Introduction
Case study
The development of
supply chain
management within the
aerospace
manufacturing sector
R.R. Bales
R.S. Maull and
Z. Radnor
The authors
R.R. Bales is a Researcher and R.S. Maull is Senior Lecturer in
Management, both at the School of Business and Economics,
University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.
Z. Radnor is Lecturer in Operations Management at Warwick
Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
Keywords
Supply chain management, Aerospace industry, Case studies
Abstract
This paper analyses the development of aerospace material
supply chains. The paper begins with an overview of operations
management literature, which introduces and conceptualises the
research area. Supply chain literature is examined, focusing on
supply chain structure and the inter-organisational links between
supply chain actors. Analysis of case study material is presented
to illustrate the scope, complexity and interdependent nature of
the aerospace supply chain. Recurring themes from the literature
are compared with the data categories emergent from the
empirical case data. The results are discussed in terms of the
changes that are taking place in supply chain structure to
increase the overall effectiveness of the network. The paper
concludes by identifying the need for, and discussing the nature
of, a specialised organisation focused on managing the complex
structure of the supply chain.
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Supply Chain Management: An International Journal
Volume 9 Number 3 2004 pp. 250-255
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN 1359-8546
DOI 10.1108/13598540410544944
250
Harland et al. (1999) indicates that the evolution of
supply chain management theory is driven by rapid
changes in global business practice. The worldwide
recession of the late 1980s and early 1990s forced
firms to re-examine, at a strategic level, the ways in
which they aimed to add value and reduce costs
throughout their business. The resulting changes
brought about large-scale programmes of
rationalisation and organisational down-sizing,
(Kanter, 1994; Porter, 1990; Prahalad and Hamel,
1990), cost reduction drives, quality improvement
initiatives and inventory reduction programmes
(Slack, 1991; Womack et al., 1990). This paper
describes the changes that are occurring in the
structure of aerospace material supply chains as a
result of these initiatives. Case study results are
presented of one organisation that has changed its
business focus from being a supplier to a single
source material service provider.
Evidence presented here supports the argument
that there has been a general change in
organisations desire to integrate vertically. The
current tendency is for firms to cooperate more
closely rather than maintaining a diverse range of
internal skills and resources. The literature
demonstrates that since the mid 1980s many
industries have developed a more open approach
towards cooperation rather than vertical
integration (Porter, 1987; Thackray, 1986). The
trend has been for large, vertically integrated
organisations to gradually reduce the financial risk
associated with operating broad business
portfolios. Cooperating firms tend not to have
become locked in inappropriate, non-core activities
and have been able to attain an increased global
coverage capability (Miles and Snow, 1987).
The operations management concept of focus
(Skinner, 1969) is central in the development of
this strategy. Organisations concentrate on a
limited and closely related task load, which, by the
nature of its manageability, allows for the
development of an increased competency level.
Non-core competencies (Prahalad and Hamel,
1990) are classed as periphery activities, which can
be outsourced to specialist organisations (Snow
and Miles, 1992). The focus of this paper is the
web of interdependent relationships that results
from focussed operations and cooperation, driven
by the trend in globalisation.
Supply chain literature
The term supply chain management was originally
used in the early 1980s (Oliver and Webber, 1992).
It referred to the management of materials across
 The development of supply chain management Supply Chain Management: An International Journal
R.R. Bales, R.S. Maull and Z. Radnor Volume 9 Number 3 2004 250-255

functional boundaries within an organisation, but Development of supply chain management

was soon extended beyond the boundary of the Harland (1996) describes a four-stage supply
firm to include upstream production chains and chain typology (Figure 1), outlining four main uses
downstream distribution channels (Womack for the term supply chain management:
and Jones, 1996; Womack et al., 1990). (1) The internal supply chain integrates business
Davis (1993) defines supply chains by functions involved in the flow of materials and
describing their structure and scope. In general information from inbound to outbound ends
terms, a supply chain consists of a series of of the business.
organisations and activities that are required to (2) The management of a dyadic or two-party
convert raw materials and deliver them as finished relationships with immediate suppliers.
products to the final user. From a simple analytical (3) The management of a chain of businesses
point of view, a supply chain consists of material including a supplier, a suppliers supplier, a
and information processing units with three basic customer and a customers customer and so on.
