ARTICLE IN PRESS

Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Experimental investigation of cold-formed steel material

at elevated temperatures
Ju Chen, Ben Young
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Received 2 July 2006; received in revised form 26 October 2006; accepted 16 November 2006
Available online 19 January 2007

Abstract

This paper presents the mechanical properties data for cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures. The deterioration of the mechanical
properties of yield strength (0.2% proof stress) and elastic modulus are the primary properties in the design and analysis of cold-formed
steel structures under re. However, values of these properties at different temperatures are not well reported. Therefore, both steady and
transient tensile coupon tests were conducted at different temperatures ranged approximately from 20 to 1000 1C for obtaining the
mechanical properties of cold-formed steel structural material. This study included cold-formed steel grades G550 and G450 with plate
thickness of 1.0 and 1.9 mm, respectively. Curves of elastic modulus, yield strength obtained at different strain levels, ultimate strength,
ultimate strain and thermal elongation versus different temperatures are plotted and compared with the results obtained from the
Australian, British, European standards and the test results predicted by other researchers. A unied equation for yield strength, elastic
modulus, ultimate strength and ultimate strain of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures is proposed in this paper. A full strain range
expression up to the ultimate tensile strain for the stressstrain curves of cold-formed carbon steel at elevated temperatures is also
proposed in this paper. It is shown that the proposed equation accurately predicted the test results.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cold-formed steel; Elevated temperatures; Experimental investigation; Mechanical properties; Steady state test; Stressstrain curves; Transient
state test

1. Introduction
Material properties play an important role in the
performance of steel structural members, hence, it is
important to nd out the mechanical properties of steel
structural member for the purpose of design. In addition,
mechanical properties are greatly affected by temperature,
special attention must be given by the designer for extreme
conditions below 30 1F (34 1C) and above 200 1F (93 1C)
[1]. However, previous research on the material behaviour
has been mainly focused on hot-rolled steel, and hence
limited data is available for the mechanical properties of
cold-formed light gauge steels at elevated temperatures [2].
The reduction factors for mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures recommended by the Australian Standard AS
Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2859 2674; fax: +852 2559 5337.
E-mail address: young@hku.hk (B. Young).
4100 [3], British Standard BS 5950 [4] Part 8 and European
Code 3 [5] Part 1.2 are based on investigation of hot-rolled
steel. In addition, the stressstrain curve models proposed
in previous documents by EC3-1.2 [5], Olawale and
Plank [6], Outinen [7], and Lee et al. [2] are mostly
calibrated with hot-rolled steel that may be different from
cold-formed steel. Therefore, it is important to investigate
the behaviour of cold-formed steel material at elevated
temperatures.
Both steady and transient state test methods are
commonly used in the small-scale tensile test of steel at
elevated temperatures. In steady state tests the test speci-
men is heated up to a specied temperature then a tensile
test is carried out, whereas in transient state tests the load
remains constant and the temperature rises until the test
specimen fails. Temperature would rise in a real re,
therefore, the transient state test method is more realistic in
predicting the behaviour of a material under re than the
steady state test method.

