Section 14.1 HO B"l. Belt, Oil Jt8.lKeTCJI1 yae JICBO DLiplL&aeTCil DpHrlHB:!COCT!

o BLI

CLASSifiCATION Of CTILBJlJieUrO liUlOI) B8'laJia KO BCe.ft COBOK!DBOCTH B.lC:IlCBTOB"I., naii

KOTOpYX"I. aaBtcTCB'I> c-. )I.OCTOBtpaocTill. Ha &Ton p83"1. 11 11 a.e,la.l'b
TH{ {L{M{NTS upeHxy~eeTBCHIIO nalt;J.TB o6~yv cacTexy aJiexeBTOB'I.. Bon 3TOT'I.
ODLIT'I>:
Ti=-50 Zr=90 ? =ISO.
Section 14.2 V-51 Nb=94 Ta=l::l2.

P{RIODI( TR{NDS Cr=52

Mn=55
Mo=96 W=186.
l\h=104.~ Pt=197,,
Fe=56 Ru = 104,1 )r= J98.
i'\i~Co=59 PI= 106;, Os= I !HI.
11=1 Cn=63,1 Ag=l08 Hg=200.
Be=9,1 Mg=24 Zn=65,2 Cd=ll2
B=ll Al=27,4 ?-68 Ur=116 Au=l97?
C=12 Si=28 ?=iO 811=118
N=14 P~31 A~=75 Sb=t22 Bi=210
0=16 s~a2 Se=79,1 Te=128?
F-19 Cl=35,s Da=tlO 1-127
Li-7 Na=23 K~39 Rh=85,4 Cs=l33 T1=20.!
Ca=40 Sr- ~7,e Ba=137 Pb=207.
?=45 Ce=92
?Er=56 La=94
?Yt=60 Di=95
?lu=75,e Th-113?

Thi s early period ic tab le was designed by Dmitri Mendeleev.

P{RIODI( TR{NDS IN
f{ATUR{S PHYSICAL PROP{Rli{S
You need paper, a pencil, and this textbook.
DISCOVER IT!
Periodic Trends in Physical Properties 1. Make a table with five columns. In the first column , list the
alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs in order. Title the other
SMALL-SCALE LAB four columns Atomic number, Melting point, Boiling point,
Chemical Properties of the Halides and Density.
MINI LAB 2. Make a similar table, but list the halogens F, Cl, Br, and I in the
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii first column .
CHEMISTRY SERVING ... INDUSTRY 3. Complete each table using Table A.1 in Appendix A of this text-
Big Jobs for Little Devices book. Include the appropriate units.
CHEMISTRY IN CAREERS 4. Make a single histogram graph showing melting point and
Solid State Chemist boiling point versus atomic number of the alkali metals.
LINK TO ASTRONOMY 5. Repeat Step 4 for the halogens.
The Big Bang
For the alkali metals, what are the trends in melting points and boil-
LINK TO MUSIC ing points as the atomic number increases? Are the trends the
Newlands's Octaves same or different for the halogens? What is the general trend in
densities of the alkali metals with increasing atomic number?
Although there is a trend in the densities of the halogens, some of
Stay current with ~IEMCE Wl\'6 the values differ dramatically. Explain. After completing the chapter,
Find out more about the periodic table: return to this activity and provide detailed explanations for the
www.phschool.com
trends you observed.

390 Chapter 14
 ---.
~-11

,..~u

101-0t->t
~-
objectives

- E11 ~~ ~~~ ~=:; .....

C hlorine and bromine are used in swimming pools to ~ Explain why you can infer the
properties of an element based
i~ E~? ::::: ~=::.
disinfect the water. Copper and silver, two relatively soft
,.,_. ~- on those of other elements in
- - -""-'" n.-u metals, are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. Each
the periodic table
of these pairs of elements have similar chemical properties ~ Use electron configurations to
and are listed in the same column on the modern periodic table. This order is not classify elements as noble
coincidental, but by design. How is the early periodic table, shown here , similar gases, representative elements,
to the modern peri odic table , and what does an element's position on the table transition metals, or inner
indicate about its properties? transition metals
key terms
~ noble gases
~ representative elements
Th~ P~riodic Tab I~ R~visit~d ~ tran sition metals
In the second half of the 1800s, before physicists began to uncover the ~ inner transition metals
structure of the atom, chemists were busy exploring the nature of solu-
tions and establishing the basis of kinetic molecular theory. The science of
organic chemistry was born, as were the fertilizer, bleaching, glass making,
dyestuff, and soap industries, to name just a few. Of crucial importance to
this growth in chemistry was a tool for organizing the numerous facts
being discovered about the behavior of elements. Among the many
attempts that were made, the most successful organizing scheme was the
one devised by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1871. As you
learned in Chapter 5, Mendeleev arranged all of the then-known elements
into a periodic table-the forerunner of the modern periodic table dis-
played in current chemistry textbooks. Do you recall on what basis
Mendeleev ordered the elements in his table? Figure 14.2, on the follow-
ing pages, shows a detailed periodic table of the elements. In addition to
the chemical symbol, atomic number, average atomic mass, and physical
state of each element, the table includes group numbers, electron config-
urations, and the recently accepted names and symbols for elements 104
through 109.
The periodic table is probably the most important tool in chemistry.
Among other things, it is very useful for understanding and predicting the
properties of the elements. For example, if you know the physical and
chemical properties of one element in a group or family (vertical column)
of the periodic table, you can make a good guess about the physical and
chemical properties of the other elements in the same group-and
perhaps even of the elements in neighboring groups.
You already know that elements are arranged in the periodic table
by order of increasing atomic number. In this chapter, you will learn how
the periodic table also relates to atomic structure and trends among the
elements.

Classifying {l~m~nts by {l~ctron Configuration

Of the three major subatomic particles, the electron plays the most signifi-
cant role in determining the physical and chemical properties of an figur~ 14.1
element. The arrangement of elements in the periodic table depends on Dmitri Mendeleev proposed the
these properties. Thus there should be some relationship between the elec- basis for the periodic table that is
tron configurations of the elements and their placement in the table. used today.

