0045.7949/91 s3.00 + 0.

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Compurers & Sfructures Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 679-683, 1991
0 1991 Pergamon Press plc
Printed in Great Britain.

ON THE LOADING CRITERIA IN THE THEORY OF

PLASTICITY
W. F. &EN,* E. YAMAGucHIt and H. ZHANG*
* School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, U.S.A.
t Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812, Japan

(Received 26 April 1990)

Abstract-The conventional loading criterion in the theory of plasticity becomes ambiguous when it is
applied to materials that exhibit straining softening. For instance, it can not differentiate the softening
behavior from the unloading process. On the other hand, the loading criterion proposed recently by Qu
and Yin is free from such problems, and is more suitable for a general elasto-plastic analysis by finite
element method. In the first part of this paper the proposed loading criterion is first reviewed and discussed
to highlight the difficulties associated with the inequality conditions used in the conventional as well as
the proposed loading criteria. This paper then proceeds to discuss the proposed criterion and reveals its
implications. Although the proposed inequality conditions are not generally known in the field, it is found
that they are essential and significant in the theory of plasticity.

INTRODUCTION do = 0, d6 = 0: neutral loading,

do -z 0, de < 0: unloading. (1)
In the first of this paper, we describe the
part
problems encountered by the conventional loading
Note that the neutral loading in one-dimensional
criterion explicitly. Against the background of this
space simply implies no actions. The extension of
information, the loading criterion proposed recently
this definition to three-dimensional space is made
by Qu and Yin [5, 71 is reviewed. This new loading
in a similar manner in the conventional theory of
criterion overcomes the types of difficulties associated
plasticity
with the classical theory of plasticity. In conjunction
with this new criterion, we find one important con-
dition of inequality. In the later part of this paper, the ;de+O, ;ds,>O: loading (hardening),
implication of this condition is discussed in details, ?I 11

followed by an illustrative numerical example. At

present, this condition of inequality has not been fully g, 1,dav = 0, E, deij > 0: loading (perfectly plastic),
examined in the open literature, it shows here that it I

is an essential condition in the theory of plasticity. As

a result of this development, the disadvantages of the g, 11 daij < 0, g de, > 0: loading (softening),
conventional loading criterion and the advantages of V

the new criterion proposed by Qu and Yin become

clear from both theoretical and practical view points, ; da,j = 0, g dcij = 0: neutral loading,
which in turn lead to a deeper understanding of the ?I V

theory of plasticity.
;, daij < 0, $, dcij < 0: unloading, (2)
DIFFICULTIES OF LOADING CRITERIA 611 611

In one-dimensional problems, the schematic rep- where f and Fare loading functions defined in stress
resentation of the general behavior is shown in Fig. 1. space and strain space, respectively. As is clearly
Five types of basic behavior are recognized in the observed above, the conventional loading criterion
inelastic regime, although all these five behaviors for hardening materials, i.e. the sign of (8fl%jj)dc,,,
need not appear in one material. They are classified cannot be applied to this general behavior, since both
as follows: softening and unloading processes associated with
(8f/daij)duij < 0. Also the distinction between the
da > 0, dc > 0: loading (hardening), perfectly-plastic response and the neutral loading
da = 0, dc > 0: loading (perfectly plastic), response cannot be made. On the other hand, the sign
da < 0, d6 > 0: loading (softening), of (aF/&,)d6, distinguishes loading, neutral loading

679
680 W. F. CHENet al.