characteristics of demand, value-adding (4) The management of a network of inter-
transformation and supply. The two-way exchange connected businesses involved in the ultimate
of demand and supply information between the provision of product and service packages
tiers is identified as the key supply chain control required by end customers.
mechanism facilitating the flow of material
Hewitt (2001) describes a development stage
downstream from the raw material producer to the
beyond integrated business networks as demand
final product. The flows of information and
chain communities. These are characterised as
material form the primary links across the supply
demand driven, agile, multi-enterprise
chain system. The strength of the entire supply
organisations, but it is emphasised that
chain relies on the integrity of these links.
maintaining their structure and communal ethos
Simple illustrations often depict the supply
may challenge existing business principles.
chain as a linear construction. Brown et al. (2000)
In line with Harlands supply chain framework,
believe the chain terminology may have originated
Croom et al. (2000) identified three inter-
from the biological food chain concept. The image
organisational supply chain levels as dyadic, chain
of a causal linear chain of events promoted by
and network, using this classification as a
the chain metaphor, is readily accessible but
conceptual framework to structure a literature
somewhat misleading. Predators within food
review. This classification contrasts the nature of
chains consume more than one food type and
the exchange relationships against the supply chain
organisations within supply chains interact widely
types, suggesting the type of exchange relationship
with one another. If this biological comparison is
is a fundamental building block of supply chain
continued food chains are more accurately
management.
described as food webs. The term supply web does
Harland (1996) links the internal supply chain
suggest a more complex non-linear structure,
definitions to previous materials management
described within Brown et al. (2000) as a mess.
research and the concept of the value chain
This paper aims to explain and describe this
(Porter, 1985), but discounts further intra-
mess within the context of the aerospace supply
organisational discussion to focus on inter-
chain, demonstrating how the structure of the
organisational integration. Croom et al. (2000)
supply chain can be managed to increase its
supports this approach citing Saunders (1995) and
efficiency and effectiveness. Harland (1996)
focussing on inter-organisational supply chain
describes supply chain structure as a dynamic,
material. Cox (1997) refers to the inextricably
inter-connected supply network. In practice,
inter-twined nature of intra- and inter-
supply chains form a complex interdependent
organisational perspectives. The focus of this
network of suppliers, manufacturing facilities and
paper is the evolving structure of the supply chain
stockists linking multiple organisations,
and therefore inter-organisational views, but the
increasingly within a global market. Hewitt (2001)
link to, and importance of, the intra-organisational
supports these views, explaining that various terms
are now being used to describe new forms of inter-
organisational relationships and structures, value Figure 1 Stages in supply chain development
nets; virtual organisations; supply webs;
e-networks and collaborative commerce
networks, which all imply that knowledge of
increasingly complex inter-relationships is
replacing the relatively simple understanding of
linear supply chain structures. The next section
will discuss the development of supply chain
management.
251
 The development of supply chain management
R.R. Bales, R.S. Maull and Z. Radnor
perspective is recognised. Cooper et al. (1997)
describe the integration of business processes
across the supply chain as a fundamental part of
modern supply chain management.
The literature illustrates the evolution from the
traditional intra-organisational operations
management towards an inter-organisational
approach. The linear dyadic understanding evolves
towards chains of dyadic relationships, decreasingly
linear interdependent networks and, ultimately,
demand chain communities. The results from the
case study illustrate this process of change.
Methodology
The research was carried out using a case study
methodology. The case study methodology focuses
on understanding the dynamics present within a
single setting (Eisenhardt, 1989), and to
understand them within a particular context (Yin,
1994). The researchers position within the
business development team of a supply chain
company (Apollo) allowed three years access to,
and detailed visibility of, the supply chain.
Research data was collected via detailed
participant observation and interaction at various
levels within the host organisation. This allowed
the researcher to understand the strategic
complexity and inter-related nature of the supply
chain interactions.
During the data collection phase, detailed case
notes were collected. In line with the action
research process described by Coghlan and
Brannick (2001) and Saunders et al. (2003), the
case notes were used to inform business
development practices, which were continually
tested and re-evaluated within the business setting.
Content analysis was used to systematically
analyse the detailed research data using techniques
developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), further
developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) and
described by Pandit (1996).
