.2007 Mechanics, Department of Applied
Planneralm, Steiermark. - Leoben : Umformtechnik, Mechanics, Trnava, Slovak Republic
2007. - ISBN 978-3-902078-09-4. - S. 171-180 stefan.hajdu@stuba.sk

254

STRESS ANALYSIS OF FORMING
TOOLS USING CA SYSTEMS
Mria KAPUSTOV
Peter ZEMKO
Jana UGROV
Abstract: The contribution suggests meaning of software
extensions of CAD systems for verification of forming
tools and by that accelerating preproduction phase at
workshops use. New and advanced FEA features of
current 3D CA systems simplify verification even very
complex forms of products. Tribute submits processed
design for tool model for specific component with
applying CAD software Inventor from AUTODESK
Company.
Key words: forming tool, construction elements,
modeling, verification, stress analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Forming tools as active elements of machine industry
enforce high educated deposit into production process and
sophisticated solutions, which positively affects
production process. Current market conditions claim on
designers and manufactures of forming tools high
demands, relevant to reduction of time necessary needed
on project and cut-downs of input investments.
Without application of computing techniques in the
process of engineering forming tools, it is not possible
adequate respond to customer's requests. Performing an
analysis of a mechanical part or assembly in the design
phase of forming tool can help bring a better product to
market in less time.
Using method of final elements (FEM) with CA
application, allows to fully manage problems of stress
condition analysis and deformations of construction
materials.
Today's market with the 3D CAD systems has wide
representation. To most widespread belong CATIA, UGS,
SOLIDWORKS, PRO/ENGINEER, INVENTOR.
2. UNDERSTANDING VALUES OF STRESS
ANALYSIS
Utility of Autodesk Inventor Stress Analysis helps us at
designing of forming tools:
 Verify if the tool part or tool assembly is strong
enough to withstand expected loads without breaking
or deforming inappropriately.
 Gain valuable insight at an early stage when the cost
of redesign is small.
 Determine if the tool part can be redesigned in a more
cost-effective manner and still perform satisfactorily
under expected use.
2.1. Stress analysis tool features
Autodesk Inventor provides tools to determine structural
design (forming tool) performance directly on Autodesk
Inventor Simulation model. Stress Analysis includes tools
to place loads and constraints on a part or assembly and
calculate the resulting stress, deformation, safety factor,
and resonant frequency modes.
Fig. 1. Stress analysis tool panel
With the stress analysis tools, we can:
 Perform a structural static or modal analysis of a tool
part or tool assembly.
 Apply a force, pressure, bearing load, moment, or
body load to vertices, faces, or edges of the tool
model, or import a motion load from dynamic
simulation.
 Apply fixed or non-zero displacement constraints to
the tool model.
 Model various mechanical contact conditions between
adjacent tool parts.
 Evaluate the impact of multiple parametric design
changes.
 View the analysis results in terms of equivalent stress,
minimum and maximum principal stresses,
deformation, safety factor, or modal frequency.
 Add or suppress features such as construction parts,
re-evaluate the design, and update the solution.
 Animate the model through various stages of
deformation, stress, safety factor, and frequencies.
 Generate a complete and automatic engineering design
report of forming tool in HTML format.
The stress analysis environment allows analyzing
assembly or part design and evaluating different options
quickly under different conditions, for example using
various materials, loads and constraints (boundary
conditions), etc.
255
Stress Analysis workflow:
1. Creating simulations and specify their properties.
2. Excluding components not required for simulation.
3. Assigning materials.
4. Adding constraints.
5. Adding loads.
6. Specifying contact conditions, an optional step.
7. Specifying and preview the mesh, an optional step.
8. Running the simulation.
9. Viewing and interpreting the results.

3. STATIC STRESS ANALYSIS

3.1. Forming tool model analysis

For verifying the accurate drawing tool construction
without blankholder was selected simple type of forming
tool with guide (fig. 2), which was designated for
production of round drawpieces with dimensions of
50x17mm and thickness of the wall 2mm. For the
drawpiece was selected construction steel STN 11343
(EN S235 JRG). For the functional elements was chosen
steel STN 19 191 (DIN C 105 W 1). For bearing and
carrying parts were selected steels STN 14260 (DIN 54
SiCr 6) and STN 12 050 (EN C 45).
Fig. 3. Drawing tool position in simulation
3.2. Results interpretation of stress analysis
The output of a mathematical solver is generally a
substantial quantity of raw data. This quantity of raw data
would normally be difficult and tedious to interpret
without the data sorting and graphical representation
traditionally referred to as post-processing. Post-
processing is used to create graphical displays that show
the distribution of stresses, deformations, and other
characteristics of the tool model.

Interpretation of these post-processed results is the key to

identifying:
 Areas of potential concern as in weak areas in a
model.
 Areas of material waste as in areas of the model
bearing little or no load.
 Valuable information about other model performance
characteristics, such as vibration, that otherwise would
not be known until a physical model is built and tested
(prototype).

The contour colors display in the results corresponds to

Fig. 2. Drawing tool model
For realization of stress analysis of the drawing toll model
it was necessary to define loads. Drawing tool loading
force was 148kN and the position was in the phase of
maximum drawing force (fig. 3).
After defining the materials, loads, and constraints for the
condition we wanted to test, and established contact
conditions and mesh preferences we could run the stress
analysis.
256
the value ranges shown in the legend. In most cases,
results displayed in red are of most interest, either because
of their representation of high stress or high deformation,
or a low factor of safety.
3.2.1. Von Mises stress
Three-dimensional stresses and strains build up in many
directions. A common way to express these
multidirectional stresses is to summarize them into an
equivalent stress (1), also known as the von Mises stress
v.
where v is von Mieses stress in MPa, 1, 2, 3 are
principal stresses in MPa.
Von Mises stress results use color contours to show us the
stresses calculated during the solution for our drawing
tool model (fig. 4 and fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Von Mises stress for upper drawing tool part
Fig. 5. Von Mises stress for bottom drawing tool part
After performing stress analysis of drawing tool model in
defined technological conditions, we can state, that
maximum stress values for upper part of drawing tool
reaches 122.5MPa (fig. 4) and bottom part of tool
203.1MPa (fig. 5).
3.2.2. Deformation
The displacement results show us the deformed shape of
our drawing tool model after the solution (fig. 6 and fig.
7). The color contours shows the magnitude of
deformation from the original shape.
The deformation of upper part of drawing tool reaches
maximum value of 0.01959mm on the contact area of
drawing punch and semiproduct. We can also observe
slight deformation of punch holder that reaches values
from 0.00356 to 0.00534mm.
Fig. 6. Deformation for upper drawing tool part
Fig. 7. Deformation for bottom drawing tool part
Deformation of bottom part reaches maximum value of
0.009618mm. Maximal consequential values suggests that
deformations are only in values of elastic deformations,
therefore there is no negative impact on functional parts
and we can assume that there wont be negative effect on
quality of final product.
3.2.3. Safety factor
Safety factor (2) shows the critical areas of the analyzed
model that are likely to fail under load (fig.8 and fig.9).
where k specified safety coefficient, k yield in MPa,
v is von Mises stress in MPa
257
The color contours correspond to the values defined by
the color bar. Minimum values should be in interval from
1.3 to 2 for given construction type.
Fig. 8. Safety factor for upper drawing tool part
Fig. 9. Safety factor for bottom drawing tool part
The safety factor for upper part reaches minimum value
of 2.25 and bottom part 1.36.
Following the stress analysis results of the drawing tool
model, it was evaluated as constructional suitable for
current load.
4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion we can observe that stress analysis serves as
a very important tool for behavior prediction of designed
model in working conditions.
Manual analysis thereinbefore mentioned parameters is
not only time-consuming, however comes with risk of
inaccurate results. Therefore in the light of current trends
in the sphere of technical production preparations, in the
ambit that major task represent also design of tool
258
equipment in production process is important, among
other things, even realization basic analyses, where in a
substantive way is possible to affect whole process of
design of forming tools, utilization CA technologies.
At every analysis, whether specific or basic, it is
substantial to realize character of incoming data, analyze
results and verify the final project. Nevertheless right
application of stress analysis sharply decreases number of
necessary physical tests, or later repairs.
Following presented evaluations we can realize changes
on model and subsequently evaluate impacts implemented
changes, i.e. wider area of design possibilities to improve
the final product.
REFERENCES
[1] ZEMKO,P.,KAPUSTOVA,M. Modeling of tandem
tools using computing technique. In Materials
Science and Technology [online]. 5/2009. ISSN
1335-9053 <http://mtf.stuba.sk/casopis/obsah.html>
[2] PLANIKA, F., KULI, Z. Basics of the plasticity
theory. VUT,2004, ISBN80-01-02876-3, p.163-166
[3] POLK, L. Forming tools knoeledge products of
machine industry. In Strojrstvo, 2007, n. 2, p. 50-51.
[4] TOM, M. Projection of shaping tools using CAD-
methods. In Strojrstvo, 2006, n. 4, p. 16-17.
[5] AUTODESK. [online], 10.2.2010.:
<http://images.autodesk.com/adsk/files/inventor_sim
_2010_getstart.pdf>
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This article was created with support of MANUNET
project of ERA-NET scheme - Multivariate optimization
of the metal spinning processes research and
development (project 7. RP E MANUNET 2008-SK-
001)
CORRESPONDENCE
Mria KAPUSTOV, Assoc. prof. Ph.D.
Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology, Trnava
Institute of Production Technologies
Bratislava, Slovakia
maria.kapustova@stuba.sk
Peter ZEMKO, MSc. Eng.
Slovak University of Technology,
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology, Trnava
Institute of Production Technologies
Bratislava, Slovakia
peter.zemko@stuba.sk
Jana UGROV, MSc. Eng.
Slovak University of Technology,
Bratislava, Slovakia
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology, Trnava
Institute of Production Technologies
jana.sugarova@stuba.sk
 material particles [1,2,5]. These solutions accord with the
experimental results to various extends and, thereby,
serve to justify to various degrees the assumptions made.
They do not, however, help to explore the detailed
implications of the experimental results themselves; these
solutions were not sought for such a purpose. In this
paper, no predictive theory is attempted. Instead of this, a
study is made of some experimental results and some
conclusions are drawn, conclusions which are applicable
to metal sheets having revolution shapes formed in this
way. In this context, the present study is based in part on
repeating the experiments in paper [4], in order to confirm
or not the conclusions which there are decribed.

A METHOD TO STUDY STRESSES AND 2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AND

DEFORMATIONS IN PIECES INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
SUBJECTED TO HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
The principle of the experimental stand developed from
Liviu COMAN the hydraulic bulge test using a viscous material as a
Draghita IANICI pressure medium and a double action tooling is presented
Sava IANICI in fig.1. The tooling can be installed in any hydraulic
press equipped with a die cushion or nitrogen cylinders.
The viscous medium (oil, in special) is filled into the
Abstract: This paper presents some experimental chamber between the punch and the sheet blank. The
researches regarding the shapes of the part profile blank is clamped around its periphery between the upper
related to the different intermediate stages of hydraulic and the lower dies through the cushion force provided by
drawing, starting from semi-manufactured plates. Also, the cushion pins or nitrogen cylinders. Thus the material
the stresses in the parts thin walls are analysed, by is allowed to stretch but not draw in. When the ram moves
introducing and using of a special geometrical down, the punch pushes the medium in the lower die
parameter, distinct from curvature with which stresses chamber upwards and pressure is generated within the
have hitherto been related. Iit is presented the distribution medium, acting on the sheet blank. As the sheet bulges,
of stresses for different intermediate deformation stages, the region in the vicinity of the dome becomes nearly
related to the prolateness of the part profile. spherical.
The experiments was made on parts with flange, from
Key words: hydraulic pressure, shape, geometry, copper sheet Cu 99,9, soft, romanian standard STAS
deformation 270/1-80, with the nominal thickness g = 1,2 mm, tensile
stregth Rm = min 200 MPa, rupture constriction A = min
30% and a diameter = 200 mm. The upper die-block
1. INTRODUCTION opening had a diameter of 150 mm with a die entrance
radius of 13 mm. The forming rate was 10 cm/min. Some
samples formed in this way are presented in fig.2.
The forming process studied in the present paper involves
clamping metal sheet against a die with a circular hole
and subjecting one side of the metal sheet to an increasing
hydraulic pressure. The metal sheet workpiece is thus
pushed into the hole in the die and formed into a shell,
approximately of a spherical shape. Such a process, under
standardized conditions, is widely used as a test for the
formability of metal sheet, called the bulge test or viscous
pressure bulging test (VPB). The maximum dome height
of the bulge without fracture is then used as an index of
formability. The larger dome at fracture, the more
deformable is the sheet material.
This well known process was the subject of a number of
research papers, so the basic equilibrium and
compatibility equations for the process are also well
known. The basic equations governing this forming
process do not, however, lead to an explicit solution,
meaning that, in mathematical terms, the problem is
essentially indeterminate [4]. Hitherto, predictive
solutions to these equations are obtained by introducing
various assumptions on the shape of the part, or the stress-
strain relationship in the material, or the paths of the Fig. 1. Sketch of experimental test tooling

259
 deviation from the perfect spherical shape. Thus,
combining equations (1) and (2), we obtained:
m = 2 m (3)

Equation (3) expresses a very simple relationship between

Fig. 2. Samples obtained by viscous pressure bulging test
How the geometrical parameters of the part are measured
is briefly described in fig.3.
In a part with revolution shape, the directions of the
principal stresses are in the circumferential and the
meridional tangential directions. If stands for stress,
for radius of curvature, p for the hydraulic pressure, g for
the local thickness and subscripts and m for the
circumferential and the meridional tangential,
respectively, then the equation for the sheet stress is [4]:
+ m m = p g (1)
Fig. 3. Cross section and the geometrical parameters of
the deformed part
The equation (1) is an equilibrium equation and can be
derived by considering the equilibrium of vanishingly
small rectangular element of the part with its sides in the
directions of the principal curvatures. As it is shown in
fig.1, m and m are in the plane of the paper and and
are in a plane through PQ and perpendicular to the
paper. By geometry, is the local subnormal and is equal
to r / sin . By considering the equilibrium of the part
above the latitude of P, we can write:
m = ( p 2g ) (2)
the stress ratio, on which the mode of deformation
depends, and the ratio of the principal curvatures, which
represents an aspect of the local geometry.
The ratio of the principal curvatures / m (called K
value) is of fundamental geometrical significance,
because it provides a quantitative measure of the
deviation from the spherical shape. Thus, when K = 0,
equation (3) applies to the cylinder or cone, in which the
hoop stress is twice the longitudinal stress. When K = 1 it
applies to the sphere where the stress condition is one of
balanced stretching. The K = 2 is of particular
significance because in a surface of such curvatures, the
circumferential stress vanishes. Also, it is interesting to
explore the shapes of the constant K surfaces and the
stresses in them.
In fig.4 are shown a half of the meridian sections of the
various constant K surfaces, plotted in accordance with
the parametric equations presented further in this paper.
The complete surfaces can be obtained by revolving these
curves about L axis.
As can be seen in fig. 4, when K value is zero or negative,
the constant K surfaces are bollard shaped and are open at
the top and bottom. As the K value increases from zero to
one, the shape of the surfaces changes from the cylinder
to long and pointed sausages, and to shorter sausages and
olives, reaching the sphere when K equals one. At an K
value of 2, the surface is shaped like a tangerine and, for
progressively larger positive values of K, the surfaces
becomes more flatter and thinner.
Within the range of positive values of K, it can be define
the value (1K) with the term prolateness [4], because the
larger this number the more prolate the constant K
surface. The negative of prolateness is oblateness. Thus, a
bounded circular plane is a surface of infinte oblateness
and a cylinder or a cone is one of the greatest prolateness.

It can be easily seen in equations (1) and (2) that the

assumption of a spherical shape for the part (which was
considered in some predictive and interpretative theories)
could lead to innacurate theoretical results, because
curvatures depend on the second derivative of the
coordinates.
Since the stresses depends directly on the curvatures, it is
desirable to analyse the curvature in detail and to measure
them with proper accuracy. In analyzing the curvatures, it
is convenient to use the sphere, the surface of equal and
uniform curvatures as the norm, and to consider the Fig.4. Cross quarter sections of constant K - surfaces

260
It is to be noticed that prolateness and curvature are two coordinate r is then plotted against sin and the radius of
distinct geometrical properties. A surface can be prolate curvature = r / sin is determined.
and of small curvature, or prolate and of large curvature. For determining the K value at different points in the
The curvature of a surface means the average value of the shape, the radius of curvature of the meridional section m
two principal curvatures, whereas prolateness is defined is used. Thus, by definition:
as the ratio between them.
The relation between the stress ratio and the K value in
any revolution shell is illustrated in fig.5 where the
meridional tangential stress m is considered equal to
unity. In the figure, point A represents the cylinder or
cone, point B the sphere and point C the tangerine shaped
surface (K=2). These three points divides the stresses into
four ranges. To the right of point C (K>2) the
circumferential stress is compressive in shapes more
oblate than the surface K=2. Between points B and C
(1<K<2), the tensile circumferential stress is less than the
meridional tangential stress in oblate spheroidal shell.
Between points A and B (0<K<1), the circumferential
stress is greater than the meridional tangential in prolate
spheroidal shells. To the left of point A, K is negative and
the surfaces are no longer closed.

Fig. 6. Dependence of the curvature radius in constant

K surfaces by the radial coordinate

1 dr (4)
m =
cos d
Differentiating r / sin , we obtained:
d 1 r d
= 1 (5)
dr sin tan dr
Fig. 5. Variation of the principal stresses ratio with K
value Combining (4) and (5) it can be obtained:
r d
An examination of the stresses, but not after their ratio, in = 1 K (6)
shapes of constant K surfaces, shows that only prolate dr
surfaces with 0<K<1 are practicable. In fig. 6 are shown The differentiation of (6) is done graphically.
the variations of with the radius r, considering the From the equations of and m results:
equatorial radius as equal to one. By equation (2) it can be
seen that in fig. 6 represents also the meridional r cos (7)
K= =
tangential stress m for a shape of constant thickness. m dr
sin
Thus, for all constant K surfaces of K greater than unity, d
the stress m at the poles is theoretically infinetely large.
By integrating (7), tha parametric equation for the radial
In practice, such theoretical magnitude of the stress is
never realized because, for one thing, there are bending coordinate r in terms of is:
stresses and the part is deformed elastically to a local r K = C sin (8)
shape of finite curvature and, for another, stress
concentration can be relieved by localized yielding in where C is the constant of integration. It can be simplified
ductile materials. It is to be noticed that parts with K > 1 by assuming that the equatorial radius is equal to unity:
could be obtained, but with the shape at the poles suitably
modified.
r = 2 = 1 (9)
From the practical experiment point of view, the most Finally, it can be shown that:
important is to accurately measure the meridional slope
1 K
of the part with a workshop protractor, instead of the 1
longitudinal coordinate. By doing so, the graphical or m = sin K (10)
K
numerical differentiation necessary to obtained the
meridional slope dl / dr is by-passed. The radial and

261
r = sin 1 K (11) it, it is oblate, K > 1, or more flattened than a sphere. As
the metal sheet is being formed, the circle where the

1 surface is spherical expands until, in the latest stages of
K 2
l= sin 1 K d (12) the unstable deformation, the whole part becomes prolate.
The difference between curves 1 and 2 illustrates the
where is the running value of the angle . The distinction between prolateness and curvature. As the part
integration of this equation is possible only by graphical height increases, the general curvature of the part
or numerical methods. becomes greater. Thus, when passing from curve 1 to
Equations (11) and (12) are the parametric equations for l curve 2, the curvature of the part becomes greater. Also, it
and r, with as the parameter. can be seen that, in the region near the flange, the
prolateness decreases (meaning that K increases) when
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND passing from curve 1 to curve 2. It is therefore logical to
COMMENTS say that a surface changes into one of greater curvature,
but in the same time becomes more flattened. This
The dependence of the K value in the part shape at phenomenon occurs when passing from curve 1 to 2.
various stages of the forming process are shown in fig. 7
and 8. The correspondence between the curves in figures, 1,05
the part height H and the pressure p respectivelly, is given
1
in table 1.
The seven curves in fig. 7 and 8 may be divided into three 0,95
groups: curve 1 in the first group, representing the initial K - value 0,9
stage of the process; curves 2,3,4 in the second group, for 0,85
the main part of the process under stable conditions;
curves 5,6,7 in the last group, the third one, when the 0,8
conditions are unstable, the oil pressure being maintained 0,75
at a constant value. 0,7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Table 1. Part heights and pressures in the experiments Radial distance, r [m m ]
Curve Height H Pressure
Sketch
s [mm] p [MPa]
1 18,7 2,2 Fig. 8. Modifications of the K value in the formed parts
2 24,8 3,9 (curves 5,6,7). Semnifications: curve 5; curve 6;
3 30,5 5,5 - curve 7.
4 38,8 6,6
Results for a metal sheet made from aluminium shows the
5 44,1 7,1
same general variations of prolateness with respect to the
6 48,9 7,1
radial coordinate r, namely from the top to the flange, K
7 52,7 6,6
value decreasing below unity and then increasing to a
value greater than one [3].
1.3 The stresses in the part are to be expressed in a
1.25 nondimensional form, in order to show the effect of the
shape of the part on the stresses in it. For this, equations
1.2
(2) and (3) leads to:
1.15
K - value

1.1 m g
= (13)
1.05 R p 2R
1 g
0.95 = (2 K ) (14)
R p 2R
0.9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 where R is the radius of curvature at the top of the part
Radial distance, r [mm] (pole). The left term of equation (13) and (14) are thus the
nondimensional meridional tangential and circumferential
stresses, respectively.
Fig. 7. Modifications of the K value in the formed parts Expressed in this form, the effects of thickness, pressure
(curves 1,2,3,4). Semnifications: - curve 1; curve 2; and general curvature are eliminated and only the effect
curve 3; - curve 4 of prolateness on the stresses is revealed. The two
nondimensional stresses in equations (13) and (14) are
As can be seen, until the process becomes unstable, the plotted against each other in fig, 9 and 10, respectivelly.
shape is perfectly spherical only at the pole (K=1, r = 0), In these two figures, the state of stress is represented by a
and along a circle, represented by the intersection of a vector drawn from the origin point (0,0) to a point on the
curve and the line K=1. Inside this circle, the surface is curves. If the shape is a perfect sphere, the end of the
prolate, K < 1, or more pointed than a sphere, and outside vector is at the point with the coordinates ( , ). The

262
deviation of the curves from that point is ameasure of the
change of the amplitudes and the ratios of the stresses due
to the prolateness in the actual shape.
Fig. 9. Nondimensional stresses in formed parts
(cases 1,2,3,4)
Fig. 10. Nondimensional stresses in formed parts
(cases 5,6,7)
In the figures above, over the line K = 1, the
circumferential stress is greater than the meridional
tangential. Under this line, the situation is reversed. Thus,
in a region near the top of the part, the material is
stretched more circumferentially than along the
meridionary direction. Also, it can be seen that as the
unstable deformation grows, both stresses cover a larger
range, meaning that the stresses become less uniform. By
comparing the figures, it can be seen the drastically
change of the nature of the stress distribution when
passing from stable to unstable ranges.
4. CONCLUSION
The forming process studied in the present paper involves
clamping metal sheet against a die with a circular hole
and subjecting one side of the metal sheet to an increasing
hydraulic pressure. The metal sheet workpiece is thus
pushed into the hole in the die and formed into a shell,
approximately of a spherical shape. Such a process, under
standardized conditions, is widely used as a test for the
formability of metal sheet, called the bulge test or viscous
pressure bulging test (VPB). The maximum dome height
of the bulge without fracture is then used as an index of
formability. The larger dome at fracture, the more
deformable is the sheet material.
The basic equations governing this forming process do
not lead to an explicit solution, meaning that, in
mathematical terms, the problem is essentially
indeterminate.
Since the stresses depends directly on the curvatures, it is
desirable to analyse the curvature in detail and to measure
them with proper accuracy. In analyzing the curvatures, it
is convenient to use the sphere, the surface of equal and
uniform curvatures as the norm, and to consider the
deviation from the perfect spherical shape.
In this paper, no predictive theory is attempted. Instead of
this, a study is made of some experimental results and
some conclusions are drawn, conclusions which are
applicable to metal sheets having revolution shapes
formed in this way. In this context, the present study is
based in part on repeating the experiments in paper [4], in
order to confirm or not the conclusions which there are
decribed.
The experiments revealed some interesting features of the
bulge test in particular and of membrane stresses in parts
with revolution shapes in general, confirming the same
results presented in [4]. From the point of view of
theoretical studies of the forming process, it has been
shown that the assumption of a spherical shape is often
inadequate. So far as engineering applications are
concerned, these results are useful for the investigation of
actual processes with a view to improve the geometric
parameters (for example when a better distribution of the
thickness is the purpose) by varying the draw-in (or the
inward movement of the flange), or forming against the
surface of a concave die, these being only some of the
existing possibilities.
Expressed in a mathematical form, the effects of
thickness, pressure and general curvature are eliminated
and only the effect of prolateness on the stresses is
revealed.
For tools designers, the knowledge of the stress
distribution and the control of it through the prolateness
of the shape opens some direction to the optimum
263
location of the reinforcements, to the redistribution of CORRESPONDENCE
stresses due to slight changes in shape during service due
either to elastic or to creep strains or to design for Liviu COMAN, As. Prof dr. eng.
resistance towards buckling. Eftimie Murgu University of Reia
Faculty of Engineering
Traian Vuia Square 1-4
REFERENCES 320085 Reia, Romania,
l.coman@uem.ro
[1] ALTAN, T., Practical determination of formability
using the viscous pressure bulging test, r. Stamping
Journal, may-june 2000; Draghia IANICI, As. drd. eng.
[2] BROWN, W.F., SACHS, G., Strength and failure Eftimie Murgu University of Reia
characteristics of thin circular membranes, Trans. Faculty of Engineering
ASME, 70, 1945; Traian Vuia Square 1-4
320085 Reia, Romania,
[3] CHAKRABARTY, J., ALEXANDER, J.M.,
d.ianici@uem.ro
Hydrostatic bulging of circular diaphragms, J. Starin
Analysis, nr.5 / 1970;
[4] HSU, T.C., SHANG, H.M., Mechanics of sheet metal Sava IANICI, Prof. dr. eng.
formed by hidraulic pressure into axisymmetrical Eftimie Murgu University of Reia
shells, r. Experimental Mechanics, october 1977; Faculty of Engineering
Traian Vuia Square 1-4
[5] MEILOR, P.B., Stretch forming under fluid pressure,
320085 Reia, Romania,
J. Mech. Phys. Solids, nr.5 / 1956.
s.ianici@uem.ro / decaning@uem.ro

264

MACHINING METHODOLOGIES WITH
ULTRASONIC SUPPORT
Angela JAVOROV
Frantiek PECHEK
Abstract: The article presents the aim of machining
methodologies with ultrasonic support. All these
methodologies include information such as dividing in to
the groups, characteristics, manufacturing quality and
productivity. Special remark is given to the knowledge
and applications of power ultrasound. Power ultrasound
is shown as a support source which can be used by
chosen machining technologies such as turning, drilling,
thread cutting and grinding. Using of machining
technologies which are supported by power ultrasound
leads to the less of power consumption or they can lead to
the higher quality of machining processes. Ultrasound
machining belongs to the most perspective non-
conventional manufacturing technologies, which are
mostly used for cutting of hard and fragile metal such as
non metal materials.
Key words: machining, ultrasound, method, grinding
1. INTRODUCTION
Growing manufacturing sector is using new materials
kinds and tools which are using in more effective way. IT
technologies are influenced in to the whole life circles of
manufactured piece. These all lead to the possibility of
design of more complicated parts and products. In these
days many parts which are used for building of machines
has really complicated design. Such parts can not be
manufactured with help of common manufacturing
technologies. This stay put a pressure to the manufacture
which leads to the financial budgets to the new
technologies, so called progressive manufacturing
methods. If there is a need to compare of new methods
with progressive methods, we need to know all physical
principles used in these processes. These knowledges also
lead to the practical using of new progressive
technologies.
2. ULTRASOUND MACHINING
In technical praxis, are in general used only two ultrasonic
machining technologies. They are following:
 Ultrasonic machining USM or USIG - ultrasonic
impact grinding - which is a technology of ultrasonic
machining with using of grinding suspension and non
rotary tool.
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of ultrasonic machining [1]
 Ultrasonic assisted machining - UAM - is sort of
classical machining process with usage of oscillating
tool.
Tool is oscillated by ultrasonic power, without using any
grinding suspension. The aim of ultrasonic machining
comes from controlled destruction of machined material.
Such destruction comes from strikes generated by
abrasive grains. Abrasive grains are located between the
tool and machined surface. The tool is oscillating by
ultrasonic frequency in its endwise direction. Abrasive
grains which are oscillating by huge frequency are leaking
in to the part surface, destruct the surface by static load of
the tool. This process leads to the copying of the working
tool surface to the machined part.
Ultrasonic assisted machining is based on the delivery of
ultrasonic power to the technological tool, what leads to
the tool oscillation. It is shown that by USM on one hand
we use tool to the delivery of ultrasonic power on the
abrasive suspension which is in direct contact with
product, and one the other hand UAM the tool is in direct
contact with the products.
3. ULTRASONIC ASSISTED TURNING (UAT)
One upon a time there was a ultrasonic assisted turning.
(UAT). By turning of fragile materials there is a huge
impact of way how we supply the ultrasonic power to the
cutting area. These lead to the high tool durability which
is made of high-speed steel, cutting forces degradation,
additional deformation and bad roughness.
Ultrasonic glimpse influence by cutting depends from the
amplitude and glimpse kind. Also other parameters
influence to this process, such as physical, mechanical
characteristics of manufactured material, part rotation
frequency, in-feed speed, cutting thickness and so on.
Ultrasonic glimpse with small amplitude (up 3 to 4 m)
265
leads to the tool durability which is 3 or 7 times bigger
than durability of tool worked in general cutting
conditions. Scab is not generated, deformation zone is
getting smaller and cutting chip deformation is also
smaller. If we generate glimpse in the direction which is
parallel to the tool axis, this leads to the maximal effect of
cutting forces degradation, cutting quality such as
machining precision are also increased. Such glimpse is
also known as (tangent glimpse).
Fig. 2. Scheme of cutter moving in cutting by oscillating
tool [4]
Fig. 3. Principal vibration directions during
ultrasonically assisted turning [6]
4. ULTRASONIC ASSISTED GRINDING
(UAG)
This type of machining uses endwise ultrasonic glimpse.
These ultrasonic glimpses are in function of additional
movement of cutting tool. Combination of ultrasonic tool
movement with classical tool movement created by
machine kinematics leads to the special grinding
movement of single grinding tool spikes. Tool cutting
spikes are located in the ultrasonic loops of endwise
266
standing undulation. Ultrasonic undulation also leads to
the additional heat degradation which is characteristic for
usual grinding technologies. This leads to the additional
degradation of tear creation. Acoustic ultrasonic energy
which is leaded to cutting zone has its influence to the
whole cutting process. This influence can be seen in the
periodical change of cutting force direction as well as its
value.
Fig. 3. Schemes of technological operations and of tools
in certain ultrasound grinding and in holes grinding out
that are oscillated by ultrasound resonance
5. ULTRASONIC ASSISTED DRILLING
(UAD)
Ultrasonic assisted drilling is characterized by that fact,
that cutting tool is and extension of ultrasonic aerophone.
In this kind of ultrasonic machining has the ultrasonic
oscillation higher volume (Fig.5). This problem can lead
to the unstable stay of whole cutting system. That is why
all tools parameters have to be known. The connection of
the tool in the ultrasonic tool holder has to be rigid and
exact. Tool and its holder have to be in misaligned
relationship, what ensures continual transmission of
ultrasonic glimpse from the source to the tool.
Fig. 5. Scheme of ultrasound aided drilling [6]
Advantages of ultrasonic assisted drilling are following.
Higher cutted surface quality Ra, increase of geometrical
precision, smaller burrs are created, tool life-circle is
increased friction reduction between the tool and cutting
chip.

Fig. 6. Layout of strengthen layer under squeeze [2]
6. ULTRASONIC SURFACE
CONSOLIDATION
Ultrasonic surface consolidation is based on direct effect
of the consolidation tool which is oscillating by influence
of ultrasonic power, to the surface of consolidated product
or part. External force influencing to the surface is
changing its value cyclically.
Main technological effects of ultrasonic consolidation are
following: hardening, regrouping of residual stresses in
surface of the product. During the ultrasonic surface
consolidation the tool is operating on the part surface
which is after is final manufacture. The tool is influencing
to the surface stresses that way, that the Re limit has to be
reached. Very important is to no overload the stresses, so
that the Rm limit can not be excess. After the Rm limit
excess the consolidated surface can be destroyed.
During the ultrasonic consolidation process the influenced
zone has the shape of ellipsoid. We can generally say that
influenced zone generated by ultrasonic consolidation is
more compact and is characterized by reduced roughness,
increased rigidity and other favourable properties.
7. CONCLUSION
Machining and molding processes are made of materials
plastic deformation or by local delicate eroding of the
material structure by cutting or by forming wedge
surfaces technological tool. Specific processes for
separation and making chips, the accompanying effect,
processes of local plastic deformation or local processes
of brittle material, demolition of the structure are
significantly influenced by the generation of high-quality
cyclic change in pressure and the solid state of stress on
the yield of strength or elastic material on the strength of
hard-brittle material. Qualitative changes in the conditions
and consequences of these processes are feasible by local
generation of ultrasonic energy field in the place of
realized process.
Ultrasonic tools increase intensifies and improves
machining processes and molding materials. This is
confirmed by the results of searches and experiments and
verification tests. Extensive ultrasound technology allows
for high productivity machining of production
components of hard machining materials. The new
generation of ultrasound technology allows the
development of ultrasonic technology in the field of
engineering production. Tillage methods, such as turning,
milling, boring, grinding, honing and superfinishing and
ways of forming materials such as bulk-forming, bending,
rolling and consolidation, can affect the performance
ultrasonic acoustic active part of the technological tool
during its loading. An important condition is the usual
accuracy, rigidity and functional capacity of machine -
tool - workpiece - preparation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was supported by VEGA 1/009/ 08
Optimised systems and processes of high power
ultrasound.
REFERENCES
[1] KHOO, C.Y., HAMZAH, E. & SUDIN, I., A review
on the rotary ultrasonic machining of advanced
ceramics, Jurnal Mekanika, June 2008, No. 25, 9 - 23
[2] TOLNAY, M., Modelovanie procesu ultrazvukovho
spevovania, STU Bratislava, 2008, ISBN978-0-227-
2850-8
[3] Top trendy v obrban. Prruka. V. as. Fyziklne
technolgie obrbania, 2007
[4] MIIETOV, A., Nekonvenn metdy obrbania.
Edis vydavatestvo ilina , 2001, ISBN 80 7100
853 2, pg. 376
[5] MAKOV, I.: Progresvne metdy obrbania.
Vienala Koice, 2000, 275 s., ISBN 80- 7099 430
4
[6] BABITSKY, V.I., ASTASHEV, V.K. &
MEADOWS, A., Vibration excitation and energy
transfer during ultrasonically assisted drilling.
Journal of Sound and Vibration (308), 2007, pp. 805-
814
[7] CHARBULOV, M. & PECHEK, F., Ultrasonic
resonant system parts characteristics, In: Machine
Design. - ISSN 1821-1259. 2009, 49th anniversary
of the Faculty of technical sciences, Novi Sad. May
18th 2009. - Novi Sad: University of Novi Sad, 2009,
pg. 319-322
[8] PECHEK, F. & HRUKOV, E., Power
ultrasound utilization in hole grinding into ceramics.
In: Comec 2008: V.Conferencia Cientfica
International de Ingeniera Mecnica. Del 4 al 6 de
Noviembre de 2008, Cuba. - Santa Clara: Facultad de
Ingeniera Mecnica Universidad Central "Marta
Abreu" de Las Villas, 2008, ISBN 978-959-250-404-
2
[9] PECHEK, F., CHARBULOV, M. &
HRUKOV, E., Ultrasonic - machining
intensification factor of ceramics. In: MicroCAD
2009: Section K: Machine and Construction Design.
XXIII. International Scientific Conference, 19-20
March 2009, Miskolc. - Miskolc: University of
Miskolc, 2009, ISBN 978-963-661-876-6, pg. 65-70
267
[10] JAVOROV, A., ZVOLENSK, R. & PECHEK,
F., Methodology and design of automated
disassembly device. In: MMA 2009. Flexible
Technologies: Proceedings. 10th International
scientific conference, Novi Sad, 9.-10.10. 2009. -
Novi Sad: Faculty of Technical Sciences, 2009, ISBN
978-86-7892-223-7, pg. 210-213
268
CORRESPONDENCE
Angela JAVOROV, MSc. Eng.
Slovak Univ. of Technology in Bratislava
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava
Institute of Production Systems and
Applied Mechanics, Department of
Technological Devices and Systems
Trnava, Slovakia
angela.javorova@stuba.sk
Frantiek PECHEK,
Assoc. Prof., MSc. Eng., PhD.
Slovak Univ. of Technology in Bratislava
Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava
Institute of Production Systems and
Applied Mechanics, Department of
Technological Devices and Systems
Trnava, Slovakia
frantisek.pechacek@stuba.sk

FLEXIBLE ASSEMBLY SYSTEM
GENERATION BY CAD AND PPS
SYSTEMS
tefan HORVTH
Roman RUAROVSK
Karol VELEK
Abstract: In the present time of the production system
increases the importance of digital factory. The digital
factory represents by help of computing and informatics
technologies integrated environment in that is possible to
substitute the real production system by virtual computer
simulation model. This type of virtual solution enables the
optimal preparation for practise realization of production
system. By help of computing simulation in PPS system
(Plant Simulation) is able to design and simulate flexible
assembly system that is realized at Institute of production
systems and applied mechanics. On the ground of
analysis in the simulation process of flexible assembly
system is able to practise some variable experiments with
changing of parameters in material and informatics flow.
Key words: simulation, model, CAx, flexible assembly
system
1. INTRODUCTION
Production strategy of companies is grounded on the
production development, from the design of final product,
design of production system, design of system control to
final solutions implementation into the real production
system. Good helping tool for development is the using of
virtual reality that enables to design the optimal solutions,
to solve the conflict situations, to decrease the business
risk e.g. before practise realization of production and
production systems.
2. FLEXIBLE ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
Flexible assembly systems include in its structure set of
technical equipment and elements that are connected
together in functional, material, informatics, energy and
similar bonds. These connections provide for realization
of assembly operations in the space and the time. Every
system is able to divide into various levels. Every level
and its located component have special tasks. The same
partition is defined in the assembly systems. Particular
levels are showed on the Fig.1.
Flexible assembly systems consist of several subsystems:
 manufacturing subsystems PMB,
 automated storage subsystem,
 material flow subsystem,
 information flow subsystem,
 control subsystem.
system
subsystems
moduls
elements
Fig. 1. Manufacturing system levels
3. SIMULATION
Classic engineering work in grounded on transferring of
technical issues to mathematical issues. The solution of
mathematical issues is sequentially going to integrate into
real issues solutions. If the mathematical issues are not
applicable then the technical issue of problem is possible
to realize by experiments. In some research and technical
areas is able to realize the experiments by help of the
simulation. Experimental environment is responsible for
simulation model. Experiments that are realized in
laboratory or simulation experiments increase safety
planning.
The basic principle of simulation comes out of simulation
definition.
There is existed some classic definitions of simulation
process:
 R. E. Shannon: Simulation is the process of
designing a model of a real system and conducting
experiments with this model for the purpose of
understanding the behaviours of the system and /or
evaluating various strategies for the operation of the
system.
 VDI Richtlinie: Simulation serves to testing of
dynamic system as a total in the one model in that is
able to realize next experiments. The purpose of the
simulation is to obtain of such results that are able to
utilize in praxis.
It is existed some reasons for make the simulation
advantageous over experimental experiences obtaining in
the real system. The simulation is cheaper, the results are
earlier and faster (simulation time can flow faster as real
experiment). We can test many more eventual
alternatives. The simulation is safe and it is able to test
269
some catastrophic alternatives of experiments. Also it is
possible to analyze the future planning systems that dont
exist.
The simulation is able to applicable in the four basic steps
(Fig.2):
1. Modelling of experiment
2. Simulation experiment
3. Results and outputs of simulation
4. Implications for real system, application and
adjustment.
REAL SYSTEM SIMULATION
MODEL
ABSTRACTION
MODELING EXPERIMENTS
SIMULATION
REALIZATION
REAL SYSTEM RESULTS
APPLIACATIONS INTERPRETATION
ANALYSIS
Fig. 2. Computing simulation principle
It is possible to note and describe some advantages of
simulation opposite to classic model experiments:
 complex system research (existed or proposed),
 cost saving,
 time slowdown of speed-up of experiment,
 experiments generation,
 uninfluenced function of real system,
 better understanding of real system,
 possibility utilization of employers training.
In between disadvantages of simulation belong these
points:
 model generation requires professional experiences,
 simulation guarantee no optimal values of research
system parameters,
 the generation of complex model can be time-
consuming,
 with more complicated real system increases more
difficult model generation.
4. MATERIAL FLOW SIMULATION IN THE
FLEXIBLE PRODUCTION
Material flow simulation is frequently used by:
1. New production system design and planning,
2. Existed production system optimization.
In the both examples is used the scheme for production
flow PFS (Production Flow Scheme). By designing and
planning of the new production system by help of system
PPS it is necessary to process these levels of information:
 to develop of time studies of the individual processes
for every production, manipulation, conveyance ad
helpful devices. On the ground of developed time
studies is able to designate the engines performance
270
and sequentially is possible to monitor the
performance dependency in the percentage (waiting,
justification, operation, block, failure rate e.g.). In next
is necessary to report number of shift activity plan for
this type of analysis.
 to define the work zones for all taking devices and to
realize the all production plant floor plan,
 to define the obstruction in performance and next
optimization,
 to analyze encountered side failures,
 to analyze of required human resources quantity,
 to collect the information about production process
running,
 to define of possible control strategies,
 to test of individual alternatives.
It is also possible to optimize by help of system PPS in
existed production system analysis some processes:
 control strategy of analyzed system,
 technological process,
 daily performance testing.
By using of the simulation of material flow in production
system we can expect some changes, as are e.g.:
 increasing of machines and devices utilization,
 increasing of all system utilization,
 productivity increase,
 additional time decrease,
 decrease of human work requirement,
 decrease of storages area,
 definition of storage area,
 definition of number of conveying carriages AVG and
technological pallets,
 testing of designed alternatives of control system,
 optimization of the control strategy,
 limiting or elimination of possible failures during
production system designing,
 Investments security.
5. MODELLING
First defined task for system simulation is to generate the
model of real experimental system. Model is defined as
system that is used and selected as representative of
primary complex following to identical personalities. The
model is defined and created for concrete assignment and
process. The creation of model makes it possible to make
experiment without defect of original system or prototype
beside more contributions.
Models can be characterized in the technical or organic
structure. The structure is able to describe in text or
mathematical. The model has to be up to standard in
generally:
 every model has limited imaging of original,
 imaging assignment is to define characteristic
properties and model detail,
 the creation systematic model for uniform purpose
readability by its behaviour,
 static model displays system behaviour representing
black box,
 simulation model displays system behaviour for right
execution of simulation.
In before part were remembered the ground elements of
assembly system. This part is concerned with describe of
assembly system.
Confidence rating of simulation rests in right generation
of model and in setting of the most exact system
parameters. It has to characterize the individual model
elements by model generation. Other requirement for
right simulation is to assign required information. On the
ground of this information is controlled the simulation of
system. Between basic information belong: control,
speed, time data, and tact sequence e.g.
Under defined elements of system are meant:
 system elements required defined time for operation
(work places, human manpower, machines, devices,
magazines, conveyors e.g.),
 moving elements (products, pallets, carriages e.g.),
 control elements (functions),
 inputs and outputs (components storages and final Fig. 4. CAD model of conveying subsystem floor plan
product storages).
On the next Fig.4 is showed full CAD model. Showed
6. SUBSYSTEMS OF SIMULATED CAD model is able to utilize and is important for
ASSEMBLY SYSTEM definition of total floor plan plane in the system. On the
Fig.4 is also located basic and shell construction of
On the Fig.3 is showed assembly cell model. The model flexible production system.
consists of these basic components (modules):
 Cartesian industrial robot,
 shelf storage system,
 rotary device.
This flexible cell introduces submodel in simulated model
production subsystem. It can be found required
elements (modules) and also before defined tasks and
parameters. Between modules belong stationary
magazines and its process times, magazine capacity,
quantization e.g. Every system element has own
characteristic and it is also required to programming this
elements in the real state response.

Fig. 5. CAD model of flexible assembly system - FAS

Fig. 3. CAD model of production subsystem FAC

Conveyance subsystem is showed on Fig.4. This chosen

conveying system is created in the software model
environment Montrac-Configurator, MONTECH Co. It is
possible to design and assembly the simulation of
conveyance subsystem. Fig. 6. PPS model of flexible assembly system

271
On the Fig.6. is showed basic and shell construction of
designed flexible assembly system in PPS system (Plant
Simulation). It is able to realize the several types of
variation (experiments) of material and informatics flow
in the right designed model. In the technical and
economical aspects is applicable to analyse and choose
the correct alternative of simulated and designed flexible
assembly system on the ground of monitored information.
7. CONCLUSION
Sketched utilization area of CAx systems with help of
PPS systems has increasingly application in praxis. In the
technical and practical terminology in this area it is
reported as Digital Factory. Digital Factory as a
simulation tool has large representation in praxis. This
method of design and planning of new production factory
or system raises real perspective in this problematic area.
By help of digital simulation are decreased production
costs and also time for designing and planning.
[9] RUAROVSK, Roman - HORVTH, tefan -
VELEK, Karol: Designing of automated
manufacturing and assembly systems. - registrovan
v ISI Proceedings. In: Annals of DAAAM and
Proceedings of DAAAM Symposium. - ISSN 1726-
9679. - Vol. 19, No.1. Annals of DAAAM for 2008
& Proceedings of the 19th International DAAAM
Symposium "Intelligent Manufacturing &
Automation: Focus on Next Generation of Intelligent
Systems and Solutions", 22-25th October 2008,
Trnava, Slovakia. - Viede : DAAAM International
Vienna, 2008. - ISBN 978-3-901509-68-1, s. 1201-
1202
[10] BANGSOW, S.: Fertigungssimulation mit Plant
Simulation und SimTalk: Anwendung und
Programmierung mit Beispielen und Lsungen,
Hanser Fachbuchverlag, 2008, s.288, ISBN 978-3-
446-41490-7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was created thanks to the national grant:

VEGA 1/0206/09 - Intelligent assembly cell.