Chemical Periodicity 391

section 14.1
oooooO"''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ' ' ' ' '' P'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " * '

figure 14J
Periodic Table of the Elements
1 Atomic number
ITJ Solid
1A 11 ~ }-Electrons in each
~Liquid
H Na 1 energy level
Element symbol
Hydrogen
Sodium
Element name
IHe I Gas
1.0079
22.990
2 Average atomic mass ~ ~otfound
2A 1n nature
2 2
3 1 4 2

Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium
6.941 9.0122
11 2 12 2
8 8

Na
Sodium
1
Mg
Magnesium
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9
22.990 24.305 38 48 58 68 78 . OD
ULI

19 2 20 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25 2 26 2 27 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

K
Potassium
8
1 Ca
Calcium
8
2 Sc
Scandium
9
2 Ti
Titanium
10
2 v
Vanadium
11
2 Cr
Chromium
13
1 Mn
Manganese
13
2 Fe
Iron
14
2 Co
Co baH
15
2

39.098 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.933

37 2
38 2
39 2 40 2 41 2 42 2 43 2 44 2
45 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Rb 18
8
1
Sr 18
8
2
y 18
9
2
Zr 18
10
2
Nb 18
12
1 Mo 18
13
1 II 18
14
1 Ru 18
15
1
Rh 18
16
1
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
85.468 87.62 88.906 91 .22 92.906 95.94 (98) 101 .07 102.91
55 2 56 2 71 2 72 2 73 2 74 2 75 2 76 2 77 2

w
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Cs
Cesium
18
18
8
1
Ba
Barium
18
18
8
2
Lu
Lutetium
18
32
9
2
Hf 18
32
10
Hafnium 2
Ta
Tantalum 2
18
32
11
18
32
12
Tungsten 2
Re 18
32
13
Rhenium 2
Os 18
32
14
Osmium 2
lr 18
32
15
2
Iridium
132.91 137.33 174.97 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22
87 2 88 2 103 2 104 82 105 2 106 2 107 2 108 2 109 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Fr 18
32
18
Francium 8
Ra
Radium
18
32
18
8
18
32
32
II 18
32
32
Lawrencium 9 Rutherfordium 1o
I 18
o 32
32
Oubnium 11
0 32
18
32
Seaborgium 12
mao 18
32
32
Bohrium 13
[}Us 18
32
32
Hasslum 14
32
MaHnarlam 15
18
32

(223) 1 (226) 2 (262) 2 (261) 2 (262) 2 (263) 2 (264) 2 (265) 2 (268) 2

~lanthanide 57
Series
2 58 2 59 2 60
2 61 2 62 2
8 8 8 8 8 8
La
Lanthanum 2
18
18
9
Ce
Cerium
18
20
8
18
21
2 Praseodymlum2
8
Pr Nd 18
22
8
Neodymium 2
mrn 18
23
8
Promethium 2
Sm 18
24
Samarium 2
8
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 15Q.4

Actinide Series
89 2 90 2 91 2 92 2 93 2 94 2
8 8

u
8 8 8 8
Ac
Actinium
18
32
18
9
Th 18
32
18
Thorium 10
Pa 18
32
20
Protactinium 9 Uranium
18
32
21
9
18
~
32
22
Neptunium 9
[poo 18
32
24
Plutonium 8
(227) 2 232.04 2 231 .04 2 238.03 2 (237) 2 (244) 2

392 Chapter 14
 section 14.1

D Hydro~en D Nonmetals
D Alkali metals D Noble gases 18

D Alkaline earth metals D Inner transition metals 0

2 2
D Transition metals
D Other metals 13 14 15 16 17
He
Helium
3A 4A SA 6A 7A 4.0026
5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 2 10 2

8
Boron
3

c
Carbon
4

N
Nitrogen
5

0
Oxygen
6

F
Fluorine
7

Ne
Neon
8

10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.179

13 2 14 2 15 2 16 2 17 2 18 2

s
8 8

AI 3
Si 4
p 8
5
8
6
Cl
8
7
Ar
8
8

10 11 12 Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

I 18 28 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.06 35.453 39.948
28 2
8
29 2
8
30 2
8
31 2
8
32 2 33 2 34 2 35 2 36 2
8 8 8 8 8

Ni
Nlcbl
16
2 Cu
COpper
18
1
ZnZinc
18
2 Ga
Gallium
18
3 Ge
Germanium
18
4 As
Arsenic
18
5 Se
Selenium
18
6 Br 18
7 Kr
Krypton
18
8

Bromine
58.71 63.546 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80
2
46 8
47 2
8
48 2
8
49 2
8
50 2
8
51 2
8
52 2
8
53 2
8
54 2
8

Pd
Pllllllla
18
18 Ag
Sliver
18
18
1
Cd
Cldmlum
18
18
2
In
Indium
18
18
3
Sn Tin
18
18
4
Sb
Antimony
18
18
5
Te
Tellurium
18
18
6
I
Iodine
18
18
7
Xe
Xenon
18
18
8

106.4 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.69 121 .75 127.60 126.90 131 .30
2 2 2
78 8
79 8
80 8
81 2
8
82 2
8
83 2
8
84 2
8
85 2
8
86 2
8

Pt 18
32
17
Au 18
32
18
Hg
Mercury
18
32
18
Tl 18
32
18
Pb 18
32
18
Bi 18
32
18
Po 18
32
18
At 18
32
18
Rn 18
32
18
Plltlm 1 Gold 1 2 Thallium 3 Lead 4 Bismuth 5 Polonium 6 Astatine 7 Radon 8
195.09 , 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
110 2 111 2 112 2 114 116 118
8 8 8

*ODomru 32~ *ODoooo ~: *ODoo~ ~ 32 32

*ODoo~ *ODooOo *ODoo
(269)
11111
......... 17
1 (272) (2n)
18
1
Unun~lm 18
2
Ununquadium Un1111hexlum Ununoctium

Name not officially assigned.

63 2 64 2 65 2
8
66 2
8
67 2
8
68 2 69 2 70 2
8 8 8 8 8

Eu 18
25
8
Gd
Gadollnlm
18
25
9
Tb
Terbium
18
27
8
Oy
Dysp1111lum
18
28
8
Ho
Holmium
18
29
8
Er
Erbium
18
3D
8
Tm
l'llullum
18
31
8
Yb
Ytterbium
18
32
8
EUI'OIIIIna 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04

95 2 96 2 97 2 98 2 gg 2 100 2 101 2 102 2

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

/l\ow 18
32
25
uoo 18
32
25
ffi[k 18
32
27
lf 18
32
28
~
18
32
29
[?[JOD
18
32
3D
~@]
18
32
31
~
18
32
32
Allllrlclla 8 C1rl1m 9 Berkelium 8 Clllforalum 8 Elllltllnlum 8 Fermium 8 Mllldtlevlum 8 NoHIIum 8
(243) 2 (247) 2 (247) 2 (251) 2 (252) 2 (257) 2 (258) 2 (259) 2