0263-8231/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tws.2006.11.003
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110
Nomenclature
a, b, c coefcients for proposed equations and stress
strain equations specied in the EC3-1.2
E elastic modulus
Enormal elastic modulus at normal room temperature
ET elastic modulus at temperature, T 1C
Ea,y elastic modulus at a given temperature specied
in the EC3-1.2
Ey,T elastic modulus at yield strength at tempera-
ture, T 1C
fp proportional limit
fp,normal proportional limit at normal room temperature
fp,T proportional limit at temperature, T 1C
fp,y proportional limit at a given temperature
specied in the EC3-1.2
fT stress at temperature, T 1C
ft,u,T ultimate strength at temperature, T 1C obtained
from transient state test
fu,T ultimate strength
fu,normal ultimate strength at normal room temperature
fu,T ultimate strength at temperature, T 1C
fy,normal yield strength at normal room temperature
fy,T yield strength at temperature, T 1C
fy,y yield strength at a given temperature specied
in the EC3-1.2
f0.2 0.2% yield strength
f0.2,normal 0.2% yield strength at normal room tempera-
ture
f0.2,T 0.2% yield strength at temperature, T 1C
f0.5 0.5% yield strength
f0.5,normal 0.5% yield strength at normal room tempera-
ture
f0.5,T 0.5% yield strength at temperature, T 1C
f1.5 1.5% yield strength
This paper presents the details of an experimental study of
cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures approximately up
to 1000 1C. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
behaviour of cold-formed steel material at different tem-
peratures using both steady and transient test methods.
Steady state tests were carried out on cold-formed steel grade
G550 and G450 with plate thickness of 1.0 and 1.9 mm
coupon specimens, respectively. Transient state tests were
carried out on cold-formed steel grade G450 with plate
thickness of 1.9 mm coupon specimens. The mechanical
properties were determined from the test results of both
transient and steady state test methods. A unied equation
for yield strength, elastic modulus, ultimate strength and
ultimate strain of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures
is proposed. Further more, a stressstrain curve model that
accurately describes the cold-formed steel material at
elevated temperatures is proposed in this paper. The
proposed model is based on Mirambell and Real [8] and
Rasmussen [9] stressstrain curve model for stainless steel at
97
f1.5,normal 1.5% yield strength at normal room tempera-
ture
f1.5,T 1.5% yield strength at temperature, T 1C
f2.0 2.0% yield strength
f2.0,normal 2.0% yield strength at normal room tempera-
ture
f2.0,T 2.0% yield strength at temperature, T 1C
n coefcient for proposed equation and coef-
cient for proposed unied equation and Ram-
bergOsgood equation
nT coefcient for proposed stressstrain equation
mT coefcient for proposed stressstrain equation
T value of temperature
b coefcient for RambergOsgood equation
s stress at a given temperature specied in the
EC3-1.2
e strain at a given temperature specied in the
EC3-1.2
ep,y proportional limit at a given temperature
specied in the EC3-1.2
eT strain at temperature, T 1C
et,y limiting strain for yield strength at a given
temperature specied in the EC3-1.2
eu,normal strain corresponding to ultimate strength at
normal room temperature
eu,T strain corresponding to ultimate strength at
temperature, T 1C
eu,y ultimate strain at a given temperature specied
in the EC3-1.2
ey,T strain corresponding to yield strength at tem-
perature, T 1C
ey,y yield strain at a given temperature specied in
the EC3-1.2
etotal elongation (tensile strain) at the point of
fracture based on gauge length of 25 mm
normal room temperature. The proposed equations are
compared with cold-formed carbon steel test results.
2. Experimental investigation
2.1. Testing device
The tensile testing machine used in this study was an
MTS 810 Universal testing machine of 100 kN capacity.
Testing machine was calibrated before testing. The
installation of the coupon specimen and the testing device
used are shown in Fig. 1. The heating device of MTS
Model 653 high temperature furnace with a maximum
temperature of 1400 1C was used. The furnace composed of
upper and lower heating elements. Heat was generated by
the heating elements for each heating zone. An MTS model
409.83 temperature controller was used. Two internal
thermal couples are located inside the furnace to measure
the air temperature. Since there is a distance from the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
98 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110
internal thermal couples to the specimen, the temperature
detected by the internal thermal couples is higher than the
surface temperature of the specimen. Therefore, an external
thermal couple was used to measure the surface tempera-
ture of the specimen, and the measured temperature was
considered as the real temperature of the specimen in this
paper. The differences between the temperatures detected
by the internal and external thermal couples were ranged
from 3% to 28%. The temperature accuracy of the internal
and the external thermal couples was 1.0 and 70.1 1C. The
heating rate of the furnace is 100 1C/min. The fast heating
rate resulted of the temperatures overshoot slightly, but the
overshoot stabilizes within a minute. The maximum
overshoot was approximately 40 1C at low temperatures
and decreases at higher temperatures. When the tempera-
ture beyond 700 1C, the overshoot was less than 20 1C.
An MTS Model 632.53F-11 of axial extensometer was
used to measure the strain of the middle part of the coupon
specimen. Gauge length of the extensometer was 25 mm
with range limitation of 72.5 mm. The extensometer was
also calibrated before testing. The extensometer was reset
when it approaches the range limit during testing, hence a
complete strain of coupon specimen can be obtained.
2.2. Test specimen
The coupon test specimens were taken from the central
of the web plate of nished cold-formed steel specimens
brake-pressed from structural steel sheets. The test coupon
dimensions conformed to the ASTM Standard E 21 [10]
Fig. 1. Testing device.
Table 1
Chemical properties
Grade C (%) P (%) Mn (%) Si (%) S (%) Ni (%)
G550 0.055 0.007 0.20 o0.005 0.015 0.026
G450 0.055 0.008 0.21 0.005 0.014 0.027
Note: Percentage of element by mass.
and Australian Standard AS 2291 [11] using 6 mm wide
coupons and a gauge length of 25 mm. The specimens
consisted of two different steel grades and thicknesses.
Steel grade of G550 with plate thickness of 1.0 mm (G550
1.0 mm) and steel grade of G450 with plate thickness of
1.9 mm (G450 1.9 mm) were used. The steel grades of G550
and G450 have the nominal yield strength (0.2% proof
stress) of 550 and 450 MPa at normal room temperature,
respectively. A total of 63 tests (46 steady state tests and 17
transient state tests) was conducted in this study. The
chemical compositions of the test specimens are presented
in Table 1. The total metal thickness and the base metal
thickness without zinc coating were measured using a
micrometer and the zinc coating was removed by 1:1
hydrochloric acid before testing. The base metal thickness
was used to determine the cross sectional area of each
coupon.
2.3. Testing procedure
2.3.1. Steady state test
In the steady state tests, the specimen was heated up to a
specied temperature then loaded until it failed while
maintaining the same temperature. In this study, thermal
expansion of specimen was allowed by maintaining zero
tensile load during the heating process. After reaching the
pre-selected temperature, it needs approximately 2 min for
the temperature to stabilize and after another 7 min, then
the tensile load applied to the specimen. This would allow
the heat to transfer into the specimen. The external thermal
couple indicated that the variation of the specimen
temperature within the gauge length was less than 6 1C
(73 1C) during the tests. A constant tensile loading rate of
0.2 mm/min was used and the strain rate obtained from the
extensometer was approximately 0.006/min, which is with-
in the range 0.00570.002/min as specied by the ASTM
Standard E21-92 [10].
2.3.2. Transient state test
In the transient state tests, the specimen was under
constant tensile load while the temperature was raised. The
stress levels selected in the test were 2, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150,
180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 390, 420, 450 and
480 MPa. The temperatures specied in the temperature
controller ranged from 100 to 900 1C at the interval of
100 1C. The strain of the specimen at a given temperature
was recorded using the extensometer 6 min after the
Cr (%) Mo (%) Cu (%) Al (%) Ti (%) Nb (%) Sn (%) N (%) V (%)
0.013 0.002 0.009 0.037 o0.003 0.001 0.002 0.0038 o0.003
0.011 0.002 0.009 0.038 o0.003 0.001 0.003 0.0028 o0.003
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 99