REFERENCES

[1] BIGU P., KACHMAN D., Tvorba simulanho

modelu dopravnej siete
http://www2.humusoft.cz/www/papers/witkonf09/big
os_kachman.pdf
[2] HRUKOV, Erika, HORVTH, tefan, VELEK,
Karol: Utilization of computer aided process
planning (CAPP) in production planning systems CORRESPONDENCE
(PPS). In: MicroCAD 2009: Section M: Production
Engineering and Manufacturing Systems. XXIII. tefan HORVTH, MSc.
International Scientific Conference, 19-20 March Slovak University of Technology in
2009, Miskolc. - Miskolc : University of Miskolc, Bratislava
2009. - ISBN 978-963-661-878-0. - S. 229-234 Faculty of Materials Sciences and
[3] CHOVANEC, A.: Modelovanie a simulcia Technology in Trnava
diskrtnych stochastickch procesov, Trenianska Paulnska 16
Univerzita Alexandra Dubeka v Trenne, Trenn 917 24 Trnava, Slovakia
2004, ISBN 80-8075-009-2 stefan.horvath@stuba.sk
[4] KOETHER, R., Technische Logistik, FH Mnchen, Roman RUAROVSK, MSc., PhD.
2001, s.225, ISBN 3-446-21759-2 Slovak University of Technology in
[5] KUHN, W.: Digitale Fabrik: Fabriksimulation fr Bratislava
Produktionsplaner, Hanser Fachbuchverlag, 2006, Faculty of Materials Sciences and
p.300, ISBN3446406190 Technology in Trnava
[6] LKA, O., MICHALKOV J.: A concept of digital Paulnska 16
company build-up in laboratory of automation and 917 24 Trnava, Slovakia
control. In: Transfer inovci 12/2008 roman.ruzarovsky@stuba.sk
[7] MUDRIKOV, Andrea - HRUKOV, Erika -
HORVTH, tefan: Model of flexible manufacturing Karol VELEK, Prof., MSc., CSc.
- assembly cell. In: RaDMI 2008: 8th International Slovak University of Technology in
Conference from 14-17.September 2008, Uice. - , Bratislava
2008. - A-27 Faculty of Materials Sciences and
[8] PITE, J.: Analza vykurovacieho systmu z pohadu Technology in Trnava
riadenia. In: Acta Mechanica Slovaca. ro. 6, . 2 Paulnska 16
(2002) principia cybernetica, s. 93-98. ISSN 1335- 917 24 Trnava, Slovakia
2393. karol.velisek@stuba.sk

272

TENSIOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE
LOAD CAPACITY OF THE MAIN BEAM
OF DOUBLE GIRDER OVERHEAD
TRAVELING CRANE
Krasimir KRASTANOV
Abstract: The most common overhead crane use is in the
steel industry. This paper provides an overview of
cyclically loaded structures and experimental
investigation techniques. The deflection of the main beam
and the strain gaug at dynamic and static loads are
investigated. The measurements of the rigidness of the
used material are made.
Key words: Overhead cranes, tensiometric analysis,
dynamic and static loads, measurements
1. INTRODUCTION
Overhead cranes consist of bridge, connected immovably
to front beams with two bead traveling wheels. These
cranes are moving on rail track located over the ground
through a mechanism. Thus they do not occupy a useful
area which they serve.
In open storages they are located on overhead - roads
consisting of beams and columns; and in covered or
closed storages on overhead roads or on cantilevers to
the warehouses walls.
Overhead cranes which serve an area with the shape of a
rectangular prism in the Cartesian coordinate system are
wildly used to carry out loading operations with
elementary load unit and united elementary load units
single or long loads; and loose load as well. The most
often used overhead traveling cranes are those with lifting
capacity up to 500 kN.
The purpose of this report is to analyze the load capacity
of the main beam of a double girder overhead traveling
crane by a tension strength measurement and to show that
there is enough resource for continuing the cranes
exploitation [2].
The studied overhead traveling crane /fig.1/ is fully
welded construction. It consists of two main beams on
which the trolley is moving and of two front beams with
traveling wheels. The span of the main beam is L = 37 m.
The cross section of the same beam is a welded profile
in the shape of a box. The top flange plate has thickness
of 36mm. and the bottom flange plate - 30-36 mm. The
side walls have thickness of 10mm. The width between
the side walls is 720 mm and their height is 1000-1908
mm.
Fig. 1. Overhead crane
To increase the sustainability of the main beam there are
placed ribs /diaphragms/ at every two meters along the
entire height. Moreover, in every field between the ribs
are placed two more short ribs at the top of the profile.
The rail on the top flange is not welded to it but is only
fasten by welded plates. The main beam material is B
steel 3.
The trolley traversing speed is V = 12 m/min. The load-
lifting mechanism speed for 100 t is V = 1 m/min, that of
20 t is V = 8 m/min.the crane traveling speed is V = 25
m/min.
2. TASKS OF THE STUDY
The big load capacity of the crane at this large span, the
demand of increasing it with 15 more percent, the
submitted thin - wall construction, the connections of the
main beams with the front ones, the cam supporting of the
front beams with the traveling wheels, the strengthening
ribs and especially the significant period in which the
crane is used, lead to a complex of technical problems
which theoretical solution is very difficult [1]. This
requires the implementation of static and dynamic tests of
the structure of the crane with the new 15 % higher load.
The purpose of this study to make a comparison between
some quantities /effort, strain, elements hardness,
deformations and defections/ obtained by numerical
experiment carried out by COSMOSWORKS software
product and the actual ones [3]. This should give as a
result the actual operating state of the crane and the
question whether the crane could withstand the new 15%
higher load.
Establishing the strength and deformation operation
qualities of the overhead traveling crane at the new higher
load capacity requires realization of the following
activities:
 Non destructive control by indirect measurement of
non-electrical quantities /strain in the main beam/ by
electric method at static and dynamic load;
 Determination of the deflection by the bending of the
main beam at its middle section resulting from the
loading of the crane;
 Measurement of the hardness of the materials used in
the crane by hand hardness tester.
273
3. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
o Determining the points of control measurements.
At determined points for the strain gaug measurement
the parameters and the characteristics of the crane and its
operational parameters were recognized.
The choice of the points is made according to fig. 2 on the
average /threatened/ section of the main beam.
Fig. 2.
o Treatment technology and sticking.
The used single sensors are with strength 60 and
sensitivity coefficient 2.11
At strain gauge measurement are used transistor
tensiometric bridge. The main beam deflections test
could be made by theodolite.
The pointed places for the sensors are cleaned from paint
and rust to metallic luster with file and sandpaper. Just
before sticking the sensors these places are cleaned with
acetone. The sensors themselves are stacked with glue.
For temperature compensation there are placed
compensation sensors, one for each operating one. The
same are stacked separately on steel plates attached to the
construction near the operating sensors.
The formula which determines the measured tensions is:
4.C.& .E
=( ).103
n.k . A.
where:
the sensitivity of the amplifier could be 500 or 1000
mV/V.
- the quantity of deviation by pushing the button
CALL.
= 100 mm.
- deformation sensitivity of the strain gauges.
= 2.11
274
n Number of active strain gauges.
n=1
& - the importance of the measuring quantity. It is
identified by a tabulogram and is measured in mm.
module of the material elasticity.
- a constant that correspond to the strength of the used
strain gauges. It is identified in tables and in our case, at
strain gauges with strength of 60 , = 1.
The maximum value we would provide for the
measurable quantity & in our case is 100mm. After
replacing the correspondent values in the above formula
we obtain two values for the maximum strain
corresponding to the values of = 500 and = 1000
mV/V, which is:
4.C.2.1.10 + 11
=( ).103
1.2.1.100.1
where = 500 mV/V - = 200 Pa or 1mm
corresponds to 2 Pa.
where = 1000 mV/V - = 400 Pa or 1 mm
corresponds to 4 Pa.
o Regime of loading
The preparation of the systems before any measurement is
accomplished at crane trolley that is exported to the end
left position.
At the static load we need to check the heaviest loaded
section of the construction. This section is at the medium
of the main beam. At dynamic testing we should examine
the influence of the local strain arising in the area where
the wheel of the trolley and the rail while it is under
pressure and the top plate of the main beam are in contact.
 Static testing of load capacity 1,25 QH
The nominal load QH is determined as required by the
contracting authority for increasing of 15 % on the basic
lifting capacity of 100t, from where QH = 115 t.
According to the requirements, the static load should be
accomplished after taking into account the 25 %
overloading or 143.8 t.
The static load testing itself is accomplished as follows:
- load lifting of 200mm height for suspending time of 10
min when at the maximum load the two deflection reports
are taken into consideration, immediately after its lifting
and 10 min. later.
- measuring of the parameters strain gauge measurement
and determining of the deflection.
- launching of the load on the ground.
- measurement of the deflection for presence of other
plastic deformations.
 Dynamic testing of the main beam with load 1.1 QH
The dynamic tests were accomplished with load of 125 t
in the following sequence:
- load lifting
- the crane trolley moving along the long axes of the main
beam.
- load launching
Measurements of the used materials hardness values -
B in Pa, by hand hardness tester. At the measurement
there are used reference plates with hardness 197 HB and
with measurement range of 100 - 400 .
4. RESULTS FROM THE MEASUREMENT

 Measurement the deflection of the main beam

The deflection of the crane track should be considered
along with the measurement of the deflection of the main
beam in static load. In this particular case the whole
deflection of the crane when loaded up with 1.25 QH =
143.8 t was measured twice. First results were taken
immediately after the lifting of the load, and the second -
10 min. later. In both cases the deflection of the beam in
the middle section was f=38 mm. Only the deflection of
the crane track changed with -5 mm, so the deflection of
the main beam became 33 mm. A new measurement was
accomplished after launching the load, and no other
deformations were determined.
 Results from the strain gaug measurement Dynamic load in item 2 - Q = 125 t
Data from the static load were measured with a strain
gauge. The static load of the beam was up with 143.8 t C = 500 mV / V max = 54mm max = 108MPa
only in item 6.
The maximum tensile strngth in the underside beam was
46 MPa.
The strain gaug measurement of the dynamic load of the
crane under load of 1.1 QH = 125 t displays a peak value
of maximum tensile strngth in the area of the trolley
passing over the sensors. This peak is particularly obvious
in the indications of the sensors in item 1, item 2 and item
3.

Dynamic load in item 3 - Q = 125 t

C = 500 mV / V max = 22mm max = 44MPa

Static load Q = 143,8 t

C = 1000 mV / V max = 12mm max = 48MPa

Dynamic load in item 4 - Q = 125 t

C = 500 mV / V max = 11mm max = 22 MPa

Dynamic load in item 1 - Q = 125 t Dynamic load in item 5 - Q = 125 t

C = 500 mV / V max = 61mm max = 122MPa C = 500 mV / V max = 1mm max = 2 MPa

275
Data from the strain gauge measurement are given in 5. CONCLUSION
Table. 1. Therefore, the data in the table for the maximum
strain are set with reference to the influence of the contact Overhead traveling crane successfully passed the tests,
- . operational tests with the new increased load capacity of
115 t.
Table 1 The results from the study allow the increasing of the
operational load of overhead traveling crane with 15
Number of the item percent - from old load capacity of 100 t to new load
capacity of 115 t.
1 122
2 108 REFERENCES
3 44
4 22 [1] , . . ., ,
5 2 1. . "", 1988
[2] KOLAROV, I., PRODANOV, , KARAIVANOV,
6 48 . Design of Lifting machines. ., "echnika", 1986
[3] COSMOSWORKS software
 Results from the measurement of the rigidness of the
used material
Data from the measurements of the rigidness of the used
material are given in Table 2. CORRESPONDENCE

Table 2 Krasimir KRASTANOV, Dr.

Senior lecturer
standard model B
University of Transport
Rail 3 mm 2.7 mm 960 158 Geo Milev str.
Main 1574 Sofia, Bulgaria
3.6 mm 4.1 mm 460
beam kkrastanov@vtu.bg

276

POWER TRANSMISSION CONDITION
MONITORING
Milo MILOVANEVI
Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI
Abstract: The initial step in creating a mechanical system
is formulating of the item to be produced and offered to
the market. In the design phase the quality assurance
system satisfy the users' requirements. Standardization
plays an important role in the procedure of quality
defining and assurance, so it can be claimed that the
market can not be conquered without the quality and that
the quality is not possible to reach without the
corresponding standards application. Diagnostics of
breakdowns can be defined as power transmissions
testing in order to determine and analyze the possibility
and causes of the malfunction.
Key words: condition, monitoring, diagnostics
1. INTRODUCTION
The first phase in creation of a mechanical system is
formulation of product properties, and its offer to the
market, from aspects of use and functional characteristics,
shape, lifetime, reliability, economics in production and
exploitation, etc. It is a question of selection and defining
of quality level. Definition of quality level starts and
finishes with market and it is the result of continual flow
of information between particular phases and correctional
measures based on that information. It is continual
process in company, which relates as well on the new
products as on those already on market, where habits and
demands of consumers are constantly changed influencing
on production technology.
Important progress in quality specification is achieved by
standardization development. The influence of
standardization on product quality is important. One of
the major principles and tasks of standardization is
optimal quality provision that is possible only at optimal
standardization.
Qualities of compound mechanical systems depend of
mutual influences of many factors, constructive, in
production and organization, and have different aspects
where technical and economical are the most important.
In this article is discussed the quality of one particular
mechanical system- power transfer-transmission system,
especially in function of diagnostics.
2. QUALITY OF POWER TRANSMISSIONS
Quality is compound dimension containing many
demands that, in general, contain the following
components: functionality, lifetime, and work availability,
esthetics, production and exploitation economy. The
quality of one compound mechanical system in general,
and power transmissions as well, could be completely
defined by:
 Construction quality.
 Production quality.
 Exploitation quality
That mean that the quality of reducing gears is defined by
totality of its characteristics that enables the fulfillment of
application demands and each feature of product, material
or process is the quality characteristics.
There are certain problems at defining of design and
construction process quality. For that purposes, in
discussion could be accepted the following definition: in
processes of design and construction quality is achieved
if:
 Completed documentation is correct and in
accordance with related standards
 Satisfying high working availability and efficiency of
device or system is assured
 Economy is assured
Not only the new products achieve increasing of total
quality level; almost the same importance have the
research and development activities pointed to the
constant improvement of characteristics of the existing
products.
To perform functional, structural and parameter analyze it
is necessary, during the design process, to define the
demands which the power transmission has to fulfill. For
the purpose it is needed at least to have the following
data: built in position, number and scheme of the input
and out put shafts, shape of shaft sleeve, shape and type
of coupling, type and power of the driving and working
machine, transmission gear cooling system, conditions of
exploitation, maintenance data, etc. Universal (standard)
transmission gears have not any particular demand, while
the power transmissions of special use have to fulfill
some additional conditions; fast run, silent and noiseless
operation, compact construction, needed diagnostics and
safety devices, etc.
Standardization of the universal power transmissions
includes overall and built in dimensions. Standardization
of the universal gears is the most frequently realized by
modular (bauksten) system, in the aim to cover the wide
range of the transfer efficiency and power, in companies
specialized for transmitting gears production.
Universal power transmissions are built in driving
mechanisms of different machines (mobile, civil
construction, mining and much more) where they are
subjected to different working conditions. At generation
277
of universal gears families, numerous working conditions Table 1. Causes and manifestations of failures
are reduced to determined number of standard working
regimes enabling to simplify and unify the calculations, CAUSES % MANIFESTATION %
standardization of transmission gears and reduction of
production costs. Production
In the aim of power transmissions selection, driving 40 Forced break 56
defects
mechanisms could be classified in different working
groups (drive classes) depending of working conditions Exploitation
and use. Determination of working groups is mostly done 43 Fatigue 17
defects
based on load frequency, i.e. working time interval class
and load conditions expressed by load spectrum. Load change 16
Process of power transmission in gears is followed by: External
17 Crack 7
rolling, sliding and high pressures in the zone of coupled influences
teeth contact, and consequences of the friction are the Distortion 4
changes of oil temperatures and thickness of the oil film.
In the exploitation process, by constant supervision of The shown results are pointing to the big influence of
particular parameters (vibrations, temperature of oil and exploitation and maintenance on failure occurrences at
bearings, wear products in oil) quality work of gear power gears, and the most frequent manifestations of damages
transmissions could be achieved in considerable amount. are breaks and fatigue of gear teeth material.
To obtain better work of gears it is important to observe
the reasons of malfunctions and failures. 3. PROCEDURES FOR POWER
The cause of malfunction or failure could be of different TRANSMISSIONS DIAGNOSTICS
nature (constructive, technologic, exploitation) and
malfunction or reduced working abilities can arise as a Technical diagnostics is the integral part of maintenance
result of overloading, fatigue of material, wearing, etc. process according to state (predictive maintenance) and it
This results with damages on mechanical elements during
should determine the technical state of system and its
the operation of mechanical systems. Damage occurrence
parts with considerable punctuality and in particular
is related with prohibited deviations in dimensions,
tolerances, shapes, and quality of surfaces. Consequence moment. That is in fact the science that deals with
of such damages is partial or total loss of observed system recognition of the system technical state. Diagnostics
functionality. That phenomenon is described as deals with: functioning order checking, checking of the
malfunction, damage or failure. operation possibilities, checking of functionality and
Failure diagnostics can be defined as logic, systematic failure research (place, way and cause of failure).
testing of an unit or its construction, to determine and
analyze the probability, causes and consequences of real
and potential functioning defects.
Today we have clearly defined classifications of damages
and failures for particular and the most important
mechanical elements. These classifications are shown as
Atlas of failures through national or international
standards. The documents mentioned above and technical
information are oriented to two subjects:
 Identification of way of failure (physical and/or
chemical process which leads to the loss of
determined function and occurrence of symptoms
which are caused by failure process)
 Determination of failure cause (technical conditions-
defects which leads to the recorded failure)

It is obvious that, for solutions of these problems, the

database of already recorded causes, place of failure, and
its manifestations for each element or system mechanism,
is needed.
Taking into consideration that the gear failure frequency
is the most frequent at power transmissions in relation
with other elements, the particular care is taken to those
failures. In literature we can find the following
systematization of causes and manifestations of failures of
gears, able 1.

278

Fig. 1. Information system for process support in
maintenance system according to working order
The basic aim of operation state tracking (diagnostics) of
some mechanical system is to achieve the longest period
of time (the maximum) in which that system is
functioning correctly and to minimize the number of
failures.
Diagnostics is the process of determination of mechanical
system state during its work. This enables to intervene on
critical components.
To provide operation without failures and malfunctions,
technical systems and power transmissions as well,
should be suitable for use of diagnostic procedures. Until
now, at design of universal gears, problems of technical
diagnostics were not taken into consideration, but it is not
excluded that market demands will be upgraded from that
point. To provide the correct and proper operation of gear
in exploitation, the permanent supervision and tracking of
some features is needed [5].
Starting from the basic conception of maintenance
according to state, the suitable information system should
be defined for process support in maintenance system
according to state, (Figure1.).
3.1. The vibration monitoring
The object of this monitoring is mostly a machine and
equipment - the sources of vibration. Only very seldom
the object of monitoring can be the equipment that is not a
source of oscillation forces and vibration but is the path of
vibration propagation from another source.
The aim of vibration monitoring is the detection of
changes in the vibration condition of object under
investigation during its operation. The cause of such
changes is mainly the appearance of a defect.
The machine condition monitoring is conducted first of all
by low frequency and middle frequency vibration that
propagates very good from the point of its origin up to the
point of its control. The number of such points can be
minimized up to one-two for each object to be monitored
if it has a common casing. The vibration measurements
can be conducted without any change in the operation
mode of the object. The monitoring system, if it is not
included in the system of immediate protection, can have
the hardware with one measurement circuit to which
consequently are connected all the transducers used in the
system. These measures enable to decrease significantly
the price of the monitoring system without decreasing the
reliability of the results received.
3.2. The sources of vibration in the power
transmission
Dynamic forces are acting in each machine. These forces
are the sources not only of the noise and vibration but the
defects as well. These defects change the features of the
forces and hence the characteristics of the noise and
vibration. One can say that the machine functional
diagnostics without changing the machine operation mode
is the investigation of dynamic forces but not the
vibration and noise. The latter only contain the
information about the dynamic forces, but in the process
of the transformation of dynamic forces into the vibration
and noise some information is lost. Even more
information is lost during transformation of the forces and
their work into heat energy. These are the reasons to
prefer vibration diagnostics, between two types of signal
(temperature or vibration) [5].
The main dynamic forces that act in a rotating machine
and excite its vibration and noise are shown in table 2.
Table 2. The types of oscillating forces that act in rotating
machines
Force Source
Centrifugal Rotor imbalance
Kinematics Surface roughness
The shaft, bearing and other units'
Parametric
rigidity fluctuation
Friction forces The rolling and slide friction units
Shocks Faulted friction surfaces
The main forces of the mechanical nature, that occur at
power transmissions are the following:
 Centrifugal forces defined by the rotating parts
imbalance;
 Kinematics forces defined by the unevenness of the
interacting surfaces and first of all the friction forces
in the bearings;
 Parametric forces defined first of all by the variable
component of rigidity of the rotating parts and its
supports;
 Friction forces that not always are of mechanical
nature but almost always they are the result of the
summarized action of multiple micro shocks with
resilience of the contacting micro-roughness on the
friction surfaces;
 The shock forces, excited by the interaction of
separate friction elements accompanied by their
resilience.
279
3.3. Microcontroller based power transmissions
vibro-diagnostics
Main difference between microprocessors and
microcontrollers is that the later are designed to
incorporate complete digital computer in one chip,
because beside processor they contain also memory and
peripheral units.. This accomplishes that desired system
has minimal number of components, savings space and
the time needed for device designing.
With the intention to determinate analysis of power
transmissions operating condition, authors of this paper
had designed special MC developing environment, which
description is given in shortened form.
3.3.1. Device description
This device is developed on the basis of Microchip
PIC16F877A(20MHz) microcontroller for RS232 version
or on the basis of PIC18F4550 if USB variant is needed.
Additional plate is 12-bit A/D converter with 4 channels,
based on MCP3204 A/D converter [1].
- Device is connected to PC computer RS232 (serial) port
- There are 8 analogue input channels (range 0 to 5V and
0 to 200mV, with other ranges possible, all safe until
250V)
- Digital temperature sensor (-55C to +125C, with 0,1
C resolution)
- High sensibility acceleration sensor
- Accelerometer and inclination sensor by 2 axes with 2g
range.
3.3.2. Accompanying software
Accompanying software is written in Visual Basic 6. It is
possible to enlarge certain areas on the graph for detailed
analyses, to save the data into picture format and to
perform FFT analysis of measured signal. Microcontroller
program is written in Micro Basic [2].
Device is tested at Electronic Faculty, University of Ni,
using TEKTRONIX AFG3102 signal generator by
inputting the 100Hz sinusoidal signal into the device
itself. After performed FFT analysis of the signal at PC
platform, the program showed perfect match with
generator input signal [3].
3.4. Application of generated spectrum
Many years experience in rotating machinery condition
monitoring using vibration shows that generalized
vibration spectrum gives the best result in the monitoring
condition of the rotating machines. This kind of spectrum
is formed from the narrow band spectrum and has a
number of properties typical to third octave spectra. Every
component of the generalized spectrum is formed from
the narrow band components that belong to one third
octave band with a generalized geometric mean
frequency. The amplitudes of the narrow band spectrum
components within this band are multiplied, but not added
(their energies are not summed) as is done when the third
octave spectra are formed from the narrow band spectra.
The resulting amplitude of the generalized spectrum
0
component A fi is equal to:
Ni
A0fi = A f j (1)
j =1
280
where:
 Afj - is the amplitude of the j component of the
narrow band spectrum in the frequency band
corresponding to the generalized spectrum
component.
 Ni - the number of the narrow band spectrum
components in the certain band corresponding to the
generalized spectrum component.
The amplitude A0fi of the generalized spectrum is
uniformly sensitive to the changes or appearance of both
the weak or strong vibration components within a certain
0
frequency band. Thus A fi is sensitive to the appearance
of weak side bands that occur in the vibration spectrum
when the strong harmonic component (carrier) is
modulated by some signal and to any other components in
the vibration spectrum.
An example of a generalized spectrum together with the
initial narrow band spectrum is presented on Figure 1.
Testing has been conducted on one stage planetary power
transmission manufactured by GOSA FOM with
following characteristics: transmission ratio i=9, power
P=30kW and input rpm nin=1470 rpm.
Planetary power transmission is applied in pellet mill;
research has been part of project for pellet mill
development.
It is planetary transmission of the type 2K h ,
variant B (Figure 2.) with two central gears, one with
external, the other with internal gearing (tooth numbers
za and zb ), satellite carrier and satellite, in this variant
double (tooth numbers z g and z f ). One line of satellites
is in contact with central sun pinion ( a ) and other with
internal gear (toothed rim)- b , making external and
internal geared pair with equal centre distance. Toothed
rim is immovable element. Rational gear ratio at this type
of transmission is 716 with approximate efficiency of
0.990.97.
Fig. 2. Type 2K h variant B planetary gear
When a defect occurred in one of the gears in a gearbox,
the teeth harmonics fz and 2fz were modulated by the
rotation frequency of this gear, fr. A number of side bands
can be found in the narrow band spectrum (Figure 3, 4.).
In the generalized vibration spectrum we see the increase
of levels of the corresponding components with fz and 2fz.

Fig. 3. Example of the generalized spectra application in
the monitoring condition of a gearbox - a narrow band
spectrum of a gearbox with no defect
Fig. 4. The narrow band spectrum of the gearbox with a
worn gear
Fig. 5. Worn gear
The worm gear is presented on Fig.5. As the generalized
vibration spectrum contains the main diagnostic
information, it is possible to use it not only for detection
of changes in the vibration state of the machine, but also
to identify the reasons for such changes - to make the
diagnostics of the rotating machines. The only weak point
of the generalized and narrow band spectra analysis is that
these methods are not sensitive to the amplitude
modulation of the random vibration components. This
problem can be overcome by the analysis of both the
generalized vibration spectrum and the narrow band
spectrum of the envelope of random vibration
components measured in the reference points of the
machine [4].
In contradistinction to monitoring the vibration
diagnostics during equipment operation is intended to be
used to detect the changes and predict not the vibration
state but machine condition state and more over of each of
its element that has a real probability of failure between
maintenances. For this purpose not only the low and
middle frequency vibration is measured but the high
frequency vibration too. Also more complicated methods
of vibration analysis than for monitoring are used. They
enable to receive all the necessary diagnostic information.
The vibration is measured on each unit to be diagnosed or
at least in the points of high frequency vibration
transaction from the diagnosed unit to other units that
have access for vibration measurements. The hardware
can have also one channel of vibration measurements and
analysis.
4. CONCLUSION
Treatment of mechanical system quality is very complex
in general. To this complexity contributes the fact that
quality of compound mechanical systems depends of
many factors (constructive, productive and
organizational) and has different aspects (technical,
economical).
Of the great importance is the quality in function of
failure occurrences, i.e. diagnostics. Causes for failures or
malfunctions at geared transmitters are different, but the
most frequent place of their occurrence are gears.
In the aim to provide operation without failures or
malfunctions it is necessary that power transmitters are
suitable for diagnostics procedures use. Diagnostics of the
transmitter state is usually based on vibrations observing,
thermal state and wearing products quantity in lubrication
oil.
The monitoring is often focused on a very limited number
of aspects. Also, we have concluded that PIC
microcontroller is good choice in gearbox vibration
monitoring. Further research is going to be focused on
development of other monitoring techniques for
mechanical system based on PIC microcontrollers.
REFERENCES
[1] MATI N., ANDRI D., 2000 PIC mikrokontroleri,
Mikroelektronika Beograd.
281
[2] MILOVANEVI M., CVETKOVI M.: CORRESPONDENCE
Application of new microcontroller generation for
pump aggregate working condition analyses, Milo MILOVANEVI,
Journal Research and Desing in Commerce & MSc, assistant
Industry. ISSN 1451- 4117 UDC 33. Br.23/24. University of Ni
2009. pp. 35-41, Belgrade 2009 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
[3] SUH NP. Axiomatic Design: Advances and Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
Applications. Oxford University Press, New York, 18000 Ni, Serbia
NY, 2001 milovancevic@masfak.ni.ac.rs
[4] MILOVANEVI M., MILENKOVI D., TROHA
S.: The optimization of the vibrodiagnostic method Jelena STEFANOVI-MARINOVI,
applied on turbo machines. Transactions Of Famena Assoc. prof. Ph.D.
XXXIII-3 (2009), Faculty of mechanical University of Ni
engineering and naval architecture, ISSN 1333-1124 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
pp. 63-71, Zagreb 2009. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
[5] MILOVANEVI M., ANELKOVI B.: Wind 18000 Ni, Serbia
turbine condition monitoring and control, Proc. of jelena_s_m@yahoo.com
3nd Internat. Conference POWER
TRANSMISSIONS 09. 1 26 October, 2009.
pp.85.-90. Chalkidiki, Greece

282

A METHOD OF CONTACT ENDURANCE
DETERMINATION OF GEARING BY
ACCELERATED GEAR TESTING
Nikolai ISHIN
Arkadi GOMAN
Victor STARZHINSKY
Abstract: A method is proposed for construction of the
contact endurance curves proceeding from the test results
of a limited number of gear teeth for which aim, each pair
of the meshing gear teeth is considered as a separate test
object. The test results undergo statistical processing
using the regressive analysis. The proposed procedure
enables to shorten by more than an order the time of the
tedious and costly life tests of the gear teeth via reducing
the number of test samples.
Key words: accelerated tests, gears, contact endurance,
mating pair of teeth.
1. INTRODUCTION
The dynamic loads at gear teeth meshing are arising from
the errors in the teeth profile and pitch [1]. Experimental
investigations have shown that the maximal dynamic load
values appearing at the initial stage of meshing can be
satisfactorily determined using the theory of impact. The
impact dynamic loads F(t) (see the figure) induced by the
edge or middle impacts of the teeth contacting in a
noncalculated point with velocity Vk repeat periodically at
a teeth mesh frequency = 2 . The edge impact
z
Tz
velocity Vk depends just as on the reduced meshing error,
so on the velocity and kinematic parameters of the
meshing. The impact pulse value S can be determined by
the relation [2]
S k = F (t ) = Vk , (1) differences in the meshing pitch because of the
where time of impact pulse not exceeding 0,1 Tz; Tz
teeth mesh frequency period, np equivalent mass of
gearing wheels.
The time of the impact pulse action u is usually more
than 0,1Tz [2].
Fig. 1. Periodic impact pulses related to teeth contacts
in the noncalculated point at velocity Vk .
The edge and middle impacts of the gearing are the
sources of high-frequency vibrations. These vibrations
can be recorded using the vibration detectors on, e.g.
bearing body, and then processed by a special software [3,
4]. It has been established experimentally [5] that the
vibration pulses on the bearing body are rigidly correlated
with those in the gear meshing. This fact has made
possible to solve the problem on the quantitative
determination of dynamic loading on each tooth of the
toothing under study based on the parameters of
vibrations generated by the gearing during tooth
changeover [6] by means of vibration diagnostics.
Above-mentioned fact is employed in developing a new
in principle analytic and research method of dynamic
processes in gearings [7-10] based on studying each pair
of meshed teeth as a separate investigation objects. Using
vibromonitoring of the bearing units it is thus possible to
determine the dynamic constituent of loading in the
toothing, estimate the effect of the varying dynamic
parameters of the gearing on the remaining life, forecast
reliability of gearings judging by the operating
parameters.
The proposed method was used during the experiments of
the gears with nickel-plated teeth doped by nanostructural
fillers [11, 12]. The tests have shown highly informative
capacity of the method at reduced test duration, and
proved the efficiency of the method proposed in
perfection of vibroacoustic and service characteristics of
gearings.
2. ACCELERATED TEST METHOD
Based on above-described concept, we have developed a
method of accelerated tests aimed at comparative
estimation of service characteristics of commensurable
design and engineering solutions through studying gear
pars having the gear ratio equal to a unity and by
considering each meshed teeth pair of the gearing as a
separate research object having the dynamic constituent
of loading different from other teeth pairs due to
manufacturing and assembly errors [13]. Because of a
strong scatter of the toothing pitch in the meshed teeth
pairs of the gears with 710 accuracy degree, the range
of the inner dynamic load constituents in a gearing is
broad enough, which enables to obtain a multilevel
loading mode of the teeth within the tests of a single gear
pair. This makes the processes affecting spending of
283
durability resources proceed differently in each teeth pair. A nonlinear dependence is acknowledged between lg H
In this connection one may derive comprehensive and lg N for a greater portion of the left section of the
information from even one gear pair testing for wear
behavior, accumulation of fatigue damage, and vibration fatigue curve (up to the number of cycles corresponding
activity of the gearing. The described approach helps to to a low-cycle fatigue) [13, 14].
cut the test tine and the test gear number. This, however, To find the correlation between the test values of lg H
requires thorough measurements of accuracy parameters and lg N , we use the method of nonlinear correlation
of the gears prepared for testing. [13]. Based on experimental data ( lg H lg N ), this
Notice that, the new approach proposed here agrees well
with simultaneous application of the traditional test method helps to find the coefficients to a series of the
procedures. fatigue curve equations corresponding to different
The load on a separate tooth can be determined by a direct nonfailure probability values.
strain metering. Nevertheless, it is inexpedient to perform Thus, the equation of regression N = f ( H ) is of the form
metering for all gear teeth because of its complexity and [13, 14]:
laboriousness of the process. The dynamic constituent of 1
lg H = lg N +
loading is conditioned to a great degree by vibroacoustic qH 0 , 5 + K b S q H (2)
activity of the gearing [13], wherefore, this problem can
be solved by simultaneous recording of the load and 1
+ lg H + (lg N + K b S Nr ),
vibration activity of the tooth being metered during qH 0 , 5 + K b S q H
meshing in a real time scale. Based on these data, we
obtain a correlative dependence that interrelates above- Where lg H , lg N - average logarithms of stresses and
named parameters and helps to evaluate the actual loading
number of cycles to failure derived from:
judging by the amplitude of vibration pulses generated by
the teeth not subjected to strain metering [13]. lg H lg N
In the case the gearing under study bears typical for this lg H = ; lg N = ; (3)
n n
group of gears manufacturing errors, a single gear pair
may turn to be sufficient for the given investigation with S Nr = S lg N 1 r 2 main conditional deviation; (4)
the loading and vibroactivity monitoring of the teeth
under the preset test parameters.
K b - coefficient for the fatigue curve with a defined
Based on the test results, we may also evaluate the
agreement between the actual technical characteristics of nonfailure probability determined as shown in [14]; r
gear reducers and the desired ones, which includes the coefficient of correlation found from the formula
approximate durability span, the rational operating (lg N lg N )(lg H lg H )
conditions, and take a decision whether it is better to r= . (5)
finish or refuse from the considered design solution. (n 1) S lg N S lg H
The new method has been tried-out by the next procedure:
four experimental gear pairs were manufactured and where S lg H , S lg N - mean square deviations of the
subjected to the analytical element by element inspection logarithms, correspondingly, for stresses and number of
to determine accuracy parameters of the gear pairs; cycles to failure determined by the formulas:
separate teeth pairs underwent a design estimate of their
loading and lifetime values; the gears were subjected to (lg H lg H ) 2 ,
the life tests using a closed-loop test bench by the S lg H =
n 1
methods of strain metering and vibro-diagnostics of the
gear meshing. As a result, it has been proved that a (lg N lg N ) 2 ,
S lg N =
contact endurance curve can be constructed proceeding n 1
from the gear pair test data.
where n is the number of test objects;
3. PROCESSING OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA S lg N 1 r 2
S qH = - mean square deviation of slope qH :
The test results of gear pairs show large scatter in the S lg H n
values of both life span and durability limits. In this where qH 0 ,5 exponent of the fatigue curve
connection, the experimental data should be analyzed
statistically, which along with a usual fatigue curve corresponding to nonfailure probability = 50% [14]:
corresponding to nonfailure probability p = 0.5 yields a
probability diagram of the contact fatigue of the working
S lg N
qH 0,5 = r . (6)
tooth profile surfaces that expresses the dependence S lg H
between the actual loads and the lifetime threshold under
The sum of the values in Eq. (1)
different probability values of failure-free operation.
The general goal of statistical processing of the fatigue q H 0 ,5 + K b S qH = qH P (7)
test results is the determination of the functional
dependence between , N, p (p probability that the presents the exponent of the contact fatigue curve
sample tested under strain fails at Nth test cycle). corresponding to nonfailure probability p.

284
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
The proposed method of obtaining contact durability curves
during testing of a limited number of test samples has been
tried in life tests of spur gears. The initial parameters of
experimental gears were: teeth number of the pinion z1 = 40,
that of the gear wheel z2 = 40; module m = 3, gear face b = 10
mm; transmission accuracy 7-B, cyclogram of loading at a
constant load M 1 =117.7 Nm, rotation frequency of the
driving wheel n1=1500 min-1, steel grade of the pinion and
wheel 40H, thermal treatment by HFC, hardness 50 HRC.
By periodic inspection during testing some teeth were chosen
in the limiting state judging by the surface area of spalling.
The whole range of loading perceived by the teeth was divided
into six levels, each having a corresponding teeth pair. After
the statistical analysis of the results based on above-described
method, the contact endurance curves were constructed with
the nonfailure probability p = 10%, 50%, 90% (see Fig. 2).
The marks indicate the stress values and test time during
which spalling occurred on the teeth; by arrows the contact
stresses are shown that correspond to the endurance threshold
and to the level below it.
1100
,
1 2 3 SKOROKHODOV, A.S., Determining dynamic
1050
1000
950
900
850
5 1
7
10
8 [9] BERESTNEV, O.V., ISHIN, N.N., GOMAN, A.M.,
800
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
Fig. 2. Fatigue curves under nonfailure probability
p = 90% (1), 50% (2), 10% (3)
5. CONCLUSIONS
The developed methodical approach to construction of the
contact endurance curves based on test results of a
restricted number of gears has made possible to consider
each meshed pair of teeth as a separate test object. This
enables to enlarge several-fold the volume of obtained
experimental data on the progressing wear and fatigue
damages on the working surfaces of the gear teeth under
study, to raise essentially informativity level, and to
shorten by an order the time needed for the tedious and
costly life tests of transmission gears.
REFERENCES
[1] BERESTNEV, O.V., GOMAN, A.M., ISHIN, N.N.,
Analytical Methods of Mechanics in Drive Dynamics.
Minsk: Naka I technical, 1992. (Rus.).
[2] CHELOMEI, V.N., Reference Book Vibrations in
Technics. In 6 volumes, vol. 3 Moscow:
Mashinostroeniye, 1980.
[3] PAVLOV, V.B., Acoustic Diagnostics of
Mechanisms. Moscow: Mashinostroeniye. 1971.
(Rus.).
[4] BERESTNEV, YA.O., ISHIN, N.N., New methods of
experimental determination of criterion parameters
of dynamic systems of drive mechanisms. Minsk:
Technoprint. 2004. (Rus.).
[5] Reference book on technical acoustics. Editors M.
Checl and H.A. Muller. Leningrad. Sudostroeniye.
1980. (Rus., Translation from German).
[6] BERESTNEV, O.V., ISHIN, N.N., BASINYUK,
V.L., BERESTNEV, YA.O., BASINYUK, YA.V.,
BY Patent 4261C2BY, Technigue of vibration
diagnostic of teeth loading of gears under the tests.
Byull. Dzyazh. Patent. Ved. RB, 2001, No. 4. p. 171-
172. (Rus.).
[7] ISHIN, N.N., GOMAN, A.M., SKOROKHODOV,
A.S., Vibromonitoring of gearing remaining life.
Herald of Brest State Technical University.
Engineering. 2008. No 4 (52), p. 52-58. (Rus.).
[8] ALGIN, V.B., ISHIN, N.N., GOMAN, A.M.,
component of load in gear tooth meshing. Proceeding
of the conference with international participation
Theory and practice of gear drives and gearbox
engineering Editor V.I. Goldfarb, Izhevsk, 2008. p.
204-207. (Rus.).
N,
STARZHINSKY, V.E., Influence of alteration of
T, 1700
gear drive dynamic parameters on residual useful
life. Proceedings of the conference with international
participation Theory and practice of gear drives and
gearbox engineering. Editor V.I. Goldfarb. Izhevsk,
2008. p. 204-207. (Rus.).
[10] BERESTNEV, O.V., SOLITERMAN, YU.L.,
GOMAN, A.M., Normalization of Durability of
technical systems. Minsk: Technoprint, 2004. (Rus.).
[11] STARZHINSKY, V.E., ISHIN, H.H., GOMAN,
A.M., SOLITERMAN, YU.L., ANTYUSHENYA,
L.M., Dynamics investigation of gears with tooth
coatings gearing and transmissions. 2004. No. 2, p.
21-31.
[12] STARZHINSKY, V.E., ISHIN, H.H., GOMAN,
A.M., SOLITERMAN, YU.L., ANTYUSHENYA,
L.M., The improvement of gearing dynamics by tooth
coating. The XII international scientific conference
CO-MAT-TECH 2004. Trnava. Slovakia, 2004, p.
28.
[13] BERESTNEV, O.V., ANTONYUK V.E., ISHIN,
H.H., GOMAN, A.M. et. al., Complex control and
increasing quality of gear-drive mechanisms for
mechanical engineering. Recommended practice.
Minsk: BelGISS, 2009. 115 p. (Rus.).
[14] BERESTNEV, O.V., SOBOLEV, A.S., Investigation
of influence of gear finishing machining technology
for its working capacity, Information materials,
Moscow, 1971. (Rus.).
285
CORRESPONDENCE

Nicolai N. ISHIN, Victor E. STARZHINSKY,

Ph.D., Assistant Professor Prof. D. Sc. Eng.
Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering V.A. Belyi Metal-Polymer Research
of National Academy of Sciences of Institute of National Academy of Sciences
Belarus of Belarus,
Minsk, Belarus Gomel, Belarus,
nik_ishin@mail.ru star_mpri@mail.ru

Arkadi M. GOMAN,
Ph.D., Assistant Professor
Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering
of National Academy of Sciences of
Belarus
Minsk, Belarus
arcady_goman@tut.by

286
 Table 1. Factor of safety in norms
Norm Factor of safety
ASME VIII, parts 1,2 - USA 1.5 1.6
BS 1515, part 1 - England 1.5
BGS 596-77 - Bulgaria 1.5

3. YIELD STRESS - RELATIONSHIPS

The NDE of the yield stress for mild steels based on the
Hall-Petchs relationship [2, 3, 4, 6]:

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION y = 0 + Ky D -1/2

(3)
OF YIELD STRESS FOR COMPONENT
where 0 and K y are material constants, D - average
IN MILD STEEL CONSTRUCTIONS
grain size value.
Alexander POPOV
3.1. The constant 0
The value 0 dive a name to Pierals-Nabarros stress or
Abstract: This paper present the application of non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) for the yield stress for friction stress - PN, this stress is a measure of the
component in constructions manufactured by mild steels. intrinsic resistance of the material to dislocation motion.
Look at a strength condition through yield stress. For In [5] is shown the relationship 0 = M PN, where M
obtain the NDE of yield stress ultrasonic measurement Zakss factor ( the limits for low carbon steels are 2.24
are carry out. M 3.06). In [4] there is relationship PN =
Key words: yield stress, non-destructive evaluation 2G 2 .a
1
exp , where - Poisons coefficient,
(NDE), acoustic characteristics of materials, stress
(1 )b
conditions
a distance between near-by surfaces on dislocation
sliding, b distance between atoms in direction of
sliding. In first approximation
1. INTRODUCTION
a ~ b. For 0 can be written

The evaluation of the yield stress ( y ) of materials is 0 = M 1 ( )G (4)

one of the most important non-destructive activities in the
materials examination. For obtain the NDE of yield stress 2 2
the acoustic characteristics of materials (velocity of where 1 ( )= exp ,
longitudinal and transversal ultrasonic wave - VL and VT (1 ) (1 )
and attenuation coefficient - ) are measure.
0.5(VL / VT ) 2 1
; G = VT - sliding modulus.
2
=
2. STRESS CONDITIONS (VL / VT ) 2 1
Therefore that the Pierals-Nabarros stress is evaluation
The stress condition in static loaded for component in by means measure velocity of ultrasonic wave
constructions is [1,2] propagation (VL, -longitudinal; VT - transversal).

WORK [ ] , (1) 3.2. The constant K y

The value K y dive a name to Petchs stress. K y is
where WORK - work stress, [ ] - allowable stress. For
associated with the ease of operation of
mild steels dislocation sources. In [2,3] is shown, that
1/ 2
[ ] y /S 2G b
(2) Ky = , where - angle of
cos 25 (1 )
were S factor of safety, generally S [ 1.0 ; 4.0 ], maximum non-orientation of direction of sliding
frequently S [ 1.5 ; 3.0 ]. The values for factor of safety ( ~ /4 ), b - module of Burgers vector. After
in norms [2] are given in Table 1.
The work stress is obtained by means methods of transformation for K y is given
mechanical of materials [1, 7], yield stress is possibility
obtained by tensile test [4,5] or NDE. K y = N b 2 ( ) G (5)

287
 2 2 2
1/ 2
1
1/ 2
M, 1 ( ), N, 2 ( ) and are shown in (4) and (6);
where N= ; 2 ( )=
5 1
1
.
L / f 4 6
B( L ;V L ;VT )= .
C. (VL ;VT )
Therefore, that Petchs stress is evaluation by means
measure velocity of ultrasonic wave propagation (VL, -
longitudinal; VT - transversal). The NDE of the yield stress for mild steels is obtained by
means measure of the acoustic characteristics of materials
3.3. The grain size D (velocity of longitudinal and transversal ultrasonic wave -
3.3.1. Lifshic-Parhomov-Merkulovs relationship VL and VT and attenuation coefficient - L ) and
The value of grain size D is evaluated by acoustic frequency f of ultrasonic.
characteristics ( frequency f, velocity - VL ,VT and
coefficient of attenuation L of longitudinal ultrasonic 5. MEASUREMENTS OF VELOCITIES
wave) [8, 9]. There is Lifshic-Parhomov-Merkulovs
relationship [ 10] 5.1. Equipment
For ultrasonic measurements:
L = C.( VL ,VT) f 4 D 3 (6)
- ultrasonic flow detector SITESCAN 150S ( accuracy of
time of propagation of ultrasonic waves is 0.01 s ); -
4. 4 V4 2 3 transducers with - crystal cut ( for VL ) and Y -crystal
where C = ; (VL,VT) = T3 5 + 5
1071
V L V L VT cut ( for VT ) - 2MHz, 5MHz ;
- control block for known velocity CBV (VL= 5.93
mm/s)
3.3.2. Ermolovs relationship This equipment is from SONATEST, England and
The grain size, in polycrystalline aggregates, is obtain by PANAMETRICS, USA.
means attenuation coefficient who is a function of For mechanical measurements:
frequency f and grain size D and velocity VL,, VT. - digital micrometer Micromaster 0-30 mm / accuracy
0.001 mm from TESA Switzerland .
For steels with pearlitic structures if > 10 D there is
relationship [11] 5.2. If test sample is accessible from two side
The method for measure of VT [8], is expedient for
L = 0.12 f +20 D 3 f 4 (7)
digital measurement of time of propagation of ultrasonic
where L [Np/mm], f in MHz, D in mm. wave in s. The values for VT are by following formula

3.3.3. Empirical procedure 2.l X

VX = (11)
Let we have a set of samples with different D . For each TX
sample the amplitude of beck ultrasonic wave is measure
in different frequencies f1 < f 2 < f 3 < ... where V = ( V L ; VT ); T X =( TL ; TT ), TL TT -
and the coefficients Kj [12] evaluated by means respectively times of propagation of ultrasonic
longitudinal and transversal waves, 2.lX ultrasonic path
K j = A( f j ) / A( f1 ); j = 1,2,... (8) in mm.
V X
The relative error in ultrasonic measure of velocity
There is relationship K j - D is VX
p is

n
K j = 0 + 1 D (9)
j
V X V l T X
j =1
E + X + (12)
For mild steels correlation r=0.996. The coefficients in
VX VE lX TX
(9) are n = - 0.5, p = 3.0; 1= 2 = 3 =1,
V E l X T X
0 = -1.798, 1 = 0.837 where ; ; are relative errors for velocity
VE l X TX
4. NDE OF YIELD STRESS in known material, thickness of unknown material and
round trips for unknown material respectively.
The relationship (3) is reduced to
5.3. If test sample is accessible from one sides
y = A( L ;VL ;VT ) VT2 X
(10) The velocity VT of ultrasonic transversal wave in test
where sample is calculate from equation [8]

A( L ;V L ;VT )=M 1 ( )+N 2 ( )B( L ;V L ;VT ) ( BVTX ) .m - = 0 (13)

288
 ( BVT ) 2 sin 1b Graphics Strength condition
where (BVT) = ;B= ; 4.F
1 ( BVT ) 2 V1 y /S
.d12
WX n where y - given form (10)
m= ; = ( BVTE ) E and S = 3
nX WE
Therefore have to
indexes X and E are respectively for test sample and
F
etalon, 1b is incident angle, V1 - ultrasonic velocity in d13.4
y ( L ;VL ;VT )
transducers protector, ( n E ; n X ) positions of back
echoes readings from ultrasonic flaw detector. Point of ultrasonic measuring

T 2W R Fig. 2. Screwing in hook

In this case:
A ) In point of ultrasonic measuring:
VL= 5.911 0.030 mm/s
VT = 3.251 0.015 mm/s
L = 0.535 0.010 Np/mm
Fig. 1. Measurement scheme for velocity VT
B ) Results of acoustic calculation:
The value of V L
X
is calculated by If ( = 0. 28; M = 2.24 ) then 0 = 102.43 MPa
If ( b 3.10 -7mm ) then K y = 16.82 MPa.mm1/2
X 2(1 ) X
V = VT (14)
1 2
L
C ) If ( f = 4 MHz ) then D = 0.022 mm
Therefore y = 215.83 MPa
6. MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION D ) Results of strength calculation:
If ( F = 5 t ) then ( d1 16.36 mm )
The attenuation - X is obtain by means method of
Therefore, there is accept d1 = 20 mm.
repeated echoes in ultrasonic wave propagation. The
value of X is obtain by 8. CONCLUSION
Nn Nm In this paper is shown, that the NDE of the yield stress for
X = (15)
(n m).2l X mild steels is obtained by means measure of the acoustic
characteristics of materials (velocities of longitudinal and
transversal ultrasonic wave - VL ; VT and attenuation
where N n ; N m are n-th and m-th repeated echo, l X is
coefficient - L ) and frequency f of ultrasonic is
thickness of sample. possibility.
L In stress condition in static loaded for component in
The relative error in measure of X is
L constructions manufactured by mild steels, the NDE of
the yield stress is used.

L N X l X
+ (16)
L REFERENCES
NX lX
[1] BEEP F.P.and &, Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-
N X l X Hall Reyerson Limited, Toronto, Montreal and &,
where and are relative errors for back 1985.
NL lX
[2] MESHKOV JU.,JA, Physical basis of fracture of
amplitude and thickness respectively. steel constructions, Nukova dumka, Kiev, 1981.
[3] ANDERSON J.C. and &, Materials Science,,
7. EXAMPLE Chapman and Hall, London, 2002.
[4] ZOLOTOREVSKII V.S, Mechanical properties of
For example we lock at screwing in hook (Fig.2.) metals, Misis, Moskow, 1998.