Chemical Periodicity 393

section 14.1

0
2

He
Helium
4.0026
10

Ne
Neon
20.179
18 (b) (c)
Ar
Aruon Elements can be classified into four categories according to their elec-
39.948
36 tron configurations. You will find it useful to refer to Figure 14.2 as you
Kr read about these classifications.
Krypton
83.80
1. The noble gases. These are elements in which the outermost s and p
54 sublevels are filled. The noble gases belong to Group 0. The elements
Xe in this group are sometimes called the inert gases because they do not
Xenon participate in many chemical reactions. The electron configurations
131.30
86 for the first four noble-gas elements are listed below. Notice that these
Rn elements have filled outermost sand p sublevels.
Radon
(222)
Helium ls 2
Neon ls 2 2s 2 2p6
(a)
Argon ls 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p 6
figurl' 14.3 Krypton ls 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p 6 3d 104s 24p6
(a) Group 0 of the periodic table 2. The representative elements. In these elements, the outermost s or p
contains the noble gases. (b) Why do sublevel is only partially filled. The representative elements are usually
helium-filled balloons rise in air? called the Group A elements. (Some definitions of the representative
(c) Passing an electric current elements may also include the noble gases.) Three groups of represen-
through a glass tube filled with tative elements that have been named are the Group lA elements,
any noble gas creates the bright glow called the alkali metals; the Group 2A elements, called the alkaline
of "neon " lights. earth metals; and the nonmetallic elements of Group 7A, called the
halogens. For any representative element, the group number equals
the number of electrons in the outermost energy level. For example,
the elements in Group lA (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and
cesium) have one electron in the outermost energy level.
Lithium ls 2 2s 1
Sodium ls 2 2s 2 2p6 3s1
Potassium ls 2 2s 2 2p 63s 23p6 4s 1
Carbon, silicon, and germanium, in Group 4A, have four electrons in
the outermost energy level.
Carbon ls 2 2s 2 2p 2
Silicon ls 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 23p 2
Germanium ls 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p6 3d 104s 24p 2
How many electrons are in the outermost energy level of the Group 2A
elements magnesium and calcium? In the outermost energy level of
the Group 5A elements phosphorus and arsenic?
3. The transition metals. These are metallic elements in which the outer-
most s sublevel and nearby d sublevel contain electrons. The transition
elements, called the Group B elements, are characterized by addition
of electrons to the d orbitals.

394 Chapter 14
 section 14.1
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1A

smcon
28.086
32 33
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
69.n 72.59
49 50

In Sn Sb
Antimony Ttlllrrlum
I
I!Milne
121.75 127.60 12.90
83 84 85
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi
...... Po At
ThllliMm Leal! POIOIIIum Alta line
204.37 207.2 208.98

Ra
-Fr
1223)
Allli.m
22600

4. The inner transition metals. These are metallic elements in which the Figurl'l4.4
outermost s sublevel and nearby f sublevel generally contain electrons. Elements in Groups 1A-7A are
The inner transition metals are characterized by the filling off orbitals. called representative elements.
If you consider both the electron configurations and the positions of (a) Recyclable cans are often
the elements in the periodic table, another pattern emerges. As you can see made of aluminum. {b) Pure
in Figure 14.5, the periodic table can be divided into sections, or blocks, sodium, a very reactive metal, is
that correspond to the sublevels that are filled with electrons. so soft that it can be cut with a
The s block is the part of the periodic table that contains the elements knife. (c) The element carbon
with s1 and s 2 outer electron configurations. It is composed of the elements accounts for 0.08% of the mass
in Groups lA and 2A and the noble gas helium. The p block is composed of of Earth's crust. Graphite, diamond,
the elements in Groups 3A, 4A, SA, 6A, 7A, and 0 with the exception of and buckminsterfullerene are
helium. The transition metals belong to the d block, and the inner transi- allotropes of carbon. (d) Sulfur,
tion metals belong to the f block. a Group 6A element, is present
Electron configurations of elements can be determined by using the in petroleum and coal, causing
periodic table in Figure 14.5. Simply read the periodic table as you would environmental pollution during
read a book, from left to right and top to bottom, until you reach the ele- combustion of these fossil fuels.
ment of interest. Each period number on the periodic table corresponds to

8f--,--l d

2 d block

Representative elements
(filling sand p)

D
Transition metals
Figurl'l4.5
s block p block (filling d) This block diagram identifies
groups of elements according to
D the sublevels filled with electrons.
Inner transition
metals (filling f) How many electrons are in the p
sublevel of every halogen?

Chemical Periodicity 395

section 14.1

the principal energy level. The number of electrons in each sublevel is

determined by counting over to the element, again from left to right. For
the transition elements, electrons are added to ad sublevel with a principal
energy level that is one less than the period number. For the inner transi-
tion metals, the principal energy level of the f sublevel is two less than the
period number. Following this procedure gives the correct electron config-
urations for most atoms.

Sample Problem 14-1

Use the periodic table in Figure 14.5 to write the electron config-
urations of these elements.
a. nitrogen b. nickel

1. ANALYZE Plan a problem-solving strategy.

Apply the procedure of using position in the periodic table to
determine electron configurations of elements. The atomic
number equals the number of electrons. The period in which
the element is located corresponds to the highest occupied
principal energy level. The number of electrons in the highest
occupied sublevel is related to the group location.
Practice Problems
2. SOLVE Apply the problem-solving strategy.
1. Use Figure 14.5 to write the a. Nitrogen has 7 electrons. The periodic table in Figure 14.5
electron configurations of shows that the first period is 1s 2 and the second period
these elements. is 2s 2 2p 3. There are 3 electrons in the 2p sublevel
a. carbon because nitrogen is the third element in the 2p block.
b. vanadium b. Nickel has 28 electrons. From Figure 14.5, the first three
c. strontium periods are 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p6. Next is 4s 2 and finally 3d 8
2. What are the symbols for all Remember that the principal energy level number for
the elements that have the fol- the d block is always one less than the period number.
lowing outer configurations? The complete configuration is 1s2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p6 3d 84s 2.
a. s 2
b. szps 3. EVALUATE Do the results make sense?
c. s2 d 2 In each case, the sum of the superscripts equals the total num-
ber of electrons in, or the atomic number of, the atom.

section review 14.1

3. Why do the elements potassium and sodium have similar chemical
and physical properties?
4. Categorize each element as a representative element, a transition
metal, or a noble gas.

b. 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p6 3d 104s 24p 6 d. 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 23p 2

5. Which of the following are transition metals: Cu, Sr, Cd, Au, Al, Ge, Co?

(hem ASAP! Assessment 14.1 Check your understanding of the important

ideas and concepts in Section 14.1.