A
(6)
Hardening Softening
I Then, with eqn (6) the loading criterion (3) may be
rewritten as

dB > 0: loading
dB = 0: neutral loading, (7)
dB < 0: unloading,

where

Unloading

Fig. 1. Uniaxial general material behavior. Now, the loading criterion (3) is expressed in terms
of stresses and is free from the yield function in strain
and unloading processes precisely. Then, the most space. Furthermore, it should be noted that this form
general loading criterion is described concisely as of loading criterion is ideal for use in the finite
element analysis, since it involves only strain incre-
g dc, > 0: loading, ments, not stress increments. The physical interpret-
1, ation of the loading criterion (7) is schematically
shown in Fig. 2.
E dc, = 0: neutral loading, Equations (4) and (5) can also lead to the following
I expression

$ dc, < 0: unloading. (3) dF=-Adl+dB, (9)

v
where
This observation suggests that the strain-space-based
formulation can be the most general approach. How-
ever, the determination of a loading function in strain A =af., ag_af/r (10)
aa,,lJkkladk, aK
space has not been investigated well, and much
difficulty remains unsolved in the practical appli-
where g is the plastic potential function in
cation [3]. On the other hand, the study in stress space
stress space, h a non-negative scalar in dK = h dl
is well-explored [l, 21. Therefore, if the difficulty in
and dl a non-negative scalar present in the flow rule
the loading criterion can be removed, the stress-
space-based formulation would be a more preferable as
choice in the construction of the constitutive model-
ing for the genera1 behavior of engineering materials. dc?1 = dl% (11)
aa,.
LOADING CRITERIA DUE TO QU AND YIN

The work of Qu and Yin [5,7] has contributed

significantly toward resolving the difficulty of a
stress-space-based loading criterion encountered
for engineering materials exhibiting softening and
perfectly-plastic behaviors. They pointed out that the
yield function in strain space is correlated to that in
stress space through the relationship

uij = D&,(ck, - CL) (4)

so that the yield function f(aij, K) can be written as

f(a,, K) =f(D&(Ek/ - EL), K) = F(ek,, EfE/*

K) = 0 (5)
Loading SurfaCe ff,,,K - 0

where Db, is the elasticity tensor and K a plastic Fig. 2. Pictorial represntation of loading criterion due to Qu
internal variable. In view of eqns (4) and (5), we have and Yin.
 Loading criteria in plasticity 681

Note that in the plasticity-based strain-space formu- to (Jfl&) c 0 and softening behavior to (afl&) > 0,
lation the following material behavior is usually eqn (17) clearly shows that the condition A > 0
assumed in each process in addition to those described assures the mechanical behavior defined in eqn (2),
in eqn. (2) i.e.

loading : F = 0, dF = 0, dl s 0,
hardening: g dcii > 0,
neutral loading : F = 0, dF = 0, dl = 0, $1

unloading : F = 0, dF < 0, dl = 0, (12)

where dF = 0 is often called the consistency con-
dition. Thus, in the loading process, the following
equation becomes trivial from eqn (9)
dl=dB (13)
A Another interesting observation is readily made
with which we can express the stress increments as
softening: $da,<O. (18)
*J
Thus, it is understood that the condition A > 0
imposes no restriction on the material behavior
defined by eqns (2) and (12). Rather, it is this condition
that makes the general material behavior feasible.
when an associated flow rule is assumed. In this case,
eqn (16) is rewritten as

Therefore, it is realized that the formation of elasto-

plastic matrix 08, is not necessary in a stress compu- Then, since D$,, = D&,, we get
tation.
According to eqns (7) and (12), the loading process a.,D?
V lJkta ktE a f,Detjkt a k/-f (a~&mr~~ (20)
is associated with dF = 0, dl > 0, and dB > 0. Hence,
eqn (9) reveals the following constraint condition
where av is an arbitrarily introduced second-order
A ~0. (15) tensor. If A < 0, eqn (20) yields