289
[5] SHTREMEL M. A., Strength alloys, part II,
Deformation , Mrsis, Moskow,1998.
[6] Deformation hardening and fracture of
polycrystalline materials, Edited by V.I.Trefilova,
Ndukova dumka, Kiev, 1987.
[7] SOKOLNIKOFF I. S., Mathematical theory of
elasticity, Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia, 1972.
[8] ASTM E 494-92, Standard Practice for Measuring
Ultrasonic velocity in aterials
[9] NDT Handbook, Edited by P.McIntire, v.7,
Ultrasonic testing, American Society for NDT, 1991.
[10] Physical Acoustic, vol.IV, part B, edited by U.
Mezon, Inostrannoy Literaturay, Moskow,1963,
Chapter 6, E.Papadakis, Ultrasonic scattering
attenuation in polycrystalline medias, p.317-381
[11] ERMOLOV I. N., Calculations in ultrasonic testing,
OOO NPC NKEHO+, Moskow, 2000
[12] VAIBOROV B.I., Ultrasonic testing, Metalurgia,
Moskow,1985.
[13] POPOV A. P., K. M. MINCHEV, NDE of Yield
stress for low-carbon steels, 10th National Congress
on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, v. I I, p.268,
Varna, 2005.
[14] POPOV A. P., Evaluation of velocity of ultrasonic
wave propagation at one-sided approach.
Conference Acoustic 2007, Year IX, Number 9,
p.83-87, Sofia, December 2007.
290
[15] POPOV A.P., Non-Destructive evaluation of
mechanical properties of steels, Monograph
MASHIN DESIGN, University of Novi Sad,
Faculty of Technical Sciences, may 18th 2007, 47th
anniversary of the faculty, p.461-468.
[16] POPOV A. P., Ultrasonic testing of mechanical
properties of cast iron, Conference NDT2008,
Scientific letters of Union of mechanical engineering,
Year XV, Number 2(105),June 2008,pp.104-109.
[17] POPOV A. P., NDE of stress-strain diagram
characteristics for cast iron, XII Int. Conf. on
Mechanical Engineering,, Bratislava, 13 -
14.11.2008, ISBN 978-80-227-2982-6, Paper No 14
on CD.
CORRESPONDENCE
Alexander POPOV, Ass. Prof. Ph.D.
Bulgarian Academy of Science
Institute of Mechanics
Acad. G. Bonchev Str., bl.4
1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
alpopov@abv.bg

DESIGNING THE SYSTEM OF CONTROL
THE STRAIGHTENING PROCESS OF
LOW-RIGIDITY SHAFTS
Oleg DRACHEV
Wiktor TARANENKO
ntoni SWIC
Jakub SZABELSKI
Abstract: The paper presents the results of research
conducted in order to obtain the algorithm of long, low-
rigidity shafts cold straightening process, transfer
functions of control object - the straightening process,
and a schematic diagram of automatic control system for
straightening by bending process. The authors describe
the functional diagram of a multi-input recorder, the
cyclogram of control system functioning, and the
geometric interpretation of the process for the material in
elastic-deformable state. The test stand and the results of
experimental research of the process with the use of
automatic control system are described.
Keywords: long non-rigid shaft, dynamic straightening,
automatic control system, axial run-out
1. INTRODUCTION
When developing algorithms for the control of the
process of straightening of long shafts it is necessary to
determine the zones of application of external
straightening forces. In this case plastic deformations are
distributed unevenly, so one should aim at elimination of
the unevenness of their distribution. Plastic deformation
zones, at high modes, are practically coincident in the
case of paired and odd forms, and therefore modal control
should be applied controlled loading should be applied
in the zones of opposing nodes [1 - 3]. If initially the
semi-finished products, in accordance with the
straightening algorithm, undergo deformation according
to the first mode of bending, followed by the second, third
etc., each straightening module acts as an autonomous
one in agreement with the new developed algorithm.
Irrespective of the length of the semi-finished product and
of the method of its straightening, elastic-plastic
deformation occurs between the supports. It is possible to
calculate, in the first approximation, the values of stresses
and plastic strains in the semi-finished products, and the
depth of their location, as the distance between the
supports and the geometric parameters of the semi-
finished products are always known.
2. CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE PROCESS OF
STRAIGHTENING OF LOW-RIGIDITY
PARTS
When developing a system of automatic control of the
process of straightening it is necessary to solve the
problem of improvement of accuracy that cannot be
solved without performing a theoretical analysis of the
control system being developed. Analysis of structural
schematic (Fig. 1) permits determination of correct
restoration of output control signal, development of
servomechanism design, determination of method of
measurement of controlled value, and development of a
schematic permitting the generation of desired signal.
Based on the adopted solutions one may select, from the
available offer, the elements of the automatic control
system, present the system in the form of a mathematical
model, set the system up and perform its testing.
The mathematical model of the object of control includes
an operator transmittance composed of three parallel links
with oriented effect, the input of which is the force of
straightening and the output is displacement.
Y ( s)
W0 ( s ) = = K 1( s ) + K 2 ( s ) K 2I ( s ) . (1)
P( s)
The semi-finished products rotates and the value of its
eccentric is included in the integral index of the value of
deflection. In the structural schematic (Fig. 1), the run-out
(eccentric) value is denoted as e(s ) , and the combined
value of semi-finished product deflection and run-out,
denoted as Y (s ) , is controlled by means of a run-out
sensor with operator transmittance K3(s). The primary
transducer-sensor for the control of semi-finished product
run-out is switched on only when the axis of the semi-
finished product is identical with the axis of the machine
tool (lathe). The output signal from the primary
transducer, in accordance with the algorithm of
straightening, is supplied to the input of a calculation-
programming device with operator transmittance K4(s).
The calculation-programming device calculates the
rigidity of the subsystem of semi-finished product-
supports. It determines, taking into account the current
conditions and values of deformations of the semi-
finished product, the zones of elastic and plastic
deformations. According to the developed algorithm,
based on the actual geometric parameters of the semi-
finished product and on its physical and mechanical
properties, on the output of the device a control signal is
generated for an electro-hydraulic amplifier (EHA) with
operator transmittance W5(s). The EHA controls the
position of the rod of the hydraulic drive W6(s). The rod is
firmly joined with a punch whose operator transmittance,
as an elastic link, equals W7(s). The punch is in direct
contact with the semi-finished product, sensing the
response of the semi-finished product in the process of
deformation. The straightening forces are controlled by
means of the force sensor W8(s) whose output signal,
proportional to the straightening force value, is
transmitted to the input of the calculation-programming
device W4(s), and thus each circuit is feedback-controlled
by the straightening force. In the process of straightening
291
 Fig. 1. Structural schematic of automatic control system of the process of straightening through bending

two straightening sections are controlled: the elastic and The operator transmittance of the hydraulic amplifier
the plastic, therefore we need to have data on the (leaving out the forces of contact friction) is described by
displacement and force of plastic deformation. In order to the product of the amplifying and integrating elements
control the value of travel of the control slide (value of
X ( s ) K ah / Fx
deformation of the semi-finished product), the primary Wry ( s) = = ,
transducer of linear displacement, with operator h( s ) s
transmittance K9(s), is connected into the feedback circuit
of the electro-hydraulic drive control. Experimental where: x displacement of the four-edge control, slide;
studies of the electro-hydraulic drive, control blocks and Kah coefficient of amplification slope of the output
primary transducers [4] showed that all of those elements characteristics; Fx cross section area of the control slide.
can be described, with sufficient probability, as inertia- The operator transmittance of the hydraulic drive equals
free with amplification coefficient , except for the to:
electro-hydraulic amplifier. The two-stage electro- y y (s) k NH
W6 ( s ) = =
( )
hydraulic amplifier includes a transducer with force ,
feedback, a two-slot hydraulic choke divider of the x( s ) TNH
2 2
s + 2TNH s + 1 s
nozzle-stopper type, and a slide-type cylindrical four-slot
hydraulic divider. The operator transmittance (Fig. 1) where: yy linear displacement of hydraulic cylinder rod
coupling the control slider displacements (output (output value), TNH i k NH - time constant and coefficient
parameter) with the control current (input parameter), of amplification of the hydraulic drive.
taking into account the force of negative feedback, has the The general form of the operator transmittance of the
form of: electro-hydraulic drive can be written as:

X ( s) K M ( s )W ( s )Wry ( s) y y ( s)
W5 ( s ) = = . (2) WNEH ( s ) = = K M ( s )W5 ( s )W6 ( s ) =
i ( s ) 1 + W ( s )Wry ( s) K M ( s ) i( s)
l ah
KM k NH
where: KM, KMX coefficients of amplification of slope of K M Fx
= .
l k ah
instantaneous characteristics of transducer and feedback (T
2 2
w )(
s + 2 Tw s + 1 T s + 2 TNH s + 1 s 2 + TNH
2
NH
2 2
) (
s 2 + TNH s + 1 s ) Fx
after loading. The operator transmittance of the electro-
mechanical transducer (linearised model) can be written
The circuit of control of the process of deformation of
as:
semi-finished product relative to its deformation was the
h( s ) l / K M operator transmittance of an open system (Fig. 1).
WPEM ( s ) = = 2 2 ,
M I ( s ) Tw s + 2 Tw s + 1 y y ( s)
W (s) = = K 4 ( s ) W5 ( s ) W6 ( s ) . (3)
where: h displacement of the free end of the rotor; MI -
U 3 ( s)
moment on the rotor; l length of the rotor; K M -
One of the most important characteristics of an automatic
angular stiffness of the electromechanical system of the control system is its dynamic accuracy or system error in
transducer; Tw , - time constant of the rotor and control and interference effects. The accuracy of a control
coefficient of attenuation, respectively. system is determined in steady state conditions.

292
Regular effects are treated as a slowly changing function
of time in comparison to the characteristics of a transition
process in the system. In this case the accuracy of an
automatic control system can be estimated by means of
the coefficient of error H that s obtained by means of the
operator transmittance of a closed system relative to the
error, WH(s) [5]. In the structural schematic (Fig. 1) the
divergence between displacements of the input value
U 3wej and the output value U 9 wyj is defined as:
H ( s ) = U 3wej ( s ) U 9 wyj ( s ) , (4)
characterises the inaccuracy of operation of the automatic
control system and is treated as an error.
On the basis of the structural schematic (Fig. 1) one can
write the relation of H(s) as:
H ( s ) = U 3 wej ( s ) K 9 ( s )U 3 wyj ( s ) ;
U ( s) = K 4 ( s) K 5 ( s)W6 ( s ) .
By excluding H(s)from those relations, we can define the
operator transmittances of a closed system as well as the
errors:
Y (s) K 4 ( s)W5 ( s)W6 ( s )
0 ( s) = = , (5)
U 3 ( s ) 1 + K 4 ( s)W5 ( s)W6 ( s)W9 ( s)
H (s) 1 estimation of error in program development.
( s ) = = . (6)
U 3 ( s ) 1 + K 4 ( s )W5 ( s )W6 ( s ) K 9 ( s )
Fig. 2. Functional schematic of automatic control system of the process of straightening
In each of the control circuits, the structural schematic has
serially connected integrating elements, which means that
each circuit has astatism of the second degree. This means
[5] that in the steady mode divergences in the next system
do not depend on the level of the input signal nor on the
rate of its change, and thus the coefficients of error in the
system are equal to zero in the steady mode the error in
a control system is determined only by acceleration and
be derivatives of an input parameter of a higher order
after time. The accuracy of a closed system in steady state
increases with increase in the coefficient of amplification
of the system in open mode, which results from decrease
of the coefficient of error first in terms of position.
However, with increase in the coefficient of stability, the
closed system approaches the limit of stability.
Experience with operation of systems with electro-
hydraulic drives shows that the coefficient of gain in a
closed circuit should not exceed 1.5. Increase in the
accuracy of an automatic control system due to
compensation of the effect of interference or to the effect
of a control signal, i.e. the creation of a system that is
fully invariant relative to control or interfering effects, is
not viable in a given case. In practice it is rather hard to
achieve H(s)=0, so that path that should be followed is
that of increasing the level of astatism of the control
system. In the analysed structural schematic the automatic
control system has astatism of the second degree, which is
sufficient for achieving straightening accuracy within a
working range of frequencies of 0 to 5 Hz.
The structural schematic developed permits assessment of
dynamic processes taking place in a control system,
taking into account interfering effects and external
interference, determination of mutual interactions within
the object itself and overall in the control system without
the need for introducing correcting links, as well as
Theoretical studies presented in references [1 - 3] support
the viability of application of automatic control. In the
case of straightening, problems occur when the parts have
stepped diameters (e.g. stepped-diameter shaft) and the
ratio of lengths to diameters is greater than thirteen.
Straightening by hand or on an automatic device does not
permit the required operational accuracy to be achieved.
With the application of known methods of automatic
straightening by bending there appear irregular plastic
293
deformations along the semi-finished product and on its
diameter, which leads to the appearance of non-uniform
residual stresses. When the external stress in the process
of operation, combined with the internal stress, exceeds
the limit of plasticity, the final product will lose its
required form. The objective of developing an automatic
control system for straightening of long parts is to
increase the operational accuracy through the creation of a
uniform state of stress along the part, down to a specific
depth within the surface layer of the semi-finished
product [6].
The essence of the solution lies in a change in the
sequence of traditional technological operations through
the introduction of dynamic straightening of semi-
finished product, followed by the formation of a specific
depth of deformed layer, immediately prior to the
roughing and profiling, and after those operations. In the
process of roughing and profiling the depth and character
of stresses should remain unchanged, which can be
achieved through elimination and redistribution of surface
stresses formed directly in the process of machining of
low-rigidity parts, taking into account the changing
dynamic characteristics of the machining process itself.
Prior to machining, the semi-finished product is
straightened automatically; for this purpose it is aligned in
self-centring circular steadies (Fig. 2 - 3), located in the
zones of nodes and opposite nodes of the basic higher
forms of bending vibrations (3 + 5 forms) of the
machined part. As the part revolves, the required
straightening forces are applied on each pair of circular
steadies, equal in value and opposite in vectors. For this
purpose, measurements are taken of the reaction in the
circular steadies to the variable component loads of
straightening relative to amplitude and frequency. The
duration of the straightening cycle at a given stage is
determined automatically, based on the equality of
reaction to the variable component forces at the central
and the extreme pairs of circular steadies.
A particular design feature of the steadies (Fig. 2) is that
they are not made according to the symmetrical schematic
on is -shaped and the other is flat. The first to start
working are the paired central steadies 1-2, 9-10. The
paired central circular steadies 5-6 realize several bending
cycles, the magnitude of bending being determined on the
basis of current information in the process of plastic
deformation, and align the central part of the semi-
finished product with the axis of rotation of the lathe.
At the same time the paired annular steadies 3-4 and 7-8
and the paired steadies 1-2, 9-10 operate in a similar
manner. Depending on the length of the semi-finished
product, the steadies are brought into operation in a
specific sequence, i.e. in the middle of the part the central
module is working, and in the direction from the centre
towards the ends pairs of two modules are working
simultaneously. The movement of the steadies is realized
by the servos 1-9 for non-paired steadies, and 0-2 for
the paired ones. Each servo has a force sensor-recorder
for constant and variable forces, 21-29 and 22-30. The
transducers for linear travel recording 31-40 are mounted
on the casings of the paired steadies and sense their
positions relative to the lathe axis by means of individual
datum scales 41-45. For each pair of steadies, two scales
are positioned so as to overlap by the amount of
294
maximum allowable deflection that can still be eliminated
in a direction orthogonal to the axis of the semi-finished
product. Two paired scales constitute the datum for
mutual relative linear moves of the steadies. Concurrent
control of loads and deformations permits measurement
of run-out of the semi-finished product within the
deformation zones and determination of the sections of
initial curvature corresponding to linear dependence, of
the elastic zone of non-linear plastic deformation, and
close control of the value of absolute plastic deformation
along the semi-finished product in the areas of force
effects, throughout the technological process. Output
signals from the force transducers 21-30 and output
signals from the linear travel transducers 31-40 are
supplied to the inputs of plastic deformation control
blocks 46-50. Output signals (control signals) from blocks
46-50 are transmitted to the inputs of servos 11-20,
controlling the positions of steadies 1-20. The cycles of
operation of the control blocks are controlled by the cycle
programming block 51.
Fig. 3. Functional schematic of operation of a module of
the system of automatic control
of straightening the process (view - in Fig. 2)
To maintain stiff characteristics of the servos 11-20, the
circuit of the static regulator, containing the force
transducers 21-30, is activated in the reverse sequence.
The input signals are transmitted to the inputs of the
comparison block 52, where they are compared to the
signals from the plastic deformation force control block
53. The differential control signal from block 52 is
transmitted to the input of the linear electromechanical
transducer 54 whose output controls the main force
actuator 55 that maintains the force of straightening in the
servos 11-20. In the course of the process of
straightening, the control and diagnostics systems are
operating taking into account the revolutions of the semi-
finished product, therefore information on the rpm value
is supplied to the block of programming and registration
of controlled parameters 51. The drive system rotating the
semi-finished product 56 includes the transducer of force
sensing and recording 57, the output of which is
connected to the programming block 51, the second input
of which receives signals from the output of the rotation
speed controller 58. The dynamics of the process of
straightening is illustrated in Fig. 4 - 5.
Fig. 4. Dynamics of the process of straightening in the
axial direction: I, II, III vibration modes of the semi-
finished product (first, second and third)
Fig. 5. Functional schematic of multi-input recorder
The alignment of the concentricity of the steadies on the
lathe is realized with the use of a master. Non-linearity
tolerance does not exceed 0.01 mm/m, with minimum
permissible range of values being defined, equal to the
diameter of the master, that is determined by means of the
identical control blocks 46-50, incorporating blocks 59-
67. On the command approach, the ring steadies are
moved to the axis of rotation of the lathe. The values of
travel in backward motion are recorded in the analogue
memory block 60, and the recorded positions of the
steadies are transformed, in real time, by the transducers
recording linear movements 31-40, slaved to the scales
41-45. This permits further combined movement of the
steadies relative to the lathe axis, in perpendicular
direction, taking into account the vectors of the travel.
After defining the minimum range of backward travel of
the steadies, equal to the diameter of the master,
according to a program guaranteed by block 51, joint
travel of both steadies is realized, e.g. of steadies 5-6 of
the central module, in a direction orthogonal to the axis of
the semi-finished product, by a value that is within the
range of the linear relation of deformation to force (within
the range of Hookes Law), i.e. such that it does not cause
permanent deflection of the shaft once the load is
removed. In this case, transducers recording the
deformation forces, e.g. 25-26, register constant and
variable components of the forces of deformation. The
value of the dynamic component of the force is defined as
the minimum permissible (limit) value that permits
realization of the process of sample deformation, i.e. it is
equal to the criterion of optimisation of the process of
straightening, the stage structure of which results from the
cyclogram (Fig. 6), presented in the form of time
cyclograms of electric tensions on the outputs of the basic
functional control blocks 46-50, incorporating blocks 56-
57 (Fig. 2).
Fig. 6. Functional schematic of one of the plastic
deformation control blocks (block 74)
The process of straightening, taking place in the zones of
elastic-plastic deformation of the semi-finished product in
one of the modules, is presented in Fig. 6 (as the
geometric interpretation of the process). The initial
curvature of the semi-finished product was denoted as Y0
(value adopted in defining deflection). The value of
deflection equals Y0, but taken with the opposite sign -Y0.
The final deflection Y01 is obtained after the first cycle of
straightening, and is then adopted as the initial deflection
if a second cycle is to follow. As it is shown in Fig. 6,
curve 1-2 is an example of semi-finished product
curvature, curve 2-3 linear section of the force-
deformation relation, section 3-4 plastic deformation.
The process of straightening is continued until the value
of final deflection Y0i and that in cycle ni are lower than or
equal to the value of bending tolerance of the finished
product Y[Y].
The mode of staged activation of the modules is realized
automatically, according to a program established in the
programming block 51, and recording of controlled
parameters is performed by means of a multi-channel
recorder 74 which incorporates blocks 75-85 (Fig. 7).
The process of diagnostics of plastic deformation is
analysed on the example of operation of the central
module and one channel of the recorder. The number of
channels is equal to the number of modules. Deformation
loads, static and dynamic, are controlled at the annular
steadies, doubled by the force recording transducers, e.g.
25-26, and the linear travel of the steadies by the
transducers 35-36 relative to the measurement datum 43.
Output signals from the force transducers are fed to the
input of the comparison block 75, and their differential
signal from block 75 is transmitted to the input of the
activation block 76, which permits the steadies to operate
only with synchronous operation of the servos. If the
differential signal is equal to zero, block 70 activates the
diagnostics channel. The transducers recording linear
displacements, 35-36, operate in an analogous manner,
295
i.e. the differential signals from the comparison block 77
is supplied to the input of the second activation block 78.
The controller of quantification step Y is incorporated in
block 79 of quantification of travel values of the steadies.
Its input is connected to the output of the force actuation
block 78, and output to block 80. The other output of that
block is connected to the output of the first force block
76, where measurement is made of the change in the load
causing deformation P on section Y, through
comparison of the load values at the beginning and at the
end of that section. The output signal from block 80 is
supplied to the input of block 82 in which in accordance
with the results of measurement of P and the
quantification step Y, the value of which is transmitted
from block 73 to its other input the current bending
stiffness of the semi-finished product is determined as a
derivative of the force deforming the semi-finished
product, relative to the value of its deformation =tg=
P/Y, where - angle of incidence of the tangent to the
curve of deformation.
When the semi-finished product is deformed at a constant
rate of quantification of deformation change, Y is
equivalent to quantification after time t, therefore
P/Y=P/t. Each next value of stiffness k is compared results of heat treatment or turning, as the device permits
to the previous k value in block 83, where its maximum
value after achieving a specific value of bending of the
semi-finished product is determined. Numerical values of
P and Y are outputted by memory blocks 83 and 84 to
the display 85, where information on the values of P, P,
Y, Y, are also displayed at the same time.
Fig. 7. Geometrical interpretation of the process of
straightening, taking place within the zone of elastic-
plastic deformation of the semi-finished product
3. TESTING OF TECHNOLOGICAL
SPECIFICS OF COLD STRAIGHTENING
OF LONG AXISYMMETRICAL SEMI-
FINISHED PRODUCTS UNDER
CONDITIONS OF FUN-CTIONING OF
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
A highly important problem is the development of a
technology for the manufacture of long axisymmetrical
parts of the shaft type, i.e. the achievement of uniform
distribution of residual stresses within the whole volume
of the part. This can be attained through the development
of a fundamentally new method the method of dynamic
straightening in the zones of opposite nodes of higher
harmonic modes, beginning with the third harmonic. The
296
semi-finished product rotates and is subjected to radial
loads until the appearance of stresses in the material that
correspond to the limit of plasticity, and higher, after
which, with continued rotation, the loading is gradually
reduced to zero.
Experiments carried out confirmed the correctness of the
theoretical studies, which permitted the development and
testing of a test station equipped with an automatic
control system for cold straightening of axisymmetrical
parts, both cylindrical and with stepped diameters, with
lengths of up to 3.5 m and diameters up to 60 mm (data
from experiments performed).
The developed technology was applied to shafts of
stainless steel, used in turbo-compressor devices. The
operation of cold straightening was not the final
operation, but an operation applied to form the
longitudinal geometric accuracy after rough turning and
prior to heat treatment. Depending on the future function
of the ready product, on the required accuracy and
reliability, and on the external dynamic loads, the
operation of cold straightening can also be applied as the
final operation (finishing treatment) or as an intermediate
operation (roughing), also in cases of unsatisfactory
straightening of cylindrical as well as stepped-diameter
products.
[mm]
t [h]
Fig. 8. Measurement of shaft run-out after straightening
by bending with rotation in the zone of opposite nodes
For the verification of the technology, the shaft of
borehole pump type J-606 was applied, with diameter of
38 mm and length of 3470 mm, made of steel grade
12X18H10T, and the shaft of pump J109, with diameter
of 38 mm and length of 2241 mm, of steel grade 40.
Prior to the operation of cold straightening, a semi-
finished product with diameter of 45 mm was subjected to
turning on lathe type PB-106, equipped with an automatic
control system: rough turning to diameter of 40 mm with
accuracy up to 0.025 mm/m; at the ends of the semi-
finished product 422.5 thread was cut. The process of
machining was described in detail in references [2, 3].
Prior to the turning operation the semi-finished product
had run-out within the range of 5-7 mm on the whole
length. After the rough turning in self-centring hydraulic
steadies the run-out did not exceed 1.5 - 2 mm. For the
evaluation of straightening by bending, in the zones of
opposite nodes comparative estimation of straightening
was performed in static mode and with rotation of the
part. The results of measurements of the shafts after
straightening at zones of maximum run-out are presented
in Fig. 8. Generally, the shaft had the maximum bending
in its central part.
[mm]
N (number
of cycles)
Fig. 9. Change in shaft run-out in relation to number of
cycles of straightening with rotation of the part
The results of measurements of run-out of shafts with
different initial bend, in relation to the number of cycles
of straightening, are presented in Fig. 9. The
measurements, performed after straightening in a device
equipped with an automatic control system, demonstrate
that maximum run-out after 24 h varies within the range
of 15 to 20%. This indicates stability of shape obtained
through minimisation of non-uniformity of distribution of
residual stresses of the first order. Studies on the
spontaneous bending of parts, caused by relaxation
processes and technological heritability, showed that the
process does not depend on the initial bend of a shaft and
the coefficient of scale. Shafts with large differences in
diameter steps were straightened beginning with the
section of the largest diameter to that with the smallest
diameter. In the proposed technology of manufacturing of
shafts of stainless steel, work-hardening on the surface of
the part in the zones of maximum loading is not
significant, as the operation of cold straightening is
followed by operations of quenching and tempering with
the application of controlled axial forces.
The performance of heat treatment without preliminary
machining and straightening, even in a device whose
material has a linear thermal expansion coefficient greater
than that of the shaft material, did not produce
satisfactory results; the warping of shafts after quenching
reached the level of up to 8 mm.
The developed method of straightening while rotating the
part and bending in the zones of opposite nodes, with the
application of automatic control system, permitted the
achievement of accuracies within the range of 25 to
30 m/m, reducing the labour requirements and the
amounts of material used for manufacturing semi-finished
products. The constructed station for cold straightening
can also be applied for final accurate operations, in the
case of which operational accuracy, taking into account
relaxation processes, corresponds to the range of 0.1 0.5
m/m, e.g. as in the case of cold straightening of long
lead-screws of lathes.
4. CONCLUSION
Modal presentation of processes of control of
technological systems with scattered parameters may be
applied for the modelling and synthesis of autonomous
control systems of high quality. Control forces applied to
a semi-finished product in the process of its machining in
the zones of opposed nodes of the first three modes of
harmonic vibrations can be applied for all basic
technological processes of machining of long low-rigidity
parts.
The authors designed and constructed a special device for
cold straightening, equipped with control systems. They
also designed and verified a new technology for the
manufacturing of long parts of the shaft type, with lengths
of up to 3500 mm and diameters from 10 to 110 mm,
made of stainless machine-steels. The technology
provides for the application of all of the developed
machinery and devices. Implementation of the control of
elastic-plastic deformation in the process of machining,
and of technological methods of equipment, provided
with automatic control systems, all developed on the basis
of the new scientific principles, permitted the solution of
the problem of manufacturing of long axisymmetrical
low-rigidity parts of the shaft type. The achieved
operational accuracy falls within the range from 15 to 20
m/m, the efficiency is from 5- to 7-fold greater than the
traditional, and also the required accuracy of surface
finish is obtained.
REFERENCES
[1] DRACHEV O. I., TARANENKO V. A., WI .,
RANENKO G. V.: Development of mathematical
models of the process of cold straightening of long
low-rigidity shafts (in Russian). Prikl. mechanika.
2010.
[2] DRACHEV . I., RANENKO, G. V.,
RANENKO V. .: Experimental studies on the
stabilisation of axis of low-rigidity using self-
centring annular steadies (in Russian). HE
TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNIQUE OF
AUTOMATION. Materials of the international
science-technology conference on the 75th
anniversary of GIUA, Erevan, 13th-18th September
2008. revan: GIUA 2008, p. 57 61
[3] DRACHEV . ., RASTORGUEV D. A.,
RANENKO G.V., RANENKO V. ., WI
.: A study on the dynamic system of turning of low-
rigidity shafts (in Russian). PROGRESSIVE
TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS OF MACHINE
BUILDING: zhdunarodni sbornik nauchnikh
trudov. Donietsk: DonNTU, 2009. Issue 38, p. 83
94.
[4] DRACHEV . I., IVANOV . I.: Investigation of
problems of automatic control systems in turning (in
Russian). Identification and automation of
technological processes in industrial manufacturing.
uibyshev, PtI, 1984, p 40-43 (37)
297
[5] Cybernetics in technology. hry of automatic
control (in Russian). V 4 . Ed. Slodovnikov V.V.
.: shinostroenie, 1972, 389 s.(74)
[6] .s. 1367324 SSR, 1367324 V 23 0 15/00/. Method
of automatic control of the process of machining of
low-rigidity parts and a device for its realization (in
Russian). .I. Drachev, G.G. Palagniuk. (USR), 7
p.22)
CORRESPONDENCE
leg Ivanovich DRACHEV, Prof. PhD,
Faculty of , Togliatti State University,
12 Belorusskaia Street
445021 Tgliatti, Russia
doi05@mail.ru; O.Drachev@tltsi.ru
298
Victor TARANENKO,
Prof. PhD, D.Sc., Eng, Head of Flexible
Manufacturing Systems Department
Institute of Technological and
Information Systems
Lublin University of Technology,
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
w.taranenko@pollub.pl
Antoni WI,
PhD, D.Sc., Eng., (Assoc. Prof.),
Head of Institute of Technological
Systems of Information
Lublin University of Technology
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
a.swic@pollub.pl
Jakub SZABELSKI, M.Sc., Eng.,
Junior Research Fellow in Flexible
Manufacturing Systems Department
Institute of Technological and
Information Systems
Lublin University of Technology,
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
j.szabelski@pollub.pl
 Fig. 1. The shaft of the analyzed hydraulic turbine
(geometry and applied forces)

CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE

EVALUATION OF STRESSES AND
DEFORMATIONS FOR THE BULB
TURBINES SHAFTS
Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU
Ilare BORDEASU
Dragos Marian NOVAC

Abstract: Paper is concerned with stresses supported by a) Deep circumferential cracks

the bulb turbine shafts, which after an important running
time exhibit damages in the form of multiple cracks. The
computation results direct to the idea that the cracks are
generated through fatigue. As a result, in the paper, the
affected area was analyzed with the ANSYS and
AFGROW professional computing programs. The
resulted stresses and deformations sustain the observed
conclusions: the most loaded part is the connecting zone
between the hydraulic runner flange and the main shaft
body. Even so, the stresses level is below the accepted
threshold and the damages must result from fatigue
phenomena.
b) Cracks network

Key words: material, stresses, fatigue phenomena,

Fig. 2. Cracks in the joining zone between the runner
hydraulic bulb turbines, cracks, computing programs
flange and the main shaft body

Because the damaged part is situated in cantilever and it

1. INTRODUCTION
During turbine running, the rotating shaft is subjected to
specific static (tension, compression and torsion) and
variable (fatigue) stresses. The mentioned loadings are the
result of hydraulic forces and moments developed on the
runner blades, of runner weight (with or without oil),
Figure 1, and of unavoidable vibrations, resulting from
the moving masses unequally distributed in comparison
with the turbine symmetry axis.
Field observations, carried out especially on the Power
Plant Iron Gates II, put into evidence a critical zone (the
connection zone between the hydraulic runner flange and
the main shaft body) where appear numerous of cracks,
disposed in parallel, with a length of 1015 mm and a
depth between 0.5 and 2 mm (see Figure 2).
The careful examination of the cracks leads to the
conclusion that this situation results from the unavoidable
fatigue loading occurring during the turbine running [1].
works in a humid environment the process is accelerated.
As a result, an analytical examination from the point of
view of the Material Strength is considered necessary.
2. CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE
MATERIAL USED FOR
MANUFACTURING THE TURBINE SHAFT
The examined shafts (Figure 1) are manufactured in two
variants: the first realized by welding from components
and the second entirely forged [4]. The two components
of the first variant are realized as follows: a part is casted
(composed by the flange for coupling the shaft with the
turbine runner plus a small cylindrical section) and the
other is forged (composed by the flange for coupling with
the electric generator and a long cylindrical section
containing also the part supported by the radial-axial
bearing). The manufacturing material is the 20C steel.
The mechanical characteristics absent (tenacity, ductility

299
and the fatigue) for the 20C steel, imposed the searching mm. The realized model is presented in Figure 3. In order
of similar materials for which, those characteristics are to reduce some computing difficulties, for the model there
known. There have been found two such materials, were eliminated some peculiar shapes disposed on the
namely the 20Mn5 steel from the SR EN 10250-2 flanges and needed for the assembling work.
Standard and the American steel AISI 1022 from ASTM
Standard. In Table 2 are presented the chemical
compositions and in Table 3 the mechanical
characteristics of the mentioned steels.

Table 1. Chemical composition

Elements Chemical elements
0.16 0.22 % C
Fig. 3. Shaft 3D model
1.00 1.30 Mn
0.60 0.80% Si The 3D geometry of the shaft was imported in the FEM
20C 0.30% Cr program ANSYS v. 11 [3]. The computational grid is
0.30% Ni presented in Figure 4. The model contains 177344
0.30% Cu tetrahedral elements connected with 290848 nodes. In the
0.03% S neighborhood of the flange the mesh was refined (the
0.03% P magnitude of the elements was taken of 20 mm) in order
0.17 0.23% C to obtain a better evidence of the stresses concentration,
1.00 1.50 % Mn see Figure 5.
0.40% Si
20Mn5 0.40% Cr
EN 10250-2 0.40% Ni
0.10% Mo
0.035% S
0.035% P
0.17 0.23% C
AISI 1022 0.70 1.00 Mn
ASTM 0.05% S
0.04% P

Table 2. Mechanical characteristics Fig. 4. Shaft computational grid

c r E
Characteristic
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [-]
20C 255.05 470.88 - -
20Mn5
250 490 - -
EN 10250-2
AISI 1020
262 440 207000 0.3
ASTM

We must mention that the AISI 1020 steel is inferior in

comparison with 20MnC because it has fewer alloying
elements and is not dead-melted. Nevertheless, we
consider that AISI 1020 steel has equivalent mechanical
characteristics and can be used for the fatigue studies.

3. COMPUTATION OF NOMINAL
EQUIVALENT STRESS AND THE
DISTRIBUTIONS OF STRESSES AND
DEFORMATIONS
3.1. Geometric model
The 3D geometric modeling of the shaft was done with
the help of the program INVENTOR, taking into
consideration both the assembly and manufacturing
drawings. The span dimensions of the shaft are: length
7572 mm and maximum diameter 2300 mm. Between the
flanges, the shaft has a ring shaped cross section with
1200 mm the external diameter and an internal one of 600
Fig. 5. Shaft computational grid detail near the stress
concentration zone
3.2. Analytical computation of the nominal
equivalent stress
The shaft loading (presented in the Figure 1) are: the
weight of the runner, the maximum axial force at the
greatest flow capacity and the moment of torsion.
- The weight of the hydraulic turbine runner, inclusive
the oil for driving the runner servo-engine is:
Gtot = g(mrot + oilVoil ) = 9.8 ( 99.6 10 3 + 4.5 900 ) = (1)
= 1015770 N

300
Where:  The von Mises equivalent stress is expressed by the
mrot - is the runner mass the 5th Strenth Material theory, in which the most
Voil is the oil volume important factor in the failure is the specific energy,
ooil is the oil density which modifies the form [2]:

[ ]
The total produced bending moment is Mi = Gtot L, whith 1
L = 1650 + 375 = 2025 mm the distance from the load ech = ( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 (9)
center till the connection zone between the flange and the 2
shaft body. Where 1, 2, 3 represents the principal stresses. The
-The maximum axial force at the maximum flow capacity equivalent stress is a boundary state and is used to express
the resistance condition in the following way:
Fax, max = 5650000 N (2) ech a (10)
-The moment of torsion is computed for the power P = where a is the allowable working stress.
32,5 MW and the shaft rotation speed n = 62,5 rot/min: For steels, the allowable working stress is taken, in
P general, to be 150 MPa [2], which in our case, assure the
M t = 9.55 10 6 = 4.966 10 9 N.mm (3)
n following safety factor with regard to the yield limit of
As it can be seen in Figure 1, the shaft is supported by the material:
two cylindrical bearings. In the bearing number 1 all 260
c= c = = 1,733 (11)
displacements (in the radial and axial direction) are a 150
suppressed and in the bearing 2 there are suppressed only The results of the FEM computations are presented in the
the radial displacements. pictures: Figure 6 the total deformation, Figure 7 the
Taking into account the loadings computed with the deformation over the axial direction (uz), Figure 8 and 9
relations (1), (2) and (3), for the hydraulic turbine shaft, the deformations in the radial directions (ux and uy).
with a ring cross section and having the external diameter Figure 10 present the von Mises equivalent stress ech.
De=1200 mm and the internal one Di=600 mm
(=Di/De=0.5), result the following stresses:
- the normal stress produced by tension loading
Fax ,max
t = = 6.66 MPa (4)
( De2 Di2 )
4
- the maximum normal stress from the bending loading
Mi
i ,max = = 12.93 MPa (5)
De ( 1 4 )
3

32
- the maximum tangential stress produced by torsion
Fig. 6. Total deformation
loading
Mt
max = = 15.61 MPa (6)
De ( 1 4 )
3

16
In the connection zone flange-shaft, after the 5th Strength
Material theory, the maximum equivalent stress, became:

ech ,nom = ( t + i ,max )2 + 3 max

2
= 33.38 (7)

The nominal equivalent stress obtained in this way is used

for the determination of theMPa theoretical concentration
coefficient of the stresses in the connection zone, with the
relation:
Fig. 7. Directional deformation (z-axis)

kt = ech ,max (8)
ech ,nom
where ech,max is obtained with FEM using the program
ANSYS v.11.

3.3. Determination of the stress and deformation

state
 During the FEM analyze there were determined both
the deformation state (total deformation and
deformations over the directions X, Y i Z) and the
stress state (normal stresses x, y, z, the maximum
stress max and the von Mises equivalent stress ech). Fig. 8. Directional deformation (x axis)

301
 2. We appreciate that the outcome of cracks is the result
of fatigue phenomenon determined in principal by the
load fluctuation and the concentration coefficient (the
FEM computation give in this zone a concentration
factor of about 3.17). The existence of corrosion in
this zone intensifies the fatigue processes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The present work has been supported from the National
University Research Council Grant (CNCSIS) PNII, ID
34/77/2007 (Models Development for the Evaluation of
Materials Behavior to Cavitation), and Nr. RU
177/10.10.2008, BC 146/13.10.2008 (Analyze regarding
Fig. 9. Directional deformation (y-axis)
the reliability of the bulb turbines)

REFERENCES

[1] BORDEASU, I., POPOVICIU, M, O., NOVAC,

D,M., Fatigue Studies upon Horizontal Hydraulic
Turbines Shafts and Estimation of Crack Initiation,
Machine Design 2009, Monograpf University of
Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 2009,
pp.183-186
[2] DUMITRU, I, MARSAVINA, L., Introducere n
Mecanica ruperii, Ed. Mirton, Timioara, 2001.
[3] HARTNER, J. A., AFGROW users guide and
technical manual, Wright-Patterson Air Force
BASE, Ohio, 2008
[4] ***, Analiz privind soluia de fiabilizare a arborelui
turbinelor aplicat cu ocazia retehnologizrii
hidroagregatelor din CHE Porile de Fier II.
Propuneri de metodologie de urmrire n timp a
Fig. 10. Equivalent Von Mises stress near the stress strii arborilor turbinelor din CHE Porile de Fier II
concentration zone i CHE Gogosu, Contract nr. BC 146/13.10.2008

The presented results indicate a certain stress

concentration in the connection zone between the flange CORRESPONDENCE
and the shaft, Figure 11. The maximum equivalent stress
value is 105.98 MPa and is smaller than the allowable Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU,
stress (150 Mpa). From the point of view of Material Full member of the Academy of
Strength, we can consider that the design is adequate. The Romanian Scientists
stress concentration coefficient determined for the Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1,
equivalent stress is: 300222, Timisoara, Romania
mpopoviciu@gmail.com
ech ,max 105 ,98
kt = = = 3,17 (12)
ech ,nom 33,38
Ilare BORDEASU, Prof. Dr. Eng.
Therefore, the cracks occur because of the fatigue Politehnica University of Timisoara,
phenomenon, determined by time fluctuation of the stress. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1,
300222, Timisoara, Romania
4. CONCLUSIONS
ilarica59@gmail.com,
1. From the stress state computation, results the ilarica59@mec.upt.ro,
existence of a stress concentration in the connection
zone between the turbine flange and the main shaft
Drago Marian NOVAC,
body (Figure 11). The maximum value of the
Eng.Deputy Technical Director
equivalent stress (105.98 MPa) is smaller than the
Hidroelectrica Iron Gates
allowable working stress (150 MPa) and the yield
Str. I.G.Bibicescu Nr.2, 220103
stress (255.5 MPa for 20 C and 262 for AISI 1020
Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Romania
ASTM). From the Strength of Material point of view
dragos.novac@hidroelectrica.ro
the design of shaft is adequate.

302
 plates pressed against each other by means of four
hydraulic cylinders. This arrangement is advantageous
due to the fact that it is a closed system and no reactive
force is transferred outside this system. The bearing is
placed between these two plates and attached onto the
clutch of an electromotor with gear which provides the
bearing movement.

SERVICE LIFE TESTING OF LARGE

SCALE BEARINGS
Slavomr HREK
Rbert KOHR

Abstract: This article details the design of an apparatus

used in service life testing of large-scale rolling bearings
on Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at University of
ilina. It describes individual steps in the design process,
used parts and methods employed throughout the design
process. One chapter is devoted to measurement
techniques used in service life testing and deals in more
detail with measurement methods and evaluation of
vibrations.
Key words: rating life, basic dynamic carrying-capacity,
vibration monitoring, high frequency detection
Fig. 1. Basic idea behind the design of the testing
apparatus
The lower plate has a square profile with a width of 140
mm. The bottom part contains the electromotor with gear,
the four hydraulic cylinders are placed in the corners and
the upper part contains the fastening accessories for the
tested bearing.

1. DESIGN OF TESTING APPARATUS

The proposed testing apparatus was designed to carry out

service life testing of large-scale bearings with a
maximum outer diameter of 1300 mm. The goal was to
design a testing apparatus which would evaluate rating
life Lhv and basic dynamic carrying-capacity Cr in a
relatively short time frame (approx. 3 months). The
proposed testing apparatus must comply with certain
criteria (basic dynamic carrying-capacity Cr, rating life Li
106 revolutions, revolutions in the range of 20 40 per
minute, axial loading of the said bearings and a maximum
test time of 3 - 4 months) in order to correctly evaluate
the mentioned parameters.
Fig. 2. Lower plate with additive rings
2. CONSTRUCTION OF TESTING
APPARATUS Strength analysis in CAE system Ansys/Workbench
showed that the base plate ends would bend under the
The testing apparatus was designed to test large-scale force exerted by the hydraulic cylinders. To overcome
rolling bearings, allowing simultaneous testing of two, this problem, ring-shaped stiffeners were placed near the
single-row bearings or one, double-row bearing with hydraulic cylinders, which were then welded to the
outer ring diameter of 600 to 1300 mm. The maximum bottom part of the plate, lowering the total deformation to
axial loading force is 4000 kN. Shaft rotation frequency is an acceptable level.
between 20 - 40 min-1. Under these conditions it is The diameters of the cylinders were optimized thanks to
possible to run service-life tests of the said bearing in the interconnection between Pro/ENGINEER and
3000 hours. Ansys/Workbench, defining optimization with the main
The basic idea behind the design of the testing apparatus goal of finding acceptable strain levels by means of
was to place the tested bearing (bearings) between two variation of the diameter of the additive rings.

303

Fig. 3. Strength analysis of the lower plate
The upper plate was originally designed as massive
weldment of the plate and four cross-placed ribs,
containing openings to place pivots through the eyes of
hydraulic cylinders. However, from a technological point
of view, this concept was disadvantageous because of the
complexity when welding the upper plate and the
resulting finishing of the functional areas would be
uneconomical in view of the budget allocated for the
testing apparatus.
Fig. 4. Upper plate as the assembly mounted
To this end, the construction of the upper place was
modified and an assembly system was used. This change
required modification of the plate, which was also
optimized in Ansys/Workbench using the finite elements
method with criterion of allowable strain.
Fig. 5. Strength analysis of the upper plate
Because of time restrictions and the loading method used,
the testing apparatus was designed in such a way so as to
304
allow the concurrent testing of two single-row bearings of
the same type oriented against each other, or one double-
row bearing. A fastening apparatus was designed to place
the bearings into the testing apparatus. The inner rings of
bearing were fitted to the central shaft, which was
connected to the output axle of the gear via a clutch with
involute splining. This arrangement allowed for the
shifting of the axle with inner rings in the axial direction.
This shift is caused by the pressing of tested bearings in
the axial direction. The outer rings of the bearings are
placed in two rings which contain temperature and
vibration sensors and the output sensor data were used in
the evaluation of the bearing life-time.
Fig. 6. Testing bearings with the fastening apparatus
The testing apparatus was designed in CAD system PTC
Pro/ENGINEER and stress load calculations were
performed in Ansys/Workbench. Management of all data
was assured by a PDM system Pro/INTRALINK.
Fig. 7. Assembly drawing of the testing apparatus
The hydraulic aggregate, which is a part of the testing
apparatus, consists of a pressure unit, regulating pressure
in hydraulic valves which in turn exert axial force onto
the tested bearings. A separate circuit assures bearing
lubrication during the whole duration of the service life
test. The cooling circuit and an external radiator are
activated once the oil temperature exceeds a certain limit.
All components of the hydraulic aggregate are controlled
via a PLC controller.

Fig. 8. Hydraulic aggregate
3. TESTING APPARATUS
CONTROL/AUTOMATION
The testing apparatus is equipped with a control unit to
assure automated and autonomous functioning without
the need for human intervention. In our case, a Siemens
S7-CPU224XP PLC controller was used, along with
digital and analogue I/O expansion modules (EM223 and
EM235, respectively). Based on various input signals, the
PLC controller operates action units or signaling
components. The outputs are then switched according to
pre-programmed sequences to assure correct function of
the testing apparatus.
The PLC controller ensures a controlled switching of
individual electric tractions, such as main electromotor
startup via a frequency transducer (with direct torque
control - DTC), which assures the rotation of evaluated
bearings and associated tractions on the hydraulic
aggregate (pressure-force circuit, lubricating circuits,
cooling circuit). Another use of PLC controller is to
control electric parts of the testing apparatus and to
terminate the test process in case critical values are
exceeded.
Fig. 9. PLC controller with switching and protecting units
In order to allow for a service-free and continuous, 24
hour functioning of the testing apparatus, certain criteria
and operational boundaries were formulated. These can be
divided into two groups. The first group consists of
switching unit control, control of electric tractions
(including those on the hydraulic aggregate), control of
communication with the datalogger, control of PC-
database connection, etc. The second group consists of
variables which monitor/evaluate directly the condition of
tested bearings. These include monitoring of RPMs,
pressure in hydraulic cylinders, temperature of lubricating
oil, magnitude of vibrations, etc. (see next paragraph for
more information regarding this subject). All monitored
variables have alert and critical limits, of which the latter
terminate the testing process.
4. DATALOGGER
A device was needed to process and store signals from the
transducers monitoring various quantities in order to
evaluate the condition of the evaluated bearing. A
commercial datalogger equipped with a DSP controller
and USB interface (for communication with a PC) was
used. The device also includes analogue inputs which can
be setup for a variety of input voltage or current ranges.
Also present are digital inputs and outputs, which are also
used for communication with the PLC automat, allowing
for the termination of the test process once critical limits
are reached.
Fig. 10. Datalogger (right) and SKF TMU monitoring
unit (left)
The datalogger processes signals from transducers, which
measure RPMs of the bearing inner circle, pressure in
hydraulic valves, temperature of outer area of outer
bearing circle, input and output temperature of lubricating
oil, environmental temperature and vibrations (for more
details see end of paragraph). The datalogger was
designed universally, which also allows for evaluation of
signals from transducers of other quantities. All measured
quantities are recorded in a MySQL database. The role of
this database is not only to archive acquired data but also
to calculate certain other parameters such as force due to
pressure of hydraulic valves, the total number of
revolutions for the duration of the life test, attained
dynamic load and durability. It is also possible to specify
the recording interval (between 10 seconds up to 2
minutes), which in turn poses certain hardware
requirements on the storage system.
In order to facilitate access to the database, a html-based
web interface was created. Upon verification of the user,
it is possible to monitor saved data in either table or graph
format for the whole duration of the test process or for a
specified time period.
305

Fig. 11. Web interface allowing data assessment
During service life testing, but also in some real-life
scenarios (such as paper machines, axle bearings on the
railway carriage, etc.), it is important to monitor the
bearing temperature. In case of insufficient or improper
lubrication or in case of damaged bearings, excess
temperature is generated due to additional stress, which
will be evaluated as temperature rise on the appropriate
sensor affixed to the bearing. Thus, temperature is a very
important quantity to monitor and record in the databse
using the datalogger. Temperature is measured on the
outer area of the outer bearing circle (due to testing
methodology restrictions - it is impossible to place the
sensor within the bearing without mechanical damage to
the bearing) using a temperature sensor. Larger bearings
can exhibit thermal lag, which will cause temperature rise
detection delays on the outer area of the outer bearing ring.
Proper lubrication and cooling of bearings is necessary
for proper functioning. For this reason a separate
lubricating circuit is utilized. Input and output lubricating
oil temperatures are monitored and recorded in the
database. By monitoring the output oil temperature it is
possible to detect elevated temperature within the tested
bearing (due to additional friction, seizing of rolling
element, cage damage, etc.) before this temperature is
detected on the outer diameter of the bearing circle
surface.
Fig. 12. Trend plot of bearing temperatures, input and
output oil temperatures (C)
Vibrations are also detected and recorded (see chapter 5
for more details). Total vibrations are used for monitoring
and evaluating the overall dynamic state of the testing
apparatus. Vibrations are detected using accelerometers,
which are based on deformation of piezoelectric crystals
located within the sensor itself. Deformation of the crystal
generates an electric signal directly proportional to the
306
measured acceleration. The obtained signal is then fed to
on-line monitoring converter (SKF CMSS 530), is filtered,
integrated and output as analogue quantity of speed
[mm/s] in RMS or peak values. RMS speed is recorded in
the database using a datalogger, with values set for alert
and termination of the testing procedure.
Fig. 13. Trend plot of overall vibrations (mm/s)
5. SKF MONITORING
It is possible to evaluate the overall dynamic state of the
device by monitoring the total vibrations. However it is
not possible to determine which anomaly causes a
specific state. For this reason, an independent device
(manufactured by SKF TMU CMMA 7720) was used to
monitor the bearing (and device) state. This device is
capable of evaluating various vibration types based on
data acquired from accelerometers. These are then
recorded in an independent database and evaluated via
SKF Optitude Analyst. The mentioned software suite
allows review of recorded data, monitor bearing state
trend, evaluate vibrations at various time points, spectral
analysis using FFT, set alarms for individual vibration
sensors, etc.
Fig. 14. SKF Optitude Analyst - user interface
The following bearing vibration measurement types were
defined using the SKF TMU measurement unit:
5.1. Total vibrations monitoring
Total vibrations represent the total vibration energy
within a certain frequency range. We can obtain
information about the current state by measuring total
vibrations of the whole machine or individual parts (for
example rotor with respect to the machine or machine
construction) and comparing them to normal values.
Abnormal operation can be detected if normal values are
exceed.
Total vibrations can be used to evaluate low-frequency
dynamic states, such as unbalance, abaxiality, mechanical
clearance gap, construction resonance, insufficient base
stability, shaft deformations, excess wear or broken rotor
plates.
Evaluation of total vibrations was designed in a certain
frequency range so as to allow evaluation of higher
harmonic frequencies. The SKF TMU unit calculates
RMS speed [mm/s] by integrating the signal obtained
from accelerometers. The overall value allows for
dynamic monitoring of the whole device. The SKF
Optitude Analyst software suite allows spectral analysis
using previously recorded values of velocity, diving the
signal into various amplitudes representing individual
frequency components. FFT spectra contain information
which can help localize malfunctions, identify their cause
and using trends predict time until critical state is reached.
RMS speed is used for overall vibration evaluation due to
the fact that for identical generated dynamic motion the
speed is constant, independent of frequency.
Fig. 15. Spectrum plot of overall vibrations (mm/s)
5.2. High frequency detection (HFD)
High Frequency Detection method is capable of early
detection of bearing defects. This method outputs the total
value of vibrations generated in the high frequency range
(5 kHz - 60 kHz) due to small defects.
Accelerometers are used in high frequency measurements
and values are recorded in g. HFD measurements can be
done in either peak or RMS modes. It is common practice
to measure both RMS and peak values which are then
compared (Peak/RMS ratio) and trends bearing state
development.
Fig. 16. Trend plot - High Frequency Detection
(Peak/RMS ratio)
5.3. Envelope method
This method is used to filter low-frequency vibration
signals associated with motor rotations and amplify
signals produced due to bearing faults, which can be
observed in specific signal ranges. Enveloping is used
most commonly in rolling bearings and in analysis of cog
wheel engagement, where low amplitudes of repeated
vibration signals can be overlapped by vibration noise
coming from motor rotations and construction.
Movement of rolling elements over the defect area
generates a small, periodic signal with a frequency
equivalent to the bearing defect type. However, the
mentioned vibration signal energy is very low and is lost
when overall vibrations are measured. In order to focus
on these specific, periodic signals in frequency ranges
typical for bearing defects, enveloping is used to filter out
low frequency signals and amplify periodic pulsed signals.
Real-life applications have shown that this method is
a viable indicator of general machine faults.
For the purpose of evaluating the service life of bearings,
two envelopes were used. This was necessary because the
rotation frequency is too low and the detected defect
frequencies could be erroneously filtered using this
method. Filter type 3 was used for slow processes (500Hz
- 10kHz), while filter type 2 was used for frequencies
50Hz - 1kHz.
Figures 17. and 18. show the spectral analysis of
vibrations after applying envelope type 2 and 3 filters.
Notable differences in amplitudes are visible in the
frequency range of 0 10 Hz.
Fig. 17. Spectrum plot of envelope with applied
filter type 3
Fig. 18. Spectrum plot of envelope with applied
filter type 2
Bearing defect frequencies can be calculated based on
individual bearing geometries and can indicate whether
the defect is present on the outer or inner track, rolling
elements or due to cage damage. Based on these
frequencies it is possible to identify the defect on the
bearing via spectral analysis of measured vibrations.
Successful identification of the defect type, location and
magnitude thereof depends strongly on the number of
vibration types that are measured, recorded and evaluated.
To this end, multi-parametric vibration monitoring was
implemented in the proposed large-scale bearing testing
apparatus.
307

Fig. 19. Spectrum waterfall plot of envelope
6. SPM MONITORING
The shock pulse method is a patented technique used for
evaluation of signals originating from rotating rolling
bearings and is crucial to effective monitoring of machine
conditions.
Fig. 20. SPM - Bearing monitoring (principle)
SPM is based on a shock transducer operating at 32 kHz,
which produces large oscillation amplitudes via weak
pulses originating from bearing defects. Machine
vibrations of substantially lower frequencies are filtered.
Pulse signals are expressed in the decibel scale using
a microprocessor which processes input signals from
sensors. This measurement method monitors not only
bearing defects but also problems associated with
lubrication.
Fig. 21. Shock Pulse Method (SPM) monitoring
308
By using the mentioned measurement method it was
possible to enhance the overall safety of the continuous
testing process, as one of the monitored stop parameters is
based on SPM sensor outputs.
7. CONCLUSION
An apparatus for service life testing of large-scale rolling
bearings was designed and constructed at the University
of Zilina. Bearings are evaluated based on numerous
monitored quantities. The whole bearing testing process
takes advantage of various modern technologies, such as
those manufactured by SKF and SMP Instrument.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and
Development Agency under the contract no. APVV-0505-
07.
This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency
of the Ministry of Education of Slovak Republic and the
Slovak Academy of Sciences under the contract no. V-10-
034-00 and V-10-036-00.
REFERENCES:
[1] http://www.skf.com
[2] http://www.spminstrument.com/methods/spm/
CORRESPONDENCE
Ing. Slavomr HREK, PhD.
Dept. of Design and Machine Elements
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of ilina
Univerzitn 1
010 26 ilina, Slovak Republic
slavomir.hrcek@fstroj.uniza.sk
Ing. Rbert KOHR, PhD.
Dept. of Design and Machine Elements
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of ilina
Univerzitn 1
010 26 ilina, Slovak Republic
robert.kohar@fstroj.uniza.sk

INTERLAMINAR STRENGTH-TESTS OF
THE SURFACE LAYER BUILT UP WITH
COLD METAL SPRAYING METHODS
DURING RENEWALS
Lajos FAZEKAS
Zsolt TIBA
Abstract: According to both the previous examinations
and the technical literature, the value of the interlaminar
strength of the thermal sprayed layers is lower in cases
when no subsequent heat is applied, because when
applying subsequent heat, there is a diffusion link with
significant strength.
Key words: Thermal spraying, normal interlaminar
strength, shear interlaminar strength
1. INTRODUCTION
The value of the interlaminar strength depends on the
basic component, the sprayed material, the spraying
technology and the circumstances of the tests. We can
measure the component of the stress arising from external
load. During the tests, we aim to superimpose normal or
shear stress to the surface boundary residual stresses, until
peeling-off.
The applied powders:
 DuroTec 19910 tough and hard layer for dynamic
loadability
 HardTec 19400 hard layer, protection against
abrasional effects
 LubroTec 19985 particular sliding requirements
The content of the powders is crucial. Usually the main
components of the metal powders are the following: Ni,
Cr, C, B, Si, Fe, Co, W and the carbides of these
elements.
The main variable of the experimental systems is the
spraying distance. The recommended spraying distance is
180 mm, however it can differ by 40% in both positive
and negative directions (260 mm; 110mm). There are
further spraying distances between the extremities that
can be applied: 140 mm, and 220 mm.
2. NORMAL INTERLAMINAR STRENGTH
Normal direction apllies to the external load. The methods
introduced in the relevant technical literatures all consider
stress, arising from external loading, causing pealing-off,
as interlaminar strength.
F
R =
A
where : R = normal interlaminar strength (MPa)
F = force, operating perpendicularly to the surface (N)
A = size of the surface to be peeled off (mm2).
For carrying out tests we chose the method offered by E.
Ndasdi (1971) (figure 1).
Fig. 1. Test equipment for determining the normal
interlaminar strength
The test equipment is made of BC3, the sprayed layers
were mixed from the three previously mentioned powder
types. The roughening of the surfaces before spraying and
the machining of the sprayed surfaces after spraying were
carried out by grinding.
The thickness of the sprayed layers during the
measuring of the normal interlaminar stress:
- XUPER ULTRA BOND 51000 subcoating powder, 0.2
mm thickness
- Spraying 1,5 mm of type HardTec 19400, LubroTec
19985 and DuroTec 19910 powder alloys when
measuring the normal interlaminar strength.
The experiment results of the normal interlaminar
strength measurements can be seen on figure 2. The
measuring points are the averages of 5 test equipments
measure results. The 2 = 4 range of scatter represents
a 95 percentage occurrence probability.
309
 FC
RC =
A
where R = the shear interlaminar strength (MPa)
F = the load acting parallel to the boundary surface of
the sprayed layer (N)
A = the size of the surface to be peeled off (mm2)

-XUPER ULTRA BOND 51000 subcoating powder,

0.2 mm thickness
-Spraying 2 mm of type HardTec 19400, LubroTec
19985 and DuroTec 19910 powder alloys when
measuring the shear interlaminar strength.
Similarly to the normal interlaminar strength measures, I
indicate the average of the 5 test equipment results, and
the 2 = 4 range of scatter representing a 95
percentage occurrence probability.