Open coding was used to break down and label
reoccurring phenomena found within the research
data, resulting in the identification of base level
data concepts. Axial coding techniques were used
to reconstruct the data in new ways, making
connections between concepts to form five higher-
level sub-categories. These sub-category data sets
(Table I) are defined using data from the base level
concepts. Selective coding was used to integrate
discrete data categories resulting in the formation
of a proposition. The inferred proposition,
identified in Table I, is discussed using themes
identified from the literature. For a detailed
account of the theory-building process see Strauss
and Corbin (1990).
Supply Chain Management: An International Journal
Volume 9 Number 3 2004 250-255
Results
Table I identifies and defines five data categories
and a high-level proposition that have emerged
from the empirical data.
Data analysis
The three main categories from the empirical data;
partnering, information exchange and the evolving
supply chain structure, suggest a gradual move
from an adversarial trading mentality towards the
integrated network structure identified by Harland
(1996). They also confirm that this supply chain is
focussed on developing inter-organisational links
between the supply chain actors. Analysis of the
empirical research data demonstrates how this is
occurring.
Outsourcing periphery activities has altered the
shape of the supply chain. The overall number of
supply chain actors has decreased but the sub-
contract base now carries out a greater volume of
manufacturing work and of an increasingly
complex nature. The evidence for this is the
increasing quantities of material Apollo now
supply direct to the sub-contractors. The type of
material supplied also indicates that the level of
work being carried out by the sub-contract base
now includes the manufacture of complex sub-
assemblies in addition to low order components.
For example, the Trim group maintain and
manufacture nose cone assemblies for Westland.
Supporting these findings is information from the
partnering and information exchange categories
regarding the development of inter-organisational
relationships with a reduced number of prime sub-
contractors. This creates the level of direct,
focussed information exchange necessary to
supply the type and quantities of material required.
This empirical research illustrates how risk has
been passed down the supply chain now that
material is no longer free issued by the OEMs to
the sub-contractors. Sub-contractors must plan,
purchase and stock this material, or, as indicated
by this empirical data outsource these activities, to
a third party. As evidenced by the continual
development of single source agreements with
sub-contractors, the financial burden on the sub-
contract base created by the move away from free
issue material alters the shape of the supply chain.
The information exchange category describes
how multi-tiered supply chains develop where
prime sub-contractors themselves outsource
periphery-manufacturing work to second and third
tier sub-contractors. This disseminates supply and
demand information throughout the supply chain
and blurs the customer-supplier boundaries. The
complexity of the emerging supply chain structure
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R.R. Bales, R.S. Maull and Z. Radnor Volume 9 Number 3 2004 250-255

Table I Data categories

Category title Observations
Partnering The evolution towards integrated supply chain management sees a move away from adversarial trading towards a
partnering approach. For example, sub-contractors are moving material purchasing and stocking to single source suppliers.
The suppliers encourage this by offering to buy back the manufacturers stock. Where this occurs the material supplier
gains an increased and stable revenue stream. The sub-contractor receives a cash payment for the stock and is able to
focus on manufacturing issues rather than purchasing and stocking functions. The nature and complexity of stock buy
back processes force a high level of cooperation to ensure that material traceability meets tight quality requirements.
Agreements have to be reached concerning stock usage rates, stock levels and quantities of redundant stocks. This level of
communication changes historically adversarial trading contracts towards interdependent cooperative relationships. To do
this, Apollo has established single points of contact and intra-organisational work groups with key customers and
suppliers. This type of change requires high-level, inter-organisational support to drive the development process through its
life-cycle. Without this continued backing, complex supply chain development initiatives are often overlooked. Relationship
management builds trust between supply chain actors, extending the scale and service provision elements of the
relationship. Having managed metallic material delivery direct to BAE SYSTEMS remaining in-house manufacturing sites,
Apollos contract has been extended to include the management and maintenance of machine tools. Three-way
communication between BAE SYSTEMS (the OEM), the sub-contractor and the material provider increases, allowing
continuous improvement programmes and contract enhancements
Information exchange The category includes the systems and issues that facilitate inter-organisational supply chain communication and the flow
of information. The infrastructure within the supply chain must support the necessary exchange of supply, demand and
payment information. The inter-connectivity of the systems and their associated processes affect supply chain visibility.