temperature reached the specied value. The ultimate
strength of the specimen is dened when the strain keeps
increasing at a given value of temperature. In the tests,
there are two reasons for the temperature to rise step by
step. Firstly, there is a rapid loss of strength for the loaded
specimen and the loading machine could not follow the
sudden load drop under load control. Secondly, the strain
data for different specied temperatures should be
obtained, because the results of the transient state tests
need to be converted to stressstrain curves.
can be determined from the heat ow-temperature curves.
The heat ow is measured in milliwatt (mW). Chemical
reaction takes place when the temperature beyond
approximately 320 1C for both materials. When the
temperature reached approximately 800 1C, a major
chemical reaction took place and the materials were also
changed, as shown in Fig. 2. Comparison of the heat ow-
temperature curves of the two test materials indicated that
there was not a signicant difference between these
materials.

3. Differential thermal analysis 4. Steady state test results

A differential thermal analysis (DTA) was conducted to 4.1. Determination of strength and elastic modulus
investigate the chemical reaction of the tested steel
materials during the heating process. A DTA 7 Perkin In this study, the yield strengths at strain levels of 0.2%,
Elmer machine was used for the DTA tests. The DTA test 0.5%, 1.5% and 2.0% were obtained for the purpose of
results are shown in Fig. 2. Since the material gives out or comparison since these strain levels are widely accepted.
absorb heat in chemical reaction process, chemical reaction The 0.2% yield strength (f0.2) is the intersection point of the
stressstrain curve and the proportional line offset by 0.2%
strain. Meanwhile, the yield strengths of f0.5, f1.5 and f2.0 at
a the strain levels of 0.5%, 1.5% and 2.0%, respectively, are
4 those values corresponding to the intersection points of the
stressstrain curve and the non-proportional vertical line
2 specied at a given strain level, as shown in Fig. 3.
Heat Flow (mW)

-2 1

-4 f0.2
E
Stress,

-6
f1.5 f2.0 fu
f0.5
-8
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
Temperature (C)

b
0.2 0.5 1.5 2.0 u
4 Strain, (%)

b
2
Heat Flow (mW)

fu
0
Static drop
Stress,

-2

-4

0 250 500 750 1000 1250

Temperature (C)

Strain, (%)
Fig. 2. Differential thermal analysis results. (a) G550 1.0 mm; (b) G450
1.9 mm. Fig. 3. Denition of symbols.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
100 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

Serration of the stressstrain curve was observed at high presented in Table 3. The reduction factors (f0.2,T/f0.2,normal,
temperatures and the intersection point was the mean value f0.5,T/f0.5,normal, f1.5,T/f1.5,normal, f2.0,T/f2.0,normal) determined
determined from the serration. The elastic modulus from the ratio of different yield strengths to normal room
(Youngs modulus) was determined from the stressstrain temperature (22 1C) at different temperatures for the four
curve based on the tangent modulus of the initial elastic strain levels of 0.2%, 0.5%, 1.5% and 2.0%, respectively,
linear curve. are presented in Table 4. The test results of G550 1.0 mm
and G450 1.9 mm materials are plotted in Fig. 4. The
vertical axis of the graph plotted the reduction factor
4.2. Static drop
f0.2,T/f0.2,normal and the horizontal axis plotted against
different temperatures. It is shown that the test results of
In the tensile test at the normal room temperature
G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm materials are different.
(22 1C), a static drop of the stressstrain curve is obtained
However, a unied equation is proposed for the reduction
by pausing the applied strain for 1 min, as shown in Fig. 3.
factor of 0.2% yield strength for G550 1.0 mm and G450
This allowed the stress relaxation associated with plastic
1.9 mm cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures, as
strain to take place; hence, the effect of loading rate can be
shown in Eq. (1). The coefcients a, b, c and n of the
eliminated. A series of tests has been conducted to
equation are presented in Table 5, and T is the temperature
investigate the static drop for different temperatures.
in degree Celsius (1C). It is demonstrated that the values of
The ratio of the static drop to the ultimate strength
reduction factor f0.2,T/f0.2,normal predicted by the equation
obtained from the steady state tests for G550 1.0 mm
compared well with the test results of G550 1.0 mm and
and G450 1.9 mm specimens are presented in Table 2.
G450 1.9 mm, as shown in Fig. 4.
When the temperature reached 760 1C, the drop caused the
Proposed equation for yield strength:
static ultimate strength fall to zero stress. Therefore, those
values are not reported. The ratio of static drop to the f 0:2;T T  bn
ultimate strength obtained from the steady state tests a , (1)
f 0:2;normal c
increase as the temperature increases. It should be
mentioned that all test results did not include the static
where f0.2,normal is the yield strength at normal room
drop, except for the investigation of the static drop as
temperature.
described in this section.
The reduction factor of 0.2% yield strength obtained
from the tests were compared with the Australian Standard
4.3. Yield strength AS 4100 [3] prediction and also compared with the test
results conducted by Lee et al. [2], as shown in Fig. 4.
The mechanical properties of the cold-formed steel G550 The comparison shown that the AS 4100 provides
1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm at normal room temperature is conservative prediction for G450 1.9 mm from 220 to
550 1C and for G550 1.0 mm from 220 to 400 1C. The test
results obtained from this study are far below than the AS
Table 2
Ratio of static drop to ultimate strength obtained from steady state tests 4100 prediction for G450 1.9 mm at 660 1C and G550
1.0 mm from 450 to 800 1C. The unconservatism will be
Temperature (1C) Drop/fu,T (%) (G450 Drop/fu,T (%) (G550 discussed in the section of stressstrain curve of this paper.
1.9 mm) 1.0 mm)
It is interesting to note that the test results obtained from
22 2.0 2.8 this study are signicant different from the test results
80 2.9 1.7 conducted by Lee et al. [2] for temperatures ranged from
140 3.2 1.3 450 to 800 1C.
220 5.2 3.0
The reduction factors for the strain levels of 0.5%, 1.5%
320 4.8 10.7
400 11.2 11.2 and 2.0% are compared with the EC3-1.2 [5] and BS 5950-
450 14.7 14.1 8 [4] for hot-nished steel and cold-formed steel prediction.
500 13.2 21.5 The reduction factors are also compared with the test
550 21.0 23.0 results conducted by Lee et al. [2], as shown in Figs. 57.
660 22.3 The reduction factor of 0.5% yield strength predicted by
760
the BS 5950-8 for hot-nished steel and cold-formed steel