Fig. 2. Results of normal interlaminar strength measures

When comparing the 3 metal powder alloys, the

following statements can be made:

 The alloys HardTec 19400 and LubroTec 19985 have

almost the same normal interlaminar strength in the
suggested spraying intervals.
 The somewhat lower normal interlaminar strength
values of DuroTec 19910 metal powder alloy results
from the fact, that the diffusive effect of silicon and
boron, added to its main components (C, Ni, Cr, Fe),
appears only marginally in the case of cold metal
spraying technologies. Fig. 3. METCOs test equipment and blade for
determining shear interlaminar strength
3. DETERMINING SHEAR INTERLAMINAR
STRENGTH During the shearing process, the blade left no scar on the
surface of the test equipment, the sprayed layer peeled off
When determining shear interlaminar strength the external in on piece in the form of a 2 mm thick ring, the shearing
loading is taken into account. took place in the subcoating layer.

310
 Table 1 summarizes the most important results of the
bounding strength measurements

Table 1. Measuring results

Shear bounding strength
Normal bounding
MPa
strength MPa R
R
R /
Powder Recomme Recommen R
alloy nded ded quotie
Maximum Maximum
spraying spraying nt
value, value,
distance, distance,
MPa MPa
mm mm

DuroTec
9 130 - 180 40 160 - 180 4,4
19910

HardTec
14 - 15 140 - 160 50 150 - 190 3,4
19400

LubroTec
14 - 15 180 - 220 60 180 - 200 4
19985
Typical
deviation
60% 81% 66% 90% 85%
in perc.

4. CONCLUSION

1. The result of Ndasdys normal bounding strength

Fig. 4. Results of the shear bounding strength
measurements
When comparing the measured strength values, the
following statements can be made:
 LubroTec 19985 powder alloy provided the highest
shear bounding strength in the spraying range of 180-
200 mm. In this case the value of strength approached
the value of 60MPa, with a relative scatter of 3-5%.
 HardTec 19400 powder alloys provided shear
bounding strength of about 50MPa, when the most
advisable spraying distance is between 150-190 mm.
In this case the relative scatter of the measured values
is 3-5%.
 DuroTec 19910 metal powder alloy provided a value
of about 40MPa shear bounding strength. This can be
maintained in the spraying distance range of 160-180
mm, which occurs along with advantageous relative
scatters (4-5%).
measuring method is influenced by the spraying
distance, to different degrees and with different
features in the case of the individual powder alloys.
2. From the results of the METCO shear bounding
strength measuring process, it can be ascertained, that
spraying distance influences the shear bounding
process to different degrees in the case of the three
powder alloys, however this influencing effect is not
the same as the trend of normal bounding strength
measurements.
3. Comparing the strength results of the three powder
alloys, we can ascertain that the lower shear bounding
strength results measured in the case of the DuroTec
layer similarly to the normal strength results prove
that the diffusive effect of silicon and boron - added to
the main components that determine the features of
the powder alloys (C, Ni, Cr, Fe) does not, or only
marginally influences the results of measurements. It
was proved by the measurement results that in the
case of cold metal spraying this diffusive ability is
highly affected and limited by the material and
technological system, the alloy structure and the
spraying procedure.
REFERENCES
[1] MOLNR, A: Termikus szrs. Miskolci Egyetem.
Oktatsi segdlet. 2002
[2] FARKAS, L. (1984): Fmszrs alkalmazsi
lehetsgei az ptipari gpalkatrszek feljtsakor.
Szakmrnki diplomaterv, Budapest, 1984.
[3] OLH, I. (1977): Gpjrmjavts technolgia I.
Tanknyvkiad, Budapest, 1977.
[4] NDASI, E. (1971): A fmszrs korszer
mdszerei. Mszaki Knyvkiad, Budapest, 1971.

311
[5] MOLNR, A.: A termikus szrs eljrsai Egyetemi CORRESPONDENCE
elads Miskolci Egyetem Gpszmrnki kar 2003.
[6] HERMANEK, F.J.: Thermal Spray Terminology and
Lajos FAZEKAS, Assoc. Prof.
Company Origins, First Printing 2001, ASM
University of Debrecen
International, Materials Park OHIO USA
Faculty of Engineering
[7] DIN EN 657: 2005-05 Termiches Spritzen - Begriffe,
2-4 temet str. 4028
Einteilung; Deutsche Fassung EN 657:2005
Debrecen, Hungary
[8] MOLNR, A.: A termikus szrs alkalmazsa s
fazekas@mk.unideb.hu
annak elnyei Egyetemi elads Miskolci Egyetem
Gpszmrnki kar 2003.
Zsolt, TIBA, Prof.
University of Debrecen
Faculty of Engineering
2-4 temet str. 4028
Debrecen, Hungary
tiba@mk.unideb.hu

312

SIMULATION OF THE SOLIDIFICATION
FRONT AT THE CONTINUOUS CAST
HALF-FINISHED PRODUCT (WITH 3%
ADDITION OF MICRO-COOLERS
IN CRYSTALLIZER)
Erika Monika POPA
Vasile ALEXA
Abstract: In this paper is presented simulation
solidification model of steel continuous casting, using
finite element model. For this is considered a section in
mould-continuous casting system. This section is divided
with discreet element structure. Using these experiments is
made graphical dependents of temperature in some
different point from surface crust to center of half-product,
and also solidification speed for S235 (OL37) steel.
Primordial method for the decrease of the superheat of the
steel of the in of the crystallizer, consist in the introduction
of consumable micro-coolers, which can be exterior or
internal.
The mathematical molding of the solidification and
cooling phenomenon of continuously cast half-products,
presented the in afterwards, is based on the mathematical
description of phenomenon. This solution problem is,
practically, the heat solving equation in of non-steady
regime. For defined the heat conduction between half-
product and crystallizer is necessary the cognition of
initial conditions, the variation law of the heat flux
between half-product crystallizer and the heat flux
between crystallizer cooling water..
Keywords: continuous casting, steel, solidification,
micro-coolers addition, experiments, simulations,
graphical addenda
1. INTRODUCTION
The main task of the continuous cast is improved of
continuous cast steel quality. In order to assured the
solidification conditions imposed by the steel chemical
composition must be synchronize a numerous
technological factors, the most important be the steel
chemical composition, the casting temperature and speed
of drawing.
Primordial method for the decrease of the superheat of the
steel of the in of the crystallizer, consist in the
introduction of consumable micro-coolers, which can be
exterior or internal. The exterior micro-coolers can be
prepared out of the system and entered the crystallizer,
and the internal micro-coolers are constituted from steels
crusts, immediate format in the core of the half-products,
on the water cooled surfaces. The outside micro-coolers
can be entered in the liquid steel below different forms:
small shots, granules or particles, draw-bars, wire, tube,
etc. The addition of micro-coolers in crystallizer drives to
the growth of the zone of the echi-axial crystals, diminish
the degree of superheat and reduce the axial porosity.
The mathematical molding of the solidification and
cooling phenomenon of continuously cast half-products,
presented the in afterwards, is based on the mathematical
description of phenomenon. This solution problem is,
practically, the heat solving equation in of non-steady
regime. For defined the heat conduction between half-
product and crystallizer is necessary the cognition of
initial conditions, the variation law of the heat flux
between half-product crystallizer and the heat flux
between crystallizer cooling water. Some conditions are
can easy schematized, other only that drive to systems of
which equations can be solved on analytic path.
2. THE PROGRAMM
The computer program is written in C++ and works under
Win32 (i.e. Windows 95, 98, Me, NT4, 2000, XP with
Intel processor). For the graphic interface, the program
uses MFC (Microsoft Foundation Classes), a class library
that encloses the functional character of the standard
programming interface Windows API Application
Program Interface. The 3D graphs are realized with the
Windows implementation of OpenGL specification (Open
Graphics Library).
For implementation of an algorithm of the above
described model we need the fallowing initial data:
ambient temperature, casting temperature, initial
temperature of the crystallizer, number of nodes from
half-finished product and from crystallizer with respect to
both axes, values of thermal conductibility for steel and
cupper function of temperature, values of enthalpy for
steel and copper function of temperature. In case of steel
this functional dependence need to include fusion latent
heat; tapping condition of half-finished product from
equipment; stopping condition of the algorithm. This
could be: manual stopping, after a given time period, at a
specified minimum, average, or maximum temperature of
the half-finished product, maximum variation of enthalpy
at an iteration.
The simulation is realized for a half-finished product
(270 mm) made of steel OL37-2K, according to the SR
EN 10025 standard. The data are: the ambient
temperature 20C, the casting temperature 1550C, the
convection constant K = 15.
Fig. 1. The main window of the program
313
The simulation of the continuously cast half-products is
effectuated in the case of 3% consumable micro-coolers
introduced in crystallizer. The simulation is effectuated
just for the primary and secondary cooling and not for the
entire line of cast installation. Thus is explained the great
values of the temperature of steel in the interior of the
half-products (the middle layers) but which we diminish
the feather below the value of the temperature solidus up
to the moment which in the half-product is uttered.
With the number of knots of digitization is major (both
the crystallizer and the half-product) and the maximum
the variation of in an enthalpy in single iteration is less, Fig. 5. The dialog window at 15s (simulated time)
the real time of simulation is major. The run of the
program can be interrupted all moments, but with the
mention as be start from same moment of time but must
run the program from beginning. For illustrate the
operation of the program, we accomplished captures of
the screen to different moments of times, from which can
obtain some information concerning the temperatures in
the cast equipment, the real and simulated times.

3. THE SIMULATION RESULTS

The temperatures are indicated by the mean of a colored Fig. 6. The dialog window at 21s (simulated time)
gradient, having the values: red for casting temperature,
blue for ambient temperature and green for their average.
Any intermediary temperature is a combination of these.

Fig. 7. The dialog window at 25s (simulated time)

A first obtained dependence is represented by temperature
Fig. 2. The dialog window at 1s (simulated time) variation of the half-finished product function of time
(at the moment of the micro-coolers introduces) (figure 2). The distribution of the discredited points is also
presented.

Fig. 3. The dialog window at 3s (simulated time)

Fig. 8. Temperature variation function of time (10%,

Fig. 4. The dialog window at 5s (simulated time)
25%, 50% and 100% from the cast line)
At a time moment, when it took place the driving out of
considered surface from crystallizer, it took place an
increasing of temperature in the superior layers of the
half-finished product (with approximately 100C in the
exterior and with 3550C in different points of the
surface).

314
This increasing of the temperature is due to the lack of
cooling of the wire immediately after the driving out from
crystallizer to the firs ring of secondary cooling. After this
moment the cooling and the solidification of the wire took
place normally, the recorded temperatures corresponding
to the measured ones.
It needs to be specified that the simulation was realized
just for primary and secondary cooling, not for the entire
running of the wire in the equipment. This explains steels
high temperature values in the interior of the half-finished
product (middle layers), but they are decreasing under the
solidus temperature value until the cutting of the half-
finished product.

Fig. 11. The solidification front

(100% = surface of the cast line)
Another type of temperature distribution, when the half-
finished product is droved out from secondary cooling
zone, it is presented in Figure 12Figure 17, at 1s, 3s, 5s,
15s, 21s and 25s, after introduced the micro-coolers.

Fig. 9. The temperature variation

in the crystallizer, function of time
(1%, 5%, 10%, 50% and 100% from crystallizer)
As regards the temperatures distribution in the crystallizer
(which take over the heat transferred by the half-finished Fig. 12. The thermal field at 1s
product and transfer it to the cooling water), it is after the micro-coolers addition
presented in Figure 9. In this case to it is presented also
the position of the discredited points.
In Figure 10 the cumulate diagram of the temperature are
presented. It is observed the two cooling zone, respectively
the primary cooling (when variated both the temperature
in crystallizer and the cast line), and the secondary
cooling (when only the cast line temperature is present). It
was obtained variation type for the solidification speed,
function of time. It refers to a solidification speed
calculated between two consecutive iterations, fact that
partially explain the oscillating aspect of the curves.

Fig. 13. Thermal field at 3s

after the micro-coolers addition

Fig. 10. The temperature variation Fig. 14. Thermal field at 5s

in crystallizer and the cast line after the micro-coolers addition

315
 Fig. 15. The thermal field at 15s
after the micro-coolers addition
Fig. 16. The thermal field at 21s
after the micro coolers addition
Fig. 17. The thermal field at 40s
after the micro coolers addition
Fig. 18. The thermal field at 70s
after the micro coolers addition
316
Fig. 19. The thermal field at 140s
after the micro coolers addition
Fig. 20. The thermal field in half-product (270 mm),
in time (at simulations end)
The Figure 20 presents the thermal field in the half-
product in the end of the simulated time. The obtained
regression surfaces corresponded from a quarter from the
half-product section is like similarly of the other parts of
the section. From the point of view of the temperature
values, the half-product surface is the first cooled section,
and the core is the most slowly cooled part.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing the graphical dependences from the performed
researches, based on literature review data and from own
experimental work it results the fallowing conclusions:
 The results obtained by simulation with presented
program being similar with practical data;
 In every diagram there are observed a temperature
leap or a solidification speed leap after approximately
60 s from the beginning of the casting (from a totally
220 s simulation time), respectively immediately after
the driving out from the crystallizer of the considered
section, leap caused by the impossibility of
elimination of a heat flux from the half-finished
product interior;
 It is observed a numerous crystallizing centers,
uniform distributed;
 Also, it is observed an appreciate difference between
the liquid steel temperature and the steel temperature
from immediate proximity of micro-coolers;
 The indurations advances consisted standardized it a
temperatures of first in of the minute after the
administration of micro-coolers;
 After precinct a minute from the administration micro-
coolers dont else notices significant differences what
in looks the variation of the temperature of the in mass
of steel;
 Through the addition of micro-coolers is obtained
adjustment of the a temperature of the in of the
crystallizer depending on the quality and the quantity
of micro-coolers;
The chosen time interval represent the time in which the
unsteady heat transfer process is approximate with a
steady process. From this reasons as well as the
characteristics of the real process are far from that of a
steady one, the iteration period should be smaller.
The proposed algorithm can be used for the analysis of
both stationary and moving solidification problems in
which phase change occurs at a specific temperature.
An integrated understanding of heat transfer during
solidification, friction/lubrication at solid-liquid interface,
high temperature properties of the solidifying shell etc. is
necessary to control the continuous casting process.
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CORRESPONDENCE
Erika Monika POPA, Assist. Eng.
University Politehnica - Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
Revoluiei 5, 331128, Hunedoara,
Romania
erika.popa@fih.upt.ro
Vasile ALEXA, Lect. D.Sc., Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei,
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
vasile.alexa@fih.upt.ro

ANALSYS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
FACTORS OF SOLID PRINTING AREAS
ON FLEXO PRINTING PLATES
Dragoljub NOVAKOVI
Sandra DEDIJER
Miroslav GOJO
Sanja MAHOVI POLJAEK
Abstract: In this paper four different surface roughness
parameters of two different flexo printing plates were
measured. The main aim of the measurement was to
establish the correlation between final developed surface
roughness of solid printing areas and different production
conditions. This measurement data is very important
since it influences the further printing process. In the
experiment two different flexo printing plates were used,
one digital, with solvent developing process and the other
conventional also developed using solvent. The
production parameters which were varied were main
exposure time and development conditions in order to
establish the correlation between ISO surface roughness
parameters and production conditions. The measurements
were taken using the Portable Surface Roughness Tester
TR 200. The result yield different surface roughness
values for different plates and different values within
plates but with changed processing.
Key words: Surface roughness, roughness factors, flexo
printing plates.
1. INTRODUCTION
Surface roughness factors determination is widely used
for topography characterization of different surfaces. The
measurement of ISO surface roughness values are
influenced by the instrument type, instrument settings, the
processing of measured data and the microstructure of the
measured surface.
Characteristic of surface structure of materials are, in the
most cases, one of the relevant parameters which define
their functional properties [1]. Surface roughness
determines the behavior of a surface in problems related
to tribology, reflecting the surface nature of this
phenomenon [2].
In flexo printing, the ink transfer is directly influenced by
substrate and printing plate properties related to pressure
and printing speed. It is shown that surface roughness of
the printing plate is more important than the surface
energy when considering attainable print quality [3].
In order to define surface roughness, different imaging
methods such as SEM-scanning electron microscopy or
AFM-atomic force microscopy, as well as profilometric
methods, like MSP-mechanical stylus profilometry or non
contact laser profilometry can be used [1].
Profilometric analysis is a technique used in material
science to quantify the morphology of material surfaces.
Standard techniques for assessing surface roughness
measure directly the peaks and the valleys on the surface
itself [4].
Contact profilometry was proposed several decades ago.
The testing apparatus is made with a sharp diamond tip
mounted on a cantilever which moves along a line on the
surface of the material. Displacements induced by surface
irregularities are recorded. In this way, the z dimension is
measured as the tip moves across an x-y axis. For a given
specimen, several test lines need to be measured and
averaged [4].
The object of this paper was the determination of surface
roughness factors of solid printing areas on different flexo
printing plates using the Portable Surface Roughness
Tester TR 200. The main aim of the measurement was to
establish the correlation between final developed surface
roughness of solid printing areas on different flexo
printing plates through four most distinguish roughness
factors - Ra (average surface roughness), Rq (Rms, root-
mean-square deviation), RzDIN (mean value of the single
roughness depths Zi) and Rp (leveling depth).
In the experiment two different flexo printing plates were
used, one digital and the other conventional, both
developed using solvent. In the study, the production
parameters were varied (main exposure time and
development conditions) in order to establish the
correlation between named ISO surface roughness
parameters and production conditions.
The taken measurements of four roughness parameters on
two different digital flexo printing plates showed different
surface roughness values for different plates and different
values within plates but with changed processing.
1.1. Height roughness parameters
Surface topography is rather critical factor which influence the
printing process in the quality performance and in the
durability of the printing plates. Different equipment for
measuring the surface roughness enables measurements of
great numbers of parameters, each describing a single
characteristic of the surface roughness [10]. The choice of
the roughness parameters which will give the optimal
characteristics of the surface depends firstly on the
process of its elaboration and the function of investigated
surface [10].
In this paper, the printing plate surface topography was
evaluated through four roughness parameters, Ra, Rq,
RzDIN and Rp.
Ra or average surface roughness is the average value of
the absolute profiles data inside an evaluation length,
divided by the total length. In other words, it represents
the arithmetic mean of the absolute values of profile
deviation of mean within sampling length [5-7]:
l
1
l 0
Ra = y ( x) dx (1)
319
Rq (Rms) or root-mean-square deviation is the average of Table 2. Relevant processing parameters and
the square value of the data of the profile inside an corresponding values for printing plate B.
evaluation length. It represents the square root of the

time / UVA

Developing
arithmetic mean of the squares of profile deviation from

time [min]

time [min]

[mm/min]
time [sec]
exposure

exposure

exposure

Drying
+ UVC
[min]
Main
Plate

Back
mean within sampling length [5-7]:

Post
l
1 2
l 0
Rq = y ( x)dx (2)
B1 30 10 10 + 15 120 150
B2 30 12 10 + 15 120 150
RzDIN is mean value of the single roughness depths Zi or,
in anotherwords, average maximum height of the profile B3 30 14 10 + 15 120 150
(average of all vertical distances between the highest and
the lowest point for a sampling length). RzDIN, used for Table 3. Relevant processing parameters and
contact measurements, according to DIN 4768 is defined corresponding values for printing plate B (variations in
as [5-7]: developing speed).
1
RzDIN = ( Z1 + Z 2 + ... + Z n )

time / UVA

Developing
time [min]

time [min]
(3)

[mm/min]
time [sec]
exposure

exposure

exposure

Drying
+ UVC
n

[min]
Main
Plate

Back

Post
Rp or leveling depth is the distance between the highest
point and the median line. In another words, the height
from the highest profile peak line to mean line within the B4 30 14 10 + 15 120 150
sampling length [5-7]. B5 30 14 10 + 15 120 160

2. EXPERIMENTAL B6 30 14 10 + 15 120 170

B7 30 14 10 + 15 120 180
For testing the microstructure of the printing plate surface
and its affect on the printing process itself, we have used The measured surfaces were the solid printing areas on
two different flexo printing plates; plate A, digital flexo each plate. Each plate was measured in both, printing and
printing plate, and plate B, conventional flexo printing cross printing direction.
plate, both with solvent developing process. All plates In order to measure relevant roughness parameters the
were of the same thickness, 1.14 mm. The distinction Portable Surface Roughness Tester TR 200 was used. TR
between these plates is in their processing method and 200 hand held roughness tester with a diamond tip with 2
they are from different producer. m stylus tip radius can be used for measuring following
Namely, the printing plate A is digital flexo printing plate roughness parameters [6]: Ra, Rz, Ry, Rq, Rt, Rp, Rmax, Rm,
with LAM layer intended to develop using solvent. The R3z, S, Sm, Sk and tp. It is compatible with ISO 4287, DIN
processing phases for this plate are back exposure, laser 4768, ANSI B 46.1 and JIS B601 standards and it
ablation, main exposure, developing using solvent, drying provides four different filtering methods: RC, PC RC,
and post exposure. These plates have hardness of 77 Gauss and D P and four measuring ranges: automatic,
Shore A . 20 m, 40 m, 80 m with the resolution of 0.01 m
The printing plate B is conventional flexo printing plate, ~ 0.04 m, 0.01 m, 0.02 m and 0.04 m, respectively
meaning that instead of laser ablation, we use negative [6]. The cut off or the sampling length can be chosen
film during main exposure in order to form printing and according to values listed in Table 4 [6]. In addition,
nono printing elements. The hardness of this plate is 62 corresponding traversing speed was also listed in the
Shore A. Table 4.
All of the investigating plates were varied in main
exposure time and in developing conditions, too. In Table Table 4. Selection of the sampling length (cut off) and
1 and Table 2 are presented relevant processing corresponding traversing speed
parameters and corresponding values for each used plate.
Cut off Ra Rc Traversing speed
Table 1. Relevant processing parameters and 0.02 m ~ 0.1 m ~
0.25 mm Vt = 0.135 mm/s
corresponding values for printing plate A. 0.1 m 0.5 m
0.1 m ~ 0.5 m ~
0.80 mm Vt = 0.5 mm/s
2 m 10 m
time / UVA

Developing
time [min]

time [min]

[mm/min]
time [sec]
exposure

exposure

exposure

Drying
+ UVC

2 m ~ 10 m ~
[min]
Main
Plate

Back

Post

2.50 mm Vt = 1 mm/s
10 m 50 m

In Figure 1 and Figure 2 is presented roughness profile

A1 20 10 10 + 10 120 165 measured with Portable Surface Roughness Tester TR
200.
A2 20 12 10 + 10 120 165 In this study, measurements parameters were: sampling
A3 20 14 10 + 10 120 165
length 0.80 mm, corresponding traversing speed Vt = 0.5
mm/s, Gauss filtering method, measuring range 20 m

320
and corresponding resolution 0.01 m, compatibility with Table 7. Results of measured roughness parameters on
ISO 4287 standard. plate B (printing direction and cross printing direction;
average values)
Ra Rq RzDIN Rp
Plate
[m] [m] [m] [m]
Printing direction
B4 0.46 0.56 2.61 1.17
Fig. 1. Roughness profile measured with TR 200 on solid B5 0.52 0.63 2.72 1.22
printing area on flexo printing plate (printing direction) B6 0.39 0.48 2.26 0.99
B7 0.49 0.60 2.79 1.46
Cross printing direction
B4 0.50 0.64 2.94 1.59
B5 0.46 0.58 2.70 1.33
B6 0.45 0.55 2.40 1.13
B7 0.47 0.58 2.61 1.26
Fig. 2. Roughness profile measured with TR 200 on solid
printing area on flexo printing plate (cross printing
direction)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the experiment, we have used two different flexo

printing plates; plate A, which is digital flexo printing
plate, and plate B, conventional flexo printing plate.
Since they are both aimed to develop using solvent,
firstly, we have varied main exposure time in the same
way for both plate types but kept the developing speed the
same (Table 1 and Table 2). For the printing plate B, we
have varied the developing speed and all the other
Fig. 3. Average surface roughness Ra for investigated
processing factors were kept constant (Table 3).
printing plates (digital-A and conventional-B plate;
In the Table 5, 6 and 7 are presented the mean values (of
different main exposure time, same developing speed;
six measurements) of measured roughness factors, Ra, Rq,
mean values)
RzDIN and Rp, for each printing plate in two directions
printing direction and cross printing direction.
Values presented in Figure 3 are the mean values of
measured roughness factor Ra, for all twelve used printing
Table 5. Results of measured roughness parameters on
plates (type A and type B and their variations different
plate A (printing direction and cross printing direction;
main exposure time but the same developing speed).
average values)
Measured values of Ra factor which represents the
Ra Rq RzDIN Rp average value of the absolute profiles data inside an
Plate
[m] [m] [m] [m] evaluation length show the different values in printing and
Printing direction cross printing direction, regardless of plate type. For the
A1 0.237 0.328 1.708 1.146 printing plate A, those values have a growing trend with
A2 0.379 0.496 2.581 1.506 the higher main exposure time in both, printing and cross
A3 0.432 0.622 3.174 2.270 printing direction. For the printing plate B, those values
Cross printing direction decrease, except for printing plate B3, measured in
A1 0.209 0.300 1.525 0.938 printing direction. Presented values show that, regardless
A2 0.349 0.474 2.312 1.248 of main exposure time and measuring direction, plate A
A3 0.361 0.526 2.601 1.865 has lower average surface roughness Ra.

Table 6. Results of measured roughness parameters on

plate B (printing direction and cross printing direction;
average values)
Ra Rq RzDIN Rp
Plate
[m] [m] [m] [m]
Printing direction
B1 0.42 0.51 2.20 1.06
B2 0.40 0.51 2.59 1.04
B3 0.46 0.56 2.61 1.17
Cross printing direction
B1 0.50 0.64 2.94 1.59 Fig. 4. Root mean square deviation Rq for investigated
B2 0.39 0.49 2.37 0.81 printing plates (digital-A and conventional-B plate;
different main exposure time, same developing speed;
B3 0.39 0.48 2.27 1.07 mean values

321
Figure 4 presents mean values of measured roughness
factor Rq, for used printing plates (type A and type B and
their variations).
For the printing plate type A, Rq (Rms) or root-mean-
square deviation which represents the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares of profile deviation from
mean within sampling length has higher values with the
higher main exposure time, measured both in printing and
cross printing direction. For the printing plate type B,
those values decrease with the higher value of main
exposure time, with the exception of plate B3 measured in
printing direction. Also, from the Figure 3 it can be
clearly seen that those values are higher for the printing
plate type B, with the exception of plates A3 and B3 (for
both measuring directions).
Fig. 5. Mean value of the single roughness depths Zi -
RzDIN for investigated printing plates (digital-A and
conventional-B plate; different main exposure time, same
developing speed; mean values)
In Figure 3 are presented mean values for RzDIN, mean
value of the single roughness depths Zi, for investigated
printing plates (type A and type B and their variations).
For the printing plate A those values show growing trend
in both measured directions. For printing plate B, those
values decrease, measured in cross printing direction, but
slightly grow, measured in printing direction.
Fig. 6. Mean value leveling depth Rp for investigated
printing plates (digital-A and conventional-B plate;
different main exposure time, same developing speed;
mean values)
Figure 6 presents mean values of measured roughness
factor Rp, leveling depth as the distance between the
highest point and the median line, for used printing plates
(type A and type B and their variations).
For the printing plate type A those values are higher with
the higher main exposure time, regardless of measuring
322
direction. For the printing plate B, those values rather
close to each other, with the exception of printing plate
B1, measured in cross printing direction. Presented values
show that plate A, compared to plate B, has higher values
of measured roughness factor Rp, with the exception of
printing plate A1(B1) measured in cross printing
direction.
In order to establish the influence of developing speed on
surface roughness, we have chosen printing plate type B
(conventional printing plate) and varied the developing
speed. All the other processing parameters for used
samples were the same. The yield results for measured
roughness factors, Ra, Rq, RzDIN and Rp, for each printing
plate (in two directions printing direction and cross
printing direction, mean value of six measurements) are
presented in figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 (for each factor,
respectively).
Fig. 7. Average surface roughness Ra for investigated
printing plates (conventional-B plate; same main
exposure time, different developing speed; mean values)
Results presented in the Figure 7 show that average
surface roughness has the highest value for the plate B5
(measured in printing direction). The chart also shows
that measured values are rather close to each other
regardless of developing speed measured in cross printing
direction. Values yield in printing direction show greater
fluctuations.
Fig. 8. Root mean square deviation Rq for investigated
printing plates (conventional-B plate; same main
exposure time, different developing speed; mean values)
Results presented in the Figure 7 show that root mean
square deviation has the highest value for the plate B4
(measured in cross printing direction). The chart also
shows that measured values slightly differ from each
other, depending on measured direction and developing
speed.

Fig. 9. Mean value of the single roughness depths Zi -
RzDIN for investigated printing plates (conventional-B
plate; same main exposure time, different developing
speed; mean values)
In Figure 9 are presented mean values for RzDIN, mean
value of the single roughness depths Zi, for investigated
printing plates. The highest value is recorded for the
printing plate B4 (measured in cross printing direction).
The measured values show fluctuations, depending on
measuring direction and developing speed.
Fig. 10. Mean value leveling depth Rp for investigated
printing plates (conventional-B plate; same main
exposure time, different developing speed; mean values)
From the chart presented in Figure 10, it can be seen that
measured values for Rp factor - mean value leveling
depth show fluctuations, depending on measuring
direction and developing speed. The highest value is for
the plate B4 (measured in cross printing direction).
4. CONCLUSION
Characterization of surface structure of materials through
the relevant surface roughness parameters, which define
their functional properties, is rather common method.
Since surface roughness determines the behavior of a
surface in problems related to tribology, reflecting the
surface nature of this phenomenon, the choice of relevant
parameters, as well as the choice of the measuring
method, is of the most importance. It has been already
said that there are different imaging as well as
profilometric methods which can be used to define
surface roughness parameters. It is also well known that
there are over thirty roughness parameters which can be
used. The selection and number is defined by the
functionality of the measured surface and its usage.
In this paper, using Portable Surface Roughness Tester
TR 200, four relevant surface roughness factors for two
different digital flexo printing plates (varied in
processing) were measured and discussed. Those are Ra,
average surface roughness, Rq or Rms, root-mean-square
deviation, RzDIN, mean value of the single roughness
depths Zi and Rp, leveling depth. Through the given results
it can be concluded that plate B, compared to plate A, has
lower average surface roughness Ra regardless of
measuring direction, main exposure time or developing
speed. When considering root mean square deviation, as
well as the RzDIN, the same conclusion can be made,
except for the plates A3 (B3) and Rq. On the other hand,
values for the leveling depth are higher for the plate A, with
the exception of the plate A1 (measured in cross printing
direction).
When considering measured factors within one plate type
(plate B) and their dependence on developing speed and
measuring direction, it can be concluded that values for all
four measured factors fluctuate and differ. But numerically,
those values are rather close to each other, for each factor
respectively.
The given charts also show that, considering measured
factors within one plate type, that plates type B show lower
fluctuations in measured factors depending on main
exposure time, compared to plates type A .
REFERENCES
[1] RISOVI, A., et al. On correlation between fractal
dimension and profilometric parameters in
characterization of surface topographies, Applied
Surface Science, 2009, vol. 255, no. 7, pp 4283-4288.
[2] RAMON-TORREGROSA, et al. Factors affecting
the measurement of roughness factor of surfaces and
its implications for wetting studies, Colloids and
surfaces A: Physicochemical Eng. Aspects, 2008,
vol. 323, pp 83-93
[3] BARROS, G.G., et al. Topographic distribution of
uncovered areas (UCA) in full tone flexographic
prints, updated 10.11.2009. Available on
http://www.t2f.nu/s2p2/ S2P2 % 20IPQ % 2032 %20
%20 Topographic % 20 distribution % 20 of % 20
Un Covered % 20 Areas % 20 (UCA) % 20 in % 20
Full % 20 Tone % 20 Flexographic % 20 Prints.pdf
[4] CHAPPARD, D., et al. On Image analysis
measurements of roughness by texture and fractal
analysis correlate with contact profilometry,
Biomaterials, 2003, vol. 255, no. 24, pp 1399-1407.
[5] MAHOVI, S. Karakterizacija povrinskih struktura
ofsetnih tiskovnih formi, Doctoral disertation,
Grafiki fakultet, Zagreb, 2007, pp. 38-50,
[6] TR 200, Hand held roughness terster, Instruction
manual, 2010.
[7] Characterization of surfaces, Available from
http://www.exact-address-of-site Accessed: 2010-02-
10
[8] LAURENT, G.L. Study of paper printability in
flexography by controlled variation of the surface
roughness, updated 10.11.2009. Available on
http://www.t2f.nu/t2frapp_f_7.pdf
323
[9] LAURENT, G.L. Measurement and Prediction Sandra DEDIJER
Procedures for Printability in Flexography (MP3 University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Flexo), Doctoral Dissertation, Royal Institute of Technical Science, Department for
Technology Department of Numerical Analysis and Graphic Engineering and Design
Computer Science, Media Technology and Graphic Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
Arts, Stockholm 2002, updated 10.11.2009. 21000 Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia
Available on http://www.t2f.nu/t2frapp_f_7.pdf dedijer@uns.ac.rs
[10] GOJO, M., et al. Influence of the microsurface offset
Miroslav GOJO, prof. dr. sc.
printing plates on the machine printing process,
University of Zagreb
Machine design, 2009, (1821-1259) no. 48, pp 415-
University of Zagreb
420.
Faculty of Graphic Arts
Getaldiceva 2
HR Zagreb, Croatia
CORRESPONDENCE mgojo@grf. hr
Dragoljub NOVAKOVI, Prof. dr
Sanja MAHOVI POLJAEK, doc. Dr.
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
University of Zagreb
Technical Science, Department for
Faculty of Graphic Arts
Graphic Engineering and Design
Getaldieva 2
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
10000 Zagreb, Croatia
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
s.mahovic@grf.hr
novakd@uns.ac.rs

324

INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS
CONCENTRATES ON QUALITY OF
PRINTING PLATES' WETTING PROCESS
Tomislav CIGULA
Miroslav GOJO
Dragoljub NOVAKOVI
ivko PAVLOVI
Abstract: One of many elements that influence reproduction
quality in lithography is the wetting process of nonprinting
areas of the printing plate.
Results of investigation of physical-chemical properties of
various fountain solutions and influence of various buffer
solutions on the wetting process were presented in this paper.
Fountain solutions used to conduct investigation were made
from demineralised water in which surface active substance,
agent for increasing electrical conductivity and buffer solution
were added. Main point of this research was to determine
optimal volume concentration of surface active substance in
dependence of used buffer solution.
The results showed that increase of the amount of surface
active substances causes decrease of electrical conductivity,
but this decrease is dependent on used buffer solution. On the
other hand, increase of surface active substances volume
concentration cause increase of solutions pH value, but this
increase is not significant. Results of the contact angle
measurement showed similar behaviour of Samples 1 and 3,
reaching low point at nearly 11 percent volume concentration
of surface active substance. A bit surprising is the fact that
further increase of surface active substances volume
concentration causes increase of the contact angle.
In conclusion, results showed that used buffer solution dont
have high impact on wetting process of lithographic printing
plates, but further investigations should be conducted to
determine how investigated sampled influence on surface
properties of nonprinting areas of printing plate.
Key words:
Electrical conductivity, contact angle, fountain solution,
lithographic printing plate, pH value, Surface Active
Substances (SAS).
1. INTRODUCTION
Lithography is today most commonly used printing
technique. It has numerous advantages such as quick and
almost fully automated plate making process, it is suitable
for various printing substrates, high printing speed, high
reproduction quality etc.
The printing plate in this technique has flat surface which
is mechanically, chemically and electrochemically
processed to achieve opposite physical-chemical
properties of printing and nonprinting areas. Printing
areas are oleophilic which enables them to attract oil
based printing ink and hydrophobic to disable them from
adsorbing water based fountain solution. Nonprinting
areas are hydrophilic which enables them to attract
fountain solution. As mentioned, fountain solution is
adsorbed to the nonprinting areas and has the key role in
preventing adsorption of printing ink on those areas.
Besides that, fountain solution has more roles in printing
process, for example must prevent chemical reaction of
nonprinting surfaces while printing machine stops [4].
Fountain solution is very important factor in producing
top quality reproduction which stresses the importance of
knowing the way it operates in various surroundings, its
composition and physical-chemical properties which
enable us to properly react if needed.
2. THEORY
Surface phenomena are caused by difference of
molecules, ions or atoms on the surface of a chemical
substance compared to the same particles in the middle of
the same substance. Molecules, ions or atoms in the
middle of the chemical substances are surrounded with
same particles (molecules, ions or atoms) and attractive
forces between them are compensated which makes
resultant force equal zero. On the other hand, particles on
the substances surface are surrounded with other equal
particles only from one side that leads to the resultant
force which is trying to pull them to the middle or giving
those particles ability to attract molecules, ions or atoms
from neighbour phase. The energy of particles in surface
layer in comparison to the particles in the middle of the
chemical substance is called surface free energy [1].
Surface free energy has many direct consequences like
adsorption, surface tension, wetting which are exploited
in graphic arts as well as in many other industries.
Adsorption is surface attraction of particles of one phase
to the surface of neighbour phase. Particles of first phase,
which are chaotically moving, are on distance of round
1nm attracted by van der Waals or electrostatic forces to
the surface of second phase. Adsorption forces are
directly proportional to the value of surface free energy of
the substance. Largest adsorption forces have solid state
ionic structures.
Second factor that influences substances ability to adsorb
particles of neighbour phase is specific surface. If a
surface is smooth, it would adsorb much lower amount of
particles than rough surface (Fig.1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Water adsorption on a smooth surface
325
 D
parts of the surface tension, sD and l are dispersive
parts of the surface tension.

Fig. 2. Water adsorption on a rough surface

Second phenomenon caused by surface free energy is

surface tension ( / Nm-1). Surface tension is a force
which acts vertically on a substances surface and tries to
decrease its size. The value of the surface tension is equal
to the value of the surface free energy.
According to the Owens, Wendt, Rabel and Kaelble,
surface tension could be divided to polar component (P)
and dispersive component (D): Fig. 2. Determination of dispersive and polar component
of surface free energy according to Rabel
l = lP + lD (1)
s = sP + sD (2) Wetting is physical phenomenon conditioned by decrease
of surface tension in system solid liquid. A liquid will
where l is surface tension of a liquid phase and s is a wet a solid surface only if it would lead to the reduction
P P of free surface energy value. One can determine the
surface tension of a solid phase, s and l are polar
D D quality of wetting by observing liquid drop shape. Contact
parts of the surface tension, s and l are dispersive angle is angle between two tangents, one touching solid
parts of the surface tension. surface and second touching a drop of liquid in
Owens and Wendt combined two equations, surface tension intersection point of three phases (solid, liquid and
(3) and Young equation (4) to solve equation system using vapour). By measuring contact angle one can determine
contact angle () of two referent liquids of known dispersive wetting degree of investigated system.
and polar component of their surface tension.

(
sl = s + l 2 sD lD + sP lP ) (3)

where sl is surface free energy on solid liquid phase

interface, l is surface tension of a liquid phase and s is a Fig. 3. Contact angle of various wetting degrees
P
surface tension of a solid phase, sPand l are polar parts
D When measuring contact angle one must keep in mind
of the surface tension, sD and l are dispersive parts of
that its value is also influenced by time passed from
the surface tension.
formation of a drop on solid surface to the time because
s = sl + l cos (4)
contact angle decreases (Fig. 4 and 5.)
This decrease is caused by gravitation force which acts on
the liquid drop [7].
where s is a surface tension of a solid phase, sl is
surface free energy on solid liquid phase interface, l is
surface tension of a liquid phase and is contact angle
between liquid and solid phase.
Kaeble solved equation combining two liquids of known
surface tension to calculate average value of surface free
energy. Finally, Rabel had enabled calculation of polar and
dispersive component of surface free energy using linear
regression knowing contact angles of various liquids [3].
Combining (3) and (4) result is linear dependence y = mx + b
(Fig. 2.):

(1 + cos ) l = P lP
+ s
D
(5)
2 lD
s
l D

where is contact angle between liquid and solid phase, Fig. 4. Contact angle at 0.1 seconds after contact of
l is surface tension of a liquid phase, sPand lPare polar liquid with solid surface

326
 temperature (22o C) same in which measurement were
conducted according to the manufacturer recommendations.

Contact angle measurement

Contact angle between fountain solution samples and
nonprinting areas of lithographic printing plate was
measured to determine fountain solution functionality.
Measurements were performed by Dataphysics OCA30
measuring unit. This kind of unit is computer controlled
and has the ability to measure with various methods,
Spinning drop, Needle in, Sessile drop method (which
was used in this investigation [10]). Through computer
control it is possible to accurately define sample position
in x and z axis and define drop volume with precision of
0.1 l. Recording measurement with CCD camera makes
Fig. 5. Contact angle at 0.5 seconds after contact of it possible to determine static and dynamic contact angle
liquid with solid surface [8]. In this investigation volume of liquid drop was 1.5 l.
In Fig. 4 - 6 one can observe the significant phases of the
contact angle measurement.
3. EXPERIMENTAL

In the experimental part of this investigation, physical-

chemical properties and functionality of fountain
solutions were monitored when various buffer solutions
were added. To determine functionality of the
investigated fountain solution samples contact angle on
the printing plates nonprinting area was measured. As the
role of surface active substances in fountain solution is
reducing are most important for nonprintinin combination
with various surface active substances volume
concentration were added in them. For this purpose, pH
value, electrical conductivity and contact angle of the
prepared samples were measured.

Preparation of fountain solution samples

Fountain solution samples were made from demineralised
water in which commercial additives were added; salts to Fig. 4. Drop forming
increase wetting properties of nonprinting areas in volume
concentration of 1%, buffer solution in volume concentration The unit is controlled thorough computer program, SCA20,
of 2.5 % and surface active substance in various volume which besides contact angle measurement has more options to
concentrations from 7 to 15 % with step of 1%. determine surface free energy of the solid compound giving
dispersive and polar component. The program also gives the
Preparation of printing plate possibility to use various fitting curves (circle, ellipse, tangent
For measurement of contact angle a conventional printing and Laplace-Young fitting) depending on the shape of the
plate covered with diazo photoactive layer was used. The drop. Fig. 3 shows point of the measurement.
plate was processed in strictly defined conditions to
diminish influence of process solution to the plate
charasteristics[11]. Exposure of printing plate sample was
conducted in Plural EXPO exposure unit and then
developed in prepared process solution (sodium
hydroxide dissolved in distilled water with molar
concentration 0.2 moldm-3).

Measurement methods
pH value and electrical conductivity measurement
Electrical conductivity of the liquid samples was measured
with WTW Conductivity Meter LF 330. pH value was
measured with WTW pH340/SET 1 pH Meter. Before
conducting measurement pH Meter was calibrated using two
buffer solutions with pH values of 4.00 and 10.00 pH in
procedure defined by manufacturer. Conductivity Meter was
calibrated using solution with defined electrical conductivity
of 1278 Scm-1. Both instruments were calibrated at room Fig. 5. First contact between liquid and solid phase

327
 2 and lowest by Sample 3, which is diametrically opposite
to the pH value of Samples 2 and 3. Biggest decrease of
electrical conductivity is noticed by Sample 2, round 250
mScm-1.