396 Chapter 14
 SMALL-SCAL{ LAB
(H{MICAL PROP{Rli{S or TH{ HALID{S
1. List the formulas and charges of each halide ion.
Wear safety glasses and follow the standard safety 2. Write the electron configuration of each halide
procedures outlined on page 18. ion. What do the electron configurations of all the
halide ions have in common?
PURPOS{ 3. Which halide ions formed precipitates? What
To observe some properties of halide ions and to use color was each precipitate? Write and balance a
these data to predict trends. net ionic equation for each precipitation reaction
you observed .
MAHRIALS 4. Which silver halide did not form a precipitate?
pencil reaction surface This halide is the most soluble. Assuming the
paper ruler solubility of the silver halides follows a group
chemicals shown in Figure A along trend , list the silver halides in order of decreasing
with HN0 3 and NaOCI solubility.
5. Can you make the same sort of prediction about
PROHDUR{ the relative solubilities of the lead halides? Why
On separate sheets of paper, draw two grids similar to or why not?
Figure A, one with large Xs and one without. Make
each square 2 em on each side. Place a reaction sur- YOU'R{ TH{ CHfMIST
face over the grid with the Xs and add the chemicals The following small-scale activities allow you to
as shown in Figure A. Use the second grid as a data develop your own procedures and analyze the resu lts.
table to record your observations.
1. Design It! Design and carry out an experiment to
AgN0 3 Pb(N0 3) 2 determine how halide ions react with sodium
(Ag+) (Pb 2+) hypochlorite in the presence of nitric acid . Which
halide ions react with NaOCI? Which do not?
2. Analyze It! Use your data to predict a trend in
reactivity of the halide ions.
3. Analyze It! OCI- reacts with 1- and W to form 12
KCI(Cn according to the following chemical equation.
OCI- + 2W + 21- ~ H20 + Cl- + l 2
Write a similar equation for the other halide ion
that reacts with OCI- .
4. Analyze It! The value of the reduction potential
Kl W)
(E 0) is a measure of the relative ease with which
halide ions react to form halogens. In general, the
Figure A more positive the reduction potential , the less
likely a halide will form a halogen. Look up the
ANALYSIS reduction potential values of 12, Br2, Cl 2, and F2 in
Using your experimental data, record the answers to Section 23 .2. Are these reduction potential values
the following questions below your data table. consistent with your prediction? Explain .

Chemical Periodicity 397

objectives
.. Interpret group trends in
atomic radii , ionic radii ,
ionization energies, and
electronegativities
.. Interpret period trends in
atomic radii, ionic radii ,
ionization energies, and
electronegativities
key terms
.. atomic radius
.. ionization energy
.. electronegativity
figurP 14.6
Analysis of this x-ray diffraction
pattern of NaG/ will reveal the
distance between the two nuclei in
the crystalline structure.
398 Chapter 14
H ave you ever noticed physical similarities between relatives
at a family reunion? The relatives may have similar-shaped
noses or faces, or have lots of freckles. These characteristics
generally indicate a relationship among the family members.
As you know, the elements also belong to families-chemical families. What trends in
physical and chemical properties exist among the families and periods of the
periodic table?
Trends in Atomic Size
You know from the quantum mechanical model, which you read about in
Chapter 13, that an atom does not have a sharply defined boundary that
sets the limit of its size. Therefore, the radius of an atom cannot be mea-
sured directly. There are, however, several ways to estimate the relative
sizes of atoms. If the atoms are in a solid crystalline structure, a technique
called x-ray diffraction can provide an estimate of the distance between
the nuclei. For elements that exist as diatomic molecules, the distance
between the nuclei of the atoms bonded in the molecule can be estimated.
The atomic radius is one- half of the distance between the nuclei of two
like atoms in a diatomic molecule. Look at Figure 14.7, which shows the
distance between the nuclei in the diatomic molecules of seven elements.
The separation between the nuclei in a diatomic bromine molecule (Br 2 )
is 228 pm (1 pm = 1 picometer = 1 x 10- 12 m). As you can see, because
the atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei, a value of
114 pm (228/2) is assigned as the radius of the bromine atom. Figure 14.8
shows atomic radii for most of the representative elements. Remember,
the atomic radius of an element indicates its relative size.
Distance Hydrogen (H 2) Chlorine (CI 2)
between atomic radius = 37 pm atomic radius = 99 pm
nuclei
ol(
Nucleus
Fluorine (F 2)
atomic radius = 64 pm
Bromine (Br 2)
atomic radius = 114 pm
Oxygen (0 2)
Atomic atomic radius = 66 pm
radius
Nitrogen (N 2) Iodine (12 )
atomic radius = 71 pm atomic radius = 138 pm
figurp 14.7
Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules. In the bromine molecule (Br2 ) , the distance
between the nuclei is 228 pm and the atomic radius is 114 pm. What is the atomic radius,
in meters, of a bromine atom? What is the diameter, in nanometers?
 section 14.2

1A 0 figurp 14.8
Atomic and ionic radii of the
representative elements are given
here in picometers. Transition
metals are omitted from the
figure because they show many
exceptions to the general trend.

Metal atom
Metal ion
Nonmetal atom
Nonmetal ion

lZl
Atomic radius
I
Ionic radius

Ionic Radii vs. Atomic Number

:Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

PURPOS[ PROCfDUR[
i5
To graph ionic radius Use the information presented in
~ 100 ~~~~~~~~
versus atomic number Figure 14.8 to plot ionic radius versus ;::
.2
for the representative atomic number.
elements in periods
2-5 and to examine ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 10 20 30 40 50 60
the graph for periodic Atomic number
1. Comment on the sizes of cations
and group trends. compared with the sizes of anions.
How do these sizes compare with 3. Describe and explain the shape of
MAHRIALS those of the atoms? each period's portion of the graph.
graph paper 2. Are the general trends shown for 4. How do the radii for anions and
pencil periods 2, 3, 4, and 5 similar or cations change as you go down
different? a group? Explain.

Chemical Periodicity 399

section 14.2

Group Trends Atomic size generally increases as you move down a

group of the periodic table. As you descend, electrons are added to succes-
sively higher principal energy levels and the nuclear charge increases. The
outermost orbital is larger as you move downward. The shielding of the
nucleus by electrons also increases with the additional occupied orbitals
between the outermost orbital and the nucleus. Although you might expect
the increase in charge on the nucleus to attract the outer electrons and
shrink the size of the atom, this is not the case. The enlarging effect of the
greater distance of the outer electrons from the nucleus overcomes the
shrinking effect caused by the increasing charge of the nucleus. Therefore
the atomic size increases. The bar graphs in Figure 14.9 show how atomic
size (atomic radius) increases as you go down Group 1A (the alkali metals),
Group 2A (the alkaline earth metals), and Group 7A (the halogens).
Periodic Trends Atomic size generally decreases as you move from left
to right across a period. As you go across a period, the principal energy level
remains the same. Each element has one more proton and one more elec-
tron than the preceding element. The electrons are added to the same
principal energy level. The effect of the increasing nuclear charge on the
outermost electrons is to pull them closer to the nucleus. Atomic size
therefore decreases. Plotting atomic radius against atomic number, as in
Figure 14.10, reveals a periodic trend. The trend is less pronounced in peri-
ods where there are more electrons in the occupied principal energy levels
 section 14.2

300 figur~ 14.10

Period 4
Period 3 This graph of atomic radius versus
1 1
250 atomic number shows a periodic
trend.