We begin our discussions with a general behavior of aiiDfp

materials described by eqns (2) and (12), and lead to
the finding that the material behavior must be sub-
jected to the constraint condition A > 0. The viola-
tion of this condition seems to invalidate the loading
criterion proposed by Qu and Yin. Then, one may
therefore ask what is the real implication of this
constraint A > 0, i.e. if this constraint condition
really imposes some restrictions on the general
material behavior considered herein, This is not
discussed in the papers by Qu and Yin [5,7]. We shall
therefore focus our discussions on this aspect of
implications in what follows.
IMPLiCATlONS OF THE ~EQUALI~ A > 0
During a plastic deformation, the material stiffness
tensor can be expressed as 111.
yktakt-> aiJDf.IJktakt (21)
which indicates that (uijD~~akt) is always positive
since D&/is positive definite. Therefore, D&turns out
to be also positive definite. Consequently, because of
de..=
V DIrlktdckt (22)
in the loading process, we always observe
da,j dtij > 0 (23)
which can never meet the condition of softening
behavior [6]. It can therefore be concluded that the
~fte~ng behavior cannot be simulated when A < 0.
In fact, with A < 0, the decrease of stress may
introduce the decrease of strain even in the loading
process. This point will be illustrated later.
In the classical theory of work-hardening plasticity,
the loading criterion is given by

In view of eqns (6), (lo), and (16) we can easily derive g da, > 0: loading,
the following relationship J