14
Contact Angle

/o
12

10

Fig. 6. Measurement of contact angle 8 Sample 1

Sample 2
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sample 3
6
5 10 C / vol % 15
The results of the pH value measurement are shown in
Figure 6. Observing results, one can see that pH value
linearly increases when increasing volume concentration Fig. 8. Contact angle in dependence on surface active
of surface active substance. substances volume concentration

5,25 Sample 1 Results of the contact angle measurement are shown in

pH value
Sample 2 Fig. 8. The contact angle value decreases its value with
pH

Sample 3 increase of the surface active substance volume

5 concentration until reaching low point and with further
increase of added amount of surface active substance
4,75 contact angle increases by Samples 1 and 3. By Sample 2,
value of contact angle increases constantly when
increasing surface active substances volume
4,5
concentration. It can be also seen that contact angle of all
investigated Samples is between 9 12o.
4,25 The majority of lithographic printing plates used today are
5 10 C / vol% 15 made from one metal, mainly aluminium. To enable
hydrophilic behaviour of the nonprinting areas,
Fig. 6. pH value depending on surface active substance aluminium surface must be mechanically, chemically and
volume concentration electrochemically processed to cover aluminium surface
with thin and porous film of aluminium-oxide [2, 9]. This
The lowest pH values are noticed by Sample 2 and the surface is not unique, its characteristics are depending on
highest by Sample 3. The increase of pH value is by all the processing parameters, but all of them have in
Samples slight, biggest by Sample 1, round 0.2 pH units common their ability to quickly adsorb enough amount of
and by Samples 2 and 3 negligible, round 0.1 pH units. fountain solution. It is surplus to say that for production
of high quality graphic products investigations of
interactions between printing plate and fountain solution
1300 Electrical Conductivity Sample 1 are essential.
Sample 2
-1

As written before, in this paper were investigated

/ mScm

1100
900
700
500
5 10
Fig. 7. Electrical conductivity in dependence on surface
active substance volume concentration
In opposition to the pH value electrical conductivity of
investigated fountain solution Samples decreases when
amount of added surface active substance is increased.
Decrease of the electrical conductivity is also linear by all
Samples (Fig. 7).Highest values are measured by Sample
Sample 3
physical-chemical properties of three types of fountain
solution samples in which the varied parameter was used
buffer solution. To determine even better composition of
investigated fountain solutions a series of samples were
prepared by varying volume concentration of added
surface active substance.
Besides those two compounds, fountain solution is
composed from more additions which must as much as
C / vol% 15 possible printing plates surface from changing their
wetting properties through whole print run, to prevent
making of microorganisms in fountain solution, to enable
stable relationship between printing ink and fountain
solution [4].
Electrical conductivity of liquids is depending on number
and type of ions in the solution [5]. A fountain solution
has relative high electrical conductivity because it is
composed from compounds that have high dissociation
constant which means they have high concentration of

328
movable ions to carry charge. As shown in Fig. 7,
electrical conductivity of fountain solution decreases its
value by increasing volume concentration of surface
active substances. This behaviour is the consequence of
the fact that majority of surface active substances are
organic compounds with low dissociation constant which
then reduces concentration of movable ions in the
fountain solution. One can also notice difference in
electrical conductivity between investigated Samples
which is probably connected with lower dissociation
constant of buffer or smaller amount of salts for
increasing of hydrophilic properties of nonprinting areas
of printing plate.
The pH value of investigated Samples shows opposite
behaviour in comparison to the electrical conductivity. pH
value increases as the volume concentration of surface
active substance increase. Surface active substances have
low dissociation constant so some molecules have
dissociated. As surface active substances used in graphic
arts industry are mainly alcohols the dissociation means
more OH- ions in the solution and increase of the pH
value. As the dissociation constant is not high, increase of
the pH value is not significant (maximal 0.2 pH units). pH
value of the fountain solution is very important and must
be held in strictly defined range in which aluminium-
oxide is stable [6]. Aluminium and aluminium-oxide are
both amfoteric that means they could be dissolved in acid
and base solutions. Dissolution of aluminium-oxide
would decrease its roughness, consequently decreasing its
adsorption potential and wetting properties. Decrease of
the wetting properties could lead to products of lower or
even unacceptable quality.
Definitely one of the main parameters of fountain solution
and its acceptance for use in printing process is wetting
properties on the nonprinting areas of the lithographic
printing plate. A fountain solution must cover all
nonprinting areas of the printing plate with smallest
possible amount in thin film. For monitoring this
parameter contact angle was measured.
The obtained results showed interesting and unexpected
results as by Samples 1 and 3 with increase of surface
active substances volume concentration value of contact
angle decreases to the minimum value and then with
further increase of volume concentration of surface active
substance value rises. By Sample 2 value of contact angle
linearly increases throughout whole investigated range of
surface active substances volume concentration which
leads to presumption that added buffer chemically reacts
with used surface active substance.
In graphic arts industry most commonly used surface
active substance is 2-propanol. Because of its bad
influence on human health and environment [12] it is
essential to use lowest possible concentration of 2-
propanol keeping needed wetting properties of fountain
solution.
5. CONCLUSION
Based on the results obtained in this research one can
conclude that electrical conductivity and pH value of
investigated Samples are highly influenced by used buffer
solution. By increasing volume concentration of surface
active substance pH value of fountain solution increases
minimally but value of electrical conductivity decreases
by more than 10 percent. In addition, Sample 2 has pH
value out of range of use (4.5 5-5 pH units [4, 5]) so it
probably should not be used for longer print runs, where
dissolving of aluminium-oxide could have large impact
on print quality. Contact angles of all investigated
samples are low, 10 12o. There is no need to add more
than 11 percent of surface active substance by Samples 1
and 3 when using printing plate from this research.
It could be beneficial to make further investigations of
fountain solutions properties in dynamic conditions
during printing process to ensure equal printing quality
through whole print run.
REFERENCES
1. W.J. MOORE: Physical chemistry, Prentice-Hall,
Inc. Englewood Cliffs, USA, 1955
2. R N. VOLINSKAJA: Kemijski procesi u izradi
tiskovne forme, Via grafika kola u Zagrebu,
Zagreb, 1975.
3. http://www.kruss.de/en/theory/measurements/contact-
angle/models/owrk.html (02.03.2010.)
4. T. CIGULA, S. MAHOVI POLJAEK, M. GOJO,
Funkcija dodataka otopine za vlaenje, Zbornik
radova sa Znanstveno strunog skupa Tiskarstvo 07,
Zagreb, (2007), 11 - 11
5. M. POURBAIX, "Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria
in Aqueous Solutions", Pergamon Press, Oxford,
London, Paris, 1966, p.172.
6. I. FILIPOVI, S. LIPANOVI, "Opa i anorganska
kemija", kolska knjiga, Zagreb, 1991.
7. T. CIGULA, S.MAHOVI POLJAEK, M. GOJO,
"Defining of Time-Dependent Contact Angle of
Liquids on the Printing Plate Surfaces", Proceedings,
20th International DAAAM Symposium, Viena, (2009),
0627-0628
8. Data Physics Instruments GmbH, Operating manual
OCA, 2006.
9. Th. DIMOGERONTAKIS, S. Van GILS, H.
OTTEVAERE, H. THIENPONT, H. TERRYN,
Quantitative topography characterisation of surfaces
with asymetric roughness induced by AC-graining on
aluminium, Surf. Coat. Technol. 201, (2006), p. 918-
926
10. L. M. LANDER, L. M. SIEWIERSKI, W. J.
BRITTAIN, E.A. VOGLER, A Systematic
Comparison of Contact Angle Methods, Langmuir,
(1993), p.2237-2239
11. S. MAHOVI POLJAEK, T. CIGULA, M. GOJO,
Formation and Defining the Different Aluminium
Oxide Microstructures in Alkaline Solutions,
International Journal of Material Forming. 1 (2008), p.
463-466
12. W. RAUCH, Investigations into the Reduction or
Replacement of 2-propanol in Dampening Solutions
for Offset Printing, FOGRA Research report,
Munich, 1999
329
CORRESPONDENCE
Tomislav CIGULA, dipl. ing.
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Graphic Arts
Getaldiceva 2
HR Zagreb, Croatia
tcigula@grf. hr
Miroslav GOJO, prof. dr. sc.
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Graphic Arts
Getaldiceva 2
HR Zagreb, Croatia
mgojo@grf. hr
330
Dragoljub NOVAKOVI, Prof. dr
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Technical Science, Department for
Graphic Engineering and Design
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
novakd@uns.ac.rs
ivko PAVLOVI, Ass. mr
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Technical Science, Department for
Graphic Engineering and Design
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
zivkopvl@uns.ac.rs

MATERIAL FLOW IN AUTOMATED
MANUFACTURING
Andrea MUDRIKOV
Peter KOL
Abstract: A Today trend in manufacturing is
characterized by production broadening, innovation cycle
shortening, and the products have new shape, material
and functions. The production strategy focused to time
need change from traditional functional production
structure to production by flexible manufacturing cells
and lines. Production by automated manufacturing system
(AMS) is a most important manufacturing philosophy in
last years.
Key words: material flow, automated manufacturing,
information flow
1. INTRODUCTION
Today market is characterized by strategy of consumers
individualization. This strategy is oriented to consumers
requests. Consumers want new products and time is a
fundamental task to its satisfaction. The production was
broadening, innovation cycle is shortened, and the
products have new shape, material and functions. At this
strategy the traditional understand of costs lost in
importance. Most important is a time and improving is its
shortening.
The production strategy focused to time requires the
change from traditional functional production structure to
a production used flexible manufacturing systems.
Production by flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) is
the most important manufacturing philosophy in the last
years.
This philosophy is based on the following similarities:
 Similarity of manufactured parts,
 Similarity of process plans.
Recognition of the similarity of manufactured parts
allows to assort them to the groups by machines required
for its manufacturing. By manufacturing of a single group
of parts, economical benefit near to mass production can
be achieved.
2. MATERIAL FLOW PLANNING IN
AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM
Transport and material handling are important part of
planning. Transport system must provide material and
component transfer between workstations. Handling
system connects workstations by transport system. The
storage system is assignation for a fluent supply of
production by material and tools as well as for equalizing
of workstations capacity according to their payload and
performance. In principle, this area of manufacturing
system employs up to the 25% of workers, it takes about
55% of total area and approximately 87% of time during
which the material stays in a corporation. Activities
included to the transport system create sometimes up to
70% from general costs per product manufacturing and as
well as considerably influence products quality because
from 3 to 5% of material is destroyed during transport and
handling due to the incorrect handling. The material flow
is organized flow of material (raw material, semi-finished
products, supply material and wastes).
The base for achievement of high efficiency is the direct
and simple material flow which is dependent on the
optimal special layout of production and storage facilities
and their devices, further on single manufacturing
procedures and proper production organization.
The main aim is to design better technical and organizing
methods of material flow not only by mechanization and
automation of handling operations but also by utilization
of suitable information systems.
General procedure of planning of transport, handling and
storage system is as follows:
1. Analysis material flows and calculation of traffic
system performance,
2. Processing of workshops disposition (layout of
producing centers),
3. Analysis of existing devices (transport equipment,
auxiliary resources, storage facilities, containers,
handling devices),
4. Processing of transport systems variants, handling and
storages.
a) Transport system topology,
b) Static dimensioning of materials flow elements
(calculations of transport devices, speed
parameters, loading capacity, loading and
unloading times and others),
c) Interface between transport system and
workstation solution and possibilities of pallet and
tools relocation.
d) Processing transport control system, handling and
storages.
5. Simulation and dynamic dimensioning of material
flow components and optimization of transport,
handling and storage system (analysis of narrow
places, system lockouts, container sizes, transport and
storage devices capacity utilization, control rules).
The analysis of material flows is one of the main
subparagraph of material handling analysis.
The rules for effective material handling:
 Creation/selection of the simplest and shortest
transport routes,
331
 Determination of maintenance rhythm, continuity and
fluency of material flows,
 Simplification of material handling,
 Design of manufacturing process and layout with
regard to the optimal flow of material,
 Assessment of the possibility of the use of material
movement due to the gravity,
 Optimizing quantities, size and weight of transferred
units,
 Application of mechanization and automation in
handling,
 Design all handling, transport and storage activities as
the most effective,
 Analysis of handling from the global aspects of the
entire corporation
 Evaluation of the possibilities of the use of standard
handling devices,
 Achievement of exploitation of transport and handling
devices minimally at 60%,
 Accomplishment of ergonomic and safety
requirements.
Main features in material flows:
 Transported material,
 Transport, handling and storage units,
 transport equipments, handling devices, storage
devices,
 Personnel,
 System of organization and control of transport and
storage processes.
In the process of material flow planning, the formula of
material flows (Fig. 1) is solved.
Fig. 1. Material flow
3. MATERIAL FLOW REALIZING
In time of material flow analyze are analyzed the
transport stream in first time. The transport stream is
organized moving of handling and transport devices. The
data obtained from this analyzes characterize the
transport roads loading, material flow and transport rails
crossing, transit seed needing and other important facts
about a material flow layout. We also obtain informations
about transport devices capacity utilization and transport
and handling devices overview. From this analyzes we
obtain information about needed number of operators and
its qualification degree. Realization of these analyzes is
the starting point to effective design of logistics activities.
The material which is objects of transporting and
handling operation modify orientation and position
332
toward its surround by a sequel. These changes are
defined by sets of movement elements which are realized
at manipulation device workspace. Movement of material
is passive movement because this movement are realized
by handling devices. Movement of handling or transport
devices are characterized as an active movements. So on
base of this premise we can divide the material flow
elements to active and passive.
The active elements of logistics systems are elements
which realize the logistical functions this means that
realize sequences of non technological operations by
passive elements. Logistical functions are handling and
transport operations. Operations as a packing, unpacking,
loading, unloading, store, identification, acquiring,
transferring, processing, storing of data and other are
logistical operations too. Operators and other decision
making subjects are active elements of logistics systems
too. So movement of all passive elements are realized by
active elements of system (active devices, informations,
human operators).
Fig. 2. Material flow inside of technological process
From material flow points of view, is a possible divide the
technological processes to discreet processes and
contiguous processes. This classification influence to
global conception of material flow in manufacturing
system.
On Fig. 2 is shown usual model of material flow in
discreet technological process.
The technological process are realized sequentially by
material moving between a discrete technological devices.
Processing time at each technological devices are
different. The raw material are moved to first
technological device from input storage (1). On this
device is realized the needed technological process (or
sequence of technological processes). After a first
technological process is the raw material moved to next
technological device for next processing. In case when
this technological devices are occupied, the raw material
are moved to inter deck (4). The material will wait in inter
deck until the next technological device to its processing
are occupied. After a realization of all technological
processes are the finished product (finished from
viewpoint of this concrete manufacturing system)
The inter deck can be realized by one central inter deck
for whole system, or by decentralized set of inter decks
for all technological operations. The material flow
between input storage, output storage, inter decks and
technological devices are realized by continuously
working devices (conveyors) or by discreetly working
devices (crane, carriages, ...). Some devices enable
realizing the loading and unloading operations in the
same time.
In case of continuous technological process is the material
flow scheme at Fig. 3. The manufacturing system by
continuously realization of material processing gets the
raw material from input storage (1) stepwise. The
processing time for each of technological devices must be
similar. In dependence of technological processes is
possible the fluent raw material ingoing and finished
products outgoing or batch type of ingoing and outgoing.
At end of technological order (manufacturing system) are
outgoing products moved to output storage (3).
When are manufactured various type of products at one
manufacturing system, and some of these products don't
need the all technological operation, is possible realize the
raw material ingoing and finished products outgoing at
other places of technological line not only at begin and at
an end of manufacturing system technological line.
Fig. 3. Material flow in continuous technological process
1 input storage, 2 continuous technological process, 3
output storage
In technological line of manufacturing systems are
usually material flow realized continuously. In some time
are necessary create the buffers at midpoint of these
technological line. In this case can change the contiguous
material flow to discrete material flow.
4. MATERIAL FLOW SIMULATION
The simulation can define as an engineering process to
examine and evaluate of dynamic systems in a given
model. The goal of simulation is achieved of information
and outcome for practical purposes.
Using of a material flow simulation:
 Designing new manufacturing systems
 Optimization of existing manufacturing systems
The production flow scheme (PFS) is used both for
designing new manufacturing systems and for
optimization of existing manufacturing systems too.
When we use software for production planning system,
fellow information's must be give to achieving of real
results:
 Design time case studies for processes on each
production, operating, transport and supporting
device. These define the output of machines and also
make it possible to follow dependency between them.
(wait state, setups, work time, failure rate,) For such
analysis it is necessary to define data for shift
calendar.
 Define all work zones for each facility section plan
 Define possible barriers, following optimization
 Analysis of occurred failures
 Analysis of necessary number of operators
 Collecting information about the manufacturing
process
 Define possible management strategies
 Test each available alternative
 Management strategy of the examined system
 Technological processes
 Daily output examination
Expected changes after implementing material flow
simulation in production:
 Increase of machine and system utilization
 Productivity and output increase
 Decrease of incidental time
 Decrease of operators number
 Decrease of needed storage capacity
 Storage using forecast
 Optimization of technological palettes number
 Examining proposed alternatives of system
management
 Optimization of management strategies
 Reducing possible mistakes in manufacturing system
design
 Money saving
Production in a discrete production process is executed in
sequences. The range of a sequence may vary from one
product up to thousand or million products. It includes
mainly components or production of a specific specialized
machine. Secondly, under the term product it includes
components produced in mass production.
In a discrete production process, production is usually
realized by single machines that are in particular order
based on the order of proceeded operations. There are two
basic machine layouts:
1. Line configuration (both synchronous and
asynchronous) is used in mass production. When
production proceeds continuously and it is not needed
to storage between machines such a configuration is
called synchronous. In the synchronous line
configuration all machines work with the identical
timing. The longest production operation defines the
length of the manufacturing lines timing.
Asynchronous line configuration uses storage between
each two following machines.
2. More complicated manufacturing, operating and
logistic operations are executed in manufacturing
systems. This category includes the flexible
manufacturing cells for small batch production.
5. CONCLUSION
In the last years, the cell manufacturing becomes one of
the most important manufacturing types. This conception
is based on the relation between manufacturing cell and
workpiece. Flexible manufacturing cells allow to
manufacture of the small number of parts from the huge
range of types and to achieve good economical effects
near to large batch or mass production. The
manufacturing cells structure enables to connect machines
and to save the production time, space and production
costs as well. Functions of machines are coordinated and
the material flow can be fast.
Manufacturing process of components, parts or final
products is usually not realized in single workplace. The
manufacturing logistics solves the tasks concerning
organization of material and information flow in
manufacturing. The importance of manipulating and
333
transport devices is underlined by fact that more than 50%
of time needed for manufacturing is spent by
manipulation and transport. Automation level of these
processes is generally smaller than automation level of
technological processes.
The aim of material flow optimization in flexible
manufacturing systems are improved the usage of
material flow realizing devices, improve efficiency of
technological devices and transportation time shortening.
A very important property of material flow is its
flexibility. This means possibility to material flow change
in dependences of technology or production changes.
In time of transport devices planning is needed have on
mind type of handled materials (pieces, mass,
dimensions,...) and type of technological process (discreet
or contiguous technological processes).
[6] NMETH, J., ILLS, B.: Logisztikai rendszerek I.,
Miskolci Egyetemi Knyvkiad, Miskolc, 2004. p.1-
378.
[7] KOVCS, Gy. - CSELNYI, J.- SMID,
L.Evaluation Methods of Storage Capacity between
Manufacturing Levels of Eees at changing product
Structure, MicroCAD 2002. Miskolc, 2002. mrcius
7-8. (co-authors: Cselnyi, J.; Smid, L.); 2002.
Konferencia-kiadvnya, University of Miskolc,
Miskolc, 2002, ISBN 963 661 515 2, pp.: 63-71
[8] PTER Telek, JZSEF Cselnyi, TAMS Bnyai
Simulated comparison analisys of control strategies
of two-level collecting routes of used common
products MicroCAD 2004. Konferencia, I:
Anyagramlsi rendszerek s logisztikai informatika
szekci kiadvnya, pp. 75-80. Miskolc, 2004.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This article was created thanks to the national grant

VEGA 1/0206/09 Intelligent assembly cell

REFERENCES

[1] MUDRIKOV, Andrea - KOL, Peter -

VELEK, Karol: Material and information flow in
flexible manufacturing cell. In: Annals of DAAAM
and Proceedings of DAAAM Symposium. - ISSN
1726-9679. - Vol. 18, No. 1. Annals of DAAAM for
2007 & Proceedings of the 18th International
DAAAM Symposium "Intelligent Manufacturing &
Automation: Focus on Creativity, Responsibility, and
Ethics of Engineers" : Croatia, Zadar 24-27th
October 2007 (2007). - Viede : DAAAM
International Vienna. - ISBN 978-3-901509-58-2,
s. 485-486
[2] KOL, Peter - MUDRIKOV, Andrea: Hmotn a
informan toky v robotizovanej vrobnej bunke.
Material and data flow in robotized manufacturing
cell. In: Acta Mechanica Slovaca. - ISSN 1335-2393.
- Ro. 12, . 2-A : ROBTEP 2008. Automatizcia /
Robotika v terii a praxi. 9. celottna konferencia s
medzinrodnou asou. Tataransk Lomnica, 9.-
11.06.2008 (2008), s. 335-340 CORRESPONDENCE
[3] MUDRIKOV, Andrea - HRUKOV, Erika -
HORVTH, tefan: Areas in flexible manufacturing- Andrea MUDRIKOV, MSc. Eng., PhD.
assembly cell. - lnok vyiel v asopise: Annals of Slovak University of Technology
Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara - Journal of Faculty of Material Science and
Engineering, ISSN 1584-2673, Tome VI, Fascicule 3, Technology, Rzusova 2 16
2008, str. 123-127. In: Scientific Bulletin. - ISSN 91724 Trnava, Slovak Republic
1224-3264. - Vol. XXII (2008), s. 293-298 andrea.mudrikova@stuba.sk
[4] CHARBULOV, Marcela - MUDRIKOV, Andrea:
Fixture devices with modular conception. In: AMO Peter KOL,
2008 : 8th international conference on advanced Assoc. Prof., MSc. Eng., PhD.
manufacturing operations. Bulgaria, Kranevo, 18-20 Slovak University of Technology
June 2008. - Sofia : DMT Product, 2008. - S. 123- Faculty of Material Science and
126 Technology, Rzusova 2
[5] CSELNYI, J. - ILLS. B.: Logistika alapjai, BAY 91724 Trnava, Slovak Republic
LOGI, ISBN963 87052 64, Miskolc, 2006 peter.kostal@stuba.sk

334

FE ANALISIS OF GRAY CAST IRON
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Georgi STOYCHEV
Abstract: Elasto-plastic deformation of grey cast iron is
in consideration in this paper. A non-associated
constitutive model, based on the phenomenological
approach is proposed. The yield condition is established
on the second invariant of the stress deviator, on the first
invariant of the stress tensor. The plastic potential is
based on the same invariants. Modified form of the plastic
work is defined as a hardening parameter and tensile test
curve is used to calculate it. The advantage of the
proposed model is the limited number of material
parameters determinable from uniaxial tension or
compression test.
An experimental estimation of the material model,
implemented in FE-code ANSYS is presented. A flow
chart of the computational procedure is given. The
verification of the model is realized by bi-axial tests on
tubular specimens and thin plate. Calculated and
measured stress-strain curves for tension, compression
and bilinear stress state are discussed. A very good
agreement between calculated and measured stress-strain
curves may be indicated in the case of uniaxial and
biaxial tests with tubular specimens.
Circular simply-supported plate is used to prove
experimentally the new material model. A good
agreement between experimental and numerical results is
obtained.
Key words: grai cast iron plasticity, design
1. INTRODUCTION
It is well known the great dependence of the cast iron
strength on its microstructure [1, 2] and the small
deformations of the material for stresses up to the failure
(Fig. 1). Considering the grey cast iron as a brittle
material many authors have proposed to use linear elastic
models and their investigations have been concentrated
only onto the ultimate strength determination and the
verification of the failure criteria for the material [3, 4,
and 5]. The engineering practice requires more precise
models for numerical calculations of cast iron details
nowadays.
More accurate investigations of the material show in the
case of pure tension and compression considerable
elastoplastic deformation and one should take in account
the effects of such rheology.
Some experimental results from uniaxial tests are
published in [5, 6].
MPa
strength in compression 747 MPa
700
600
compression
500
400
300
strength in tension 210 MPa
200
tension
100
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 ||
Fig. 1. Stress-strain diagram
for grey cast iron
Information on the mechanical properties of the grey cast
iron in the case of multiaxial loading is available in papers
[6, 7, 8, 9 and 10].
Detailed information for elastoplastic deformation of grey
cast iron is available in [7, 9, 10 and 11]. To describe the
different behavior in tension and compression a
composite yield surface is used in models, described in
[12, 21, and 22].
Models for numerical calculations of the cast iron
structural elements are proposed in [7, 12, 13, and 14].
The models proposed in [6, 11] are implemented in
commercial finite element code ANSYS and ABAQUS
[16, 17]. Since the elastoplastic behavior of the cast iron
depends on the strength, for usage of the mentioned FE
codes, uniaxial tension and uniaxial compression data for
the given material and the plastic Poissons ratio in
tension are required. The tension behavior is assumed
pressure dependent and volumetric strain is supposed.
Thus the plastic Poisson's ratio assumes the value
provided by the user. For the compression case the
material is assumed as incompressible (there is no
volumetric strain) and the plastic Poisson's ratio is taken
P = 0,5.
As it is shown in [19] the experimental estimation of the
models gives good agreement despite the stress state for
stresses less than 100-150 MPa. For larger stresses there
is an appreciable deviation between calculated and
measured stress-strain curves.
2. GRAY CAST IRON MODEL
In order to take in account the different behaviour of the
material in tension and compression it is convenient to
introduce a yield function in a form proposed in [14, 17].
335
 f
f = J 2 + ( ) 1 ( ) = 0 , (1) Dklmn d mn
kl
d = ( m , ) , (8)
where J2 is the second invariant of the stress deviator, 1 f g f g
rs + Dklmn
is the maximum principal stress, is the hardening rs kl mn
parameter, ( ) and ( ) are material functions
where Dklmn is fourth order tensor of elastic material
determined by uniaxial tests constants and dmn is the tensor of total strains and
3 3 J
C ( ) T ( ) C ( ) = 1 3 cos 1 3
is the coordinate of the three-
() = , () = . (2) 2 J 32
3T ( ) 3 2

dimentional Haigh-Westergaard space [3].

The functions T ( ) and C ( ) can be obtained as a
current yield stresses in uniaxial tension and compression
respectively.
The hardening parameter taking in account the pressure
sensitivity of the grey cast iron can be defined as
1 of stress increasing one can give arbitrary augmentation
= ( m , )
ij d ijp ,
b1 b2
with ( m , ) =
m b3
1 + exp + b2
b4
where ij is the stress tensor and d ijp is the increment of
the plastic strain tensor, m = I1 3 is the mean stress and
b1, b2, b3, b4 are material parameters depending on the
loading type. These parameters can be identified by
simple tests in tension, compression and torsion.
Since the experimental results indicate plastic volume
3. NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
The verification of the model was realized using
experimental data for grey cast iron. Since in the
beginning is unknown to determine it for a given step
(3)
of the plastic work to calculate according to (5). Than
using the formulas the plastic work corresponding to the
calculated by (5) value can be obtained. Comparing
(4)
the two values, accepted and calculated respectively, one
can organize a flowchart of a computational procedure.
Experimental tensile stress-strain relation (1 1 ) is
used to obtain function T ( ) .
Input data from
ANSYS: ij,ntr, ij,n-1pl
If for the first time

dilatation in tension, compression and pure torsion q=1/m (m-integer)

trough subtine

calculation of transverse strain using associated flow rule

gives unrealistic values independent of the choice of the
yield function. More accurate modeling of the volume ij=q ij,n
change in the elastoplastic region can be obtained using
non-associated flow rule. The plastic potential is proposed Compute:
in the following form yes
no
t ( ) , f ij , g ij
d , ijpl ,i , i
g = J 2 + ( ) I1 + ( ) I , 2 Read user data: Compute
1 (5) initial y, E, , err ij,n, ij,ntr

where ( ) and ( ) are functions of the hardening Compute eq (ij,ntr)

Update:
i=1..m ijel,i = ij i - ijpl
parameter and can be identified using experimental data ijpl,i = ijpl,i-1 +ijpl
from uniaxial tests in tension and compression. The yes ijel,i = ijel,i-1+ijel
Check for yielding i= i-1+
increment of the volumetric plastic deformation can be y<eq (ij,ntr) ij,n= ij,n+ij
determined from the flow rule
no
g Update m=m/2 Stress error check
d = d ij
p
, (6) ijpl = 0
yes
eq= |eq(n) - eq(ij,n)|
ij
V
ijel = ijtr Check if eq>err
no
where d is plastic multiplier.
Return results to the
The stress increment can be computed via the elastic main program (ANSYS)
stress-strain relations

d ij = Dijkl d kl (7) Fig. 2. Flow chart of the computational procedure

with d ije = d ij d ijp since the total strain increment can The user subroutine for material behaviour is written for
implementation in FE-code ANSYS. A sub-incremented
be divided to an elastic d and plastic d part. Based on
e
ij
e
ij forward-Euler integration scheme is used to trace the
the plastic consistency condition the plastic multiplier can process of loading [20]. The flow chart of the
be expressed in the form computational procedure is given in Fig. 2.
336
Numerical analysis of the strain and stress state is The principal strains in dependence on the principal
performed to compare the results obtained by implanted in stresses under uniaxial and biaxial stress conditions with
ANSYS material model for cast iron and the new model ratio k = x/z = 0,5;1;2;-1;-2 of the axial x and tangential
implanted in ANSYS as material subroutine. z stresses are computed for grey cast iron with a tensile
The stress-strain curve for tension (Table 1 and Fig. 4) is strength FT = 210 MPa. The comparison between the
experimentally obtained. A great advantage of the new experimental results and the calculations shows very good
material model is the possibility to use one of the curves agreement. For example in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 the
for the numerical calculations. It is very important to relationship for k = 1 and k = 0,5 may be seen.
obtain correct results (Table 1) taking in account the
appreciable dependency of cast iron deformation on the
strength. z[MPa] x[MPa]
The data for cast iron with strength in tension 210 MPa is 250
given in Table 1. The graph of stress-strain - curve in
tension is shown in Fig. 3.
200
Table 1. Data for - curve in tention

150
EXP
% [MPa] % [MPa]
COMP
1 0 0 8 0,182 107,51 100
k=1
2 0,016 14,0 9 0,226 119,0
3 0,032 28,03 10 0,274 130,55 50
4 0,054 46,23 11 0,332 142,08
5 0,071 58,36 12 0,402 152,0
0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
6 0,101 74,74 13 0,491 162,3 zx(-1)[%] x[%]
7 0,136 90,51 14 0,585 172,5
Fig. 5. Stress-strain curves for x/ z = 1

X[MPa] z[MPa] x[MPa]

250 240

200 200

150 160
EXP
COMP
100 120 k-0,5

80
50
40
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
X.10-2 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2
Fig. 3. Stress-strain curve T T in tension zx(-1)[%] x[%]

The verification of the proposed model and the FE Fig. 6. Stress-strain curves for x/ z = 0,5
implementation was realized firstly on tubular specimens
(Fig. 5) under internal pressure, axial force and torque
loading conditions [18].
F
z M
x
F p0 F
xz 42,5 mm 250 mm
M

Fig. 4. Tubolar specimen under internal Fig. 7. Circular simply-supported plate

pressure, axial force and torque and location of the strain gages

337
Circular simply-supported plate along the edges loaded by
concentrated force at the centre (Fig. 7) is used to prove
experimentally the numerical results. The plate is of 250
mm diameter and thickness 20 mm.
To measure the strains during the loading a strain gages
are instilled on circle of 85 mm diameter in radial and
tangential directions.
Axisymmetric model of ANSYS (Fig. 8) is used to
calculate the strains in radial and tangential directions of
the plate.
As a plastic Poassons ratio experimentally obtained value
of p = 0,114 is used for the numerical calculations.
Fig. 8. Axisymetric model of ANSYS
with boundary conditions
The stress distribution in radial x and tangential z
directions respectively are shown in figures 9 and 10. The
loading is up to failure.
Fig. 9. Distribution of the stresses x in radial direction
Fig. 10. Distribution of the stresses z in tangential
direction
338
The numerical results for the strains at a point of 42,5 mm
distance from the centre on the compressive and the
tensional sides respectively are shown in figures 11 and
12. The results are represented as force F versus strain in
order to be compared the numerical and experimental
data. In Fig. 11 are shown the numerically and
experimentally obtained curves F - % for the tensional
side of the plate. One can observe good agreement
between the experimentally and data obtained using the
new and implanted ANSYS material subroutine.
The experimental and numerical results for the
compressive side of the plate are shown in Fig. 12. In this
case the results obtained by the new material subroutine
are more closed to the experiment.
-1
Fx10 [kN]
8
6
EXP
ANS
NEW
4
2
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
[%]
Fig. 11. Numerically and experimentally obtained
curves F- % for the tensional side of the plate
10
8 ANS
EXP
NEW
6
0
-0.35 -0.30 -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00
[%]
Fig. 12. Numerically and experimentally obtained
curves F-% for the compressive side of the plate
4. CONCLUSION
The numerical results obtained by the proposed material
model show very good agreement between the computed
values and the experimental data from uniaxial and
biaxial tests for tubular specimens.
Good agreement may be indicated comparing numerical
data obtained by the new model and the experimental data
for circular simply-supported plate.
Further investigations should be directed to the
verification of the model in other case of finite element
structural analyses.
REFERENCES
[1] STOYCHEV, G., TUSHTEV, K., A strength
criterion for materials with different properties in
tension and compression, Proceedings of Technical
University - Sofia, 1995, Vol. 48, No. 5, pp 113-120,
(in Bulgarian)
[2] STOYCHEV, G., TUSHTEV, K., A method to
determine the yield stress of grey cast iron.
Mashinostroene, 1997, No 1-2, pp 25-28 (in
Bulgarian)
[3] COFFIN, Jr, L. F., The flow and fracture of a brittle
material, Journal of Applied Mechanics
(Transactions of the ASME), 1950Vol. 72, pp 233-
248
[4] MAIR, W. M., Fracture criteria for cast iron under
bi-axial stress, Journal of Strain Analysis, 1968, 3, pp
254-263
[5] GILBERT, G. N. J., Behavior of Cast Iron Under
Stress, Proceedings of British Cast Iron Research
Associiation Conference on Engineering Properties
and Performance of Modern Iron Castings, 1970, pp
41-73
[6] HERRON, J. L., TROJAN, P. K., FLINN, R. A.
Stress - Strain Rrelationships for Standard Grades
and Ductile Irons in Tension, Compression and
Torsion. Transactions of The American Foundrymens
Society, AFS, 1970, Vol. 78, pp 173-179.
[7] HJELM, H. E., Yield Surface for Grey Cast Iron
under Biaxial Stress, Journal of Engineering
Materials and Technology (Transaction of the
ASME), 1994, Vol. 116, pp 148 -154
[8] TUSHTEV, K., Elasto-plastic Behavior of Materials
with Different Strength in Tension and Compression,
PhD Dissertation, Sofia, 1998 (in Bulgarian)
[9] SHAWKI, G. S. A., NADA, S., On the Mechanics of
Grey Cast Iron under Pure Bending, Journal of
Engineering Materials and Technology (Transaction
of the ASME), 1986, Vol. 108, No 2, pp 141 -146
[10] LIPETZKY, P., WANNER, A., On the Problem of
Interpreting Flexure Experiments on Semi-britle
Materials, Materials Science and Engineering A211,
1996, pp 89-94
[11] KOHOUT, J., A Simple Relation for Deviation of
Grey and Modular Cast Irons from Hookes Law,
Materials Science and Engineering A313, 2001, pp
16-23
[12] JOSEFSON, B., STIGH, L. U., HJELM, H. E., A
nonlinear cinematic hardening model for
elastoplastic deformations in grey cast iron, Journal
of Engineering Materials and Technology
(Transaction of the ASME), 1995, Vol. 117, pp 145 -
150
[13] HAYAKAVA, K., MURAKAMI, S., LIU, Y., An
Irreversible Thermodynamics Theory for Elastic-
plastic-damage Materials, European Journal of
Mechanics, 1998, Vol. 17, No 1
[14] CHEN C., LU, T. J., A Phenomenological
Framework of Constitutive Modelling for
Incompressible and Compressible Elasto-plastic
Solids, International Journal of Solids and Structures,
2000m No 37, pp 7769-7786
[15] ALTENBACH, H., STOYCHEV, G., TUSHTEV,
K., On Elastoplastic Deformation of Grey Cast Iron,
International Journal of Plasticity, 2001, No 17, pp
719-736
[16] ANSYS Revision 5.2 Users Manual, Swanson
Analyses Systems Inc., 1992, Houston, USA
[17] ABAQUS Users Manual, Version 6.0, Hibbit,
Karlson and Sorensen Inc., Providence, 2001, RI,
USA
[18] STOYCHEV, G., TUSHTEV, K., Variant of
Plasticity for Cast Iron, J. Theor. and Appl. Mech.,
1997, No. 4, pp 105-115
[19] STOYCHEV, G., PETROV, P., TUSHTEV K., An
Experimental Estimation of Cast Iron Material
Models, Journal of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, 2004, Vol. 34, No. 4
[20] STOYCHEV G., PETROV, P., FEA Nonlinear
Hardening Model for Grey Cast Iron, 10th Jubilee
National Congress on Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, 2005, Varna, 13-16 September
[21] CHEN, W. F., HAN, D. J., Plasticity for Structural
Engineers, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988.
[22] JOSEFSON, B. L., HJELM, H. E., Modelling
Elastoplastic Deformations in Grey Cast Iron,
Conference: Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic
Behaviour of Materials-3, Berlin, Germany, 7-11
Sept. 1992, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Crown
House, Linton Rd., Barking, Essex, UK. 1992, pp
465-472
339
CORRESPONDENCE

Georgy STOYCHEV, Assoc. Prof. Ph.D.

Technical University of Sofia
Department Strength of materials
Kliment Ohridski 8
1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
gstojch@tu-sofia.bg

340

COMPARISON SOME THERMO-
CHEMICAL TREATMENTS FOR
IMPROVEMENT WEAR RESISTANCE
Jeremija JEVTIC
Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC
Djuro BORAK
Abstract: Material matching has a considerable effect to
wear, friction as well as to endurance of certain
components in service. Inadequate selection of material
combination, particularly for engines moving
components, such as: piston-liner-piston rings, tappet-
cam, etc., lead to fast wear and scuffing whose
consequences may be disastrous for an engine.
This paper deal with testing wears resistance of various
thermo-chemical treatments. Wear resistance of surface
layers obtained by case hardening and various methods
of nitriding was tested on the Amsler machine. The
nitrding treatment was performed in ammonia and in
plasma of N2 + H2 gas mixture.
Test results show that the best wear, at high load, proved
to have case hardened samples and then plasma nitrided
samples with g` layer.
Key words: wear resistance, nitriding, case hardening
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern technical development of machines and engines
aims to increase power and speed and to decrease weight.
The tendency towards continuous increase of specific
power of an internal combustion engine leads to the
increase of failure probability due to wear and fatigue. It
is considered [1] that about 80% of all tribology problems
within machine building industry is attributed to sliding
and rolling elements, one fourth of which goes to wear.
Wearing affects fatigue much more than stress
concentration although nominal stresses are relatively
low. The excessive wear adversely affects normal engine
performance and increases the consumption of fuel and
lubricants, also increase noise, vibrations and exhaust
emissions. Thus, for example, the excessive wear of
engine cylinder-piston assembly results in increased air
pollution by exhaust gases [2]. Investigation [3] have
shown that reducing the friction of the gasoline engine by
10% would yield a fuel economy improvement of some
5% and a similar proportional reduction of the diesel
engines friction would give as a much as 7%. Therefore,
tribology key to the efficient engine is a sweaping claim.
Although the frictional losses, in an engine, are low in
relation to the total input of fuel energy, they form a much
more significant proportion of the output of useful work.
The convential automotive gasoline and diesel engine is
lubricated by motor oil with some moving components
working in the hydrodynamic regime and others in e
mixed dynamic and hydrodynamic influence all occur.
Rubbing friction occurs both during the first start of an
engine before the motor oil is fully circulated to critical
engine parts and in highly stressed thin or squeeze film
lubricated areas when the engine is running fully warmed-
up. Figure 1 is a physical model depicting engine energy
losses or friction plotted against motor oil viscosity, and
shows how motor oil can influence energy loss and hence
affects the fuel economy of automotive vehicles [4].
Wear resistance and scuffing of machine parts can be
improved by thermo-chemical treatments. Nitriding and
carbonitriding technologies are the most suitable
processes for hardening machine parts. Nitriding is one of
the most popular surface engineering technologies, having
the advantage over case hardening because it minimizes
unavoidable distortions. There are several nitriding
processes among them ammonia gas nitriding, salt bath
nitriding, plasma nitriding and powdwr nitriding. Plasma
nitriding is the best of all as it permits the control of
nitrided zones can be regulated.
Material matching [6-9] has a considerable effect to vear,
friction as well as to endurance of certain moving
components in service. The right choice of material [10-
12] is a difficult task for any engineer irrespective of rich
experience in engine and machine building industries.
Inadequate selection of material combination, particularly
for moving components, such as: piston-liner-piston-
rings, tappet-cam, etc., may lead to first wear and scuffing
whose consequences may be disastrous for an engine.
This paper deal with the comparison of some thermo-
chemical treatments for improvements wear resistance
moving parts.
Fig. 1. Energy loss between lubricated sliding surfaces
341
2. EXPERIMENTAL hardness of about 620 HV0.3, a nitrided layer of 0.35 mm
and compound layers (g') of about 3 um (Fig.3a) and
Wear resistance of some thermo-chemical treatments, about 5 um for e compound layer (Fig. 3b).
have been investigated on the three group of samples Similar characteristics were obtained also with gas
made of 20CrMo5 ( C. 4721) steel. One group of these
nitrided and case hardened samples, except for somewhat
samples was subjected to case hardening (in propane-
higher surface hardness (710 HV 0.3 and 760 HV 0.3) and
butane gas at 9200 C), the other one to ammonia nitriding,
thicker compound layers (6 um and 9 um, respectively).
and the third to plasma nitriding in the H2 + N2 gas
mixture. The sample used for wear testing was a 30 mm
diameter disc whose thickness was 10 mm.
Samples were rig tested on Amsler wear machine and the
obtained results were compared with those of case
hardened, gas and plasma nitrided samples. The average
steady state wear rates were estimated after a total of
100.000 cycles, but mass losses were measured after each
20.000 cycles.
The glow discharge plasma nitriding was performed for
12h at the temperature of 5000 C in the gas mixture of:
25% N2 + 75% H2 (g'-layer) and 80% N2 + 20% H2 e-
layer) under the pressure of 300 Pa, chosen to form
moonfaced compound layers g'or e. Before glow
discharge plasma nitriding the samples had been
submitted to glow discharge hydrogen plasma sputter
etched for 2h .
The gas nitriding wae performed in an industrial
installation for 25h at 510 0 C in the NH3 ammonia gas.
Evaluation of nitrided and case hardened samples was
conducted by optical microscopy methods, X-ray
diffractometry analysis and microchardness tester with
load of 0,3 kg.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSION

The microhardness profile produced by thermo-chemical

treatments-nitriding and case hardening reflects the
quantity, size and distribution of metal nitride or carbide
precipitate in hardened zones.

Fig. 3. Optical photomicrographs (x 400) of the cross-

sections of the surface layers, of 20CrMo5 steel
specimens, produced after glow discharge plasma
nitriding (g'-3a, e-3b) and gas nitriding (g'+e)-3c

Figure 4 shows test results obtained when resistance to

Fig. 2. Microhardeness depth profile of 20CrMo5 steel
samples case hardened (1), gas nitrided (2) and glow
discharge nitrided (3)
Figure 2 shows microhardness as a function of depth of
case hardened and nitrided samples. It can be seen that
after plasma nitriding the surface have obtained a
wear was tested on samples made of 20CrMo5 steel
subsequently case hardened, ammonia and plasma
nitrided.
It can be seen, from fig.4, that at relatively higher loads
case hardened layer showed to be superior over gas and
plasma nitrided samples.
Better wear of case hardened samples compared with that
of nitrided ones at higher loads is probably due to various
hardnesses of cores in nitrided and case hardened
samples. Namely, the core hardness of nitrided 20CrMo5
steel samples is about 220 HV, while the core hardness of
case hardened samples is about 370 HV. Lower core
hardness affects the bearing properties of layer which is
liable to deform to a greater extent thus being exposed to
excessive wear. For that reason engine parts made from
hardened and tempered steel, before nitriding need to be
tempered [8].

342
Figure 4 shows that plasma nitrided samples with g'-
compound layer have better wear resistance in compare to
ones with e -compound layer and (e+g') - compound
layer. It can be seen that the wear resistance of g'-
compound layer is about 9% better then wear resistance
of e-compound layer, and 15% better in relat (e+g')
compound layer.
Fig. 4. Wear resistance of samples made of 20CrMo5
steel, case hardened, gas and plasma nitided
These differences in wear resistance of compound layers
are the result of their different properties. The compound
layer of g' type proves to have lower friction coefficient
than that of e -compound layer, and a considerably lower
friction coefficient than (g'+e)-compound layer. Thus,
the right choice of thermo-chemical treatments of
matched material is very important for wear and scuffing
resistance of moving components, for example tappet-
cam, piston-liner-piston-rings, etc., in engine [10-12].
Fig. 5. X-ray difractogram of plasma nitrided samples at
a temperature of 5000 C for 12h in the 25% N2 + 75% H2
gas mixture
Identification of compound layer types was conducted by
X-ray difractometry analysis. Fig. 5 and 6 show a CrKa X-
ray difractogram from a flat surface of a steel samples that
was glowe discharge plasma nitrided at a temperature of
5000 C for 12h in the 25% N2 + 75% H2 (g'-layer) and
80% N2 + 20% H2 (e-layer) under the pressure of 300 Pa,
respectively.
Fig. 6. X-ray difractogram of plasma nitrided samples at
a temperature of 5000 C for 12h in the 80% N2 + 20% H2
gas mixture
4. CONCLUSION
On the basis of obtained results it can be say that:
1. The right choice of thermo-chemical treatments of
matched material is very important for wear and
scuffing resistance of moving components.
2. At relatively higher loads case hardened layer showed
to be superior over gas and plasma nitrided samples.
3. Plasma nitrided samples with g'- compound layer
have better wear resistance in compare to ones with e-
compound layer and (g'+e) - compound layer.
4. The wear resistance of g'- compound layer is about
9% better then wear resistance of e-compound layer,
and 15% better in relation to (g'+e) compound
layer.
5. These differences in wear resistance of compound
layers are the result of their different properties, first
of all friction coefficient.
REFERENCES
[1] Failure Analysis and Prevention, ASM, V.10, 1975.
[2] GARKUNOV, D., Tribotehnika, Machinostroenie,
Moskva 1985.
[3] MONAHGAN, M., Engine Friction - A Change in
Emphasis, IME BP Tribology Lecture 1987.
[4] Tribology-key to the efficient engine, I. Mech. E.
Conference Publications 1982., London 1982.
[5] GREGORY, J., Thermal and chemico-thermal
treatments of ferrous materials to reduce wear,
Tribology, V.3, No2, 1970, p.73.
343
[6] DAY, R, Materials for I-C engine cylinder CORRESPONDENCE
components, Inst. of Mech. Eng. for CME, Mart
1976.
[7] NEALE, M., Tribology Handbook, London 1975. Jeremija JEVTIC, PhD.
[8] TOSIC, M., GLIGORIJEVIC, R, Wear properties IMR Institute
improvements of Plasma nitrided components of Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
42CrMo 4 steel, PSE 1988, Garmisch-Partenkirchen Belgrade, Serbia
1988. imrkb@eunet.rs
[9] JEVTIC, J., GLIGORIJEVIC, R., TOSIC, M.,
Improvement of Plate valve tappets by plasma
Surface Engineering PSe`90, Garnisch-Partenkirchen Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC, PhD.
1990, pp.146 IMR Institute
[10] GLIGORIJEVIC, R.., JEVTIC, J., BORAK, DJ., The Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
Important of Material Selection in machine Design, Belgrade, Serbia
1-st Sympos. On Multidisciplinary Studies of Design imrkb@eunet.rs
in Mechanical Engineering, Proceeding, p.23,
Bertinoro-Italy 2008
[11] GLIGORIJEVIC, R., JEVTIC, J., BORAK, DJ.,
Strategy Selection of material in machine Design, Djuro BORAK, MSc.
KOD 2008, Proceedings, p.403, N.Sad 2008 IMR Institute
[12] GLIGORIJEVIC, R.., JEVTIC, J., BORAK, DJ., Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
Significant Right material Matching for better Belgrade, Serbia
Endurance, Machine Design 2009, p.411, N. Sad imrkb@eunet.rs
2009

344

INCREASING PRODUCTION
EFFICIENCY OF HEAT TREATABLE AL-
ALLOYS
Aleksandra PATARI
Marija MIHAILOVI
Zvonko GULIIJA
Abstract: In order to determine the increasing production
efficiency of heat treatable AI alloys, the detailed
mechanical characterization was done. This paper
presents the results of microstructure and mechanical
testing of alloys EN AW 2007 and EN AW 2024 samples.
The results are obtained by tensile mechanical testing on
testing machine Zwick/Roell Z 100 and they are the part
of a comprehensive research.
Key words: mechanical characterization, production
efficiency, AI alloys
1. INTRODUCTION
Alloys applied in this paper are EN AW 2007 (AlCu4Pb
Mg). and EN AW 2024 (AlCu4Mg1Mn). They are heat
treatable alloys and are intending for plastic processing.
They belong to high strength group of alloys with wide
application in almost all fields of industry. They have
long production and processing, because they involve a
series of technological operations (modification, casting,
homogenization, pressing forming and termal treatment),
[1,2]. The homogenization is an longlasting and
expensive process, because of high consumption of
electrical energy. The main idea is to avoid or shortening
this process in order to increasing production process. It is
well know that conventional horizontal or vertical direct
chill casting due to unbalanced strengthening conditions,
leads to appearance of many defections. These are
inhomogeneous microstructures, porosity, hot cracks,
non-uniformal grain size and cristal segregation in the
ingot. All this leads to deterioration of mechanical
properties of strenght and tenacity first of all. In attempt
to eliminate this specified disandvantages, various
mehtods have been applaied worldwide: powder
metallurgy, ultra-sound and mechanical vibrations.
Unfortunately, the procedures are either too complicated
and expensive or insufficiently efficient. Literature
sources have shown that the procedure of casting under
the influence of electromagnetic field is much easier and
more efficient [3,4]. During casting in the electromagnetic
field, under the effect of periodic current, the inductor
generates an alternating magnetic field and the melt can
be inductively stirred. Generally speaking, improvement
of microstructure, reduction of porosity and stimulation of
heterogeneous nucleation is caused by forced convection
generated by electromagnetic forces, resulting in colder
melted metal flow from edges towards the centre and vice
versa. In that way, more balanced temperature field is
established. The balanced temperature through a cross
section of ingot also reduces tensions, which arise during
strengthening. Reduction of metallurgical errors in ingots
can also be expected. This paper represents the researches
which are the first attempt here to apply electromagnetic
field in the procedure of Al alloys casting, with the
purpose to influence the crystallization process in order to
obtain modified microstructure and improved mechanical
properties. In this way, the conditions were created to
avoid some technological operations in course of
obtaining (modification) and processing (homogenization)
of these alloys, which would lead to significant economic
effect.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
The chemical composition of applied alloys EN AW 2007
(AlCu4PbMg) and EN AW 2024 (AlCu4Mg1Mn) is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of alloys
Content
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Pb Ti
Alloy
2007 0.30 0.30 3.92 0.80 0.95 1.10 0.01
2024 0.09 0.22 4.10 0.60 1.28 - 0.01
For melting alloys, induction furnace of medium
frequency with capacity of 100 kg was used. The both
ingots, of alloy 2007, with diameter 50mm and of alloy
2024, with diameter 60mm were obtained by
horizontal continual casting with pulse draw-out. At the
bottom of the furnace there is a drainpipe with graphite
crystallizer that is intensively cooled with water. The low
frequency magnetic field is placed around the crystallizer
itself, figure 1, [5, 6].
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the electromagnetic
process
345
The temperature of casting was 710 720 C and average
casting speed was 1,5 mm/s. The operating parameters,
during the casting of ingots, were strictly controlled and
defined by various values of current (A), frequency (Hz)
and strength of electromagnetic field (At). The number of
turns in the coil was N=40. Table 2 shows some of
operating parameters of casting. Frequencies were
selected in broad diapason ranging from 1830 to 30 Hz.
There are literature data [7, 8] only for low frequencies (<
100 Hz). Since we had the opportunity to test the
influence of high frequencies as well, such tests were also
performed on the alloy 2007, similar with the alloy which
is the main subject of our interest, i.e. 2024. The sample 1
was casted without the presence of electromagnetic field
to enable the observation of field effect on mechanical
properties and microstructure with other samples.
in the form of eutecticum or individually, become finer by
the introduction of electromagnetic field and by
decreasing of frequency, (from 50 Hz in sample 2 to 30
Hz in sample 3). The decrease of microstructural
parameters DAS and LIMf, observed in samples 2 to 3, was
confirmed by the analysis of cumulative distribution
curves. However, the effect of electromagnetical field on
parameter DAS is greater compared to LIMf. By detailed
analysis of samples the presence of interdentritic type was
established as can be seen in figure 2.