E'
.e
en
:::::>
:0 150
~
.<:?
E
0
~ 100

0 10 20 30
l
40 50 60
Atomic number

between the nucleus and the outermost electrons. This is because these
inner electrons help shield the outermost electrons and the nucleus from
each other. In any given period, however, the number of electrons between
the nucleus and the outermost electrons is the same for all elements. Con-
sequently, the shielding effect of these electrons on the nucleus is constant
within a period.
Figure 14.11 summarizes the group and period trends in atomic size.
How would you describe the atomic radius of a period-2 alkaline earth
metal compared with that of a period-4 alkaline earth metal?

Trends in Ionization {nergy

When an atom gains or loses an electron, it becomes an ion. The energy
required to overcome the attraction of the nuclear charge and remove an
electron from a gaseous atom is called the ionization energy. Removing
one electron results in the formation of a positive ion with a l + charge.
Na(g) ~ Na+(g) + e-

Generally decreases
.---- -

.
- ~ ~

Trends in Atomic Radius

rigur~ 14.11
Atomic radii generally decrease across periods and increase down groups. Which has
the larger atomic radius within the same period: a halogen or an alkali metal?

Chemical Periodicity 401

section 14.2
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Ta bl ~ 14.1
Ionization Energies of the First 20 Elements
Symbol Ionization energy (kJ / mol)
ASTRONOMY of element First Second Third

The Big Bang H 1 312

Astronomers have evidence that He (noble gas) 2 371 5 247
--------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------.,
the material universe began Li 520 7 297 11 81 0
with an event of indescribable '------------------------------.,
Be 900 1 757 14 840
.. ____ __________ _____ ________ _
energy. At the moment of this
event, called the Big Bang , the B 800 2 430 3 659
c 1 086 2 352 4 619
N 1 402 2 857 4 577
0 1 314 3 391 5 301
F 1 681 3 375 6 045
Ne (noble gas) 2 080 3 963 6 276
------------------------------------------------------------------------,
Na 495.8 4 565 6 912
Mg 737.6 -----1-45a------~-------?J~.?.........
AI 577.4 1 816 2 744
Si 786.2 1 577 3 229
temperature was many billions
of degrees. As a result of the p 1 012 1 896 2 910
Big Bang , the elements formed . s 999.6 2 260 3 380
Neutrons, protons , and elec- Cl 1 255 2 297 3 850
trons may have formed within
Ar (noble gas) 1 520 2 665 3 947
10- 4 second after the Big Bang , ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ..
and the lightest nuclei formed K 418.8 3 069 4 600
within 3 minutes. At this time, Ca 589.5 -----1-1-46-------l._ _________~--~-~-~-----
the temperature was still proba-
bly 70 times the temperature of
Earth 's sun. Matter was in the The energy required to remove this first outermost electron is called
form of plasma, a sea of positive the first ionization energy. To remove the outermost electron from the
nuclei and negative electrons. It gaseous 1+ ion requires an amount of energy called the second ionization
took an estimated 500 000 years energy, and so forth. Table 14.1 gives the first three ionization energies of
for electrons and nuclei to cool the first 20 elements.
enough to form atoms. Accord- You can use the concept of ionization energy to predict ionic charges.
ing to the Big Bang theory, Look at the three Group 1A metals in Table 14.1. Do you see a large
planet Earth, with its wealth of increase in energy between the first and second ionization energies? It is
chemical elements, is the debris relatively easy to remove one electron from a Group 1A metal to form an
of supernova explosions. It is ion with a 1+ charge. It is very difficult, however, to remove an additional
this literal star dust that contains
electron. For the three Group 2A metals, the large increase in ionization
all the elements essential for life.
energy occurs between the second and third ionization energies. What
does this tell you about the relative ease of removing one electron from
these metals? Two electrons? Three electrons? You know that aluminum,
in Group 3A, forms a 3 + ion. The large increase in ionization energy for
aluminum occurs after the third electron is removed.
Group Trends As you can see from Table 14.1, the first ionization
energy generally decreases as you move down a group of the periodic
table. This is because the size of the atoms increases as you descend, so the

402 Chapter 14
 section 14.2

2500 Fiqure 14.12

0
2000
j - +
This graph of first ionization
energy versus atomic number
shows a periodic trend. Notice the
--
E
-,
6 I ease with which Group 1A
>,
c:::n
Q:;
c:
1500 f- elements are ionized and the
difficulty of ionizing noble gases.
"'c:0 What is the group trend for the
~ 1000
c= +-- noble gases?

-
.9
~
u:::
500

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Atomic number

outermost electron is farther from the nucleus. The outermost electron

should be more easily removed, and the element should have a lower
ionization energy.
Periodic Trends For the representative elements, the first ionization
energy generally increases as you move from left to right across a period.
See Figure 14.12. The nuclear charge increases and the shielding effect is
constant as you move across. A greater attraction of the nucleus for the
electron leads to the increase in ionization energy.
Figure 14.1 3 summarizes the group and periodic trends in first ioniza-
tion energies. Which element in Group 6A has the highest first ionization
energy? In period 2?

Tr()nds in Ionic Size

The atoms of metallic elements have low ionization energies. They form
positive ions easily. By contrast, the atoms of nonmetallic elements readily
form negative ions. Let's look at how the loss or gain of electrons affects the
size of the ion formed.

Generally increases
r-- ~ -

(/)

"'
(/)

"'e
t.)

-o"'
-"='
""
"'c:
"'
C!l

'---- '---- -
Trends in First Ionization Energy
fiqure 14.13
First ionization energies generally increase across periods and decrease down groups.