Table 3
Mechanical properties of cold-formed steel G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm at normal room temperature

Enormal (GPa) f0.2,normal (MPa) f0.5,normal (MPa) f1.5,normal (MPa) f2.0,normal (MPa) fu,normal (MPa) etotal (%)

G550 1.0 mm 200.3 598 599 600 601 608 9.8

G450 1.9 mm 203.0 524 525 527 535 551 11.3
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 101

0.022
0.023
0.025
0.027
0.326
970
1.0

0.8

0.033
0.037
0.037
0.037
0.517

f0.2,T /f0.2,normal
800

0.065 0.6
0.070
0.080
0.082
0.551
660

0.4

0.2
0.135
0.238
0.152
0.176
0.674

0.0
0.122,
0.138,
0.162,
0.170,
0.721,

0 200 400 600 800 1000

0.040
0.042
0.046
0.045
0.182
550

970

Temperature (oC)
AS 4100
0.211
0.367
0.233
0.295
0.750

0.111
0.116
0.144
0.148
0.675
G550 1.0mm
G450 1.9mm
0.176,
0.196,
0.251,
0.265,
0.762,

0.107,
0.115,
0.142,
0.148,
0.642,
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.42mm
500

660

Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.6mm

Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.95mm
Lee et al.(2003) G500 1.2mm
0.607
0.637
0.653
0.647
0.759

Proposed Equation for G550 1.0mm

Proposed Equation for G450 1.9mm
0.532,
0.553,
0.571,
0.557,
0.816,
0.204
0.232
0.293
0.316
0.798
450

550

Fig. 4. Comparison of reduction factor of 0.2% yield strength prediction

from AS 4100 and proposed equation with test results.
0.722
0.784
0.727
0.777
0.827

0.727
0.754
0.786
0.774
0.925
400

500

are both conservative for G550 1.0 mm for temperatures

0.943
1.054
0.951
1.023
0.989

0.823
0.905
0.844
0.877
0.901
Reduction factors of yield strength and elastic modulus of cold-formed steel G 550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm

lower than 450 1C and G450 1.9 mm for temperatures lower

than 660 1C. However, the reduction factors of 1.5%
0.905,
0.908,
0.978,
0.987,
0.929,

0.851,
0.870,
0.943,
0.936,
0.887,
320

450

and 2.0% yield strength predicted by the BS 5950-8 for

hot-nished steel and cold-formed steel are generally
0.968
1.008
0.972
0.970
0.969

0.933
0.933
1.047
1.050
0.854

unconservative, except for temperatures lower than

320 1C. EC3-1.2 only provides reduction factor of 2.0%
220

400

yield strength and the prediction are similar to the BS 5950-

8 for hot-nished steel. The reduction factors of 0.5%,
0.962
1.008
0.963
0.972
0.961

0.987
0.990
1.032
1.054
0.907

1.5% and 2.0% yield strength for G550 1.0 mm from 450 to
800 1C and G450 1.9 mm at 660 1C are far lower than the
1.003,
1.002,
1.023,
1.038,
0.951,

0.969,
0.977,
1.011,
1.015,
0.916,
180

320

BS 5950-8 prediction and the test results conducted by Lee

et al. [2].
0.987
1.017
0.993
0.992
1.053

0.971
0.975
1.003
0.994
1.079
140

180

4.4. Elastic modulus

0.985
0.992
0.997
0.987
1.036

0.987
0.990
1.000
0.998
1.042

The elastic modulus is an important factor determining

the buckling stress for thin-walled structures. The reduc-
80

80

tion factor (ET/Enormal) of elastic modulus at elevated

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

temperatures determined from the steady state tests for

G450 1.9 mm and G550 1.0 mm materials are presented in
22

22

Table 4. The reduction factor was determined from the

Temperature (1C)

Temperature (1C)

ratio of elastic modulus to normal room temperature

f0.2,T/f0.2,normal
f0.5,T/f0.5,normal
f1.5,T/f1.5,normal
f2.0,T/f2.0,normal

f0.2,T/f0.2,normal
f0.5,T/f0.5,normal
f1.5,T/f1.5,normal
f2.0,T/f2.0,normal

(22 1C) at different temperatures. The test results obtained

ET/Enormal

ET/Enormal

from this study for the reduction factor of the elastic

modulus are compared with the AS 4100 and EC3-1.2
prediction and compared with the test results conducted by
Lee et al. [2] in Fig. 8. The reduction factor predicted by the
 Second test.
G550 1.0 mm