Table 2. Operating parameters upon casting of samples

Sample Frequency Number of

Alloy
mark (Hz) turns (N)
1 2007 0 40
2 2024 50 40
3 2024 30 40
4 2007 1100 40
5 2007 1830 40 (a), sample 2

Before the mechanical characterization was done the

complete microstructure assessment was carried out. The
microstructure parameters describe the structure
dispersivity and directly affect the mechanical properties
of the alloy. The microstructure was examined on a cross
section of a sample after the usual metallographic
preparation and etching in Kellers reagent (revealing
morphology of Al segregation-solid solution and inter
metallic phase) and anode oxidation with Barkers reagent
(revealing size and shape of the grain in presence of
dendrite segregation). For the quantitative microstructure
analysis the image analysis device Leica Q500MC was
used. Dendrite arm spacing (DAS), interdendritic space
width (LIMf), where intermetallic phases and eutecticum
were separated, as well as their volume fraction, were
acquired using linear method, through the measuring of (b), sample 3
total length of the line segments belonging to each phase Fig. 2. The porosity of interdentritic type
and calculating the amount of intersects with phase
boundaries. These parameters are the consequence of the It is determined that the porosity of interdendritic type is
solidification conditions. reduced from sample 2 (50 Hz) towards the sample 3 (30
Hz), i.e. with the decrease of electromagnetic field
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION frequency. It is also found that the grain size is
significantly reduced from the sample 2 to the sample 3.
The microstructure obviously has shown that Al This is important because the less amount of porosity and
segregation from the solid solution resulted in the smaller grain contributes the better quality of ingots
celluar/dendritic morphology. Upon that, the structures of and thus to mechanical properties.
sample 1, without the electromagnetic field effect, and Since it was concluded that there are no positive effects of
samples 4 and 5, with electromagnetic field of high high frequency to the obtained microstructure, the further
frequency, are more dendritic compared to the samples 2 investigation included only the mechanical properties of
and 3, which are casted with the presence of low- samples obtained by application the frequency of 50 Hz
frequency electromagnetic field. It is obvious that the and 30 Hz, and also of the one obtained without the
application of high frequency has no effect on the influence of electromagnetic field from the same alloy EN
improvement of microstructure. Quite oppositely, at 1830 AW 2024. For mechanical testing, the Zwick/Roell Z 100
Hz the structure was rougher compared to one obtained device was used. The samples for this tensile testing were
without the influence of electromagnetic field. On the prepared according to JUS C.A4002 and for the hardness
other hand, the regions of extracted inter metallic phase, according to JUS C. A4.103

346
The values of mechanical properties are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Mechanical properties of alloy 2024 ingots

Sample Rp0.2 Rm A
HB5/25//30
mark (Mpa) (Mpa) (%)

2 198.1 243.2 1.2 93.5

3 246.6 274.2 0.7 107.0

The stress-strain curves can be seen in Figure 3.

Fig. 4. Interdendrite extracted inter metallic phase,
sample 3

This means that by the good combination of operating

parameters of casting, a priori frequency, the increase of
resistance properties can be achieved, and also the
increase of plasticity by the use of microstructure control.
This is significant because the good mechanical
properties, in the initial stage of production process, mean
a great savings in all the following production stages.

4. CONCLUSION

The investigations results of alloy EN AW 2024 and EN

(a) sample 2
(b) sample 3
Fig. 3. Stress-strain curves
On the basis of previous microstructural analysis, such
trend of change of alloy resistance properties, i.e. their
increase, could have been expected. However, the
decrease of plasticity for specimen 3 can be interpreted by
the appearance of rough continually extracted particles of
IMF, Fig 4, in relation to specimen 2. This continually
grid of IMF particles has detrimental effect on mechanical
properties, especially on plasticity. Furthermore, one
should bear in the mind the fact that the values of
mechanical properties for specimens of alloy 2024 cast
without the influence of electromagnetic field were: Rp0.2=
162.5MPa, Rm= 179.9MPa and A=0.49%. i.e.they were
the lowest.
AW 2007 ingots obtained with different operating
conditions, with or without the presence of
electromagnetic field, clearly show its effect on the
microstructure and mechanical characteristics. It has been
proved that only the application of low frequency
electromagnetic field ( 50Hz) has the positive effects,
which obviously change strengthening conditions.
Namely, when the frequency decreases (from 50 Hz in
sample 2 to 30 Hz in sample 3), the DAS and grain size
decrease as well, what is noticeable through the finer
microstructure and its uniformity throughout the cross-
section. It is also determined that the porosity of
interdendritic type is reduced from sample 2 (50 Hz)
towards the sample 3 (30 Hz). All of this contributes the
better mechanical properties and thus the quality of
ingots. The better mechanical properties in the initial
stage of production process provide less consumption of
electrical energy. Obtained results indicate that some
steps in current technological process can be avoided,
namely better surface quality contributes the surface
machine processing elimination. Besides, the finer
microstructure contributes shortening or eliminating
homogenization process, one of the longest and the most
expensive process during the production of aluminum
alloys. The literature data show that the intensity of
electromagnetic field has also great effect on
microstructural and mechanical properties. So, the further
work in this area should focus towards the intensity of
electromagnetic field and encompass the other aluminum
alloys which are aimed for forging.
REFERENCES
[1] PATARI, Aleksandra, GULIIJA, Zvonko,
MARKOVIC, Sran, Microstructure Examination of
Electromagnetic Casting 2024 Aluminum Alloy
Ingots, Practical Metallography, 44 (2007) 6.

347
[2] STEFANOVI, Milinteje, PATARI, Aleksandra, CORRESPODENCE
GULIIJA, Zvonko, JORDOVI, Branka, Hot
Forging of High Strenght Al Alloys, Journal for Aleksandra PATARI, MSc.
Technology of Plasticity, vol 32 (2007), number 1-2. Institute for Technology of Nuclear and
[3] PATARI, Aleksandra, GULIIJA, Zvonko, Other Mineral Raw Materials
JORDOVI, Branka, Effect of Electromagnetic Field Frane dEperea 86
on the Microstructure of Continual Casting Al 2024 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Alloy Ingots, 3rd International Conference a.pataric@itnms.ac.rs
Deformation Processing and Structure of Materials,
September 20-22, 2007, Belgrade, 141-149. Marija MIHAILOVI, MSc.
[4] PATARI, Aleksandra, GULIIJA, Zvonko, Institute for Technology of Nuclear and
STEFANOVI, Milentije, Uticaj elektromagnetnog Other Mineral Raw Materials
polja na mehanika svojstva aluminijumske legure Frane dEperea 86
2024 dobijene kontinualnim postupkom livenja, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
DEMI 2007 Banjaluka, 25-26 maj 2007., 277-282. m.mihailovic@itnms.ac.rs
[5] PATARI, Aleksandra, GULIIJA, Zvonko,
MIHAILOVI, Marija, Characterization of Zvonko GULIIJA, Prof. PhD.
electromagnetic casting 2024 Al alloy ingots, 5th Institute for Technology of Nuclear and
Congress of the Society of Metalurgysts of Other Mineral Raw Materials
Macedonia, 17-20 September 2008, Proceedings, Frane dEperea 86
p.95 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
[6] PATARI, Aleksandra, GULIIJA, Zvonko, z.gulisija@itnms.ac.rs
MIHAILOVI, Marija, The possiblity for application
the new production process for casting aluminum
alloys, Machine Design 2009, p 431.
[7] VIVES Ch and , RICOU, R. Experimental Study of
Continuous Electromagnetic Casting of Aluminium
Alloys; Metallurgical Transactions B, vol 16, 1995, p
373.
[8] MEYER J.L., RICOU, R, A Comprehensive Study of
the Induced Current, The Electromagnetic Force
Field, and the Velocity Field in a Complex
Electromagneticlly Driven Flow Sistem,
Metallurgical Transaction B, vol 18, 1997, p. 529.

348

AN APPROACH FOR PREDICTING
FATIGUE LIFE OF NOTCHED
SPECIMENS OF AZ91 MAGNESIUM
ALLOY
Biliana DIMOVA
Veselin TSONEV
Abstract: An approach for predicting fatigue life of
notched specimens made from magnesium alloys is
described. The possibility for application of the effective
stress concentration factor Kf in predicting durability has
been examined, taking into account the concentration of
stresses. The approach is based on cyclic plastic strain
energy density and effective stress concentration factor
and takes into account the dynamics of the fatigue
process, including the number of cycles to failure and
total hysteresis energy. The effective stress concentration
factor Kf is determined analytically and experimentally
for the investigated magnesium alloy from experimental
tests under symmetrical loading. An experimental
verification has been performed on smooth and notched
specimens for magnesium alloy AZ91 subjected to cyclic
tension/compression. A predictive capability of the
approach is found to be with good agreement to the
experimental results for the investigated type of Mg-alloy.
Key words: Fatigue, Fatigue life prediction, Hysteresis
energy, ,Notches, Mg-Alloys
1. INTRODUCTION
Research and development in the introduction of highly
efficient technologies is guided by the following
principles - functionality, economy, quality, flexibility
and productivity. The use of the light metal magnesium
and its alloys as construction material with its
technological properties good for engineering practice, in
comparison with the imposed so far metals and alloys, is
indicative of the development of a technology in
compliance with the new social, economic and
environmental aspects. In order to extend their scope of
applicability, extra knowledge for describing the
behaviour of the material and its impact on the behaviour
of structural elements, is necessary. Predicting durability
in damage and destruction due to fatigue is associated
with solving a whole set of complex tasks. Particularly
important is the determination of the fatigue life of the
advanced materials such a magnesium alloys with
different types of variable loads and different geometries.
It is well known that in areas with localized stress
concentration fatigue crack may occur beforehand, and
under the action of variable loads, its intense growth in
the fields near the tip of the concentrator to be
accelerated. In most real structures geometrical or
technological concentrators exist: notches, holes, step
transitions, welds, etc. At these points stress and
deformations are higher and fatigue cracks typically
originate there. Although the actual structures work with
variables nominal loads in the region of elasticity, the
presence of stress concentrators leads to a change of the
stressed state and plastic deformations occur in the area of
maximum stress concentration, which reduces the fatigue
strength.
Key parameters used to describe such local stress field
near the tip of the concentrator and to assess the
durability, are the elasticity factor of stress concentration
Kt, the effective coefficient of stress concentration Kf and
the relative stress gradient ( y ) [10, 11]. A large
number of reference books, standards and approximative
formulas facilitate the determination of these factors for a
wide range of structural elements and structures. Despite
the diversity of structural forms and types of
concentrators described, calculated and presented by these
means, they are limited and do not cover the actual
diversity of geometries and structures. In the laboratory
practice, to simulate the various structures and their
geometries, notch samples with different coefficients of
stress concentration are normally used [1, 9, 12, 13].
The coefficient of stress concentration Kf plays a very
important role in assessing the durability and fatigue
strength of structures. Until now no universal expression
for Kf is presented, which to be valid for different
operating conditions and testing. The problem of finding a
short and efficient expression for Kf is not solved, as the
effective coefficient of stress concentration in fatigue can
be considered as a "black box" of many factors that are
difficult to calculate and to find their influences. The most
direct and reliable way to calculate Kf is through
experiments, but in practice, it is time- and money-
consuming, moreover that Kf is related to the size and the
geometry of the sample and varies with the type of load.
Therefore, in predicting fatigue strength or durability Kf is
usually calculated analytically and then its accuracy is
verified experimentally.
The geometry of testing specimens has typical
concentrators, and they are made of magnesium alloy
AZ91, which has demonstrated its good strength
characteristics and is used in automotive industry and
instrument-engineering.
A methodology for approximate drawing of fatigue
curves of the investigated magnesium alloys in specimens
with different stress concentration factors Kt has been
proposed, using the dissipated energy as a damage
parameter. The stress concentration factor Kf is
determined analytically and experimentally for the
investigated magnesium alloy. Material constant also has
been proposed depending on the type of alloy, as these are
349
estimated stress concentration factors Kf for different
alloys. Check of the adequacy of the approaches and
procedures proposed in the presented work has been
made. Analysis and comparisons presented here are based
on the mechanism of fatigue and experimental results.
2. APPROACH FOR PREDICTING FATIGUE
LIFE
The onset of fatigue failure during cyclic loads is
manifested by a gradual accumulation of damages, whose
quantitative assessment will be based on the dissipated
energy [6, 8]. In this context it can be expected that
failure under variable stress will take place after the
boundary value of the total dissipated energy is reached.
2.1. Theory
Grounded in the method developed for predicting
durability is the experimentally observed fact that the total
dissipated energy until the time of failure for Mg alloys
is a function of the number of cycles until
failure D = f ( N Bi ) , this function being nonlinear [6, 17,
18] and described well using exponential equation type
D = N BA .10 B
(1)
where D is the total energy until failure, NB are the
number of cycles until failure and and are
coefficients to be found. Using (1) the result for the
predicted number of cycles for each stress level (i) is
B 1
lg N Bi( prediction ) = + .lg Di (2)
1 A A 1
(prediction)
(prediction)
(prediction)
(prediction), (prediction)
Fig. 1. Diagram of the methodology for determining the
total dissipated energy in case of variable load for
magnesium alloys, prediction of durability and
approximate drawing of fatigue curves based on
dissipated energy [6]
Fig.1 gives a summarized diagram of the whole
methodology for determining the total dissipated energy
D in case of variable load for magnesium alloys and
prediction of the durability NBi (prediction) according to [5, 6,
350
7] - starting from the registration of force hysteresis,
passing through determination of factors and and
their modified values A and B, going to the drawing of
the boundary curve D - NBi (prediction) see Fig. 2 and thus,
the approximate drawing of the fatigue curve based on the
dissipated energy and determination of the estimated
coefficients for the respective magnesium alloy for the
tested sample bodies mAZ91(prediction) and lgKAZ91(prediction).
The experiments confirm the validity of the proposed
methodology for drawing the boundary curve [5, 6, 19]
for magnesium alloys and the possibility of reasonably
accurate prediction by it.
50
D = 10 .NB
B A
45
BOUNDARY CURVE
40
35 modification
30
D
25
B' A'
D = 10 .NB
20
15
10
5 experiment
0
NBi(prediction)
0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000
NB
250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000
Fig. 2. Relationship between total dissipated energy D
and durability NB. Durability prediction for a material
under single step load [6, 7]
Another essential element of the methodology for
predicting the durability considering the stress
concentration is the effective coefficient of stress
concentration Kf. Many experimental results show that the
coefficient of stress concentration Kf in fatigue depends
on many factors, including the characteristics and defects
of the material, size and geometry of the sample, the
stress gradient, the type of load and number of cycles.
Due to the diversity of factors influencing on it, there are
many expressions and formulas for Kf [13, 14]. Based on
the most frequently accepted definition of Kf, that it is
equal to the ratio of the fatigue strength in case of smooth
specimen -r to the fatigue strength of a notched specimen
-rK under the same experimental conditions and the same
number of cycles, over the past four decades many
expressions for the effective coefficient of stress
concentration Kf were derived and presented. All these
expressions are built on different assumptions and
boundary conditions. This is the reason why there are
different models for determining Kf, obtained on the base
of technical fatigue and experimental results: All
expressions for Kf can be classified to one of them,
depending on the application of the effective coefficient
and its various applications. Despite the analyses and
comparisons between the expressions on the basis of the
mechanism of fatigue and experimental results, made by
different scientists, there is no universal expression for the
effective coefficient of stress concentration Kf. After
comparing the results for the effective coefficient of
fatigue resulting from different expressions, with the
experimentally determined effective coefficient [6, 13,
14], in this work the analytical expression of Peterson
from (3) has been chosen, by the model for the average
stress and the effective coefficient of stress concentration
is estimated by it.
K t(Ri) - 1
K f(Ri) = 1 + ,
a (3)
1+
( Ri )
where Ri are the radii of curvature in the concentrator; Kt
is the coefficient of stress concentration for the respective
radius of curvature in the concentrator, obtained
numerically by method of finite elements (FEM); is a
material constant . Its value is chosen according to [6, 13,
14] based on empirical research and different values for
the material constant a Mg , depending on the type of
magnesium alloy. With the material constant for the
tested alloy chosen in this way, a prediction for the
effective coefficient of stress concentration Kf(Ri) was
made, using the expression of Peterson (3). Used in this
paper a AZ 91 is presented in table 1.
AZ 91
By the help with predicted values of N Bi ( prediction ) for
each level of load i approximate fatigue curve for
smooth specimens can be built in accordance with (2).
After approximation of the estimated points, we receive
the constants m AZ 91 AZ 91
smooth and lg K smooth appropriate to
describe the fatigue curve. The received constants for this
paper are presented in table 1. With the newly determined
material constant a AZ 91 for the respective magnesium
alloy effective coefficient of stress concentration Kf(Ri) is
estimated, table 1. Then, on the basis of expressions (2)
and (3) the following equations for predicting the
durability, taking into account stress concentration, can be
derived.
lg N Bi( Ri )( prediction ) =
(4)
lg K smooth msmooth lg ai( Ri ) msmooth lg f ( Ri )
= 1. The method of dynamic hysteresis curve, applied
only by cyclic loading, was used. The tested specimens
were subjected to the step loading with a great amount of
cycles at each step until the failure, where the magnesium
alloy has been tested at 40 Hz frequency. The signals
were subjected to digital treatment to obtain the
hysteresiss parameters: amplitude of strain and stress,
plastic strains and the energy of dissipation. All
experiments were carried out, using a uniaxial servo-
hydraulic test machine SCHENCK with properly
controlled signals according to [2, 3, 4]. To draw a
conclusion regarding the accuracy of the presented
approach the classical fatigue life curves of all tested
specimens have been constructed and compared to those
obtained by the approach. The fatigue life curves,
obtained by the classical method via a soft regime of
loading have been drawn by applying at least eight
levels of loading with different stress amplitudes and the
number of cycles till fracture takes place has been
established.
Fig. 3. Cylindrical test specimens of the magnesium
alloys, from left to the right: a smooth specimen,
specimen with a concentrator Ri = 5 mm, a specimen with
concentrator Ri = 1 mm, a specimen with a blunt
concentrator Ri = 35 mm, a specimen with concentrator
made on the blunt concentrator with radius Ri = 35 mm,
respectively R(R35)i = 1 mm

log K smooth N Bi The numerical calculations in order to obtain the

lg ai( Ri ) = log lg f ( Ri ) (5) coefficient of stress concentration Kt(Ri) for all tested
msmooth msmooth
specimens are performed on 3-dimensional cylindrical
During development of the approach for determining geometries fig.4 with lateral notches with radiuses of 0,5
durability of AZ91 magnesium alloy the following mm, 1 mm, 2,5 mm, 5 mm and 35 mm. The depth of the
assumption was made: The fatigue curves of group of notches t = 5 mm is the same for all of the specimens.
magnesium alloys under the same environmental
conditions may have the same slopes
2.2. Experimental procedure
To confirm the approach for predicting the durability of
magnesium alloy AZ91, provided in section 2.1,
considering the stress concentration, experimental,
numerical and analytical studies were conducted.
In order to construct a fatigue life curves and to define the
durability in accordance with the presented approach, Fig.4. Schematic geometry of the notched specimens
respectively three smooth specimens fig. 3 have been (cylindrical bars) with lateral notches used in the
tested. To determine the fatigue life curves for different analytical, numerical and experimental analyses
specimens of the material AZ91 were carried out
experimental investigations by cyclic tension/pressure of The diameter of the 3-D geometries is d = 17 mm. There
smooth specimens with an asymmetry cycle coefficient R are several reasons to choose such geometries and range

351
of the notches: the net area did not change for all the
examined geometries; ranging the notched radii it was
tried to simulate the different notch effect of the fatigue
strength as for the approximately smooth specimens as
well for cracked specimens.
To verify the presented approach the following steps were
carried out:
 After step loading till fracture ( 20 000 cycles per
step) of three smooth test specimens, the specific
dissipated energy Di per cycle is determined and the
boundary curve D NB is obtained. In its
approximation (by three points) the coefficients
A AZ 91 and B AZ 91 for the respective alloy, needed to
estimate the number of cycles until failure NBi(prediction)
of smooth specimens are found under the
methodology - fig.1.
 After predicting the number of cycles to failure
AZ 91 smooth
N Bi ( prediction ) for smooth specimens according to
given the stress concentration. They are presented in
figure 5 and figure 6.
According to expressions (4) and (5) the number of cycles
AZ 91
to destruction N Bi ( Ri )( prediction ) for two types of sample
bodies with concentrator is estimated: Ri = 5 mm, Ri = 1
mm, and their approximate fatigue curves are built and
presented in figures from fig.5 and fig 6.
Table 1. Table showing the estimated constants m AZ 91
prediktion
AZ 91
and lg K prediktion , determining the slope of the fatigue
curve of smooth specimens and those with different types
of concentrators, the estimated effective coefficient of
stress concentration Kf(Ri) and numerically estimated
coefficient of stress concentration Kt(Ri) for all tested
specimens.

expression (2), the constants of fatigue curves m AZ 91

smooth
AZ 91
and lg K smooth , presented in table 1, needed for the
next step, are defined.
 According to expressions (4) and (5) the number of
cycles to fracture for notched specimens
AZ 91 notched
N Bi ( prediction ) is estimated.

 Numerically by the finite elements method (FEM) the

coefficient of stress concentration is derived, Kt, - see
table 1.
 With the material constant a AZ 91 determined
experimentally for the studied alloy, see table 1, the
effective coefficient of stress concentration Kf,(Ri) is
estimated according to equation (3) and presented in
table 1 for five types of sample bodies fig.4: those
with blunt concentrator Ri = 35 mm and a specimen
with concentrators made on the blunt concentrator
with radius Ri = 35 mm, respectively, as follows
R(R35)i= 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2.5 mm, 5 mm.
 For the described five types of specimens with a
concentrator and their approximate fatigue curves are
predicted and built, presented in figures from fig.6.
 In alternating symmetrical load at five stress levels
two forms of magnesium alloy AZ91 specimens
shown in fig.3 are tested. Thus the experimentally
AZ 91
number of cycles to failure N Bi ( Ri ) for these two
specimens types with different radius of curvature Ri =
35 mm and R(R35)i= 1 mm in the concentrator is found.
The points obtained experimentally (ai, NBi) are put
in semi-logarithmic coordinate system a lg N BAZ( Ri
91
)
for the alloy and presented in fig.6.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The results of the conducted experimental research under

the presented procedure used to determine the total
dissipated energy in the alternating stress for the
magnesium alloy AZ91, and also to confirm the
possibility of predicting the durability and approximation
of fatigue curves for this alloy based on dissipated energy,
Fig. 5. Comparison of fatigue curves for AZ91
magnesium alloy for three different experimental
specimens: a smooth specimen and specimens with
concentrators Ri = 5 mm, Ri = 1 mm

352
On the basis of the received experimental data for
AZ 91
N Bi ( Ri )clasical a comparison with predicted durability
N BAZ( Ri
91
)( prediction ) is made, as the experimental and
predicted values are put into the semi-logarithmic
coordinate system. For each of the fatigue curves built in
the classical way the confidence interval for magnesium
alloys TNMg = 5 is defined and indicated [12, 15, 16].
Fatigue life curves for Z91
110
smooth specimen
100
90
predicted with
[Pa]
the presented
approach
80
70
60
notched specimen Ri= 1 mm
50
1,00E+03 1,00E+04 1,00E+05 1,00E+06
N The proposed approach for determining the durability is
Fig. 6. Comparison of predicted fatigue curves of
magnesium alloy AZ91 for five types of experimental
specimens and experimentally derived durabilities for two
types of specimens. Specimens are as follows:
specimen with a blunt concentrator Ri = 35 mm, a
specimen with concentrator made on the blunt
concentrator with radius Ri = 35 mm, respectively, as
follows R(R35)i= 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2.5 mm, 5 mm
4. DISCUSSION
Fig. 5 shows graphically a comparison between the
estimated and actual durability, and Table 1 presents
calculated estimated constants m AZ 91
prediction and
lg K AZ 91
prediction determining the slope of the fatigue curve
for smooth specimens and those with different types of
concentrators. A graphical comparison of the figure for
the investigated AZ91 magnesium alloy shows that all
predicted durabilities, respectively predicted approximate
fatigue curves are located in the confidence interval
TNMg = 5 for the respective classical fatigue curve and
correlate well with the experimental durabilities.
The presented on Fig. 6 graphical comparisons show that
all experimental durabilities are located in the confidence
interval derived from the predicted approximate fatigue
curve and correlate well with the estimated durabilities.
Indicator of good prognosis are also the comparisons
shown in these figures between the estimated fatigue
curves for:
 a smooth spesimen and those for a specimen with a
blunt concentrator Ri = 35 mm.
 a sample body with concentrator Ri = 1 mm and those
for a specimen with concentrator made on the blunt
concentrator with radius Ri = 35 mm, respectively, as
follows R(R35)i= 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2.5 mm, 5 mm.
The specimens with blunt concentrator Ri = 35 mm have
a coefficient of stress concentration Kt = 1.043 close to
one, and the expected fatigue curve is of similar durability
to that of the smooth sample bodies. The other notched
specimens lay in a zone with smaller durability.
Samples with concentrator R(R35)i =1 mm with a
coefficient of stress concentration Kt = 1,916, are
comparable as a geometry with the samples with a
concentrator Ri= 1 mm, with a coefficient of stress
concentration Kt = 2,197. It is expected that the fatigue
curve for R(R35)i = 1 mm lies in the zone with greater
TN = 5 durability than that of the sample bodies with concentrator
Ri =1 mm. Such a trend was observed for the rest of the
notched specimens.
The results of the experiments confirm that durability
R(R35)i= 35 mm based on dissipated energy at variable load can be
determined accurately enough, taking into account the
R(R35)i= 5 mm type of alloy and the stress concentration.
R(R35)i= 2,5 mm 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
R(R35)i= 1 mm
The conducted experimental research and comparisons
R(R35)i= 0,5 mm allow to make the following conclusions and
1,00E+07
generalizations:
based on the energetic criterion and can be applied, taking
into account the effect of stress concentration. An
advantage of this method is that it is relatively quick, with
good accuracy, and provides additional information on the
inelastic behavior of the material.
Effective coefficients of stress concentration K fAZ( Ri
91
) for
various types of series of specimens are determined,
ranging in radius at the concentrator tip. The results
obtained are used for predicting fatigue durability.
The assumption that the fatigue curves of group of
magnesium alloys under the same environmental
conditions may have the same slopes is made, which
facilitates the creation of a single theoretical model for
predicting the durability and receiving approximate
fatigue curves.
Parameters of fatigue curves m (AZ 91 AZ 91
Ri ) and lg K ( Ri ) for
different sets of specimens are predicted and defined
experimentally.
Building of boundary curve - total dissipated energy -
number of cycles to destruction (D NB) after step
loading till fracture of 3 smooth specimens for
investigated AZ91 magnesium alloy contributes to the
fast and adequately accurate determination of durability
for smooth sample bodies.
Building the approximate fatigue curves a N BAZsmooth
91
after step loading till fracture of 3 smooth specimens
accelerates the process of predicting durability.
The obtained approximately fatigue curves for smooth
specimens give a good fundamental to predict the
durability on the base of energy criterion and notched
specimens.
The comparisons between the fatigue life curves obtained
in different ways and presented in this paper show the
extent to which the approach for determining the fatigue
life curve via the dissipated energy is precisely applicable
to the investigated material.
353
Predictive capability of the approach is with good [16] SONSINO, S. M., ZENNER, H., KOTTE K.L.,
agreement to the experimental results for the AZ91 Einflugren auf die Betriebsfestigkeit von
magnesium alloy. Magnesiumlegierungen, Teil 2: Lebensdauer-
abschtzung fr Probekrper aus Magnesium-
Druckguss, Magnesium Bauteilfestigkeit, Fulda,
2003, S. 89-108
REFERENCES [17] TCHANKOV, D., VESSELINOV, K., Fatigue life
prediction under random loading using total
[1] ATZORI B., LAZZARIN P., TOVO R., Evaluation hysteresis energy, International Journal of Pressure
of the Fatigue Strength of a Deep Drawing Steel., Vessels and Piping, 1998, Vol.75, No. 3, pp. 955-960
sterreichische Ingenieur- und Architekten- Zeitschrift, [18] VESSELINOV, K., Inelastic behaviour of materials
(IAZ), 137, 1992;11:556-561 and determining the durability till fatigue fracture,
[2] DATENBLATT, Magnesium- Druckguss Legier- Sofia, 2002
ungen, Hydro Magnesium, Brussels, Belgium, June [19] VESSELINOV, Kamen, DIMOVA, Biliana, Experi-
2001 mental analysis of a method for fast durability
[3] DIN EN 10002-1, Metallische Werkstoffe- estimation, 10th Jubil. Nat. Congress of Theoretical
Zugversuch- Teil1: Prfverfahren bei Rau-tempe- and Applied Mechanics-Varna, 2005, pp. 407 411
ratur, 2001
[4] DIN 50100, Werkstoffprfung; Dauerschwing-
versuch, Begriffe, Zeichen, Durchfhrung,
Auswertung, Dauerschwingversuche nach DIN 50100
im Zug-, Druck-, Schwell- und Wechsellastbereich
[5] DIMOVA, Biliana, Characterisation of the fatigue
strength of advanced magnesium alloys, Fifth
International Congress Mechanical Engineering
Technologies06 Varna, 2006, pp.19-23
[6] DIMOVA, Biliana, Fatigue life of magnesium alloys
under variable loading taking into account stress
concentration, Ph. D. -Dissertation , 2009, Sofia
[7] DIMOVA, Biliana, VESSELINOV, Kamen, An
energy-based approach for predicting fatigue life of
magnesium alloys, 11th National Congress on
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Borovetz, 2009
[8] DIMOVA, Biliana, Comparative analysis of the
different approaches for assessment of fatigue
endurance, 10th Jubil. Nat. Congress of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, Varna, 2005, pp. 151 156
[9] FILIPPI S., LAZZARIN P., Distributions of the
elastic principal stress due to notches in finite size
pates and rounded bars uniaxially loaded,
International Journal of Fatigue, 2004;26, pp.377-391
[10] GLINKA, G., NEWPORT, A., Universal features of
elastic notch-tip stress fields, International Journal of
Fatigue, 1987, Vol.9, pp.143150.
[11] GLINKA G., OTT W., NOWACK H., Elastoplastic
Plane Strain Analysis of Stresses and Strains at the
Notch Root, Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology, 1988, Vol.110, pp. 195204. CORRESPONDENCE
[12] HAIBACH, E., Betriebsfestigkeit Verfahren und
Daten zur Bauteilberechnung, VDI-Verlag, Biliana DIMOVA, Assist. Prof. Ph.D.
Dsseldorf, 1989 Technical University Sofia
[13] NEUBER, H., Kerbspannungslehre, Vienna: Department Strength of Materials
Springer-Verlag; 1987, Reprinted in translation as Kliment Ochridki Boul.8
Theory of notch stresses, Berlin: Springer Publishers, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
1958 bdimova@tu-sofia.bg
[14] Peterson R.E., Stress Concentration Factors. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974.
[15] SONSINO, S. M., ZENNER, H., KOTTE K.L., Ein- Veselin TSONEV, Assist. Prof. M.Sc.Eng.
flugren auf die Betriebsfestigkeit von Magne- Technical University Sofia
siumlegierungen, Teil 1: Mechanische Kennwerte, Department Strength of Materials
Mittel- und Kerbspannungsempfindlichkeit, Magne- Kliment Ochridki Boul.8
sium Bauteilfestigkeit, Fulda, 2003, DVM-Bericht 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
801, S. 75-86 tzonev@tu-sofia.bg

354

PLASMA NITRIDING AS A METHOD
FOR IMPROVEMENT SURFACE
PROPERTIES OF POWDER METAL
STEEL PARTS
Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC
Jeremija JEVTIC
Djuro BORAK
Abstract: Powder metal steel applications are widely
employed within the motor industry. For example, oil
pump gears, rocker arm fulcrums, valve seat insert etc.
Applications of powder metal steel parts not only shorten
the treatment time but also reduce energy and material
needs. The one of the main shortage of sintered powder
metal steel parts is unsatisfactory surface hardness i.e.
wear resistance.
The surface properties of sintered powder metal steel
parts can be improved by thermochemical treatments.
Nitriding and carbonitriding technologies are the most
suitable processes for powder metal steel hardening.
Plasma nitriding is the best as it permits the control of
technological parameters. It means that the structure of
nitrided zones can be regulated, contrary to gas nitriding
that produced nitrided zone which can not be regulated
From this aspect the effect of plasma nitriding conditions
on the surface properties of alloyed powder metal steel
valve seat insert has been studied. A rather high surface
hardness of 210 HV5 and 890 HV 0.3 is achieved. This is
a consequence of the compound layer being formed very
rapidly as a result of a high content of alloying elements
in the powder metal steel matrix. The compound layer is
continuous over the entire surface of the samples,
including voids, thus giving rise to potentially very good
wear properties.
Key words: plasma nitriding, powder metal, valve seat
insert
1. INTRODUCTION
Powder metal steel (P/M) applications are widely
employed within the motor industry [1, 2]. Powder metal
steel has been used for the production of oil pump gears,
valve guide bushings, water pump impellers, rocker arm
fulcrums, camshaft and crankshaft spockkets, composite
camshafts, connecting rods, valve seat inserts, etc.
Applications of P/M steel components not only shorten
the treatment time but also reduce energy and material
needs. Sintering makes it possible to obtain materials of
such a composition, dimensions, structure and properties
which were not possible using traditional technologies.
Therefore P/M steel applications not only shorten the
treatment time but also reduce energy and material needs.
The one of the main shortage of sintered powder metal
steel parts is unsatisfactory surface hardness i.e. wear
resistance. The mechanical properties of P/M steel parts
can be changed by thermal treatment. Due to porosity and
component segregation of P/M parts their thermal
treatment is specific in relation to forged and moulded
ones. On the other hand surface of sintered parts are more
active, and they are disposed to oxidation and
decarbonization. Heat conductivity and fatigue limit of
P/M steel parts are lower in relation to steel ones.
Wear resistance as well as fatigue limit of P/M steel parts
can be improved by thermochemical treatments. Nitriding
and carbonitriding technologies are the most suitable
processes for P/M steel parts hardening. Plasma nitriding
is the best as it permits the control of technological
parameters. It means that the structure of nitrided zones
can be regulated, contrary to gas nitriding that produced
nitrided zone which can not be regulated. During glow
discharge plasma nitriding, the nitriding reaction occurs
not only at the surface but also in the subsurface, leading
to the rapid diffusion of nitrogen atoms from the surface
towards the core.
2. EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Valve seat insert for diesel engines have been used as
samples. Seat inserts have been sintered using powder
mixture (wt %) of 1.37%C, 7.35%Mo, 1.27%Cu, and
remaining being iron powder. Therefore it is self
lubrication valve seat material because it contains copper
which is infiltrated in the P/M metal skeleton, providing
free cooper at the seat face which oxidizes to copper
oxide, a compound which possesses lubricating
properties.
Sintered seat insert hardness before nitriding was 287-310
HV 5, and density 7.0 gr/cm3 .The microstructure was
consisted of pearlite + austenite with iron, chromium and
molybdenum carbides (fig.1).
Fig. 1. Optical photomicrograph of P/M steel valve insert
before nitriding
355
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION at a pressure of 2.66 mbar and temperature of 520oC is
shown in Figure 3.
Before nitriding, inner and outer diameters of seat inserts
in two planes (at 90 degrees) were measured. Then the
seat inserts were washed in alcohol and dried 3 h at 150aC
in order to remove oil and impurities from voids. Samples
were nitrided in a homemade laboratory plasma nitriding
unit using a glow discharge plasma in a 80%N2 + 20%H2
gas mixture, at a pressure of 2.66 mbar and a temperature
of 5200C for 3, 5, 7.25, 9.25 and 16 h. After nitriding the
change of dimensions and surface hardness as a function
of depth were measured. The nitrided zone microstructure
was studied by optical microscopy methods.
Changes of dimension are bigger on samples nitrided for
longer times; they are in the range of 10--50mm, pointing
to the necessity of introducing stabilization tempering of
samples before nitriding.
High values of surface hardness, 710 HV 5, i.e. 890 HV
0.3 were achieved, which is understandable due to the
content of chromium, molybdenum and carbon in the P/M
steel matrix. Figure 2 shows the P/M steel surface
hardness as a function of time of nitriding in the glow
discharge plasma, with gas mixture 80% N2 + 20%H2 at a Fig. 3. Microhardness depth profile of plasma nitrided
pressure of 2.66 mbar and temperature of 520oC. valve seatinserts of P/M sintered steel

Fig. 2. Surface hardness of plasma nitrided valve seat Fig. 4. Nitreded layer thickness of plasma nitreded
inserts of P/M sintered steel as a function of nitriding samples of powder metal sintered steels as
time a function of nitreded time

From figure 3, it may be also observed that the diffusion

Case depth may be determined by microhardness testing
zone depth steadily grows with the time of nitriding. The
an unetched cross-section of the case using a hardness
nitrided layer thickness as a function of nitriding time is
tester. Measurement consists of making a hardness survey
shown in Figure 4.
from near the nitrided surface (i.e. beginning at the end of
The compound layer develops when nitrogen species
the compound layer) to the base metal (diffusion zone
reach the work piece surface at a rate faster than its
depth) or to a depth at which a predetermined minimum
diffusion rate into the matrix. The nitrogen content at the
hardness (e.g. 50 HV greater than the bulk) can be
surface of the cathode is primarily a function of the gas
obtained (the nitriding depth). The diffusion zone may be
composition and the nitrogen partial pressure. The
defined as the depth to which nitrogen diffuses into the
diffusion rate depends principally on the treatment
matrix as interstitial nitrogen or as finely dispersed alloy
temperature. The compound layer can comprise a
nitride precipitates.
monophased e-Fe2-3N or g'-Fe4N or a polyphase of
Microhardness measurements were carried out using a
hardness tester with 0.3 kg load and 30-s time of g'+e.They are optically indistinguishable and their
indentation. The microhardness depth profile of plasma microhardnesses are nearly the same. The species were
nitrided samples of P/M sintered steel for various etched in 5% nitaI. The compound layer thickness was
nitriding times and with gas mixture 80% N2 + 20% H2 measured by the optical system of the hardness tester
356
which incorporates a direct reading vernier calibrated to
0.5 mm.
The compound layer thickness over the surface of P/M
steel valve seat inserts as a function of nitriding time and
with gas mixture 80% N2 + 20% H2 at a pressure of 2.66
mbar and temperature of 520oC is shown in Figure 5.
Comparing it with the previous figure, it can be concluded
that the compound layer grows differently, and that the
growth of compound layer is not governed by the
diffusion law [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].

Fig. 6. Microstructure of the surface layers of P/M steel

valve seats inserts produced after 3 h (a) and 16 h (b)
Fig. 5. The compound layer thickness over the surface of
P/M steel valve seat inserts as a function of nitriding From figure 7 it can be seen that nitrided layer is
times formatted along grain boundaries and it is also formed
around voids, i.e. it follows the shape of voids present on
Optical microphotographs of the cross-sections of the
the surface of P/M steel parts. Formation of compound
surface layers of P/M steel produced after 3-16 h glow
layers even around voids increases considerably the wear
discharge plasma nitriding in 80%N,+20%H2 gas mixture
resistance of P/M steel parts. The formation of the
at a pressure of 2.66 mbar and temperature of 520C are
compound layer even at the grain boundaries can
shown in Figures 6 and 7.
produced consequently, an increase of the nitrided layer
The compound layer develops when nitrogen species brittleness, pointing to the necessity of choosing carefully
reach the work piece surface at a rate faster than its the temperature and duration of the plasma nitriding
diffusion rate into the matrix. The nitrogen content at the process [7, 8].
surface of cathode is primarily a function of the gas
composition and the nitrogen partial pressure. The
diffusion rate depends principally on the treatment
temperature. The compound layer can compromise a
monophase of e-Fe2-3 Nx Cy nitride or g'- Fe4 N nitride, or
a polyphase of g'+e nitrides. They are optically
indistinguishable and their microhardnesses are nearly the
same in the pure iron, and depending on the cooling rate
applied after nitriding and the subsequent aging time at
the room temperature, the nitrogen may be dissolved
interstitionally or precipitated as the metastable a"-Fe16
N2 and/or stable g'- Fe4N nitrides. In the presence of
alloying elements such as Cr, Al and Mo, which have a
strong affinity to nitrogen, the nitrogen will precipitate in
the form of nitrides, such as CrN, AlN and Mo2 N at the
nitriding temperature. In the alloyed steel nitride Fig. 7. Microstructure of the surface layers of P/M steel
precipitates develop during nitriding. valve seat inserts produced after 16 h

357
4. CONCLUSION REFERENCES

On the base obtained results it can be concluded:
1. Plasma nitriding of P/M steel parts is a very efficiency
process for increasing surface hardness and therefore
wear resistance, because nitrided zones, i.e. type of
layer can be regulated, contrary to gas nitriding.
2. Plasma nitriding gives the relatively thick compound
layer which following the voids, and it means that
wear properties will be achieved.
3. Maximum hardness of 710 HV5 i.e. 890 HV 0.3. and
nitrided zone depths of 0.2 0.7 mm corresponding
to 3-16 h nitriding has been achieved.
[1] MOCARSKI, S., HALL, D., Powder Metal Parts for
Automotive Applications, SAE Paper 870133
[2] HALL, D., MOCARSKI, S., Update on P/M
Automotive Applications, The International Journal of
Powder Metallurgy & Powder Technology, v.21,
No.2, pp.79
[3] GLIGORIJEVIC, R., TOSIC, M., TERSIC, I., Proc.
3rd Symp. Motorna vozila i motori 84,
pp.301,Kragujevac 1984
[4] RIE, K., LAMPE, Th., EISENBERG, St., HTM
42,338 (19887)
[5] GLIGORIJEVIC, R., TOSIC, M., Advanced in
Surface Treatments, v.4, pp33, Pergamon Press,
Oxford 1988
[6] GLIGORIJEVIC, R., TOSIC, M., Proceedings of 4-
th Yugoslav Symposium of Metalurgy, Belgrade
1988, pp.515
[7] TOSIC, M., GLIGORIJEVIC, R., Proc. of First Int.
Conf. Plasma Surface Engineering,Garmisch-
Partenkirchen, 1988
[8] REMBGES, W., and all. Moglichkeiten des Einsatzes
von plasmanitrocarbururierten Sinter-Bautailen,
HTM 43,1988, 6, pp.348

CORRESPONDENCE

Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC, PhD.

IMR Institute
Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
Belgrade, Serbia
imrkb@eunet.rs

Jeremija JEVTIC, PhD.

IMR Institute
Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
Belgrade, Serbia
imrkb@eunet.rs

Djuro BORAK, MSc.