Chemical Periodicity 403

section 14.2

Metals Nonmetals
Group 1A Group 3A Group 7A
e e
u+
~ F-
152 60 64 136
e
e
Na+ Al 3 +
~ c1 -

186 95 143 50 99 181

e-

K ~ Br-

227 133 114 195

figurP 14.14 Group Trends Positive ions (cations) are always smaller than the neutral
The relative sizes (radii) of atoms atoms from which they form. This is because the loss of outer-shell electrons
and ions for selected metals and results in increased attraction by the nucleus for the fewer remaining elec-
nonmetals are given in picometers. trons. As you can see in Figure 14.14, the radius of the Na+ ion (95 pm) is only
about one-half that of theN a atom (186 pm) . The radius of the Al 3 + ion is only
about one-third that of the Al atom. In contrast, negative ions (anions) are
always larger than the neutral atoms from which they form. This is because
the effective nuclear attraction is less for an increased number of electrons.
The radius of the Cl- ion (181 pm) is about twice that of the Cl ato~ (99 pm).
The bar graphs in Figure 14.9 on page 400, which show trends in atomic radii,
also give the group trends in ionic size for Group 1A, 2A, and 7A elements.
Periodic Trends A periodic relationship for the ionic radii of the ele-
ments is shown in Figure 14.8 on page 399. Going from left to right across
a row, there is a gradual decrease in the size of positive ions. Then begin-
ning with Group SA, the negative ions, which are much larger, gradually
decrease in size as you continue to move right. The ionic radii of both
anions and cations increase as you go down each group.
The group and periodic trends in ionic size are summarized in
Figure 14.15. How does the ionic radius of sodium compare with that of
cesium? Boron with that of fluoride?

Cations decrease Anions decrease

,.-- ,.--

figurp 14.15
Cationic and anionic radii decrease
across periods and increase down '--- - L_

groups. Trends in Ionic Radius

404 Chapter 14
 section 14.2
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Trends in {lectronegativity
The electronegativity of an element is the tendency for the atoms of the
element to attract electrons when they are chemically combined with
atoms of another element. Electronegativities have been calculated for the
MUSIC
elements and are expressed in arbitrary units on the Pauling electronega-
tivity scale. This numerical scale is based on a number of factors, including Newlands's Octaves
the ionization energies of the elements. Mendeleev's publication of his
The electronegativities of selected elements, arranged in the form of the first periodic table in 1869 was
periodic table, are presented in Table 14.2. Note that the noble gases are far from the first attempt to
omitted because they do not form many compounds. With their exception, organize the elements according
each element is assigned an electronegativity number in units of Paulings. to their properties. In 1863,
As you can see, electronegativity generally decreases as you move down a John Newlands (1838-1898) ,
group. As you go across a period from left to right, the electronegativity of an English chemist, arranged
the representative elements increases. The metallic elements at the far left the elements in order of increas-
of the periodic table have low electronegativities. By contrast, the non- ing atomic masses. He noted
metallic elements at the far right (excluding the noble gases) have high that the properties of the ele-
electronegativities. The trends in electronegativities among the transition ments repeated when the
metals are not so regular; these numbers are not included in the table. elements were arranged by
The electronegativity of cesium, the least electronegative element, is increasing atomic mass in
0.7; the electronegativity of fluorine , the most electronegative element, groups of eight. For example,
the chemical properties of
is 4.0. Because fluorine has such a strong tendency to attract electrons,
lithium and sodium are very
when it is chemically bonded to any other element it either attracts the
similar. Newlands referred to
shared electrons or forms a negative ion. In contrast, cesium has the
his arrangement as the law of
least tendency to attract electrons. It loses the electron "tug-of-war" and
octaves. This is similar to the
forms a positive ion. musical scale, which repeats
As you will learn in the following chapters on ionic bonding and cova- every eighth tone. Although the
lent bonding, electronegativity values help predict the type of bonding law of octaves fails for elements
that can exist between atoms in compounds. beyond calcium , Newlands 's
work was a step in the right
TabiP 14.Z direction in the classification of
-"~""';"""' - ~-,.,--"~~
the elements.
!~.,_~-.l-'.. ..'-';.-.A<tlbt-J.:;"".j;O~~.;to~~~c.'.>Air~
H
2.1

Li Be B c N 0 F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Na Mg AI Si p s Cl /

0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8

Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5

Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi
P.7 0.9 1.8 1.9 1.9

Chemical Periodicity 405

section 14.2

Shielding is constant - -- - - -.....

figure 14.16
Periodic trends vary as you move Atomic radius decreases _ _ _ _____,.,...
across and down the periodic table. Ionization energy increases _ _ _____,.,...
en en
Properties that show periodic <1>
en <1>
en ,en Electronegativity increases - -- -........
<1> en
"'
trends include atomic radius, ionic u "'<.>~
en <1> <1>
en

size, ionization energy, nuclear

"'
<1>
u en "'
<1> en <1>
-o <1> Nuclear charge increases --------'~
c:: <1>
en u
c::
<1>
en >-
-o
~
charge, shielding effect, and "'~ "'~ ~ ;;: 1A
-0
<1>
en <1>
~ <.> c::
~
<.> :::::> r-
electronegativity of the elements. c:: c::
"'
..c::
<.> 0>
-o
~ <1>
<1>
c::
0
0>
<1>
c:: 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
c:: N
u;
~ -o .~ ~ e
<1>
u:::::> ~ E <.> .!::! t)
..c:: 0 c:: c:: ~
z (/) <( 0 .2 w

~
Ionic size (cations) - -- ........ Ionic size (anions) -----:l~
decreases decreases

Summary of Periodic Trends

You have now seen that a . number of periodic trends exist among the
elements and that these trends can be explained by looking at variations in
atomic structure. Remember, trends occur within groups and within peri-
ods. Figure 14.16 summarizes the trends in atomic radius, ionization energy,
ionic size, and electronegativity that you have just learned about. Which is
the only property that shows a decreasing trend as you move from left to
right across the periodic table?

section review 14.2

6. For which of these properties does lithium have a larger value than
potassium?
a. first ionization energy
b. atomic radius
c. electronegativity
d. ionic radius
Research what grades of 1. Arrange these elements in order of decreasing atomic size: sulfur, chlo-
chemicals are available rine, aluminum, and sodium. Does your arrangement demonstrate a
fro m suppliers. What is the periodic trend or a group trend?
differe nce between reagent 8. How does the ionic radius of a typical anion compare with the radius
grade and laboratory grade for the corresponding neutral atom?
in terms of purity and cost?
How pure are the chemicals 9. Which element in each pair has the larger ionization energy?
that you use for your lab a. sodium, potassium
experiments? b. magnesium, phosphorus

(hem ASAP! Assessment 14.2 Check your understanding of the important

ideas arid concepts in Section 14.2.