G450 1.9 mm

AS 4100 and EC3-1.2 are conservative. The test results

obtained from this study for the reduction factor of elastic
Table 4

modulus are comparatively higher than the test results

conducted by Lee et al. [2].
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
102 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

Table 5
Coefcients of proposed equation for yield strength

Eq. (1)

G550 1.0 mm Temperature (1C) 22pTo300 300pTo450 450pTo1000

A 1.0 0.9 0.02

B 22 300 1000
C 2.78  103 4.8  106 9  108
n 1 3 3
G450 1.9 mm Temperature (1C) 22pTo300 300pTo650 650pTo1000

a 1.0 0.95 0.105

b 22 300 650
c 5.56  103 1.45  105 5  103
n 1 2 1

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
f0.5,T /f0.5,normal
f0.5,T /f0.5,normal

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
G550 1.0mm
G550 1.0mm
G450 1.9mm
G450 1.9mm
BS 5950-8 Hot-finished steel BS 5950-8 Hot-finished steel
BS 5950-8 Cold-formed steel BS 5950-8 Cold-formed steel
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.42mm Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.42mm
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.60mm Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.60mm
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.95mm Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.95mm
Lee et al.(2003) G500 1.20mm Lee et al.(2003) G500 1.20mm

Fig. 5. Comparison of reduction factor of 0.5% strength predicted by Fig. 6. Comparison of reduction factor of 1.5% strength predicted by
BS5950-8 with test results. BS5950-8 with test results.

4.5. Ultimate strength
The reduction factor of ultimate strength at different
temperatures to normal room temperature (fu,T/fu,normal)
obtained from the tests are plotted in Fig. 9. The vertical
axis of the graph plotted the reduction factor fu,T/fu,normal
and the horizontal axis plotted against different tempera-
tures. The values of the reduction factor of ultimate
strength of cold-formed steel G450 1.9 mm are generally
higher than those of the cold-formed steel G550 1.0 mm for
temperatures greater than or equal to 320 1C. A unied
equation for the prediction of ultimate strength is
proposed, as shown in Eq. (2). The coefcients a, b, c
and n of the equation are calibrated with the cold-formed
carbon steel test results, and the values of coefcients are
presented in Table 6. It is shown that the prediction of
reduction factor of ultimate strength using Eq. (2) is
generally conservative compared with the test results
obtained from this study for cold-formed steel G550
1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm, as shown in Fig. 9.
Proposed equation for ultimate strength is
f u;T T  bn
a , (2)
f u;normal c
where fu,normal is the ultimate strength at normal room
temperature.
4.6. Ultimate strain
The ultimate strain is dened as the strain corresponding
to the ultimate strength. The reduction factor of ultimate
strain at different temperatures to normal room tempera-
ture (eu,T/eu,normal) obtained from the tests are plotted in
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 103

1.0 1.0
0.8
f0.5,T /f0.5,normal

0.8

fu,T / fu,normal
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2

0.0 0.2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (oC) 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
G550 1.0mm
Temperature (oC)
G450 1.9mm
BS 5950-8 Hot-finished steel
BS 5950-8 cold-formed steel Test results (G550 1.0mm)
EC3-1.2 Test results (G450 1.9mm)
Lee et al. G550 0.42mm Proposed Equation for G550 1.0mm
Lee et al. G550 0.60mm Proposed Equation for G450 1.9mm
Lee et al. G550 0.95mm
Lee et al. G500 1.20mm Fig. 9. Comparison of ultimate strength obtained from test results with
prediction using the proposed equation.
Fig. 7. Comparison of reduction factor of 2.0% strength predicted by
BS5950-8 and EC3-1.2 with test results. Table 6
Coefcients of proposed equation for ultimate strength

Eq. (2)

1.0 G550 1.0 mm Temperature 22pTo320 320pTp1000

(1C)
0.8
ET /E normal

A 1.0 0.026
0.6 B 22 1000
C 1.5  104 2.24  1011
0.4 N 1 4
0.2 G450 1.9 mm Temperature 22pTo450 450pTp1000
(1C)
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 a 1.0 0.043
Temperature (C) b 22 1000
c 5.6  108 1.12  1011
G550 1.0mm n 3 4
G450 1.9mm
EC3-1.2
AS 4100
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.42mm equation are calibrated with the cold-formed carbon steel
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.60mm test results in this study, and the coefcients are presented
Lee et al.(2003) G550 0.95mm in Table 7. It is shown that the prediction of the reduction
Lee et al.(2003) G500 1.20mm
factor of ultimate strain using Eq. (2) is generally
Fig. 8. Comparison of elastic modulus predicted by AS 4100 and EC3-1.2 conservative compared with the test results obtained from
with test results. this study for cold-formed steel G550 1.0 mm and G450
1.9 mm, as shown in Fig. 10.
Proposed equation for ultimate strain is
u;T T  b n
Fig. 10. The vertical axis of the graph plotted the reduction a , (3)
u;normal c
factor eu,T/eu,normal and the horizontal axis plotted against
different temperatures. Some of the test results in the where eu,normal is the ultimate strain at normal room
temperatures ranged from 450 to 660 1C are relatively temperature.
higher than expected. This could be due to the different
type of stressstrain curves as explained below. The 4.7. Stressstrain curve
proposed unied Eq. (3) for ultimate strain is identical to
the unied equation for yield strength, elastic modulus and 4.7.1. General
ultimate strength, except for the different values of The stressstrain curves obtained from the tests can be
coefcients. The values of coefcients a, b, c and n of the categorized into three types, as shown in Fig. 11. The
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
104 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