Using open-book contracts and sharing information via Web-enabled databases increase visibility. Creating a transparent
supply chain system encourages supply chain actors to plan accurately. Apollo uses specialised optimising software to
calculate stock levels to meet individual service level agreements. This information is available to customers and is used as
a decision-making tool. Uncertainty is an intrinsic element of the aerospace supply chain. Elements of variation include
build rate fluctuation, engineering change, product immaturity and issues relating to the accuracy, ownership and format of
information, which can all lead to an unforecast demand or forecast inaccuracy. With an increasingly fragmented
manufacturing base, bill of material (BOM) information is no longer centrally controlled and is disseminated across
a wide range of companies. Apollo, acting as the service provider, has to collect and collate this information. At a
strategic level BAE SYSTEMS, Airbus and Boeing demand innovative supply chain solutions. Matching supply and
demand means developing technological, inter-organisational supply chain solutions that allow the necessary level of
information transfer
Supply chain Manufacturing work is increasingly outsourced to sub-contractors on a strategic basis. Sub-contractors must then purchase
structure and therefore finance their own material requirements. Either they have to create the financial flexibility and competencies
to carry out these tasks in-house, or the structure of the supply chain needs to evolve to support their needs. The growing
realisation throughout the supply chain that there are strategic advantages in using a third party to manage these issues
alters the structure of the supply chain. Apollo offers a range of these specialist supply chain services associated with their
traditional material-stocking role. This leaves the manufacturing base to focus on their core competencies. Initially, Apollo
developed this concept in partnership with BAE SYSTEMS in the form of the Millennium Contract. The range of products
the third-party service provider manages influences the shape of the supply chain. Apollos service provision business has
developed from that of a metal stockist. Continuous monitoring ensures that Apollos business structure and practices
create synergies between the two functions without adversely affecting the supply chain system. Material certification and
full supply chain traceability remain strict order-qualifying criteria
Global supply Global business drivers continually reshape the structure of the industry. The global aerospace market is increasingly
chains influenced by offset and technology transfer issues. China is becoming an important marketplace and a potential source of
low-cost manufacturing. The major OEMs are looking to exploit these opportunities; Boeing, horizontal stabilizer
manufacture to Shanghai Aircraft Manufacturing Factory and Airbus, leading and trailing edge wing manufacture to Xian
and Shenyang. Apollo is developing a market entry strategy to support the flow of information and material to and from the
emerging market. This strategy includes opening a representative office in Beijing and potentially a warehousing facility in
Shanghai. Political decisions and government policy continue to influence international supply chain strategy and
operations
Intra-organisational The focus of this research is intra-organisational links between supply chain actors and the evolving structure of the
issues network. Concepts referring to internal operations have not been excluded from the base data, because they are a part of
the supply chain and have operational consequences on inter-organisational supply chain issues. For example, Apollos
internal warehousing procedures and processes are now a part of the supply chain network and are visible to customers
and suppliers
Proposition An observed change in market structure creates a requirement to manage the complete material supply chain, presenting
the opportunity to develop the role of a supply chain integrator

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 The development of supply chain management
R.R. Bales, R.S. Maull and Z. Radnor
increases further, where, for example,
subcontractors hold work packages as a prime
contractors but also complete work as second or
third tier suppliers. This means less material and
therefore less supply and demand information is
transferred directly with the OEMs. The empirical
data has highlighted problems with incomplete
BOMs, resulting in material shortages for projects,
including the Eurofighter programme. Demand
and supply information that was held centrally by
the OEMs and used to manufacture in-house
requirements is now disseminated throughout the
supply chain. The need to control this information
is recognised within the partnering and
information exchange categories by the
importance of building relationships with supply
chain actors in order to gather decentralised
demand and supply information.
As the level of cooperation between
organisations increases, so does the level of inter-
dependency. The empirical data also shows that
the OEMs have outsourced strategic activities such
as the metal supply chain. The existence and
development of service providers is highlighted as
a role that includes traditional purchasing and
stocking functions, historically carried out by the
OEMs, but also information management services
required to operate the evolving supply chain
structure. Sub-contractors form a relationship
with one organisation and together they manage
supply and demand information to ensure they
receive their required material on schedule at a
visible and competitive price. These relationships
become reinforcing loops, which act to strengthen
inter-organisational relationships and dependency.