406 Chapter 14
 (h~rilistry s~rving ... lndustry
BI G .JOBS FOR LITTLE DEVI CES
In 1946 at the University of
Pennsylvania, a team of engi-
neers built the Electronic
Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). A com-
plex mass of wires and
vacuum tubes, ENIAC occu-
pied 2000 square feet of floor
space, almost half the size of
a basketball court. It was the
first electronic computer,
designed to perform high-
speed calculations for the
government.
Although ENIAC was an
amazing achievement for its
time , it would be outper-
formed today by a calculator the size of a credit card!
Within the small space of the calculator's circuitry is
the equivalent of ENIAC's thousands of vacuum
tubes and miles of wires. This incredible
miniaturization was made possible by
semiconductor technology.
Chemically speaking , semiconductors
are elements that conduct electricity better
than insulators but less well than conduc-
tors. The elements silicon (Si), germanium
(Ge) , and gallium (Ga) are semiconductors.
In their pure forms, semiconductors
are not very useful. But when contaminated
with atoms of other elements, their proper-
ties of conductivity change dramatically.
Because of the different ways they can
affect the movement of electrons within them, "conta-
minated" semiconductors can be used to make tiny
CHEMISTRY IN CAREERS
(r************
TAKE IT TO THE NET
d out more about
reer opportunities:
vww.phschool.coni .
CHEMICAL SPECIAliST
:al food service distributor seeks
ponsible self-motivated individ-
+n ,.,.,..._ .:_-
electronic devices. One such
device is the transistor, which
amplifies an electrical signal.
A transistor smaller
than the size of the period at
the end of this sentence can
do the work of one of the
many four-inch-tall vacuum
tubes contained in ENIAC.
The basis of semicon
ductor technology is the
process called doping . In
doping, some of the atoms
that make up a crystal of pure
silicon are replaced with
atoms of either arsenic (As)
or boron (B) . Doping with
arsenic creates a donor, or n-type semiconductor.
Each atom of arsenic contains five electrons in its
outer shell, compared with the four electrons of the
neighboring silicon atoms. The extra elec-
Anint~grat~d circuit tron from the arsenic atom is free to move
around.
containing millions Doping with boron has the opposite
effect, creating an acceptor, or p-type
compon~nts
of can
semiconductor. Because boron has only
b~ plac~d on a three electrons in its outer shell, a positive
"hole" is created for every boron atom .
s~miconductor waf~r These holes can move and thus conduct.
small~r than your Miniature electronic components are
built from different combinations of n-type
fing~rnail! and p-type semiconductors placed together.
Transistors are just one example. Integrated
circuits, such as the one shown in the photograph , are
another. An integrated circuit containing millions of
components can be placed on a semiconductor wafer
smaller than your fingernail! The resulting "chip" can
control a computer, portable CD player, television , cal-
culator, or automobile fuel system .
Miniature electronic circuits have revolutionized
the electronics and computer industries. Electronic
equipment is now smaller, more complex, and less
expensive than ever. Current research is focusing on
finding ways to make even smaller and faster chips.
 STUD{NT STUDY GUID( It to he NET
For interactive study and
review, go to www.phschool.com
KfY URMS
.. atomic radius p. 398 .. ionization energy p. 401 .. transition metal p. 394
.. electronegativity p. 405 .. noble gasp. 394
.. inner transition metal p. 395 .. representative element p. 394

CON(fPT SUMMARY
14.1 Classification of the Elements Atomic radii generally increase within a given
Elements that have similar properties also group because the outer electrons are farther
have similar electron configurations and are from the nucleus as you go down the group.
members of the same group. The attractive force of the increased nuclear
The atoms of the noble gas elements have charge is unable to overcome the effect of the
filled outermost s and p sublevels. greater distance, which acts in opposition.
The outermost s and p sublevels of the repre- Ionic radii decrease for cations and anions as
sentative elements are only partially filled. you move from left to right across a period and
The outermost s and nearby d sublevels of increase as you move down a group.
transition metals contain electrons. Electronegativity measures the ability of a
The outermost sand nearby [sublevels of bonded atom to attract electrons to itself. It
inner transition metals contain electrons. generally increases as you move from left to
right across a period. It decreases as you move
14.2 Periodic Trends
down a group.
Regular changes in the electron configuration
of the elements cause gradual changes in both
the physical and chemical properties of the
elements within a group and within a period.
Atomic radii generally decrease as you move
from left to right in a given period because
there is an increase in the nuclear charge while
the number of inner electrons, and hence the
shielding effect, remains constant.
Ionization energy, the energy required to
remove an electron from an atom, generally
increases as you move from left to right across
a period. Ionization energy decreases as you
move down a group.

(UAPUR CON(fPT MAP

Use these terms to construct a con-
cept map that organizes the major
ideas of this chapter.
electron . .
(hpm ASAP! Concept Map 14 ~~
Create your Concept Map
using the computer.

408 Chapter 14
Chapter 14
CON([Pl PRA(TI([ 24. Which particle has the larger radius in each
atom/ion pair? 14.2
10. What are the noble gases, the representative a. Na, Na+ b. S, S2 - c. I, I- d. Al, Al3+
elements, the transition elements, and the
inner transition elements? 14.1 25. How does the ionic radius of a typical metallic
atom compare with its atomic radius? 14.2
11. Use Figure 14.2 to write the electron configura-
tion of these elements. 14.1 26. Explain why the noble gases do not appear in
a. boron b. magnesium c. arsenic Table 14.2 . 14.2

12. Which of the following are representative 27. Which element is more electronegative? 14.2
elements: Na, Mg, Fe, Ni, Cl? 14.1 a. Cl, F b. C, N c. Mg, Ne d. As, Ca

13. Write the electron configuration of these

elements. 14.1
CON([Pl MASURY
a. the inert gas in period 3 28. The Mg 2 + and Na+ ions each have ten electrons
b. the element in Group 4A, period 4 surrounding the nucleus. Which ion would you
c. the element in Group 2A, period 6 expect to have the smaller radius? Why?
14. Explain how an element's outer electron con- 29. Explain why it takes more energy to remove a
figuration is related to its position in the 4s electron from zinc than from calcium.
periodic table. 14.1 30. The graphs show the relationship between the
15. Use Figure 14.2 to write the electron configura- electronegativities and first ionization energies
tion of these atoms. 14.1 for period 2 and period 3 elements.
a. fluorine b. zinc c. aluminum d. tin a. State the general trend between these two
values in each period.
16. What are the symbols for all the elements with
b. Propose an explanation for this trend.
the following outer configurations? 14.1
a. s1 b. s 2 p 4 c. s 2 d 10 Period 2

11. Explain why fluorine has a smaller atomic

radius than both oxygen and chlorine. 14.2 0
E
18. Indicate which element in each pair has the --, 1500
----
.::5
>-
greater atomic radius. 14.2 ~
Q)
c:
a. sodium, lithium Q)

c:
1000
0
b. strontium, magnesium ~
N
c. carbon, germanium c:
.Q 500
d. selenium, oxygen ~
u:::
19. Distinguish between the first and second
0
ionization energy of an atom. 14.2 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Electronegativity
20. Indicate which element in each pair has the
greater first ionization energy. 14.2 Period 3
a. lithium, boron 2000
b. magnesium, strontium 0
E
c. cesium, aluminum --, 1500
----
.::5
21. Would you expect metals or nonmetals to have >-
~
higher ionization energies? Why? 14.2 Q)
c:
Q) 1000
c:
22. Arrange the following elements in order of ~
0