2.0

1.6 Curve a (22oC)

u,T /u,normal

1.2

0.8
Curve b (450oC)

Stress,
0.4

0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (oC)
Curve c (660oC)
Test results (G550 1.0mm)
Test results (G450 1.9mm) Curve c (970oC)
Proposed Equation for G550 1.0mm
Proposed Equation for G450 1.9mm
Strain,
Fig. 10. Comparison of ultimate strain obtained from test results with
prediction using the proposed equation. b
Curve a (22oC)
Table 7
Coefcients of proposed equation for ultimate strain
Curve b (450oC)
Eq. (3)
Stress,

G550 1.0 mm Temperature 22pTp1000

(1C)

a 0.2
b 1000 Curve c (970oC)
c 1.1  1018
n 6
Curve c (660oC)
G450 1.9 mm Temperature 22pTo550 550pTp1000
(1C)

a 0.25 0.25 Strain,

b 550 550
c 3.7  105 3600 Fig. 11. Stressstrain curves at different temperatures of steady state tests
n 2 1 for G450 1.9 mm: (a) complete stressstrain curves; (b) initial part of
stressstrain curves.

stressstrain curve changes from a type to b type and
nally to c type when the temperature increases. For
both G450 1.9 mm and G550 1.0 mm specimens, curve of
a type represents the stressstrain curve model for low
temperatures (22 1CpT 1Cp320 1C). However, G450
1.9 mm and G550 1.0 mm specimens have different
temperature range for b type stressstrain curve.
Typically, the range for b type curve are
320 1CoT 1Cp550 1C for G450 1.9 mm specimens and
320 1CoT 1Cp400 1C for G550 1.0 mm specimens. For
even higher temperatures of c type stressstrain curve,
the range are 550 1CoT 1Cp970 1C for G450 1.9 mm
specimens and 400 1CoT 1Cp970 1C for G550 1.0 mm
specimens. A sudden drop of yield strength for the tests of
G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm is shown in Fig. 4. This
sudden drop may be due to the change of stressstrain
curve from b type to c type. An obvious feature of c
type curve is the serrations in the stressstrain curve. The
serrations in the stressstrain curve may occur under
certain combination of strain rate and temperature that
the interstitial atoms can be dragged along with disloca-
tions or dislocations can alternately break away and be
re-pinned [12].
4.7.2. Comparison of stressstrain curve model proposed by
EC3-1.2 with test results
The stressstrain curve model proposed by the EC3-1.2
[5] is based on hot-rolled steel so that it may not accurately
represent the behaviour of cold-formed steel material at
elevated temperatures. The mechanical properties of cold-
formed steel obtained from the tests were substituted into
the equations describing the stressstrain relationship
proposed by EC3-1.2 and compared with the stressstrain
curves of G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm coupon speci-
mens obtained from the tests. The complete stress
strain curves at different temperatures are plotted in
Figs. 12(a) and 13(a), while the initial parts of the
stressstrain curves at different temperatures are compared
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 105

Test results
22C 80C 400C
EC3-1.2 Test results
600 600 80C EC3-1.2
22C
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
450 450
400C 80C
80C 400C
400C 300
300
550C
550C 550C
150 150

550C
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
Strain (%) Strain (%)

22C
600 80C
600
80C 80C
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
450 450

300 Test results 400C

300
EC3-1.2
400C
150 550C 150
Test results
550C EC3-1.2
550C
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Strain (%) Strain (%)

Fig. 12. Comparison of stressstrain curves predicted by EC3-1.2 with test Fig. 13. Comparison of stressstrain curves predicted by EC3-1.2 with test
results (G550 1.0 mm): (a) complete stressstrain curves; (b) initial part of results (G450 1.9 mm): (a) complete stressstrain curves; (b) initial part of
stressstrain curves. stressstrain curves.

in Figs. 12(b) and 13(b). The comparison indicates the where s is the stress at a given temperature, Ea,y, the slope
stressstrain curves predicted by the EC3-1.2 are quite of the linear elastic range at a given temperature, fp,y, the
different from the curves obtained from the tests, as shown in proportional limit at a given temperature; fy,y, the effective
Figs. 12 and 13. The stressstrain curve model proposed by yield strength at a given temperature; e, the yield strain at a
the EC3-1.2 is shown in Eq. (4). The mechanical properties given temperature; ep,y, the strain at the proportional limit
of steel at elevated temperatures are given in EC3-1.2. at a given temperature; et,y, the limiting strain for yield
Stressstrain curve model proposed by the EC3-1.2 [5] is: strength at a given temperature; eu,y, the ultimate strain at a
8 given temperature; and ey,y, the yield strain at a given
>
> E a;y for pp;y ;
>
> h i0:5 temperature.
>
>     2
>
> f p;y  c b=a a2  y;y   for p;y ooy;y ; According to Buchanan et al. [13] Beam behaviour is
>
>
>
<f very sensitive to the stress condition relative to the
y;y for y;y ppt;y ;
s "   # temperature-reduced proportional limit and yield stress.
>
>   t;y
>
> both the proportional limit and yield stress play an
>
> f y;y 1    for t;y oou;y ;
>
>  u;y  t;y important role in the behaviour of steel beams at elevated
>
>
>
:0 temperatures. The proportional limit presented in Table 3.1
for  u;y
of the EC3-1.2 Code [5] was compared with the test results
(4) of at coupons of G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm, as
and shown in Fig. 14. The vertical axis of Fig. 14 shows the
proportional limit (fp,y) at different temperatures relative to
p;y f p;y =E a;y ; y;y 0:02; t;y 0:15; u;y 0:20;
yield strength (fy) at normal room temperature, and the
   horizontal axis plotted against different temperatures. It
a2 y;y  p;y y;y  p;y c=E a;y ,
  can be seen that the reduction factors of proportional limit
b2 c y;y  p;y E a;y c2 , predicted by EC3-1.2 for different temperatures are
 2 generally unconservative, especially for temperatures less
f y;y  f p;y
c    , than 200 1C. The difference is excepted since the EC3-1.2
y;y  p;y E a;y  2 f y;y  f p;y was based on the hot-rolled steel. The unied equation for
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
106 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