IMR Institute
Patrijaha Dimitrija 7
Belgrade, Serbia
imrkb@eunet.rs

358

SOME APPROACHES UPON THE HIGH
TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR OF
ALLOYED STEELS DESTINED FOR
MACHINE CONSTRUCTIONS
Imre KISS
Vasile George CIOAT
Abstract: In the present work is studied the high
temperature behaviour of the high resistance steels from
the class Cr Mo V. It was shown that under the high
temperature effect, the ultimate tensile strength value,
which is producing a certain degree of plastic
deformation of the steel, is (currently) lower then the
determined value at open air temperature. From the
tested samples these temperatures the broken pieces have
been taken for measuring the hardness after tempering
at different temperatures representing graphic their
variation according to the testing temperatures (20C,
300C, 500C) for cooling area at tempering.
Keywords: alloyed steels, Chromium, Molybdenum,
Vanadium, thermal treatment, mechanical characteristics,
tests at high temperatures, tempering
1. INTRODUCTION
After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often
harder than needed and is too brittle for most practical
uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the
rapid cooling from the hardening temperature. To relieve
the internal stresses and reduce brittleness, you should
temper the steel after it is hardened. Tempering consists
of heating the steel to a specific temperature (below its
hardening temperature), holding it at that temperature for
the required length of time, and then cooling it, usually
instill air. The resultant strength, hardness, and ductility
depend on the temperature to which the steel is heated
during the tempering process.
The purpose of tempering is to reduce the brittleness
imparted by hardening and to produce definite physical
properties within the steel. Tempering always follows,
never precedes, the hardening operation. Besides reducing
brittleness, tempering softens the steel. That is un-
avoidable, and the amount of hardness that is lost depends
on the temperature that the steel is heated to during the
tempering process. That is true of all steels except high-
speed steel. Tempering increases the hardness of high-
speed steel.
In steels, tempering is done to "toughen" the metal by
transforming brittle martensite or bainite into a
combination of ferrite and cementite. Precipitation
hardening alloys, like many grades of aluminum and
superalloys, are tempered to precipitate intermetallic
particles which strengthen the metal. Tempering is
accomplished by a controlled reheating of the work piece
to a temperature below its lower critical temperature.
In metallurgy, there is always a trade-off between strength
and ductility. This delicate balance highlights many of the
subtleties inherent to the tempering process. Precise
control of time and temperature during the tempering
process are critical to achieve a metal with well balanced
mechanical properties.
Fig. 1. Structure steel as a result of different kinds of heat
treatment
Typically steel is heat treated in a multi-step process. First
it is heated to create a solid solution of iron and carbon in
a process called austenizing. Austenizing is followed by
quenching to produce a martensitic microstructure. The
steel is then tempered by heating between the ranges of
150260C and 370650C. Tempering in the range of
260...370C is sometimes avoided to reduce temper
brittling. The steel is held at that temperature until the
carbon trapped in the martensite diffuses to produce a
chemical composition with the potential to create either
bainite or pearlite (a crystal structure formed from a
mixture of ferrite and cementite). It should be noted that
when producing a truly bainitic or pearlitic steel the steel
must be once again taken up to the austenite region
(austenizing) and cooled slowly to a controlled
temperature before being fully quenched to a low
temperature. In bainitic steels, upper bainite or lower
bainite may form depending on the length and
temperature of the tempering process. It is
thermodynamically impossible that the martensite will be
totally converted during tempering, so a mixture of
martensite, bainite, ferrite and cementite is often formed.
359
2. IMPROVEMENT IN MECHANICAL temperature and long time duration of the tests on
PROPERTIES BY ADDITION resistance characteristics and deformation of the steel.
OF Cr Mo V SYSTEM Industrial work area for rolled steel products, which have
to resist at high temperatures, is up to 450500C, so is
The improvement in mechanical properties is due to the useful to study the mechanical characteristics variations in
addition of Molybdenum and Vanadium. These elements this area.
stabilize the microstructure of the steel. Vanadium offers In case of low alloyed and alloyed steels, in case when it
more improvement than Molybdenum but is more was used silicon calcium as deoxidized, it was noticed
expensive. Maximum use temperature is 400500C. an increasing of the yield point Rp 0.2 and of the
Mechanical properties depend both on the temperature elongation A5, and in the mean time a sensitive
and the loading time. Special steels are developed for decreasing of the tensile strength Rm.
even higher temperatures (up to 1220C). The mechanical As well, at the deoxidized steels and with silicon-calcium,
properties increase with increasing Carbon concentration. is noticed an increasing of the breaking energy values and
Alloyed steels are used for temperatures up to 500C. minimizing of the dispersion for all mechanical
Material selection for a mechanical or structural characteristics.
application requires some important considerations, Taking in consideration that from the steel 15VMoCr14X
including how easily the material can be shaped into a are produced components for undercarriage of the planes,
finished part and how its properties can be either which during operation are subjected to high and low
intentionally or inadvertently altered in the process. temperatures, these has to keep their admitted properties
Depending on the end of use, metals can be simply cast in between 75C up to +500C.
into the finished part or cast into an intermediate form, For this, tensile tests were made at high temperatures and
such as an ingot, then worked, wrought by rolling, or the results are shown in Table 1 for the Rp 0.2
processed by forging, extruding or another deformation characteristics. The graphic representation of data from
process. Table 1 is shown in Figure 2.
Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase
corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance, to increase Table 1. The hardness variation according to tempering
hardenability, or to improve high-temperature strength. temperature and test temperatures at high temperatures
As a hardening element, Chromium is frequently used
Tempering Test temperature, oC and hardness, HRC
with a toughening element such as nickel to produce
temperature, oC 100 200 300 400 500
superior mechanical properties. At higher temperatures,
chromium contributes increased strength. Chromium is 98.7 89.7 89.7 79.1 74.1
strong carbide former. Complex chromium-iron carbides 95.8 85.6 87.4 85.3 75.3
go into solution in austenite slowly; therefore, sufficient 550 97.2 87.4 85.6 82.2 74.8
heating time must be allowed for prior to quenching.
97.2 87.5 87.5 82.2 74.7
Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel.
Molybdenum may produce secondary hardening during 93.7 86.9 86.0 85.2 79.1
the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances the creep 105.2 94.8 92.2 86.0 74.2
strength of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures. 580 99.6 91.6 93.1 85.7 72.0
Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile 99.5 91.1 90.4 85.6 78.1
strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of
Vanadium can significantly increase the strength of steels. 106.7 98.3 95.4 87.5 79.1
101.0 94.9 92.0 88.4 80.4
Vanadium is one of the primary contributors to 610 103.8 96.7 93.3 87.9 79.8
precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels. When
thermo-mechanical processing is properly controlled the 108.8 96.6 93.6 87.6 79.7
ferrite grain size is refined and there is a corresponding
increase in toughness. The impact transition temperature 108.3 101.3 95.0 93.0 78.6
101.7 99.3 96.3 83.1 81.8
also increases when vanadium is added. 625 105.0 96.2 97.8 88.1 79.3
105.0 98.9 96.3 88.1 79.9
3. THE EXPERIMENTS
103.2 93.1 89.2 98.2 83.2
The mechanical characteristics values of steels are 101.6 97.1 94.1 83.2 75.1
depending as well on the time period of the tests at high 640 102.4 95.0 91.4 86.4 79.5
temperatures, as for, in accordance with the duration of
the load application; there are two groups of tests, as 102.4 95.1 91.6 89.3 79.6
follows: 93.1 85.8 84.1 79.0 70.0
 Short time duration tests, in which the heated sample 86.9 83.6 80.2 73.4 67.4
670 90.0 84.0 82.0 76.2 69.2
is, tested same as at the usual temperature. In the case
of the present work the tests has been done at short 90.0 84.4 82.1 76.2 68.8
time duration. 82.1 79.4 72.6 63.0 60.1
 Long time duration tests, in which the heated sample 80.0 74.4 73.4 67.9 64.2
700 80.3 76.6 72.5 65.9 62.0
is charged with a constant or variable load for
establishing the combined influence of high 80.8 76.8 73.1 65.6 68.1

360
Guiding limit values which, has to be fulfilled by the steel From the samples tested, at high temperature, the broken
15VmoCr14X, are show in Table 2, and the graphic pieces have been taken and it was measured the hardness
representation in Figure 3. after tempering temperatures, tests temperatures for the
tempering cooling in free air and the values are given in
Table 3.
120 2
y = -0,0029x + 3,548x - 969,71
2
R = 0,9233
Table 3. The hardness variation according to tempering
110
2
y = -0,0026x + 3,2377x - 893,41 temperature and test temperatures for tempering in free air
2
R = 0,9229
100
Tempering Test temperature, oC and hardness, HRC
2
y = -0,0024x + 2,966x - 804,14
temperature, oC
90
2
R = 0,9484 20 300 500
2
40 40 39 39 33 32
y = -0,0026x + 3,1473x - 863,02
80 2 39 40 37 35 34 35
R = 0,9508 550 40 40 37 36 34 34
2
70
y = -0,0015x + 1,7906x - 462,54
2
39.6 40 37.6 36.6 33.6 33.6
R = 0,8221
38 38 36 37 34 32
60
100 200 300 400 500 39 39 35 34 32 31
540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 580 40 38 35 35 32 31
39 38.3 35.3 35.3 32.3 31.3
Fig. 2. The variation of the technical yield point with 38 37 35 35 31 32
tempering temperature and test temperature 37 36 33 34 32 31
610 36 36 34 35 31 31
Table 2. The mechanical characteristic and the temperatures 37 36.3 34 35 31.3 31.3
37 36 35 34 31 31
Mechanical Temperature, oC
33 35 33 32 29 30
characteristic 100 200 300 400 500 600 625 34 35 33 33 30 30
Rp0,2, daN/mm2 86.4 80.9 79 75 68 52
34.6 35.3 33.6 33 30 30.3
Rm, daN/mm2 106 93 90 88 84 60
30 32 30 29 29 29
32 33 30 31 29 30
640 34 33 31 30 28 28
110
32 32.6 30.3 30 28.6 29
100 y = -0,0001x 2 - 0,0003x + 102,9 28 29 28 25 24 25
90 R2 = 0,8733 29 29 27 28 25 27
670 28 28 26 26 24 24
80
y = -0,0001x 2 + 0,0298x + 82,87 28.3 28.6 27 26.3 24.3 25.3
70
R2 = 0,9673
60 Graphic representation of the hardness variation
according to tempering temperature and test temperatures
50
Rp0,2, daN/mm2 for tempering in free air is shown in Figure 4.
40
Rm, daN/mm2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 4. CONCLUSIONS

High temperature steels are specially designed highly

Fig. 3. The variation of the mechanical characteristics alloyed steels. These steels are commonly used for
Rm and Rp 0.2 with tempering temperature applications such as boiler tubes, pressure vessels and
steam turbines.
45 2
The selection of steels for use at elevated temperatures is
y = -0,0007x + 0,7625x - 165,96
2
designed for their high temperature properties. These
R = 0,9867
40 steels generally have higher resistance to mechanical and
2 chemical degradation at elevated temperatures.
y = -0,0005x + 0,5188x - 98,204
35 2 After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often
R = 0,9693
harder than needed and is too brittle for most practical
30 2 uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the
y = -0,0006x + 0,6589x - 147,27
2
rapid cooling from the hardening temperature. To relieve
R = 0,9925
25 the internal stresses and reduce brittle- ness, you should
temper the steel after it is hardened. Tempering consists
20 C 300 C 500 C of heating the steel to a specific temperature (below its
20
520 550 580 610 640 670 700 hardening temperature), holding it at that temperature for
the required length of time, and then cooling it, usually
instill air. The resultant strength, hardness, and ductility
Fig. 4. The variation of the hardness depend on the temperature to which the steel is heated
with tempering and test temperature during the tempering process.

361
REFERENCES
[1] HOLZMANN M., DLOUHY I., VLACH B.,
KRUMPOS J., Degradation of mechanical properties
of Cr-Mo-V and Cr-Mo-V-W steam turbine rotors
after long-term operation at elevated temperatures.
Part I: tensile properties, intergranular fracture
strength and impact tests, The International Journal
of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Volume 68, Number
1, August 1996, pp. 99-111(13)
[2] AKBEN, M.G., BACROIX, B., JONAS, J. J., Effect
of Vanadium and Molybdenum Addition on High-
Temperature Recovery, Recrystallization and
Precipitation Behavior of Niobium-Based
Microalloyed Steels, Acta Metall. Vol. 31, no. 1, pp.
161-174. Jan. 1983
[3] G. W. MEETHAM, High-temperature materials a
general review, Journal of Materials Science,
Volume 26, Number 4 / January, 1991, 853-860
[4] WANG, Z.-G., RAHKA, K., NENONEN, P., LAIRD,
C., Changes in morphology and composition of
carbides during cyclic deformation at room and
elevated temperature and their effect on mechanical
properties of Cr-Mo-V steel, Acta Metallurg. Vol. 33,
no. 12, pp. 2129-2143. 1985
[5] J. DOBRZASKI, A. ZIELISKI, H. KRZTO,
Mechanical properties and structure of the Cr-Mo-V
low-alloyed steel after long-term service in creep
condition, Journal of Achievements in Materials and
Manufacturing Engineering, Volume 23 Issue 1 July
2007, pp. 39-42
[6] H. L. ANDRADE, M. G. AKBEN, J. J. JONAS, Effect
of molybdenum, niobium, and vanadium on static
recovery and recrystallization and on solute
strengthening in microalloyed steels, Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A, Volume 14, Number
10 / October, 1983, pp. 1967-1977
362
[7] BAKER, T. N., Processes, microstructure and
properties of vanadium microalloyed steels.
Materials Science and Technology, Volume
25, Number 9, 2009, pp. 1083-1107(25)
[8] Z. QU, C. J. MCMAHON, The effects of tempering
reactions on temper embrittlement of alloy steels,
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, Volume
14, Number 6 / June, 1983, pp. 1101-1108
[9] C. J. McMAHON, Temper Embrittlement of Steels:
Remaining Issues, Materials Science Forum (Volume
46), pp. 61-76
CORRESPONDENCE
Imre KISS, Assoc. Prof. Dr., Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
imre.kiss@fih.upt.ro
Vasile George CIOAT, Lect. Dr.Eng.
University Politehnica Timisoara
Faculty of Engineering - Hunedoara
5, Revolutiei
331128 Hunedoara, Romania
vasile.cioata@fih.upt.ro

BASE ELEMENTS FOR DESIGNING
GALVANIZED STEEL STRUCTURES
Mihaela POPESCU
Carmen OPRIS
Abstract: The paper presents the Cold Metal Transfer
process, its performances and applications for the weld-
brazing of galvanized sheets. Prior to welding, the sheets
were investigated using thermo gravimetric and thermo
differential analysis Welded joints were submitted to
tensile testing, and examined with the optical microscope.
Key words: galvanized sheets, CMT process,
microstructure, tensile tests
1. INTRODUCTION
One new joining method for galvanized plates is the Cold
Metal Transfer (CMT) process, developed by Fronius,
obtaining what can be called joining drop by drop.
The advantages of using this joining process are as
follows:
 low thickness materials can be joined, under 0,8 mm;
 high diameters of the filler wire with low welding
currents can be used (wire with 1,2 mm, may be
welded stable with a current IS = 65A);
 good welding position;
 heat introduced in the piece is approx. 30% lower than
the MIG/MAG classic process;
 low deformations;
 the process is suitable for complete mechanization.
As the CMT process functions with less heat input, it
almost incidentally has another added advantage: lower
pollutant emissions. As shown by numerous test results,
the concentrations of pollutant investigated in CMT
brazing are far below those encountered in MIG brazing
nearly 90% less copper fumes and as much as 63% less
zinc that with conventional dip-transfer arc technology
(figure 1) [8].
Joining of galvanized sheets is part of category of joints
that cannot be obtained using classic processes, but can be
done using weld-brazing. Joining process with
welding/weld-brazing, with low thermal input, Cold
Metal Transfer (CMT) is based on a completely new
technologic concept, associated with specific equipments.
3
Concentration mg/m3
2.5
2 CMT dip
transfer arc
1.5
Standard dip
1 transfer arc
Pulsed dip
0.5
transfer arc
0
Copper zinc
fumes
Fig. 1. Emissions values in MIG brazing
with CMT manual process [8]
The inferior limit of application of the CMT process is
reduced compared with conventional solutions with short
arc and short-circuit transfer, which ensures the
significant extension of the welding domain. Thermal
power, respectively the welding energy at the CMT
process is lower, compared with other processes.
In the case of conventional processes, with short arc and
short-circuit transfer, the wire executes feed motion, until
the short-circuit is produced. The process is accompanied
by abundant, uncontrolled sputtering [3].
In case of the CMT process, the previous presented
situations may be avoided, since the welding wire
executes an advancing-retreat movement towards the part
to be welded, with high frequency. This is the main
difference between CMT process and the conventional
MIG/MAG process. Oscillation frequency of the wire
varies in time, depending on the short-circuit formation,
but the average is about 70 Hz.
Metal transfer is done almost without welding current,
while at the short arc welding conventional process, the
short-circuit transfer is due to a higher welding current.
The CMT process is extremely flexible, uses the process
controller for the technologic monitoring of the working
parameters, ensuring information regarding the main steps
of the process. It is possible, thus, for the first time to
combine the CMT process with the pulsed arc process.
This is the reason why welding energy and penetration
influence favourably the geometry of the welded joint
[2,5,6].
2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Before being weld-brazed, two types of galvanized plates
were examined, using thermo gravimetric and thermo
differential analysis: probe 1 was covered by
galvanization, and probe 2 was Cr 3+ passivation covered
plate [4].
These experiments were made to determine the purity of
the probe, as well as the thermal decomposition reactions
that appear when the temperature increases. On the other
hand, by thermo differential analysis the solid phase
reactions between iron and zinc can be noticed as well as
exothermic and endothermic phenomena.
Figures 2 and 3 present the results obtained following the
mentioned analysis.
363
 The samples were afterwards weld-brazed, joining plates
1 mm thick. CuSi3 filler wire (DIN 1733) was used, with
the chemical composition in table 1. Shielding gas was a
Ar+30%He+1%CO2 mixture, which was used to allow
the increase of arc power and consequently the welding
speed. A higher welding speed is necessary in order to
deteriorate the less possible the zinc layer. Therefore the
arc power increases by introducing helium in the
shielding gas, because of the high ionization potential,
allowing thus the increase of the welding speed and
obtaining good mechanical properties of the joint.
After weld-brazing, the samples were submitted to tensile
testing [2, 6, 7].
Fig. 2. The thermo gravimetric and thermo differential
analysis of the galvanized plate Table 1. Properties of CuSi3 wire
Typical Al < 0,01
composition Si 2,80 - 4,00
in % Mn 0,75 - 1,50
Sn < 0,20
Zn < 0,20
Pb < 0,02
Fe < 0,30
P < 0,02
Others total < 0,40
Classification DIN 1733 SG-Cu Si 3
Material Nr. W.2.1461
BS 2901 part 3 C 9
Fig. 3. The thermo gravimetric and thermo differential AWS A 5.7 ER Cu Si - A
analysis of the galvanized and Cr3+ Base CuZn5; CuZn10; CuZn15;
passivation covered plate materials CuSi2Mn; CuSi3Mn
Remarks Filler wire for joining Copper,
Symbols in figures 2 and 3 are as follows:
Copper-Silicon and Copper-Zinc
 TG (TGA) - thermo gravimetric analysis alloys. Suitable for joning of steel
 DTG - TG derivative to Copper and for surfacing of
 DTA - differential analysis steel. High temperature and
Determinations were made using a METTLER thermal corrosion resistance. Very
analysis device, and the process to reduce the weight commonly used for galvanized
depending on temperature is represented by means of steel.
DTG. Testing for galvanized steel was conducted for 20
minutes at 500C, at the speed of 5C/min. Tensile testing of the galvanized weld-brazed sheets is
It can be noticed, depending on temperature, the reduction presented in figure 4.
of weight, as it follows. Both probes are approximately Following the tensile tests, samples 2, 3, 4 were broken in
similar from the weight loss point of view. So, the zinc the base material, which confirms that the welding
layer is completely damaged around the value of 420C regimes were adequate, and samples 1 and 5 were broken
(melting temperature of zinc). However the weight in the joint, brittle fracture caused by the presence of hard
reduction is more accentuated in the case of non intermetallic phases of iron and zinc. Results of the tensile
passivated probe. tests are presented in table 2.
In the case of probe 1 which is passivated, the loss of
weight is not significant up to the temperature of 260C,
and in the other case the weight loss is significant starting
with the temperature of 200C. In the case of probe 2 a
strong exothermic reaction appears at the temperature of
496C. It is also worth mentioning the existence of
inflexion points: probe 1 at the temperature of 405C and
448C, and as regards probe 2 at the temperature of 480C
and 501C. These analysis show that the degradation of
the zinc layer is reduced when it is passivated, having
thus a higher resistance at processing at elevated
temperatures in the environment. One can estimate that
when welding these galvanized steels, the zing layer is
less damaged if the Cr 3+ passivation operation is
conducted. Fig. 4. Tensile test of the samples

364
Table 2. Results of the tensile tests contributing thus to the increase of the weld-brazed joints
resistance.
Sample Rm Remarks
At microscopic level this joining method does not have a
[daN/mm2]
significant influence on the materials structure in the heat
1 310 Break in the joint affected zone. This is due to the low heat induced in the
2 370 Break in the base material components by the high speed weld-brazing process. In
3 370 Break in the base material the heat affected zone we can find an area characterized
4 350 Break in the base material by a fine grain size, which hasnt suffered the increase of
5 260 Break in the joint the grain size due to overheating (fig. 6).

Microstructural examinations were conducted on the

samples, for both the welded joint and the base material.
In the weld-brazed joint one can observe the dendritic
crystallization of the eutectoid in an solid solution
matrix. Brazing alloy that was used is CuSi3, which
presents a structure formed by an solid solution of
copper dissolved in silicon and an eutectoid mechanical
mixture formed of the phase and the intermetallic
compound Cu33Si7 (fig. 5) [2].

Fig. 6. Microstructure of the heat affected zone

Also, because of the low heat input induced by the CMT

process, one can see that the zinc layer has not been
damaged in the area adjacent to the joint, which means
that the anticorrosive protection of the galvanized sheets
was not affected by the weld-brazing process. The
thickness of the zinc layer is practically the same, as can
be seen in figure 7.
a.

b. Fig. 7. Area adjacent to the CMT joint

Fig. 5. Microstructural examination

a. weld-brazed joint, b. weld-brazed joint-base material 3. CONCLUSION

One can observe an area of copper diffusion in the base The destructive tests program conducted on the samples
material, with approximate 8m thickness. The presence demonstrates the quality of weld-brazed joints,
of this diffusion area in the base material ensures a good emphasizing the copper diffusion area, as well as the fact
bond between the brazing alloy and the base material, that the zinc layer was not affected by the CMT process.

365
Being a colder process overall, CMT makes a number [7] YU, Z.S., LI, R.F., ZHOU, F.M., WU, M.F., QI, K.,
of work-steps superfluous. Freedom from spatter, for QIAN, Y.Y., Joint evolution and strengthening
instance, means no post-weld machining. Not even when mechanism in arc brazed galvanized steel with
100 % CO2 shielding gas is used in the welding of steel. CuSi3 filler, Material Science and Technology,
Being able to butt-weld light-gauge sheets means there is 2004,vol 20, no. 11, ISSN 0267-0836, pp. 1479-
no need for weld-pool backing support. High gap bridge 1483.
ability means better process manageability and therefore [8] xxx : Fronius
suitability for automation.
And thanks to the multiprocess capabilities of the welding
machine, you can also perform MIG/MAG standard and
pulsed-arc welding as well as CMT. On top of all this,
there are all the savings that result from the loss-free gas
supply to the torch, the automatic cooling-unit cut-out,
low open-circuit power, high efficiency, modular (and
thus highly flexible) system principle, easy servicing,
updates via laptop etc. All the attributes that feature in the
digital MIG/MAG systems do sterling service here as well
[3, 5, 6].
Working with Fronius systems is definitely a very safe bet
indeed. They all come with IP 23, earth fault-current
watchdog, temperature-controlled fan. An additional
benefit with the CMT systems is that because there is no
spatter, fewer welding fumes are generated, which leads
to less soiling at the workplace [1 8].

REFERENCES

[1] BOUAIFI, B., Low heat process enhance jointing of

coated sheet metals, Welding Journal, 2003, 82(1),
ISSN 0043-2296, pp. 26-31
[2] POPESCU, M., OPRIS, C., BRAN, I., Possibilities of
applying the CMT (cold metal transfer) process for
joining some components from agriculture, Buletin
AGRO-AGIR, 2010, Anul II, No IV, pp 175-180,
ISSN 1224-7928
[3] POPESCU, M., MAGDA, A., MOCUTA, G.E.,
DEMIAN, C., PERIANU, I.A., GROZA, D.:
Comparative approach of MIG/MAG Brazing and
CMT galvanized steel joining processes for
automotive applications, Scientific Bulletin of the
POLITEHNICA University of Timisoara
Transactions on Mechanics, Fasc. 2, 2008, Tom CORRESPONDENCE
53(67), ISSN 1224-6077, pp. 29-36
[4] POPESCU, M., MOCUTA G.E., PADUREAN, I., Mihaela POPESCU, Prof. Assoc. Eng.
Galvanized plates behaviour during the exploitation Politehnica University of Timisoara
temperature variations, METALURGIA, 2010, no. Mechanical Engineering Faculty
2, p. 21-23, ISSN 0461-9579 No. 1, M. Viteazul Bvd, Timisoara
[5] QUINTINO, L., PIMENTA, G., IORDCHESCU, 300222, Romania
D., MIRANDA, R.M., PEPE, N.V., MIG Brazing of mihaela.popescu@mec.upt.ro
galvanized thin sheet joints for automotive industry,
Material and Manufacturing Processes, 2006, vol. 21, Carmen OPRIS, Assist. Ph.D. Eng.
issue 1, ISSN 0361-8773, pp. 63-73 Politehnica University of Timisoara
[6] VERSTAPPEN, H.G.J.M., SUSTEREN, van S.J., Mechanical Engineering Faculty
OOJI, van W.J., Durability of powder coated hot- No. 1, M. Viteazul Bvd, Timisoara
dip galvanized steel, Journal of Coatings 300222, Romania
Technology, 2002, vol 74, nr. 7, ISSN 1547-0091, carmen.opris@mec.upt.ro
pp. 43-54

366

CERAMICS TOOL MATERIALS WITH
ALUMINA MATRIX
Katarina GERIC
Abstract: Ceramics cutting tool are being more widely
used, as they can satisfy the high criteria of industry.
Main trends in research of ceramic materials are shifting
from high purity single phase like Al203 to multiphase
composite ceramics, and nowadays extensive research is
done to identify all the combinations which would satisfy
the requirements: high hardness, high toughness, high
temperature resistance and inertness toward machining
part. In this paper, we analysed the composition,
strengthening and toughening mechanism, as well as the
application of cutting tool materials with alumina matrix.
Key words: cutting tool material, alumina composite.
1. INTRODUCTION
There is an axiom in metal working that urges the use of
the right tool for the job. Selecting the correct cutting tool
material for a specific machining operation is the first step
in creating the most effective process plan for
manufacturing a part. The cutting tool material is
dependent on the work material to be machined and the
operation to be performed. Often, there are several
possible choices of tool materials that will successfully
(but not cost-effectively) produce parts. Additional factors
then must be considered and these include:
 machine tool horsepower, speed range, rigidity,
 productivity demands,
 tooling budget limitations
 machine tool burden rate.
In an increasing number of applications, the right tools for
the jobs are ceramic cutters. According to some data,
application of ceramic cutting tools is about 5% of all the
other cutting tool materials, Fig 1. While available as
solid body tools, the most popular form of ceramic cutters
is the indexable ceramic insert.
With the development of high speed machining, the
requirements for cutting tool materials have become
higher and higher. In recent years, a new kind of material
has been widely used as cutting tool material because of
its good resistance to oxidation, relatively high hardness
(compared with that of cemented carbide cutting tool
materials) and low friction coefficient with metals. Main
trends in research ceramic materials are shifting from
single phase of high purity to multiphase composite
ceramics.
Advances in ceramic processing technology have resulted
in a new generation of high performance ceramic cutting
tools exhibiting improved properties. Considerable
improvements have been achieved in tool properties such
as flexural strength, fracture toughness, thermal shock
resistance, hardness, and wear resistance by incorporating
one or more other components into the base material to
form ceramicmatrix composite tool materials. The
reinforcing component is often in the shape of particles or
whiskers. Ceramic tool materials with oxide matrices,
particularly alumina, Al203, are of increasing interest, as
they exhibit high hot-hardness and very high abrasion
resistance, thus making it suitable for high speed
machining.
O ther
7%
C e ra m ic
5%
C e rm e t
8%
TS
45%
HSS
35%
Fig. 1. Application of cutting tool materials
Addition of hard particles or whiskers to the Al203 matrix
may enhance its mechanical properties considerably.
Some of these tool materials, such as Al203/TiC,
Al203/TiB2, Al203/ZrO2, Al203/Ti(CN), Al203/WC, and
Al203/SiC, have been used in various machining
applications and offer advantages with respect to friction
and wear behaviors. A large variety of strengthening and
toughening mechanisms, including particle dispersion
toughening, transformation toughening, whisker
reinforcing as well as micro-crack toughening, have been
developed to improve toughness, strength and thermal
shock resistance of ceramic tool materials.
2. CUTTING TOOL OF PURE ALUMINA
Cutting tools from alumina, Al203, are used since the
beginning of twentieth century for cutting low hardness
steel, but are usually used for grey cast iron. Cutting tools
of pure Al203 are usually used in mass production, as they
are cheap. Material for cutting tool is fine grain at least
99% pure Al203 (less than 5 m), with high relative
density, i.e. containing less than 2% porosity [1].
367
Hardness of alumina at room temperature is at the same
level as that of cemented carbides (1600HV, 16GPa
Knoop).
When a few of volume percent of carbon is added, a
fracture toughness approximately 20% higher than that of
the corresponding ceramic material containing no carbon
additive is achieved, while the hardness and the flexural
strength do not decrease much [3]. Strip-like graphite
(carbon) with a width of about 100 nm, is distributed at
the boundary area of Al203 and TiC and Al203 grains. It is
found that microcracking, crack deflection, crack
branching and crack bridging may contribute dominantly
to the increase in the fracture toughness of the carbon
containing Al203/TiC ceramic tool material. Therefore, it
can get higher fracture resistance while retaining good
wear resistance in continuous and interrupted machining
of hardened carbon steel.
This composite has been widely used for high speed
cutting of hard steel, superalloys, or cast iron.

Fig. 2. Cutting tool materials comparisons

Hot hardness and compression strength are larger than

that for cemented carbides. However, fracture toughness (a) (b)
is low, with the value KIC for alumina tools being 1.75 to
Fig. 3. Pure Al203 (a) and Al203 composite (b)
4.3 MPa m1/2, much lower than those for cemented
carbide, fig. 2 [2].
One way to address the toughness issue of pure alumina, Al203TiCCo composite
was by mixing (ceramic + carbide). Ceramic composite Incorporation of a ductile phase into a brittle ceramic
cutting tool material contains Al203 and 30% or more matrix has been proved to be an effective mechanism to
carbide of refractory metals. TiC or (Ta,Ti)C are widely toughen the ceramic because the existence of ductile
used since 1960. Nowadays, WC and NbC are added. phase can dissipate the energy of crack initiation and
Al2O3-based ceramic composites reinforced with propagation through plastic deformation, thus making a
refractory carbides have been developed as an alternative larger contribution to the increment of toughness of brittle
to cemented carbide. ceramic materials. Thin film of metal cobalt was cladded
Table 1 summarizes some mechanical properties of WC on the surface of Al203 and TiC powder by a chemical
as compared to Al203 and other reinforcing carbides. deposition method before the mixture of powder was hot-
Although all carbides show similar hardness, WC features pressed into an Al203TiCCo (about 70 wt.% Al203Co
higher fracture strength and elastic modulus, compared to and 30 wt.% TiCCo) [4]. Due to the presence of cobalt
NbC and TiC. film, ceramic exhibits a higher fracture strength and
fracture toughness than Al203TiC (about 70 wt. % Al203
Table 1. Mechanical properties of Al203 and carbides and 30 wt. % TiC).
Flexural strength Elastic mod. Hardness Al2O3/TiCN composite
(MPa) (GPa) (GPa)
Al203 200-400 310-410 20 The problem with these tools is obtaining them, i.e.
sintering. By using new technique of sintering, i.e.
NbC 200-400 340 24 repetitious-hot-pressing technique Al203/Ti(C0.3N0.7),
TiC 200-400 310-410 18-32 cutting tool material was fabricated successfully. TiCN is
WC 560 520-700 18-24 very attractive as a cutting tool due to its lower friction
coefficient in comparison to TiC. The obtained material
3. ALUMINA BASED COMPOSITE contains 45% of Al203, 55% of Ti(C0.3N0.7), with Nickel +
Molybdenum (4,5%) being added as binders. A small
amount of MgO (0,5%) was used to limit the abnormal
Al203 + TiC composite
growth of Al203 grains during sintering [5]. This
The Al203/TiC composites consist of small titanium composite has good mechanical properties (Flexural
carbide grains dispersed in an alumina matrix. The strength 820 MPa, Fracture toughness 7.4MPam1/2,
mixture is hot pressed and is dark gray in color Fig. 3. Vickers Hardness 20.4 GPa), especially high fracture
Microstructure is fine grain Al203 with dispersed carbide toughness compared to other Al203-based ceramics. The
grains of diameter equal to few microns. These cutting reason of the toughness increment of this composite is the
tools are mainly used for working on gray cast iron with formation of a spatial net structure during sintering.
high speed, and it is expected to be used more widely than Ti(C0.3N0.7) grains surround almost each grain of Al203
pure Al203, as its toughness is increased by addition of and vice versa. This can be attributed to the molybdenum
TiC, 4,92 MPam1/2 existence between hard phases and bonding phase,
368
separating the hard phase from the liquid during sintering
thus preventing the grain growth of the hard phase owing
to dissolution and reprecipitation, so its addition can fine
Ti(C0.3N0.7) grains. The combined effects of transgranular
fracture and grain bridging mechanisms lead to the higher
toughness of the composite, compared with Al203-based
ceramics. Inserts of this cutting tool material
Al203/Ti(C0.3N0.7), is suitable for continuously cutting of
cast iron, hardened steel, especially intermittent cutting
hardened steel.
Similar composite, Al203/TiCN, have been fabricated by
gas pressure sintering [6], which overcomes the
limitations of hot pressing. Up to now, most of the Al203/
TiC composites have been fabricated by hot pressing
which have many limitations for mass production. The
densification behavior and mechanical properties of the
Al203 gas pressure sintered with 30 wt%. TiCN achieved a
relative density of 99.5%, a bending strength of 772 MPa,
a hardness of 19.6 GPa, and a fracture toughness of 5.82
MPam1/2. Gas-pressure sintering Al203/TiC composites
consist of small titanium carbide grains dispersed in an
alumina matrix and have been used as excellent cutting
tools for a long time. Gas pressure sintering is now widely
used for manufacturing high-performance ceramics
because it combines the advantages of hot pressing,
pressureless sintering and hot isostatic pressing. TiCN is
very attractive for cutting tool due to its lower friction
coefficient than TiC.
Mechanical properties will be achieved for the Al203/
Ti(C,N)/SiC ceramic material when the volume fraction
of both SiC and Ti(C,N) is nearly 15%. The flexural
strength, the fracture toughness and the hardness of ATS
ceramic material is measured to be 721MPa, 5.4MPam1/2
and 19.0 GPa, respectively, which is higher than that of
the pure alumina ceramic. It is shown that when
machining hardened tool steel at low speed, wear mode
of the kind of ceramic tool material is mainly flank wear
with slight crater wear. The adhesion between tool and
work pieces is relatively weak [7]. With the increase of
cutting speed, cutting temperature increases consequently.
As a result, the adhesion is intensified both in the crater
area and flank face.
Al203 -TiC whiskers composite
This material, with in situ growth of whiskers in a matrix
material, has advantages in comparison to other methods,
as the other methods of application of whiskers are still
limited by such disadvantages as healthy hazard, difficult
dispersion, a high cost, etc. In situ growth of TiC
whiskers, strengthening and toughening of Al203 matrix
composite tool materials can greatly reduce the cost and
environment pollution by such advantages as the direct
synthesizing of whiskers in a matrix material and
avoiding the complicated mixing procedures. The
majority of the synthesized whiskers display an ideal
aspect ratio of 1030 with a diameter of 1 3 mm [8].
Whiskers have high elastic modulus as an additive can
greatly improve the flexural strength and fracture
toughness of ceramic materials.
Al203 /TiCN/ Y2O3 composite
Recently, rare earths are used as effective additives in a
lot of ceramics Al203 /TiCN-O.2% Y2O3 composites were
fabricated by hot pressing sintering. The bending strength,
fracture toughness and Vickers hardness was respectively
1015 MPa, 6.89 MPam1/2, and 20.82 MPa till 1650 C [9].
This kind of composite tool material has very good wear
resistance and it is suitable for continuously cutting
quenched steel, and especially intermittently cutting
quenched steel and gray cast iron. The addition of Y203
formed YAG, special compound that precipitated at grain
boundaries of Al203 during sintering and inhibited crystal
growth. The formation of YAG increased bend strength,
fracture toughness, cracks-initiation resistance and cracks-
extension resistance. The cracks propagated into Al203
grains and were often deflected by TiCN grains. Crack
bridging by TiCN grains and/or Al203 /TiCN bonded
grains might occur. It is considered that this crack
deflection and crack bridging became more effective by
this chain-like structure by rare earth. Al203 /TiCN-0. 2%
Y203 tool gave excellent overall cutting performance, i.e.
longer tool life, lower cutting force, less tool-chip friction
and higher machining quality.
Al2O3 ZrO2 composite
Composite of Al2O3 ZrO2 are used for continuus
shallow cuts, (semifinishing or finishing operation).
Typical applications include turning carbon steels, alloy
steels, tool steels (with lower hardness) and gray, nodular
or malleable cast iron.
The TiC and ZrO2 particles with a diameter of
approximately 20 nm were distributed randomly in the
Al203 matrix [10]. The addition of ZrO2 nanoparticles
reduced the grain size and improved the distribution of
different phases. The mechanical properties increase with
the increasing amount of ZrO2 up to 10 wt%. The Al2O3
TiC10 wt% ZrO2 nanocomposites showed the best
mechanical properties with flexural strength of 706MPa
and fracture toughness of 6.3MPam1/2, which was
approximately 20% higher than that of Al203TiC
composite. Fracture mode of Al203TiC ZrO2 being a
mixture of intergranular and transgranular fracture
compared to a mainly intergranular fracture of Al203TiC.
The residual stresses are generated by the thermal
expansion coefficient mismatch between different phases,
which leads to the generation of dislocations and
microcracks around the nanoparticles. The effects of
nanoparticles on the deflected propagation, nailing and
blocking of the dislocation and microcracks are believed
to contribute to the improvement of the strength and
toughness of Al203TiC ZrO2.
Al203-TiB composite
Al203/TiB2 ceramic cutting tools material was produced
by hot pressing [11]. When machining with this tool,
wear rates and the friction coefficient at the toolchip
interface of Al203 /TiB2 ceramic cutting tools in dry high-
speed machining of hardened steel were reduced
comparing to that of low-speed machining. The
mechanisms responsible were determined to be the
formation of a self-lubricating oxide film on the toolchip
interface owing to the tribologicalchemical reaction by
the elevated cutting temperature. The appearance of this
self-lubricating oxide film contributed to the improvement
in wear resistance and the decrease of the friction
369
coefficient. Cutting speed was found to have a profound
effect on the self-lubricating behavior. In dry low-speed
machining of hardened steel, the Al203 /TiB2 tools showed
mainly adhesive and abrasive wear. While in dry high-
speed machining, oxidation wear of the ceramic tools was
the dominant mechanism due to the very high cutting
temperature.
Moreover, it offers cost reduction in machining. Dry
machining is becoming increasingly popular due to
concern regarding the safety of the environment.
Recently, consumption of cutting fluids has been reduced
considerably by using mist lubrication. However, mist in
the industrial environment can have serious respiratory
effects on the operator. In dry machining, there will be
more friction and adhesion between the tool and the
workpiece, since they will be subjected to higher
temperatures. This will result in increased tool wear and
hence reduction in tool life. In high-speed machining, the
maximum cutting temperature of the insert involved can
reach more than 1000 C. Conversely, the limit of cutting
speed is a function of the cutting tools used.
Al203/ TiB2/SiCw composite
Al203/TiB2/SiCw ceramic cutting tools with different
volume fraction of TiB2 particles and SiC whiskers were
produced by hot pressing [12]. Results showed that the
fracture toughness and hardness of the composite tool
materials continuously increased with increasing SiC
whisker content up to 30 vol%. The relative density
decreased with increasing SiC whisker content, the trend
of the flexural strength being the same as that of the
relative density. Cutting speeds were found to have a
profound effect on the wear behaviors of these ceramic
tools. The ceramic tools exhibited relative small flank and
crater wear at cutting speed lower than 100 m/min, within
further increasing of the cutting speed the flank and
crater wear increased greatly.
The composite tool materials with higher SiC whisker
content showed more wear resistance. Abrasive wear was
found to be the predominant flank wear mechanism.
While the mechanisms responsible for the crater wear
were determined to be adhesion and diffusion due to the
high cutting temperature.
Al203-NbC composite
The attempt was made to add Al203 and NbC. Fully dense
samples, both with and without NbC, showed hardness
values around 18 GPa [13], which is in accordance with
values reported for similar systems densified using other
additives The presence of a residual second phase did not
reveal any deleterious effect on the hardness of the
composite. No significant toughening has been obtained
by increasing NbC contents. Additions of small amounts
of TiO2 and MnO to plain Al203 have been proven
effective in attaining sintered bodies with densities of
98%
Al203-WC composite
Pressureless sintered and hot-pressed Al203WC
composites with use of Y2O3 as a sintering additive have
also been evaluated. Additions of up to 30 wt% WC
resulted in limited grain boundary pinning and
corresponding high densification. Although the addition
370
of Y2O3 improved sintering, the presence of a residual
grain boundary phase (YAG) was harmful to the fracture
toughness of the composites, as it affected the
effectiveness of the crack deflection mechanism that takes
place at the interfaces between Al203 and WC grains [14].
Hot-pressing resulted in hardness 17.5 GPa and fracture
toughness 7 MPam1/2 which is an improvement compared
to alumina reinforced by other refractory carbides. The
resulting materials should withstand elevated tempe
ratures and high erosion rates for high-speed and wear-
resistant cutting tools. Although these materials do not
have the same thermal stability of ceramic-ceramic
composites, they benefit from crack deflection and crack
bridging mechanisms at WC grain boundaries improved
toughness
Al203-YSZ composite
Ceramic cutting inserts produced from Al203/yttria
stabilized zirconia (YSZ) system compositions were
varied from 0 wt% to 100 wt%.
Each Al203 and YSZ composition was mixed and
uniaxially pressed. The results show that 20 wt% of YSZ
produced the minimum wear area [15]. When the amount
of YSZ was increased, the wear area also increased.
However, the Vickers hardness of the inserts decreased
with the increase of YSZ, while the fracture toughness of
the cutting inserts shows a continuous increase up to 60
wt% YSZ. Above 60 wt% of YSZ, the microstructure of
the polished samples started to show microcracks and
formed larger grain sizes of YSZ, thus hindering the
transformation toughening mechanism from functioning
effectively.
The increase of wear resistance of ZTA can be explained
as a result of transformation toughening mechanism that
originated from YSZ when surrounded by alumina matrix.
Al203 - SiC composite
The SiC can be added as powder, as whiskers or as nano
composite. It increases the hardness and the toughness.
Al2O3SiC composites containing up to 30 wt% of
dispersed SiC particles (280 nm) were fabricated by
hot-pressing and machined as cutting tools [16]. The
Al203SiC particulate composites exhibit higher hardness
than their unreinforced matrix because of the small grain
structure, i.e. inhibited grain growth by adding SiC and
the presence of hard secondary phase (SiC). For
machining composite, the tool showed the longest tool
life, seven times longer than a commercial tool made of
Al203TiC composite. The fracture toughness of the
composites remains relatively constant. The large SiC
particles on the grain boundary is believed to contribute to
the increment of the toughness at high (20 wt.%) SiC
loadings. The reduced grain size and the transformation of
the fracture mode from intergranular to intragranular of
the composites may lead to the reduction of the fracture
toughness whereas crack deflection by SiC particles is
expected to contribute the increase in toughness. Thus,
these two competing effects seemed to result in the small
change of the fracture toughness in the composites.
As the main drawback of ceramic inserts is their
britleness, small crystals whiskers of SiC are added in a
Al203 base [17]. The powder mixture with more 25% SiC
is hot pressed in order to eliminate porousness. Whiskers
are around 1-2 m in diameter, and around 20 m long, Table 2. Mechanic properties of cutting tool materials
very hard and tough, have no imperfections and are
randomly distributed in the Al203 base, fig 4. During the H FT BS
Composite Ref.
production process they are pressed insert blanks which GPa MPam 1/2 (MPa)
are cut in a wanted shape.
Al203/TiC 19.1 4.9 817 [3]
Al203/TiC/C 18.9 5.9 782 [3]
Al203TiCCo 19,5 7.9 714 [4]
Al203/TiCN 20.4 7.4 820 [5]
Al203/TiCN 19.6 5.8 772 [6]
Al203/ 19.0 5.4 721 [7]
Ti(C,N)/SiC
Al203 20.8 6.9 1015 [9]
/TiCN/Y2O3
Al203/TiC/ZrO2 94.4 6.3 706 [10]
HRA
Fig. 4. SiC crystals [17] Al203 /TiB2 20,8 5.2 785 [11]
In the Greenleaf's insert, the ratio is around 50/50 alumina Al203/ TiB2/SiCw 22.0 8.4 670 [12]
to silicon carbide whiskers. These cristals are like fibers Al203-NbC 18.0 [13]
and act as strengtheners for brittle ceramics. They act in a Al203-WC 17.5 7.0 [14]
similar way as fiberglass fibers when strenghtening
rubber. Fracture resistance is an important advantage of Al203-YSZ 1700 4.0 [15]
HV
such a reinforced ceramic insert cutter. Their random
distribution in ceramic base helps the base to have Al203 - SiC 23.0 3.7 [16]
predictable wear patterns to these inserts. This means Al203 - SiC 22.2 5.2 [16]
mainly higher resistance to crack growth due to deflection
Al203 - SiC 21.1 4.8 [18]
crack on interfaces ,relief of stress at the crack tip when
SiC whiskers pull/out from their sockets in the Al203. H-hardness, FT- fracture toughness, BS- bending strength
This ceramics has a special area of application and in
general, it is used for machining hard ferrous steel and 4. CONCLUSIONS
nickel alloys. Work piece, often chemically react with
cutting tools, but are inert towards titan. It can be expected that with the use of various new
Alumina-based composites with nanosized SiC and C ceramic cutting tools, the development of high speed
cutting technology will be promoted. Ceramic cutting
inclusions and with alumina matrix grain size varying
tools have better hardness than other materials, but the
from submicrometer to approximately 4 m. [18].
toughness presents a problem. However, cutting tools
Materials with submicrometer alumina matrix grains brittleness decreases once we add carbide, oxide and
wear predominantly by plastic deformation and grooving. nitride in alumina matrix as they will, with some
Coarse-grained materials wear by mixed wear mechanism additional additives, increase toughness. Current research
involving crack initiation and interlinking accompanied is focused on the different combinations of material
by grain pull-out, plastic deformation and grooving. composite, using known strengthening and toughening
The wear rate of composites increases with increasing mechanisms, in order to obtain best possible properties of
volume fraction of SiC. Coarse-grained materials wear cutting tools.
much faster then those with submicron microstructure. In
all cases the wear resistance of composites was higher
than that of pure alumina of comparable grain sizes used
as reference materials. REFERENCES
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by inter- and intra-granular fracture combined with plastic ButterworthHeinemann, 2000
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in composites with lower volume fraction of mainly Verlag London Limited 2008
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46334637
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[9] XIKUN, L., GUANMING, Q., QU, T.,
A12,O3TiCNY203 Composite prepared by HP and its
cutting performance, Journal of Rare Earths, Vol.25,
Jun. 2007, pp . 37-41
[10] DONG, Q., TANG, Q., LI, W., Al2O3TiCZrO2
nanocomposites fabricated by combustion synthesis
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CORRESPONDENCE
Katarina GERIC, Professor
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
gerick@uns.ac.rs

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE
EFFECTS OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ON STEELS
WITH VARIABLE NICKEL CONTENT,
SUBJECTED TO CAVITATION EROSION
Ilare BORDEASU
Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU
Abstract: Paper presents the cavitation erosion resistance
of four stainless steels with controlled chromium ( 12 %)
and carbon ( 0.1 %) content but having variable
quantities of nickel. The analyzed steels were casted using
special formula, maintaining all the specific elements,
which give excellent cavitation erosion resistance for the
materials used in manufacturing hydraulic machinery
runners. Because of the obtained microstructures and
mechanical properties, during the tests, occur differences
both in the evolution of erosions and in the final
penetration depth. The results show that nickel
concentrations around 6% give the best resistance. The
tests were carried out in the Timisoara Hydraulic
Machinery Laboratory using a vibratory device with
nickel tube [1],[ 3].
Key words: erosion of cavitation, chemical element,
mechanical characteristics, mean deep penetration rate
1. INTRODUCTION
The erosion of materials through cavitation continues to
remain a permanent concern for both scientists and
manufacturers of hydraulic equipments and marine
propellers, because cavitation modifies the shape of the
details in contact with water, reduce the performance and
finally take out of service the equipment in question.
Finding new technological solutions for extending the
lifetime of the components working in cavitation
conditions, especially details of hydraulic machinery, lead
the researchers towards studies both in the field of
increasing the materials resistance through chemical
composition and in the phenomena occurring in the
material structure during the erosion process. Those
directions are imposed by the numerous factors
influencing the cavitation erosion: chemical composition,
the macro and microstructure, manufacture technique,
heat, chemical and mechanical treatments, etc.
The exposed motives show that a compete evaluation of
the material behavior to cavitation erosion is a difficult
task. To help the manufacturers with the choice of the
best material the present work analyzes the influence of
nickel content upon cavitation erosion upon four stainless
steels with controlled contents of chromium ( 12 %) and
carbon ( 0,1 %).
2. INVESTIGATED MATERIAS
The investigated materials have been obtained through
casting under the supervision of the organization Centrul
de Expertizri de Materiale Speciale (Center for Survey of
Special Materials CEMS) belonging to the
Universitatea Politehnica din Bucuresti (Bucharest
Polytechnic University) on the basis of a collaboration in
the frame of
There have been used the following notation:
1. 12/0 - steel having 12 % chromium and 0.5 %
nickel;
2. 12/2 - steel having 12 % chromium and 2 % nickel;
3. 12/6 - steel having 12 % chromium and 6 % nickel;
4. 12/10 - steel having 12 % chromium and 10 %
nickel.
The effective chemical composition, determined after the
casting procedure is:
1. Steel 12/0: 0.121 %C, 12.08 %Cr, 0.5 %Ni, 1.36
%Mn, 1.50 %Si, 0.185 %Mo, 0.058 %W, 1.20 %V,
0.075 %Ti, 0.087 %Nb, 82.5 % Fe, rest% of
accompanying elements;
2. Steel 12/2: 0.114 %C, 12.02 %Cr, 2.15 %Ni; 1.36
%Mn, 1.35 %Si, 0.05 %Mo, 0.025 %W, 0.097 %V,
0.257 %Ti, 0.034 %Nb, 81.7 % Fe, rest% of
accompanying elements;
3. Steel 12/6: 0.112 %C, 12.07 %Cr, 5.95 %Ni, 1.67
%Mn, 1.79 %Si, 0.031 %Mo, 0.016 %W, 0.047 %V,
0.047 %Ti, 0.031 %Nb, 76.9 % Fe, rest% of
accompanying elements;
4. Steel 12/10: 0.105 %C, 12.02 %Cr, 10.28 %Ni, 2.62
%Mn, 1.72 %Si, 0.037 %Mo, 0.007 %W, 0.043 %V,
0.017 %Ti, 0.04 %Nb, 72.1 % Fe; rest% of
accompanying elements.
The chemical composition was determined using a
modern investigation method and the corresponding
program Fe-30-M.
Determined also at the Center for Survey of Special
Materials CEMS, belonging to the Bucharest
Polytechnic University, the values of the mechanical
properties are:
1. Steel 12/0: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation 43.66 HRC, ultimate resistance - 1450
MPa; yield limit 1020 MPa
2. Steel 12/2: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation - 40 HRC, ultimate resistance - 1336 MPa;
yield limit 935.2 MPa
3. Steel 12/6: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation 46.33 HRC, ultimate resistance - 1540
MPa; yield limit 1083 MPa
373
4. Steel 12/10: hardness of the surface exposed to  total duration of cavitation attack: 165 minutes;
cavitation - 25 HRC, ultimate resistance - 835 MPa;  specimen diameter: 14 mm.
yield limit 626 MPa.
The damages produced both at the specimen surface and
The structural constitution established through the
in the depth of material, after 165 minutes of testing, are
Shffler diagram [1], by using the equivalent contents of
presented in the Figures 2-6.
chromium (Cr)e and nickel (Ni)e, is:
Table 1 gives a synthesis in the mode of cracks/fractures
 For steel 12/0: 75% martensite, 25 % ferrite [(Cr)e = generation and propagation aspects, observed at the
14.2685%, (Ni)e = 4.81 %]; structural analysis with an electronic-scan microscope.
 For steel 12/2: 90% martensite, 25 % ferrite [(Cr)e =
14.626%, (Ni)e = 6.25 %]; Table 1. Findings obtained by analyzing the eroded area
 For steel 12/6: 60% austenite, 40% martensite, [(Cr)e
= 14.9%, (Ni)e = 10.145 %]; Structural
 For steel 12/10: 100%austenite, [(Cr)e = 14,6685%, Maximum analysis with an
(Ni)e = 14.74 %]; depth of electronic-scan
Steel Structure
In Figure 1, there are presented the microstructures of the erosion microscope
four steels, obtained before the beginning of the cavitation (m) (SEM)
erosion tests, using an optic microscope with an
aggrandizement of 200. Figure 2a and 3,
fragile inter -
grain fractures;
multiple fine
indentations,
martensite with diameters of
12/0 63.28
and ferrite de 10-50m;
front
propagation both
a) -12/0 b)-12/2
through inter-
grain cracks and
slip lines.
Figure 2b and 4
fragile inter-
grain fractures
martensite through
12/2 204.4
and ferrite cleavage;
c)-12/6 d)-12/10 numerous
inter-grain,
Fig. 1. Microstructure aspects of the experimental parallel cracks.
specimens, (atack Vilella, x200) Figure 2c and 5
fragile inter-
3. TEST FACILITY AND INVESTIGATION grain fractures;
austenite
METHOD multiple fine
12/6 and 53.55
martensite indentations
The used testing method was of vibratory type, produced separated by
in the Timisoara Hydraulic Machinery Laboratory using a inter-grain
magnetostrictive facility with nickel tube [1, [3]. The cracks.
testing method respects most of the procedures described Figure 2d and 6
in the ASTM G32 Standard [5]. A notable exception is
the liquid used which was tap water, because the
fracture
through cleavage
hydraulic machineries run with river water, which differ
having a fragile
considerably from the distilled water demanded in the
aspect, with
ASTM Standard. The testing temperature was maintained
mixed
at 201 0C.
propagation of
The mechanical working of the specimens was also
12/10 austenite 331.1 the fracture front
performed in the Timisoara Hydraulic Machinery
both inter-grain
Laboratory.
and trans-
The test facility operational parameters [1], [4] are:
crystalline
 double amplitude of vibrations: 94 m;
indentations
 specimen oscillation frequency: 7000 3% Hz; with huge
 ultrasonic generator electric power: 250 W; diameters, over
 specimen active surface immersion: 3-5 mm; 200 m.