It becomes easier for supply chain actors to
cooperate with the network than it does for them to
compete against it.
Supply chain managers aim to maintain the
equilibrium between cooperation and the ever-
present risk of opportunistic behaviour, while
managing the flow of inter-dependent demand and
supply information to ensure continuity of supply.
Creating transparent processes and procedures
can increase supply chain visibility. This increases
the levels of confidence that the supply chain
actors have in the integrity of their supply chain
system, this is shown within the empirical data by
the development of sole service agreements.
Intra-organisational issues were not the direct
focus of this research but they are part of the
supply chain. In addition to the overall increase in
supply chain visibility, the increasingly inter-
organisational nature of supply chain management
means that internal procedures become externally
linked and therefore visible to the supply chain.
For example, Apollos internal warehousing
procedures are now directly linked to customer-
supplier systems and form part of the inter-
organisational supply chain network.
Supply Chain Management: An International Journal
Volume 9 Number 3 2004 250-255
The global supply chain category describes the
geographic scope of the aerospace supply chain,
both in terms of offset opportunities and the
potential to benefit from low-cost manufacturing. It
is an important factor in the empirical data, because
successful supply chain solutions must be adaptable
to the global market place. The base level concepts
that form this category identify and describe the
importance of offset agreements in terms of market
access and potentially low manufacturing costs in
return for technology transfer and the wider
economic multiplier effects created by the packages
of sub-contract work. Data from this category
demonstrates the investment Western supply chain
companies are making to enter the Chinese market
to support the OEMs.
Conclusion
The case material demonstrates the complex nature
of the aerospace manufacturing industry. The inter-
dependent nature of the supply chain results from a
combination of end-product complexity and the
increasingly dynamic structure of the modern
supply chain. Historically OEMs acted as the focal
point of supply chains, carrying out the majority of
transformational manufacturing and assembly
processes in-house and co-ordinating work placed
with third parties. The OEMs also controlled and
co-ordinated raw material purchase and stock,
balancing the key supply chain control mechanisms
of supply and demand to satisfy operational
requirements. The development of the global
business environment increased economic pressure,
causing organisations to focus on specific skills and
competencies.
Within the new emerging supply chain
structure, the pressures which forced the OEMs to
co-ordinate and maintain in-house productivity
have reduced. A greater proportion and variety of
work is now carried out by specialist third-party
organisations including the complete metal supply
chain. This has altered the supply chain structure
and decentralised the flow of information. OEMs
have transferred risk down the supply chain, but in
doing so they have lost direct control of the
information flows at the basic supply and demand
level.
Although the OEMs remain strategically
powerful, they have lost operational control of
outsourced work packages, reducing their overall
power and therefore influence over the supply
chain. Cox (1999) believes the way organisations
control power within the supply chain directly
affects their ability to retain or control
appropriated value. Evidence from this empirical
research, combined with the recurring themes in
the literature, indicates the increasing importance
254
 The development of supply chain management
R.R. Bales, R.S. Maull and Z. Radnor
of inter-organisational supply chain management.
This balances the needs of individual supply chain
actors with the requirement for a supply chain
unit, capable of competing within the evolving
global aerospace market.
The empirical data suggests that within this
supply chain environment there is a need for a new
organisational layer in the form of a supply chain
integrator to manage and co-ordinate the supply
chain. This new organisational layer must balance
the seemingly logical principles of power and value
appropriation (Cox, 1999) with the commercially-
driven requirement for organisations to co-operate
closely to remain commercially viable. Current
supply chain literature references the importance
of inter-organisational links in creating integrated
supply chain networks (Harland et al., 1999). The
nature and sophistication of these links determines
the level at which this system can develop. As
illustrated by Figure 1, Hewitt (2001) describes a
development beyond supply chain networks as
demand chain communities featuring non-linear
inter-dependent relationships.
This paper has described and illustrated the
evolving structure of aerospace material supply
chains, identifying the need for a new
organisational layer to act as a supply chain
integrator. Further research explores the transition
from hierarchically-managed supply chains
towards a more efficient self-managing system.
This links the existing supply chain literature and
the evolving supply chain structure to alternative
forms of governance based on the theory of
transaction cost economics.
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