1.5
1.0 Test results (G550 1.0mm)
Test results (G550 1.0mm) Test results (G450 1.9mm)
Test results (G450 1.9mm) 1.2 Proposed Equation for G550 1.0mm
0.8 EC3-1.2 Proposed Equation for G450 1.9mm

fp,T/fp,normal
0.6 0.9
fp, /fy

0.4 0.6

0.2 0.3

0.0 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)

Fig. 14. Comparison of reduction factors for proportional limit predicted Fig. 15. Comparison of the proportional limit obtained from the
by EC3-1.2 with test results. proposed equation with test results.

Table 8
Coefcients of proposed equation for proportional limit temperature. Stressstrain curve models at elevated tem-
Eq. (5)
peratures were proposed by Olawale and Plank [6] for hot-
rolled steel, Outinen [7] for S355 hot-rolled steel and Lee et
G550 1.0 mm Temperature 22 p To450 450pTp1000 al. [2] for light gauge steel that are based on the
(1C) RambergOsgood stressstrain curve model. The basic
a 1.0 0.25 form of the RambergOsgood stressstrain curve model
b 22 450 for elevated temperatures is shown in Eq. (6). A parameter
c 9.26  106 20 b in Eq. (3) was taken as a constant value of 3/7 by Olawale
n 2.6 0.25 and Plank [6] and 6/7 by Outinen [7], while Lee et al. [2]
G450 1.9 mm Temperature 22 p To450 450pTp1000 determine the value in accordance with temperature
(1C) variation. Another parameter n was determined with
temperature variation by Olawale and Plank [6] and
a 1.0 0.05
b 22 1000
Outinen [7], while Lee et al. [2] took it as a constant value.
c 4.58  105 -5  1016 Basic form of the RambergOsgood [14] equation for
n 2 6 elevated temperatures is
  !n
fT f y;T fT
T b , (6)
ET ET f y;T
the prediction of yield strength is used for the prediction of
proportional limit, as shown in Eq. (5). The coefcients a, where eT, is the strain at temperature T1C fT, the stress at
b, c and n of the equation are calibrated with the cold- temperature T1C fy,T, the yield strength at temperature T1C
formed carbon steel test results of proportional limit, and ET, the elastic modulus at temperature T1C and b the
the values of coefcients are presented in Table 8, where T coefcient; and n, the coefcient.
is the temperature in degree Celsius (1C). The comparison The stressstrain curves predicted using the stressstrain
between the values obtained from the proposed equation curve models proposed by Olawale and Plank [6], Outinen
and the test results is shown in Fig. 15. The vertical axis is [7] and Lee et al. [2] were compared with the test results
plotted against the reduction factor fp,T/fp,normal, while the obtained in this study, as shown in Figs. 1618, respec-
horizontal axis is plotted against temperature. It can be tively. Generally, the stressstrain curve models proposed
seen that the proposed equation is conservative. by Olawale and Plank [6], and Outinen [7] are unconserva-
Proposed equation for proportional limit is tively predicted when compared with the cold-formed
carbon steel test results. This is because their models were
f p;T T  b n calibrated with hot-rolled steel test results. The stress
a , (5)
f p;normal c strain curve model proposed by Lee et al. [2] provides a
closer predication with the cold-formed steel test results in
where fp,normal is the proportional limit at normal room comparison with the models proposed by Olawale and
temperature. Plank [6], and Outinen [7]. However, the model proposed
by Lee et al. [2] is generally conservative.
4.7.3. Comparison of stressstrain curve model proposed by
other researchers with test results 4.7.4. Proposed stressstrain curve model
Ramberg and Osgood [14] proposed a three parameters The stressstrain curve models of steel at elevated
model describing the stressstrain curve at normal room temperatures in the EC3-1.2 [5] and the models proposed
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 107

700 80C 700

80C
600 600
80C
500 Test results
500

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

Proposed by Outinen (1999)

400 400
400C Test results 550C
Proposed by Olawale & Plank (1988) 400C
300 300
500C
200 550C
200
550C 100
100
660C
0 660C 0
0 2 4 6 8
0 2 4 6 8 10
Strain (%)
Strain (%)

700
450C
600 320C 450C
600 320C
500

Stress (MPa)
500
Stress (MPa)

400 400
300 Test results 300 500C Test results
Proposed by Olawale & Plank (1988)
500C 200 660C
Proposed by Outinen (1999)
200
100
100
660C 0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%)
Strain (%)

Fig. 17. Comparison of stressstrain curves predicted by Outinen [7] with

Fig. 16. Comparison of stressstrain curves predicted by Olawale and test results: (a) G550 1.0 mm; (b) G450 1.9 mm.
Plank [6] with test results: (a) G550 1.0 mm; (b) G450 1.9 mm.