374
From the data in Table 1 it can be seen that the austenitic-
martensitic steel (12/6) has the best cavitation erosion
resistance while the austenitic steel (12/10) has the lowest
resistance. This observation confirm previous researches
[2], carried out on steels containing also alloyed ferrite
and used for repairing works on blades and hydraulic
machinery runners.

Fig. 5. Etching aspect, in cross-section, of the specimen

12/6, putting into evidence the maximum depth of
cavitation erosion (x20)

a) probe 12/0 b) probe 12/2

c) probe 12/6 d) probe 12/10

Fig. 6. Etching aspect, in cross-section, of the specimen
12/10, putting into evidence the maximum depth of
Fig. 2. Structural analysis with an electronic-scan
cavitation erosion (x20)
microscope (SEM), after cavitation erosion, (x100)
In the following diagrams (Figures 7-9) is presented the
influence of both nickel and mechanical characteristics
upon the resistance of the tested steels to cavitation
erosion. The parameter used is the reversed value of the
mean deep penetration rate 1/MDPR, computed with
the formula:
4 60 M total
MDPR = [mm/or],
ttotal steel d 2
where:
Mtotal total lost mass, after 165 minutes of cavitation
attack;
ttotal total duration of the cavitation attack;
Fig. 3. Etching aspect, in cross-section, of the specimen steel steel density;
12/0, puting into evidence the maximum depth of d diameter of the specimen surface exposed to
cavitation erosion (x20) cavitation.

Fig. 4. Etching aspect, in cross-section, of the specimen

12/2, putting into evidence the maximum depth of Fig. 7. Dependence of cavitation erosion against the
cavitation erosion (x20) chrom content (12 % Cr)

375
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The present work has been supported from the National

University Research Council Grant (PCE- PNII), ID
34/77/2007 (Models Development for the Evaluation of
Materials Behavior to Cavitation) and ID 35/68/2007
(The Study of Hydrodynamic and Cavitation Phenomena
in the Driving and Automation and Force Systems)

REFERENCES

[1] BORDEAU, I., (1997). Eroziunea cavitaional

asupra materialelor utilizate n construcia mainilor
Fig. 8. Dependence of cavitation erosion against the hidraulice i elicelor navale. Efecte de scar, Tez de
hardness of the attack area doctorat, Timioara.
[2] FRANC J.P., E.A. - La Cavitation, Mecanismes
phisiques et aspects industriels, Press Universitaires
de Grenoble, 1995.
[3] POPOVICIU, M., O., BORDEASU, I.,
Considerations regarding the total duration of
vibratory cavitation erosion test, Third International
Symposium on Cavitation , Grenoble, 7-10 April,
France, 1998, p.221
[4] POPOVICIU M., BORDEASU I., - A quantitative
method of estimating the cavitation behaviour of
materials tested in a magnetostrictive facility,
Buletinul Stiintific , Universitatea Politehnica
Timisoara, Vol 41 (55), 1996.
[5] *** (2008). Standard method of vibratory cavitation
erosion test, ASTM, Standard G32-08

Fig. 9. Dependence of cavitation erosion against the

ultimate resistance Rm and the yield limit Rp0,2

From Figure 7 results that the cavitation erosion

resistance is diminished when the nickel content is over or
under 46%.
From Figures 8 and 9 results that the cavitation
withstanding increase exponentially with the mechanical
properties, when they fulfill the condition of not
becoming brittle.

CONCLUSIONS CORRESPONDENCE
1. The cavitation resistance to cavitation is greatly
influenced by the microstructural constitution and the Ilare BORDEASU, Prof. Dr. Eng.
mechanical properties. The alloyed austenite in Politehnica University of Timisoara,
combination with martensite gives an increased Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
resistance in comparison with austenitic structure. Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1
2. The nickel content plays an important role for 300222, Timisoara, Romania
establishing the rates between the structural ilarica59@gmail.com
constituents and implicitly upon the mechanical ilarica59@mec.upt.ro,
characteristics and the cavitation erosion resistance. Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU,
The test results show that for the steel with a content Full member of the Academy of
of chromium of 12 % the increase of the resistance Romanian Scientists
occur for nickel contents of 46%. Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1
3. The cavitation withstanding of steels increase 300222, Timisoara, Roumania
exponentially with the mechanical properties, with the mpopoviciu@gmail.com
condition that they do not become brittle.

376

THE INFLUENCE OF THE PROCESSING
TEMPERATURE ON MASS LOSSES FOR
POLYOXYMETHYLENES (POM),
POLYAMIDE 6. 6 (PA 6.6) AND
THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANE
(TPU)
Gheorghe Radu Emil MRIE
Ioan PANTEA
Simona Diana CHEREGI
Abstract: This paper presents the influence of processing
temperature on the mass losses of Polyoxymethylenes
(POM), Polyamide 6.6 (PA 6.6) and Thermoplastic
polyurethane (TPU) during injection molding.
The test-pieces were molded at the different temperatures
according to processing specific of each polymer. It was
established that the in-mould pressure decreases as the
processing temperature increases. The thermal analysis
performed was Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA).
It was determined that the processing temperature
influences the thermal stability of the polymer, the quality
of molded product and the mass losses.
Keywords : Polyoxymethylene (POM), Polyamide 6. 6
(PA 6.6), Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU),
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), mass loss
1. INTRODUCTION
Polyoxymethylenes (POM), also known as polyacetals,
are high crystalin macromolecular compounds with a
regular structure of methylenic ethers. [1].
They have a set of exceptional properties: remarkable
resistance to alternate stress (fatigue), high strength at
repetitive impact occured at low temperatures (- 40C),
high frictional and wear resistance, optimum balance
between rigidity and elasticity, low creep sensitivity,
POMs are rigid materials with an exceptional dimensional
stability used within a wide range of temperature
(between - 50C and + 90C).[5].
Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) are obtained by
reaction of diisocyanates and difunctional polyols [1]. The
polyols can be long-chain diols and short-chain diols. The
linear polyurethane is the result of the polyaddition
reaction between three components: diisocyanate, long-
chain diols and short-chain diols.
The flexible segment of polyurethane consists of long-
chain diols. The combination between the diisocyanate
and the short-chain diol represents the hard segment of
the polyurethane. TPUs contain polyester diol which have
remarkable high mechanical properties, strength at high
temperatures, combined with high resistance to mineral
oils and hydraulic fluids. TPUs based on polyester diols
have higher resistance to hydrolysis, good flexibility at
low temperatures and resistance against microbiological
degradation [3].
The aliphatic polyamides are linear thermoplastic
polymers containing amidic groups, NH CO , highly
polarized and separated by flexible hydrocarbon chains.
The amidic groups lead to strong intermolecular hydrogen
bonds, so that the polymers contain crystalline zones with
high density of bond energy, along with amorphous zones
providing some flexibility to polymer. These structural
features are responsible for the general properties of the
aliphatic polyamides, such as: high melting temperature,
high breaking strength, abrasion and creep resistance,
high rigidity and hardness, low expansion (dilatation)
coefficient, low solubility [2, 4, 6].
These three polymers are used in various fields, such as:
a) automotive
- POM (e.g., toothed wheels, guides, active parts of oil or
diesel pumps, gasoline-level floats, housings, valves)
- TPU (e.g., front grilles, sealing rings, rocker panels,
protection boots, snow anti-skid chains, protection
rings for tie rod ends)
- PA 6.6 (e.g., housings, fans, bushings, flexible cables,
tanks for gasoline or brake fluid)
b) medical instrumentation.
- POM (e.g., medical instruments, valves, housings,
toothed wheels, switches)
- TPU (e.g., vibration-resistant sealing rings, connection
boots between metallic components, protection
shields for electric cables, rolls, etc.
Use of technopolymers for manufacturing of medical
devices is described in several papers [1,5,9,10].
c) sport products
d) electrical household appliances, etc.
The present paper aims to analyse the variation of
properties depending on processing conditions using the
thermogravimetric analysis (TG) method, for POM, TPU
and PA 6.6.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PART
2.1. Materials - polymer grade
- POM, grade Tenac 2013A
- TPU, grade Desmopan KA 8377
- PA 6.6, grade Technyl A 221
2.2. Equipment
The test-pieces were molded using an ENGEL injection
molding machine, type G/11/10/116/3.
377
The temperature of the flowing-state material was
measured with a thermocouple DYNISCO, type Ti422J fit Pressure 1950
in the plasticizing cylinder nozzle in order to get the real (bar) 1900
temperature within the central stream of the polymer melt 1850
flow. 1800

The in-mold cavity pressure was determined using a IDA 1750

transducer made by Dynisco Europe GmbH. 1700

The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out 1650

using a NETZSCH analyzer, typeTG 209 1600

Temperature
180 190 200 210 220 230 240
2.3. Processing parameters ( C )

For processing, the parameters were set as follows: Fig.1. The dependence of in-mold pressure peak on the
- real injection temperature acc. to Table 1 real injection temperature for POM (grade Tenac 2013A)
The temperatures of plasticizing cylinder and cilynder
nozzle, according to the required parameters. The pieces molded at 180C and 190C are not
qualitatively compliant: the mold cavity was not filled
Table 1. Injection temperatures completely (at 180C) and the piece surface bears melt
Injection temperature (C) flow marks, as the result of a too low molding
temperature and non-homogenized polymer in injection
POM 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 cylinder (at 190C).
TPU 200 210 220 230 240 The pieces molded at 200C, 210C, 220C and 230C are
qualitatively compliant since the mold cavity was filled
PA 6.6 270 285 300 315 330 345 completely and the surface is free of melt flow or sink
marks and no degradation of polymer occured.
- injection pressure and speed acc. to Table 2 The piece molded at 240C is qualitatively non-compliant
as its surface has visible marks of thermal degradation of
Table 2. Injection pressure and speed polymer. As a conclusion, the optimal processing
Injection pressure Injection speed temperature is ranging between 200C and 230C.
(bar) (mm/s ) In Fig. 2 there are represented the TG diagrams for POM
grains and POM molded at 180C.
POM 1900 20
TPU 1600 20
PA 6.6 1200 20

2.4. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

The molded test-pieces of POM, TPU and PA 6.6 were

examined through TGA .

The TGA parameters were as follows:

- temperature range 20C - 990C,
- heating rate of 5 K/min (POM and TPU)
10 K/min (PA 6.6 )
- under nitrogen atmosphere.

For comparative determinations, there were used raw

polymer grains as well, in order to see the changes in Fig. 2. TG diagrams for POM grains and
material during injection. POM molded at 180C

3. RESULTS AND ARGUMENTATION
3.1. POM
If the injection parameters are maintained constant during
all the seven processing temperatures, it was determined
that the real in-mold pressure decreases, from 1900 bar
when processing at 180C to just 1700 bar when
processing at 240C (Fig. 1).
This fact is explained by the slow decrease in viscosity of
the polymer melt [7,8].
In Tab. 4 there are presented the inflexion points on TG
diagrams and the mass losses up to 200C , 300C and
400C.
The inflexion points on the TG diagram represent the
temperatures where the decomposition rate is maximum.
It can be noticed from Tab. 4 that the values of the lowest
inflexion points are corresponding to the polymer
processed at 180C, 190C and 240C. This fact can be
explained by the too low viscosity of melt at the 180C
and 190C processings causing mechanical degradation of
polymer and by thermal degradation of polymer which

378
occurs during the 240C processing. For grains and for
processings at other temperatures, the values of inflexion
points are similarly close.
The same observation is valid for mass losses occured up
to 200C and 300C Considering the previous remarks,
the conclusion is that the best results are obtained for
processing at 200C, 210C, 220C and 230C.
3.2. TPU
It was determined that for constant injection parameters at
all five stages of processing temperature, the real in-
mould pressure decreases, from 1400 bar when processing
at 200C to just 400 bar when processing at 240C (Fig.
3).
This fact is explained by the major decrease in viscosity
of the polymer melt
Pressure
(bar) 1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Temperature
200 210 220 230 240
( C)
Fig.3. The dependence of in-mould pressure peak on the
real injection temperature for TPU (grade, Desmopan
KA 8377)
The pieces molded at the five processing temperatures are
shown in Fig. 4.
As can be seen from the pictures, the pieces molded at
200C and 210C are not complete, so they are
qualitatively non-compliant.
The pieces molded at 220C and 230C are qualitatively
compliant as the mold cavity was completely filled and
their surface is free of melt flow or sink marks and no
degradation of polymer occured as well.
The piece molded at 240C is qualitatively non-compliant
since its surface has visible marks of thermal degradation
of polymer.
As a conclusion, the optimal processing temperature is
ranging between 220C and 230C.
In Fig 5 it is represented the TG diagram for TPU grains.
In Tab 5 there are presented the inflexion points of TG
diagram and the mass losses at 200C, 300C, 400C and
500C.
The TG diagram has two inflexion points (322,1C and
370,6C), one due to the decomposition of the urethane
group and the other due to the decomposition of the
esteric group of the polyol used at synthesis of
polyurethane. The inflexion points on the TG diagram
represent the temperatures where the decomposition rate
is maximum. From Tab. 5. it can be noticed that the
lowest inflexion points values are for the polymer
processed at 200C, 210C and 240C. This fact can be
explained by the mechanical degradation of polymer as
result of a too low melt viscosity at the 200C and 210C
processings and by thermal degradation of polymer which
occurs at the 240C processing. For grains and for
processings at other temperatures, the values of inflexion
points are similarly close. The same observation is valid
for mass losses occured up to 200C and 300C.
Considering the previous remarks and the diagram
presented in Fig.5, the conclusion is that the best results
are obtained for processing between 220C and 230C.
Fig.5. TG diagram for TPU grains
3.3. PA 6.6
If the injection parameters are maintained constant during
all six processing temperatures, it was determined that the
real in-mold pressure decreases, from 800 bar when
processing at 270C to just 200 bar when processing at
345C (Fig. 6). This fact is due to the major decrease in
viscosity of the polymer melt.
Pressure 900
(bar)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 Temperature
(C)
270 285 300 315 330 345
Fig.6. The dependence of in-mould pressure peak on the
real injection temperature for PA6.6 ( grade TECHNYL A
221)
In Fig. 7 there are shown the pieces molded at the six
processing temperatures. The pieces molded at 270C,
285C and 300C are qualitatively compliant as the mold
cavity was filled completely and their surfaces are free of
melt flow or sink marks, and no degradation of polymer
occured as well. At parts molded at the next processing
temperatures (315C, 330C and 345C) occurs thermal
degradation of polymer. The polymer thermal degradation
is prominent at the 345C. Out of these remarks, it results
379
that the optimum processing temperature ranges between
270C and 300C since over this limit occurs thermal
degradation and burrs.
Fig. 8 presents the TG diagram for PA 6.6 processed at
285C.
Tab.6 presents the inflexion points on TG diagram, as
well as the mass loss implied at temperatures of 200C ,
300C, 400C, 500C and 600C.
Fig. 8. TG Diagram for PA 6.6 test-pieces processed at
285C
The inflexion points on the TG diagram represent the
temperatures where the decomposition rate is maximum.
From Tab. 6. it can be noticed that the values of the
lowest inflexion points are corresponding to the polymer
processed at 270C and 345C. This fact can be explained
by the too low viscosity of melt at the 270C processings
causing mechanical degradation of polymer and by
thermal degradation of polymer which occurs during the
345C processing. For grains and for processings at other
temperatures, the values of inflexion points are similarly
close. The same thing is noticed regarding the mass losses
up to 200C, 300C and 400C.
Taking into account the previous remarls along with the
Fig. 7, the conclusion is that the best results are obtained
by processing at 285C and 300C.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The scope of the research was to determine the qualitative
changes and mass losses which occur at different
temperatures injection molding processing for three
polymers:
- POM, grade Tenac 2013A,
- TPU, grade Desmopan KA 8377
- PA 6.6, grade TECHNYL A 221
frecquently used for manufacturing of tehnical articles in
automotives, medicine and high performance sport
articles.
It was established that the in-mould pressure decreases as
the processing temperature increases.
Through the Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), it was
determined that the most outstanding mass losses occur at
the lowest and at the highest processing temperatures,
respectively.
The mass losses are due to mechanical degradation at low
processing temperature and to thermal degradation at high
processing temperatures.
380
Following the analyses, there were established the
temperature intervals suitable for the optimum processing
of the three polymers in case (Table 3.).
Table 3. Optimum processing temperatures
Grade Optimum
processing
temperature
POM Tenac 2013A 200C ... 230C
TPU Desmopan KA 8377 220C ... 230C
PA 6.6 TECHNYL A 221 285C ... 300C
REFERENCES
[1] TROTIGNON, J. P., VERDU, J.,
DOBRACGINSKY, A., PIPERAUD, M., Matieres
Plastiques. Structures-proprietes, Mise en oeuvre,
Normalisation, Editions Nathan, Paris, 1996, p.85.
[2] FELDMAN D., BARBALATA A., Synthetic
Polymers, Technology, Properties, Applications,
Chapman & Hall, London, 1996, p. 231-237
[3] MRIE, GH. R. E., Thermal Analysis of Some
Mechanical and Physical Properties of
Thermoplastic Polyurethanes Used in Manufacturing
of Performance Sport Products, Materiale Plastice,
Vol.46, nr.2, 2009, p.169
[4] MRIE, GH. R. E., MANOVICIU I., BANDUR
G., RUSU, G., PODE, V., Study by Thermal Methods
of Some Physico-mechanical Properties of
Polyamides Used for High Performance Sport
Products, Materiale Plastice, Vol.46, nr.1, 2009, p.58
[5] MRIE, GH. R. E., Materiale plastice n designul
de produs, Editura Universitii din Oradea, Oradea,
2008, p.87-96
[6] MRIE, GH. R. E., Contribuii la studiul unor
caracteristici fizice ale polimerilor, utilizabili n
articole sportive de performan, prin metode
termice,Editura Politehnica, Timioara, 2007, p.87-96
[7] FETECU C., STAN F., Computational Prediction
of Defects During Injection Molding in a Complex
Part, Materiale Plastice, Vol.44, nr.3, 2007, p.180
[8] MRIE, GH., R., E., Elemente de tiina prelucrrii
termoplastelor, Editura Universitii din Oradea,
Oradea, 2004, p.20
[9] MRIE, GH. R. E., Study On The Properties Of
PPS, PEI And TPI Used In Manufacturing Technical
Components, MACHINE DESIGN 2009, The Editor
in chief: PHD. SINISA KUZMANOVIC, Novi Sad,
Serbia, 2009, p.349
[10] MRIE, GH. R. E., MRIE, I, Study On The
Properties Of Some Thermoplastic Polymers
Recommended In Manufacturing Of Power
Transmission Components For Engineering And
Automotive Industries, Proceedings POWER
TRANSMISSIONS `09, Editor: Athanassios
Mihailidis, Kallithea, Greece, 2009, p.255
CORRESPONDENCE
Gheorghe Radu Emil MRIE Simona Diana CHEREGI, Lect.Ph. D
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. University of Oradea,
University of Oradea Faculty of Medicine
Faculty of Visual Arts Piaa 1 Decembrie, nr.10
Str. Independenei, nr.39 410068, Oradea, Romania
410067, Oradea, Romania simonacheregi@yahoo.com
maries.radu@rdslink.ro

Ioan PANTEA, Prof. Ph.D.Eng.

University of Oradea
Faculty of Visual Arts
Str. Independenei, nr.39
410067, Oradea, Romania,
ipantea@uoradea.ro

Table 4. Mass losses for POM processed at different temperatures

Processing Mass loses [%] up to temperature of
Inflexion
temperature of
[C] 200 C 300 C 400 C
POM [C]
grains 354,9 0,13 12,04 99,56
180 318,0 2,56 34,60 99,52
190 327,2 2.40 30,76 99,95
200 351,8 0,32 13,44 98,75
210 351,4 0,46 13,05 99,13
220 350,6 0,53 12,58 98,10
230 352,3 0,22 12,90 99,30
240 344,7 1,84 27,51 99,66

Fig. 4. The influence of injection temperature on the quality of TPU molded parts (grade Desmopan KA 8377)

381
Table 5. Mass losses for TPU processed at different temperatures
Processing Inflexion Inflexion Mass loss [%] temperature of
temperature 1 2
200 300 400 500
of TPU [C] [C] [C]
grains 322,1 370,6 0,18 9,30 83,38 94,51
200 321,1 366,3 0,19 11,04 83,75 94,10
210 321,2 366,7 0,186 10,60 83,40 94,00
220 321,9 370,1 0,182 9,40 83,10 93,90
230 322,0 370,3 0,181 9,35 83,00 93,90
240 319,3 366,9 0,19 10,78 82,06 93,59

Fig. 7. The influence of the injection temperature on the quality of PA 6.6 molded parts (grade TECHNYL A 221)

Table 6. Mass losses for PA 6.6 processed at different temperatures

Processing Mass loss [%] at temperature of
Inflexion
temperature of
[C] 200 C 300 C 400 C 500 C 600 C
PA 6.6 [C]
granules 425,1 0,57 0,87 20,46 94,97 95,50
270 408,5 2,33 2,79 45,81 96,87 96,96
285 422,4 0,75 1,24 22,95 94,99 95,42
300 422,0 0,92 1,38 21,75 95,34 95,83
315 421,8 1,08 1,48 24,13 95,82 96,07
330 425,8 0,69 1,00 20,10 94,04 94,50
345 411,5 2,28 2,72 41,82 96,97 97,07

382

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE EFFECT OF
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF STEELS WITH
CONSTANT CHROMIUM CONTENT ON
THE RESISTANCE TO CAVITATION
EROSION
Alin Dan JURCHELA
Adrian KARABENCIOV
Nicolae BIRAU
Abstract: This paper analyses the resistance to cavitation
erosion of four types of stainless steels cast according to
special recipes. These stainless steels have a constant
content of Cr 12% and C 0.1%, and variable nickel
content. The steels are intended for the manufacture of
pallets and rotors of hydraulic machines. The penetrating
depth and the evolution of cavitation erosion are
influenced by the microstructure and the mechanical
properties of the material. Following the tests that were
conducted on the four specimens in the Hydraulic
Machines Laboratory in Timioara on the
magnetostrictive vibratory apparatus with nickel tube
[1,2], a tendency of higher cavitation erosion resistance
was noted for the steel with 6% Ni.
Key words: stainless steel, cavitation erosion,
microstructure, characteristic curves
1. INTRODUCTION
Along with the development of new types of pallets and
rotors, the increase of unity power, of rotation speed and
size of hydraulic machines, the need for new materials
with higher resistance to cavitation erosion appears.
Research follows both the analysis of materials
resistance to cavitation erosion and the phenomena that
occur in the materials structure following the cavitation
attack. A complete analysis of the cavitation phenomenon
is difficult due to the multitude of factors which influence
the materials resistance to cavitation erosion. These
factors are: structural composition, chemical composition,
technical manufacturing of the half-wrought material,
thermal and mechanical treatments, et.
The paper seeks to analyze the resistance to cavitation
erosion of four stainless steels with controlled Cr 12%
and C 0.1% content.
2. STUDIED MATERIALS AND
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The four stainless steels studied in this paper were
obtained by casting in the Special Materials Expertise
Center CEMS, of the Politehnica University in Bucharest.
For simplification, the following notations were in this
paper:
1. 12/0 for the steel with 12 % chromium and 0.5 %
nickel;
2. 12/2 for the steel with 12 % chromium and 2 %
nickel;
3. 12/6 for the steel with 12 % chromium and 6 %
nickel;
4. 12/10 for the steel with 12 % chromium and 10
% nickel.
The chemical compositions determined after casting are:
1. The 12/0 steel: 0.121 %C, 12.08 %Cr, 0.5 %Ni, 1.36%
Mn, 1.50%Si, 0.185 %Mo, 0.058 %W, 1.20 %V,
0.075 %Ti, 0.087 % Nb, 82.5 % Fe, remaining %
companion elements
2. The 12/2 steel: 0.114 %C, 12.02 %Cr, 2.15 %Ni; 1.36
%Mn, 1.35 %Si, 0.05 %Mo, 0.025 %W, 0.097 %V,
0.257 %Ti, 0.034 %Nb, 81.7 % Fe, remaining %
companion elements
3. The 12/6 steel: 0.112 %C, 12.07 %Cr, 5.95 %Ni, 1.67
%Mn, 1.79 %Si, 0.031 %Mo, 0.016 %W, 0.047 %V,
0.047 %Ti, 0.031 %Nb, 76.9 % Fe, remaining %
companion elements
4. The 12/10 steel: 0.105 %C, 12.02 %Cr, 10.28 %Ni,
2.62 %Mn, 1.72 %Si, 0.037 %Mo, 0.007 %W, 0.043
%V, 0.017 %Ti, 0.04 %Nb, 72.1 % Fe; remaining %
companion elements
The chemical composition was determined using the
latest investigation method and the corresponding
program Fe-30M.
The mechanical properties were also determined at the
Special Materials Expertise Center CEMS, of the
Politehnica University in Bucharest. The values for these
properties are:
1. steel 12/0: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation attack 43,66 HRC, mechanical resistance
to breaking 1450 MPa; flow limit 1020 MPa
2. steel 12/2: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation attack 40 HRC , mechanical resistance to
breaking 1336 MPa; flow limit 935,2 MPa
3. steel 12/6: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation attack 46,33 HRC , mechanical resistance
to breaking 1540 MPa; flow limit 1083 MPa
4. steel 12/10: hardness of the surface exposed to
cavitation attack 25 HRC , mechanical resistance to
breaking 835 MPa; flow limit 626 MPa
The micro structural constitution, which was determined
on the Sffler [1] diagram, using the equivalent chromium
((Cr)e) and nickel ((Ni)e) content, is:
 For steel 12/0: 75% martensite, 25 % ferrite ((Cr)e =
14,2685%, (Ni)e = 4.81 %);
 For steel 12/2: 90 % martensite, 10 % ferrite ((Cr)e =
14,626 %, (Ni)e = 6,25 %);
 For steel 12/6: 60 % austenite, 40 % martensite ((Cr)e
= 14,9 %, (Ni)e = 10,145 %);
383
 For steel 12/10: 100 % austenite ((Cr)e = 14,6685%,
(Ni)e = 14.74).
Figure 1 shows the microstructures of the four types of
stainless steels, obtained on an optical microscope before
the beginning of the cavitation attack.
Machines Laboratory of the Politehnica University in
Timioara [1,3]. The test method that was used follows
the ASTM G 32 [4] standard, except for the frequency
and the test liquid.
Tap water was used for the test, because the pallets and
the rotors work in river water, which has different
properties from the distilled water imposed by the ASTM
G 32 standard. The specimens were exposed to cavitation
attack for 165 minutes.

3. EVALUATION OF THE TEST RESULTS

The examination of the surface exposed to cavitation

erosion on the scanning electron microscope shows the
following:
1. A uniform degradation of the material 12/0 with a
structure of martensite and ferrite, presenting a
maximum erosion depth MDPmax = 63,28m (Fig. 2);
a) 12/0 2. A random degradation with breaking patterns of the
material 12/2 having a martensite and ferrite structure,
and a maximum erosion depth MDPmax= 204,4m
(Fig. 3);
3. A uniform degradation of the material 12/6 with a
austenite and martensite structure and the maximum
erosion depth MDPmax = 53,55m (Fig. 4);
4. A pronounced degradation of the surface of material
12/10 with austenite structure and the maximum
erosion depth MDPmax = 331,1m (Fig. 5).

b) 12/2

Fig. 2. Structural analysis of specimen 12/0 on the

c) 12/6 scanning electron microscope (SEM), after the cavitation
attack, (x100)

d) 12/10

Fig. 1. Micro aspects of experimental evidence

(Vilella attack, x200)
Fig. 3. Structural analysis of specimen 12/2 on the
The tests were conducted on the magnetostrictive scanning electron microscope (SEM), after the cavitation
vibratory apparatus with nickel tube in the Hydraulic attack, (x100)

384
 Fig. 4. Structural analysis of specimen 12/6 on the
scanning electron microscope (SEM), after the cavitation
attack, (x100)
Fig. 7. Variation of the resistance to cavitation erosion
with the hardness of the exposed surface

Fig. 5. Structural analysis of specimen 12/10 on the

scanning electron microscope (SEM), after the cavitation
attack, (x100)

The following diagrams show the influence of nickel and Fig. 8. Variation of the resistance to cavitation erosion
main mechanical properties on the steels resistance to with the mechanical resistance to breaking Rm and with
vibratory cavitation, of the inverse of the mean depth the flow limit Rp0,2
penetration speed 1/MDPR, where:
From Figure 6 results that the resistance to cavitation
4 60 M total erosion tends to drop for steels with nickel content higher
MDPR = [mm/hour].
ttotal steel d 2 or lower than 4/6 %.
From Figures 7 and 8 results that the resistance to
Mtotal the mass of material removed by cavitation, after cavitation erosion tends to rise exponentially with the
165 minutes of exposure, mechanical properties of the steel, provided that the
ttotal total exposure time material doesnt become brittle.
steel steel density
d surface of specimen exposed to cavitation attack 4. CONCLUSIONS

1. The resistance to cavitation erosion of steels is highly

influenced by its micro structural constitution and
mechanical properties. In some situations allied ferrite
combined with martensite, offers the steel a resistance
to cavitation attack superior to that with a pure
austenite structure.
2. The percentage of nickel plays an important role over
the establishment of ratio of micro structural
constituents of stainless steels and, implicitly, over the
mechanical and cavitation resistance characteristics.
Tests presented in this paper show that for steels with
12 % Cr content, the steels with approximately 4-6%
tend to have a higher resistance to cavitation erosion.
3. The trend is for the resistance to cavitation erosion to
Fig.6. The variation of resistance to cavitation erosion rise exponentially with the steels mechanical
with the nickel content (12 % Cr) characteristics values.

385
REFERENCES CORRESPONDENCE

[1] BORDEAU, I., (1997). Eroziunea cavitaional Alin Dan JURCHELA, Drd. Eng.
asupra materialelor utilizate n construcia mainilor Politehnica University of Timisoara,
hidraulice i elicelor navale. Efecte de scar, Tez de Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
doctorat, Timioara. Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1,
[2] BORDEAU, I., POPOVICIU, M.O., MITELEA, I., 300222, Timisoara, Roumania,
ANTON, L.E., BAYER, M., FUNAR, S.P. (2007). alindantm@yahoo.com
Cavitation Eroded Zones Analysis For G-X
5CrNi13.4 Stainless Steel Proceedings of The 18th Adrian KARABENCIOV, Drd. Eng.
International DAAAM Symposium Intelegant Politehnica University of Timisoara,
Manufacturing & Automation: Focus on Creativity, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Responsibility and Ethics of Engineers, Zadar Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1,
Croatia, 24-27.10.2007, ISSN 1726-9679, ISBN 3- 300222, Timisoara, Roumania,
901509-58-5, pp.105-106. karabenciov@yahoo.com
[3] KARABENCIOV, A.,BORDEAU, I., JURCHELA,
A., Study of stainless steels cavitation erosion with
Nicolae BIRAU, Drd. Eng.
0.1 % carbon and 10 % nickel, Machine Design,
Politehnica University of Timisoara,
Monograpf University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Technical Sciences, 2009, pp.427-430.
Bvd. Mihai Viteazul, Nr. 1,
[4] *** (1985). Standard method of vibratory cavitation 300222, Timisoara, Roumania,
erosion test, ASTM, Standard G32-85. biraunicu@yahoo.com

386

A NEW CONCEPT, THE STRUCTURE
PRECONFIGURATION
Dumitru DASCLU
Abstract: This paper presents a new concept for
upgrading the trybological performance of antifriction
materials of sliding bearings. The paper shows
theoretical and experimental results of the author
obtained after studying of original processing technology
proposed by the author with the name FINPLAST.
Key words: sliding bearings, technology, design of
bearings.
1. GENERALITIES
In order to explain this concept, will be considered two
aspects:
I In-depth modification of structure of superficial layer
after chip removing process;
II The structural modifications in the superficial layer of
antifriction materials of sliding bearings after the friction
contact.
The first aspect is being shown in fig.1, it can be seen the
modifications of the materials, after the chip removing
process [1], [2], [6]. We can see from the diagram that
after the chip removing process the superficial layer of the
processed material a certain depth a modified structure.
According to the experimental tests which are being
showed in the fig.1, results that the real profile obtained
after the chip removing process, is being covered with a
superficial layer made of pieces of crystals that are
attached to the basic material with reduced bonds. There
are two possibilities to obtain this type of layer, called
"absorption layer" noted with A. One is obtained from
polar molecules, which are connected to the basic
material by Van der Wales connection, and the other way
is by chemical bonds made between the structure of the
profile and the pieces of crystals as a result of the chip
removing process.
Immediately, under the real profile it can be seen an oxide
layer called reaction layer, noted with A. Under A we can
see another layer called Beilby layer, noted with B.
Under the Beilby layer, it can be seen one layer C, which
has a deformed crystalline structure.
Under C layer, there is another layer noted with D. This
one has normal crystalline structure. The C layer creates
in D layer a certain strain. This tension makes possible the
appearance of some modifications of structure in case of a
big loading force of contact to the surface. It is created the
possibility that the C layer will increase and will penetrate
the D layer.
The dimensional limits of these layers are showed in fig.
1. All this layers determine a specific superficial structure
of the antifriction layer. This structure is characterized by
a "memory" of generation mode, that is obligating us to
use the same way of turning of sliding bearings.
Fig. 1. The modifications of the materials, after
the chip removing process
The Beilby layer, is being known since 1903, but it was
confirmed experimental, after three decades and presents
a special crystalline structure. This is characterized by a
very fine structure that contains a high density of
dislocations. This is approaching to the amorphous
structure.
By the experimental determinations [1], [4], [6], this layer
it is very important for a good trybological function of
bearings. In conclusion, this layer its very important to
be obtained and maintained after the finishing process [6].
The assemble of all these layers made by A', A, B, C, D
represents an aria in the depth of the material with
specific proprieties for each antifriction alloy.
Next, this assemble of layers is called LCRP (Layer-Chip
Removing- Process)
LCRP and the experimental values which can be
determined are shown in table 1, in the end of the paper
[1], [2], [6].
387
By analyzing the data from table 1, results the influence
of technological process of fabrication and also the final
finishing quality of the LCRP thickness.
Due to the specific tenacity and plasticity of the
antifriction materials, finishing by chip removing process
has multiple challenges. In order to solve the problem,
practically, are used special technologies like cathode
deposit, thermo-chemical treatment, ionic plating,
structural modifications with laser, etc.
The author has experienced and studied an original
technical solution, which consist of finishing the
antifriction layer by cold plastic deformation method,
called finplast. The procedure comes in accordance with
the conclusion [5], which shows that trybologically
speaking, actually the surface layers are the ones that
influence the durability and reliability of a bearing and
not the rest of the material. After the deforming, the
layers A and A will penetrate the Beilby layer, which
will penetrate into the layers found beneath him. All these
will result in the enhancement of their dimensions.
The second aspect is about the depths modifications of the
bearing material beneath the contact layer. The effect of
the two components of contact force is being illustrated in
fig.2. Here are shown the preferential deformations of the
structure, due to the normal component, respective
tangential component of the contact force.
The picture shows the structure of the materials
superficial layer, obtained from a sliding bearing that
worked with an important friction component for a long
time.
Looking at this picture (fig. 2) obtained after the friction
contact, the basic materials crystals have suffered a
preferential orientation. They were arranged in one very
thin layer, on a certain direction. This direction
corresponds with the sense of direction action of the
friction force. On the other hand, it can be observed that
this layer is propagated differentially in the depth of the
basic layer.
This shows that, due to the two components of the contact
forces, normal and tangent, given by the friction force, the
material layer suffers, in depth, important structural
transformations. It is visible the structural transformation,
but also the preferential orientation of the crystals. This
looks like the flow of a viscous fluid, with the sense and
direction of the friction force.
This shows that it is possible that, while applying the
force, the working pressure causes a flow of material.
2. CONCLUSION
The described examples show that:
 after the chip removing process, the material suffers
complexes transformations in the superficial layer;
 after a certain time of functioning, under the action of
the two components of the friction contact force, the
material answers to the solicitation with important
structural modifications.
These modifications are influenced by the value, direction
and the sense of the applied force. If we change any of the
three parameters, the modifications will be different,
according to the solicitations that were subdued.
During chip removing process, we also find the two
components of the force described above. This shows that
388
the obtained material layer will suffer in-depth a
preferential deformation of structure, like the one showed
in the figure 2.
Fig. 2. Rotations and movements of the crystals from the
superficial contact layer, of the basic material of a
bearing, due to the tangent abrasion component
This shows that, by creating a plastic deformation to these
layers, like the ones presented until now, we have to
consider sense of movement of the splinting tool. Another
aspect of problem is LCRP layer. Due to plastic
deformation suffered, the couplings between the crystals
and the crystals fragments of these layers are becoming
stronger. In the interior of the layer, the crystals that
suffered structural transformations by movements and/or
deformations create a tensioned structure with a high
number of dislocations. This will give the materials
superficial layer superior technological properties
compared with the ones of the material before the plastic
deformation.
If the plastic deformation force rises, the phenomenon of
plastic deformation continues according to the second
directions of deformations (with maximal density of
atoms remaining).
The structure, the composition and the atomic density are
very much changed. In conclusion, after plastic
deformation will result positive modifications of the same
mechanical properties of the material.
This will create modifications both at the geometry of the
superstructure and to the density and chemical
composition. An important effect of this modification is
the hammer-harden of the superficial layer, resulting in
increasing of the mechanical proprieties of the material.
If, moreover, the stress are variable, on relatively short
time intervals, even in the case of the stress that maintain
only elastic deformations, in time, the structure suffers
modifications which characterize the phenomenon of
structure fatigue.
Its obviously that the phenomenon its much more
complex and destructive, if the stress is being done with
forces that are able to produce also plastic deformation of
the material.
The normal materials are characterized by elasto-plastic
proprieties. The antifriction alloys are characterized by a
high plasticity. In such case, the material answers with a
structural modification according to the applied force. existence of the elastic component, this behavior is harder
This transformation is irreversible. to be interpret in case of the plastic ones.
This behavior specific in the case of the solid state The appearance of microcracks in the case of the
materials characterized by high plasticity, was defined antifriction materials that lies at the base of explaining the
using the notion of structural reconfiguration. This pitting phenomenon, after a relatively long period of
defines the modifications of structural nature, which functioning, can be an explanation of the behavior of
intervene, both at the micro structural level (modifications these materials at variable stresses, as an effect of aging.
of the seeds crystalline structure), and at the The author considers that this effect can be avoided if we
macrostructure level (the modifications of the use the finplast method.
superstructure are constituted by the boundaries of the In conclusion, finishing by finplast technology,
crystalline seeds, sublimates etc.) (advantageous executed), with optimal parameters can
Through the point of view of this concept, in the figure generate in the moment of fabrication, an advantageous
no.2 its shown this kind of response by reconfiguration. trybological structure. This structure has an optimal
After a certain functioning time, depending of a certain orientation of the hard crystals from the soft matrix of the
stress applied, the material in which the material has taken antifriction materials.
optimal response shape at the stress applied, results the Its happening automatically after a period of running for
optimal modified structure. the sliding bearing, corresponding to the running-in
The author considers that it is one hundred percent period. This normal wear can be accompanied with some
possible to be made anticipatively, as early as the secondary effects such as the appearance of microcracks,
bearings fabrication phase, not only the geometrical or loosing of particles, etc.
elements in concordance with the project, but also an
optimal structure, starting from the values of the stress Table 1. The values of LCRP depending of processing
which stood at the base of the design. Therefore, starting method
from the design data, the extreme solicitation stress of the
bearing is known or they can be determined by calculus. Roughness Beilby Layer
Processing LCRP
layer of
Afterwards, the optimal response structure of materials Ra,
method [m]
for this extreme force can be obtained in the finishing Rz,[m] [m] [m]
phase through the finplast technology. For this, the
finishing force used for the method has the value equal Rough turning,
with the maximum one. cold stamping, 25-50
0.1
50-
130-150
The obtaining of an optimal structure for the materials hot rolling, 100-200 100
deepening
with high plasticity even from the state of fabrication, for
the maximal applied force for a certain sliding bearings, Lathe turning,
has been proposed to be called with the term of milling, shaping, 6.3-12.5
0.05 25
50-70
structural preconfiguration. drilling, 25.-50 (80)
deepening
This concept is usually used in the case of steels, and not
only, for superficial or in the mass modification of the Finishing turning,
structure, or in modification of the chemical composition, finishing milling, 1.6-3.2 0.01-
5 15-20
etc. of the respective materials. For these are known the shaping, boring, 8-12.5 0.02
broaching
following treatments: thermo treatments, thermo-chemical
treatments, ionizations, laser bombing, reinforcing and Exact milling,
others. After these treatments are obtained optimal rectifying, 0.6-1.2 0.003-
2-4 4-8
proprieties for exploiting of these parts of machineries. lapping, boring, 3-6 0.008
In comparison, this concept proposed by the author makes fine turning
an extension of this old concept to the high plasticity
antifriction materials. Abrasive fine
0.40.6 0.003-
polishing, 2-4 4-7
In addition, the lack of elastic components causes an shaping, boring
2-3 0.005
irreversible response structure, corresponding to a certain
value of the applied force, noted with F. This structure is Finishing
maintained for any of the values of an applied force lower rectifying,
diamond fine 0.2-0.4 0.003-
than F (without increasing F). If the applied force is turning, 1-2 0.005
2-3 3-5
higher than F, then the structure of material is deforming. polishing, honing,
According to the theories of reinforcing (Orowan) of lapping
these materials, this irreversibility of structural
transformation is very advantageous. In the normal case Lapping, exact 0.1-0.2
0.003 1.5 2-2.5
rectifying 0.5-1
of using a sliding bearing, the material is stressed with
variable forces. According the Orowan theory, these
variable forces cause to the plastic material the aging and Mechanical
0.025-0.05 0.001-
superfinishing, 1.5 1.7
precipitation phenomenon. polishing, lapping
0.125-0.25 0.0015
If, for elastic materials, the structure behavior of optimal
balance, as a response of an external solicitation can be Electrolitic 0.012-
explained for certain force smaller values regarding the superfinishing, 0.0250.063- 0.0003 0.0034 0.01-0.2
one before it, that auctioned on the corps, through the polishing 0.125

389
During this running-in period, is eliminated the superficial [5] DASCALU D., The piting fhenomen to antifriction
layer of material in order to accommodate the two contact allois, in jurnal, MERIDIAN INGINERESC, Nr. 1,
surfaces. CHISINAU, MOLDOVA, 2006, pag. 51-55.
In both cases the negative effects can be avoided by using [6] PAVELESCU, D., Tribotehnica. Publishing house.
the finplast method. Bucureti,1983.
[7] GROZA, I. PRIDVORIUC, M., SECHEL, P.,
3. CONCLUSION DRGULIN, M., The cold flow of the metals and
non-ferrous alloys, Technics publishing house
In conclusion, the author is proposing to experimentally Bucureti, 1977
study these observations of the structural
preconfiguration concept.

REFERENCES

[1] DASCALU D., New finishing process FINPLAST

[2] DASCALU D., Contribution for up grating perform
of sliding bearings, Doctoral dissertation, University
,,TRANSILVANIA, Brasov, ROMANIA; 2004
[3] DASCALU D., FINPLAST, an ecological process, CORESPONDENCE
proceding of SNOM Brasov, University
,,TRANSILVANIA, Brasov, ROMANIA; 2005
[4] DASCALU D., A New Concept In The Fabrication Dumitru DASCALU, Assoc. prof. Ph. D.
And The Design Of The Sliding Bearings, Proceding Navy Academy Mircea cel Batran
of the 1st International Conference ,,Advanced 8700 Constanta, Romania,
engineering in mechanical systems ADEMS07, dumitru_dascalu2005@yahoo.com
Tehnical Universiti of Cluj-Napoca, pag. 389-392,
2007, ISSN 1221-5872

390
INDEX
A h
1. ivoslav ADAMOVI 107 45. tefan HAJDU 251
2. Vasile ALEXA 247, 313 46. Janko HODOLIC 7
3. Aco ANTI 207 47. tefan HORVTH 269
48. Slavomr HREK 241, 303
B 49. Erika HRUKOV 217
4. Milan BANI 123 50. Livia HUIDAN 159
5. Andrzej BIENIEK 79
6. Nicolae BIRAU 383 I
7. Goran BOJANIC 49 51. Draghita IANICI 259
8. Djuro BORAK 341, 355 52. Sava IANICI 141, 259
9. Ilare BORDEASU 299, 373 53. Nikolai ISHIN 283
10. Ljubomir BOROJEV 175 54. Vilhelm ITU 39
11. Miroslav BOANSK 147 J
12. Sran BONJAK 13, 31 55. Dragoslav JANOEVI 55
13. Cristina BOZAN 137 56. Jerzy JANTOS 65, 129
14. Bianca R. BUTUC 153 57. Angela JAVOROV 225
C, 58. Juliana G. JAVOROVA 229, 265
15. Miroslav CAR 199, 213 59. Jeremija JEVTIC 341, 355
16. Marcela CHARBULOV 225 60. Miomir JOVANOVI 169
17. Simona Diana CHEREGI 377 61. Alin Dan JURCHELA 383
18. Tomislav CIGULA 325 K
19. Vasile George CIOAT 83, 359 62. Mria KAPUSTOV 183, 255
20. Liviu COMAN 259 63. Adrian KARABENCIOV 383
21. Maja AVI 187 64. Imre KISS 83, 359
D, 65. Rbert KOHR 241, 303
22. Nina DANIOV 221 66. Milan KOSTI 187
23. Dumitru DASCLU 387 67. Peter KOL 133, 331
24. Sandra DEDIJER 319 68. Miroslava KOTLOV 183
25. Biliana DIMOVA 349 69. Pavel KOVA 235
26. Mirko DINULOVI 193 70. Krasimir KRASTANOV 273
27. Oleg DRACHEV 291 71. Peter KRIAN 19, 113
28. Iosif DUMITRESCU 39 72. Sinia KUZMANOVI 141
29. Sawomir DZIUBASKI 65 L
30. Radomir OKI 35 73. Andrzej LECHOWICZ 129
31. Milo OREVI 13 74. Goran LULI 213
F M
32. Lajos FAZEKAS 309 75. Sanja MAHOVI POLJAEK 319
33. Oleg FILIPOVICH 91 76. Gheorghe Radu Emil MRIE 377
34. Vasko FOTEV 193 77. Dragan MARINKOVI 59
78. Zoran MARINKOVI 59
G 79. Heikki MARTIKKA 1, 43
35. Boena GAJDZIK 203 80. Milo MAT 19
36. Vlada GAI 25 81. Miriam MATOV 133, 217
37. Milosav GEORGIJEVIC 49 82. Lech MAZUREK 91
38. Katarina GERIC 367 83. Svtopluk MEIAR 183
39. Radinko GLIGORIJEVIC 341,355 84. Marija MIHAILOVI 345
40. Neboja GNJATOVI 31 85. Miroslav MIJAJLOVI 69
41. Miroslav GOJO 319, 325 86. Dragan MILI 69
42. Arkadi GOMAN 283 87. Predrag MILI 169
43. Marin GOSTIMIROVI 235 88. Zoran MILOJEVI 113
44. Zvonko GULIIJA 345 89. Milorad MILOVANEVI 25

391
 90. Milo MILOVANEVI 277 S,
91. Vojislav MILTENOVI 123 126. Milenko SEKULI 235
92. Gheorghe MOLDOVEAN 153, 159 127. Nenad SIMEUNOVIC 7
93. Andrea MUDRIKOV 331 128. Bogdan SOVILJ 229
129. Ivan SOVILJ-NIKI 229
N
94. Slobodan NAVALUI 113 130. Milesa SREKOVI 193
95. Goran NESTOROVI 107 131. Victor STARZHINSKY 283
Jelena STEFANOVI-
96. Vesna NIKOLI 55 132. 123, 277
MARINOVI
97. Dragos Marian NOVAC 299
133. Georgi STOYCHEV 335
98. Dragoljub NOVAKOVI 319, 325
134. Ioan STROE 165
O 135. ntoni SWIC 91, 291
99. Ratko OBRADOVI 113 136. Jakub SZABELSKI 291
100. Iveta ONDEROV 117 137. Jn EO 99
101. Cosntantin ONESCU 75, 87 138. ubomr OO 19, 117
102. Carmen OPRIS 363 139. Rastislav OSTAKOV 35
103. Jarmila ORAVCOV 133 140. Mario PRLJAN 199
141. Jana UGROV 255
P
104. Ioan PANTEA 377 T
105. Aleksandra PATARI 345 142. Branko TADIC 7
106. ivko PAVLOVI 325 143. Erkki TAITOKARI 1
107. Frantiek PECHEK 225, 265 144. Martin TANEVSKI 99
108. Zoran PETKOVI 25 145. Bohumil TARABA 251
109. Markta PETKOV 103 146. Wiktor TARANENKO 91, 291
110. Goran PETROVI 169 147. Zsolt TIBA 309
111. Nikola PETROVI 55 148. Pavol TKLY 147
112. Petar B. PETROVI 207 149. Veselin TSONEV 349
113. Ilkka PLLNEN 43
V
114. Erika Monika POPA 247, 313
150. Attila VANYA 147
115. Nicolae POPA 75, 87
151. Radu VELICU 137, 153
116. Silviu POPA 159
152. Miodrag VELIMIROVI 123
117. Mihaela POPESCU 363
153. Karol VELEK 221, 269
118. Alexander POPOV 287
154. Miroslav VERE 99, 103
119. Mircea Octavian POPOVICIU 299, 373
155. Ionel VIERU 87
120. Branislav POPOVI 69
156. Jovan VLADI 35
R 157. Djordje VUKELIC 7
121. Milan RACKOV 141
Z,
122. Sneana RADONJI 229
158. Milan ZELJKOVI 175, 207
123. Nebojsa RALEVIC 49
159. Peter ZEMKO 255
124. Mihai Carmelo RIDZI 39
160. Miodrag ZLOKOLICA 187
125. Roman RUAROVSK 269
161. Nenad ZRNI 13, 31
162. Dragan IVANI 35
163. Aleksandar IVKOVI 175

392