N
increasing ionization energy. 14.2 '2
.Q 500
a. Be, Mg, Sr b. Bi, Cs, Ba c. Na, Al, S ~
u:::
23. Why is there a large increase between the first
0
arid second ionization energies of thealkali 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
metals? 14.2 Electronegativity

Chemical Periodicity 409

 31. Give the electron configuration of the element 37. Atoms and ions with the same number of
found at each location in the periodic table. electrons are called isoelectronic.
a. Group 1A, period 4 c. Group 6A, period 3 a. Name a cation and an anion that are
b. Group 3A, period 3 d. Group 2A, period 6 isoelectronic with krypton.
32. In each pair, which ion is larger? b. Is it possible for a cation to be isoelectronic
a. Ca 2 +, Mg 2 + b. Cl-, P 3 - c. Cu+, Cu 2 + with an anion from the same period? Explain.
33. Give the names, symbols, and electron configu-
rations for the ten period-4 transition metals. CUMULATIV{ R{VI{W
38. A 2.00-L flask at 27oc contains 4.40 g of carbon
CRITICAL THINKING dioxide and 2.00 g of nitrogen gas. What is
34. Choose the term that best completes the the pressure (in atm) of each of the two
second relationship. components?
a. sister: brother oxygen: _ _ _ 39. Balance the following chemical equations.
(1) hydrogen (3) silicon a.Ag + S~Ag 2 S
(2) sulfur (4) Group 6A b. Na 2 S04 + Ba(OH)z ~ BaS04 + NaOH
b. potassium : cation sulfur: _ __ c. Zn + HN0 3 ~ Zn(N0 3 )z + H2
(1) anion (3) yellow d. HzO + SOz + 0 2 ~ H2 S04
(2) nonmetal (4) solid 40. The smelting of iron ore consists of heating the
c. magnesium : s orbital zinc: _ __ ore with carbon.
(1) s orbital (3) d orbital 2Fe2 0 3 + 3C ~ 4Fe + 3C0 2
(2) p orbital (4) f orbital
What mass of iron can be obtained from 100 g
35. There is a large jump between the second and of the ore?
third ionization energies of magnesium. The
41. Write chemical formulas for the following
corresponding large jump is between the third
compounds.
and fourth ionization energies of aluminum.
a. lithium sulfate
Explain.
b. zinc phosphate
36. The following graph shows how many elements c. potassium permanganate
were discovered before 1750 and in each d. strontium carbonate
50-year period since then.
a. In which 50-year period were the most
42. If a gas sample at 25oc occupies a volume of
2.93 L, what will be the volume at 500 oc if the
elements discovered?
pressure is unchanged?
b. How did Mendeleev's work contribute to the
discovery of so many elements?
c. What characteristic do all the elements CONC{PT CHALL{NG{
discovered since 1950 have in common? 43. The ions S2 -, Cl-, K+, Ca 2 +, and Sc3+ have the
same total number of electrons as the noble
25 I- _11_ ..&. gas argon. How would you expect the radii of
these ions to vary? Would you expect to see the
-E 20 I- _1Q_ same variation in the series 0 2 -, p-, Na+, Mg 2 +,
"'
E
"' _ji_
and Al3+, in which each ion has the same total
~ 15 I-
0 ,.1i. ,.1i. number of electrons as the noble gas neon?
"'
.c
Why or why not?
10 -
z
44. Using a chemistry reference book, make a table
5 - for the Group 2A elements. Include densities,
atomic masses, formulas of the chlorides and
0
<1750 1751- 1801- 1851- 1901- 1951- oxides, and first ionization energies. Can you
1800 1850 1900 1950 present justify placing these elements in one group on
Period of discovery the basis of these data?

410 Chapter 14
Chapter 14
Select the choice that best answers each question or Use the spheres to answer questions 7-9.
completes each statement.
1. Which of the following properties increases as
you move across a periqd from left to righ t?
I. electronegativity
II. ionization energy
III. atomic radius 7. Which sphere would most likely represent a
a. I and II only potassium atom, K?
b. I and III only 8. Which sphere would most likely represent a
c. II and III only potassium ion, K+?
d. I, II, and III
9. If the spheres represent an atom and an anion
2. List the symbols for sodium, sulfur, and cesium of the same element, which sphere represents
in order of increasing atomic radii. the atom and which represents the anion?
a. Na, S, Cs c. S, Na, Cs
b. Cs, Na, S d. Cs, S, Na Use the data table to answer questions 10-12.
3. The outer electron configuration for an element Alkali Atomic First Electronegativity
in the halogen group is metal radius ionization value
a. sz p6. c. s z p4. (pm) energy
b. s z p s. d. s z p z. (kJ/mol)
4. Which of these does not form an ion Li 152 520 1.0
isoelectronic with krypton? Na 186 495.8 0.9
a. argon c. strontium K 227 418.8 0.8
b. bromine d. selenium Rb 244 250 0.8
Use the following data to answer questions 5 and 6. Cs 262 210 0.7
The ionization energies for the removal of the first
six electrons in carbon are, starting with the first 10. If you plotted atomic radius versus first
electron, 1086 kJ/mol, 2352 kJ/mol, 4619 kJ/mol, ionization energy, would the graph reveal a
6220 kJ/mol, 37 820 kJ/mol, and 47 260 kJ/mol. direct or inverse relationship?
5. Make a graph of ionization energy as a function 11 . If you plotted atomic radius versus electro-
of ionization number. The ionization number negativity, would the graph reveal a direct
indicates which electron is lost. or inverse relationship?
6. Between which two ionization numbers does 12. If you plotted first ionization energy versus
the ionization energy have the largest increase? electronegativity, would the graph reveal a
Why is this behavior predictable? direct or inverse relationship?

For each question there are two statements. Decide whether each statement is true or false. Then decide whether
Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I.

Statement I
13. A large increase between the first and BECAUSE
second ionization energies is character-
istic of the alkali metals.
14. Nonmetallic elements have higher electro- BECAUSE
negativity values than do metallic elements.
15. A calcium atom is larger than a calcium ion. BECAUSE
16. Theionization energy of the noble gas is BECAUSE
always the smallest of all the elements in
a period.
Statement II
It takes considerable energy to remove an
electron from a completely filled energy
level.
Atoms of nonmetals are among the largest
atoms.
Ions are always larger than the atoms from
which they are formed.
Within any period, atomic radii tend to
decrease moving from right to left.

Chemical Periodicity 411