g, dc, = g da,j = 0: neutral loading,

II
il

In the loading process, ~~F/~~jJ)d~,jis always positive. g da,j < 0: unloading. (24)
Hence, realizing that hardening behavior corresponds G
682 w. F. CHEN
In order to use this loading criterion, stress incre-
ments must be known. However, in the finite element
analysis, strains are obtained first and then stresses
are evaluated. In this evaluation, the loading criterion
has to be used. Hence, this loading criterion cannot
be applied directly to the finite element analysis.
Some assumptions must be made first. In this regard,
elastic behavior is usually assumed to estimate dcij
present in the loading criterion [4]. Thus, the loading
criterion becomes
$& dub > 0: loading,
I plastic behavior, following the associate flow rule.
$ do; = 0: neutral loading,
E da; < 0: unloading, (25)
v tensor and cr, the effective stress. An isotropic harden-
where
da, = D& dEk,,, (26)
This form of loading criterion can be implemented in
a straightforward manner in a finite element analysis.
Note that the criterion (25) is equivalent to (7)
however, while the criterion (7) is derived on a firm
theoretical basis, the criterion (25) appears to be
based on the idea that the behavior must be loading
if not unloading. The counterpart of criterion (25)
may be described as follows:
z, dr$$> 0: loading,
11
$ da$ = 0: neutral loading,
1,
g, da:; < 0: unloading, (27)
1,
where
w Uniaxial tensile loading is applied to this material
The basic concept behind this criterion is that the
behavior must be unloading if not loading. For these
two criteria (25) and (27) to be valid, there should be
no contradiction between them. Equation (17) gives
(29)
Again, the condition A > 0 comes into play. Only
with this condition A > 0, it can be verified that there
is not contradiction between these two criteria (25)
and (27), since (~~/~~) < 0 for hardening behavior. It
is easy to see that when the associated flow rule is
employed, the hardening behavior always makes A
et a/.
positive, thus justifying both criteria (25) and (27) in
this case. Note that, even when these two criteria are
equivalent to each other, the criterion (25) is superior
to the criterion (27) from the viewpoint of compu-
tational efficiency.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
As an illustration to the present discussion, a
simple material behavior is considered. This material
obeys isotropic linear elastic constitutive laws up to
a certain level of stress state. Then it begins to reveal
The loading function is assumed to be
f = JZ--fu;=O, (30)
where J, is the second invariant of deviatoric stress
ing is assumed such that this loading surface expands
or contracts uniformly without distortion. The effec-
tive stress creis a function of plastic internal variable
K, which is defined as
K= &dc$d$). (31)
I
Then, eqn (10) gives
where H is the slope of the ad--u curve, and G the
shear modulus. Moreover, for this material, we note
da, = sij daij , (33)
dB = 2G.q dc,, (34)
where sij is the deviatoric stress tensor. For material
constants, we assume Youngs modulus E =
210,000 MPa, Poissons ratio v = 0.3, and initial yield
stress by = 250 MPa.
and the axial strain in the loading direction is calcu-
lated for various values of H. For simplicity, H
is assumed to be constant and only the loading
process is of interest. The stress-strain curves
forH=2.1 x 104,2.1 x 103, -2.1 x 103, -2.1 x 104,
-2.5 x IO5MPa are obtained and presented in
Fig. 3. Except for H = -2.5 x IO5MPa, the behavior
appears to be familiar. Namely, H > 0 corresponds to
hardening behavior and H < 0 to softening behavior.
The signs of dC and dB are also checked in this
problem, using Eqns (33) and (34). When H < 0, dC
becomes negative. Hence, it is understood that the
conventional loading criterion fails to differentiate
the loading and the unloading processes in the soften-
ing behavior, as is expected. On the other hand, dB
 Loading criteria in plasticity
d H.2.1~104
s and Yin[5,7].
j .O-
i -2.1x104
3 0.5 -
i?
V , I
t
0 0.002 0.004
strain E
Fig. 3. Stress-strain curves for various values of H under
uniaxial tensile bading.
remains positive for H < 0, verifying the validity of
the loading criterion due to Qu and Yin for both
hardening and softening behaviors.
For H = -2.5 x 105MPa the decrease of stress is
accompanied by the decrease of strain, although it is
a loading process. Both values of eqns (33) and (34)
becomes negative, thus, both criteria being ambigu-
ous in this case. However, this material behavior is
rather peculiar and it is not included in the general
behaviors defined by eqn (2). It should be noted that
H = -2.5 x IO5MPa makes the value of A negative,
white for the others, A is always positive.
CONCLUSIONS
Comparing with the loading criterion used in the
conventional theory of plasticity, the criterion pro-
posed by Qu and Yin [S, 7] is superior, since it is
applicable not only to hardening behavior but also to
softening behavior without the explicit introduction
of strain-space functions. It is also felt that this
criterion is more suitable for the finite element analy-
sis from the computational point of view, since it
involves only strain increments, not stress increments,
leading to a more consistent and efficient numerical
algorithm.
683
The condition A > 0 becomes visible in conjunc-
tion with the loading criterion proposed by Qu
Although this condition appears
not generally known in the field and has not
been critically discussed in the past, it is found
that this condition is closely associated with the
general material behavior of eqn (2), that
has been employed widely and exclusively in the
existing theoretical works. In a sense, this condition
is essential in the theory of plasticity since it
includes all material behaviors that are realistically
encountered in engineering practice. In other words,
the condition (15) must always be satisfied if
we postulate the general material behavior as defined
by eqn (2). Hence, it may be concluded here that in
an effort to construct a general constitutive model,
the proposed functions must satisfy the condition
A > 0, so that the loading criterion proposed by Qu
and Yin can be used as the most general loading
criterion.
REFERENCES
1. W. F. Chen, Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete. McGraw-
Hiil, New York (1982).
2, C. S. Desai and H. J. Siriwardane, CQ~st~f~tiueLsrwsfor
&gineering ~afeTia~s. lentil-Hafi, Engiewood Cliffs,
NJ (1984).
3. D. J. Han, and W. F. Chen, Strain-space plasticity
formulation for hardening+oftening materials with
elastoplastic coupling. Int. J. S&ids Struct. 22, 935-950
(1986).
4. D. R. J. Owen, and E. Hinton, Finite Elemenrs in
Plasticity: Theory and Practice. Pineridge press,
Swansea (1980).
5. S. N. Qu and Y. Q. Yin, Druckers and Ilyushins
postulate of plasticity. Acta Mechanica Sinica 5,
465-473 (1981) (in Chinese).
6. K. C. Valanis, On the uniqueness of solution of the
initial value problem in softening materials. J. Appl.
Me&. ASME 52, 649-653 (1985).
7. Y. Q. Yin and S. N. Qu, Eiasto-plastic coupling and
generalized no~ality rule. Acra ~echanica Sinica 1,
63-70 (1982) (in Chinese).