by Olawale and Plank [6], Outinen [7], and Lee et al. [2] are the strain corresponding to yield strength at temperature
not accurate for cold-formed carbon steel for temperature T1C fT, the stress at temperature T1C fu,T, the ultimate
ranged from 22 to 660 1C. Therefore, a new model strength at temperature T1C fy,T, the yield strength at
describing the stressstrain curve up to the ultimate temperature T1C ET, the elastic modulus at temperature
strength is proposed in this paper. This model is based T1C Ey,T, the elastic modulus at yield strength at
on the stressstrain curve model for stainless steel at temperature T1C and T, the value of temperature in degree
normal room temperature proposed by Mirambell and Celsius (1C).
Real [8] and Rasmussen [9], which is originally based on The denition of symbols used in the proposed stress
the RambergOsgood [14] equation. strain curve model Ey,T, mT, and nT are given by
Proposed stressstrain curve model is: Eqs. (8)(10), respectively. Fig. 19 shows the comparison
8  nT of the stressstrain curves obtained using Eq. (7) with the
> fT fT
< ET 0:002 f y;T for f T pf y;T ; experimental results for G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm at
T f f   mT different temperatures. The proposed stressstrain curves
> f f
: TE y;Ty;T u;T f T fy;T y;T for f T 4f y;T
u;T y;T plotted using the Eq. (7) were based on the mechanical
properties obtained from the test results. Generally, the
(7)
proposed stressstrain curve model accurately predicted
and the cold-formed carbon steel material for the temperature
ET ranged from 22 to 660 1C, as shown in Fig. 19. Hence, the
E y;T , (8) proposed model is applicable for normal room temperature
1 0:002nT E T =f y;T
of 22660 1C.
p The proposed expression for the full-range stressstrain
nT 20  0:6 T , (9) curve in Eq. (7) involves three parameters (ET, fy,T, nT) in
the rst part of the curve for fTpfy,T, and three additional
mT 1 T=350, (10)
parameters (eu,T, fu,T, mT) in the second part of the curve
where eT, is the strain at temperature T1C eu,T, the strain for fT4fy,T. The values of nT and mT are function of
corresponding to ultimate strength at temperature T1C ey,T, temperature that can be determined from Eqs. (9) and (10),
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
108 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

700 700 80C

80C 600
600
Test results
500
500 180C
Stress (MPa)

Proposed

Stress (MPa)
400 Test Results 400
Proposed by Lee et al. (2003) 400C 500C
300 300
400C 500C
200 200
550C
100 100
0 0 660C
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Strain (%) Strain (%)

22C
600 600 140C
180C
500 500
320C
400C

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

400 400
450C
300 300
500C
500C Test results
200 200 660C Proposed
Test Results
100 Proposed by Lee et al. (2003)
100
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain (%) Strain (%)

Fig. 18. Comparison of stressstrain curves predicted by Lee et al. [2] with
test results: (a) G550 1.0 mm; (b) G450 1.9 mm. 80C (G550 1.0mm)
600
Test results
500 Proposed
respectively. In the second part of the curve of Eq. (7) for
Stress (MPa)

22C (G450 1.9mm)

fT4fy,T, the elastic modulus at yield strength (Ey,T) can be 400
550C (G450 1.9mm)
determine from Eq. (8), and the strain corresponding to 300
yield strength (ey,T) is the last point of the rst part of the
200
curve. Hence, in order to plot a stressstrain curve for a
particular grade of cold-formed steel at a given tempera- 100 450C (G550 1.0mm)
ture, the yield strength (fy,T), elastic modulus (ET), ultimate 0
strength (fu,T) and ultimate strain (eu,T) are needed. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Equations of yield strength, elastic modulus, ultimate Strain (%)
strength and ultimate strain at elevated temperatures are
proposed in this paper. Fig. 19. Comparison of stressstrain curves obtained from test results
with prediction using the proposed stressstrain curve model: (a) G550
1.0 mm; (b) G450 1.9 mm; (c) G550 1.0 mm and G450 1.9 mm.
5. Transient state test results

5.1. General
Thermal elongation of the specimens was determined at
a tensile stress level of 2 MPa that is close to free thermal
expansion and compared with the thermal elongation
calculated according to BS 5950-8 and EC3-1.2 in Fig. 20.
The thermal elongation of the strain in percentage (%) is
plotted in the vertical axis of the graph and the horizontal
axis is plotted against different temperatures. The compar-
ison indicates that the thermal elongation of G450 1.9 mm
steel is generally less than the values predicted by the BS
5950-8 and EC3-1.2. Although the 2 MPa tensile stress was
almost negligible at normal room temperature for determin-
ing the thermal elongation, but it slightly affected the
elongation when the temperature increases. When the
temperature reached 870 1C, the specimen would undergo
continuous deformation at a tensile stress of 2 MPa. Since
the thermal elongation was determined for specimens loaded
at a stress level of 2 MPa, the elastic modulus obtained from
the transient state tests were slightly underestimated.
In the transient state test, the specimen was loaded to a
given stress level, and the elastic modulus of each specimen
can be determined from the stressstrain curve of the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110 109

1.4 AS 4100
EC3-1.2
1.2 EC3-1.2
Outinen et al.(2001)
BS 5950-8 G450 1.9mm Steady State Test
1.0
Strain (%)

G450 1.9mm G450 1.9mm Transient State Test

0.8 1.2
Proposed equation
0.6 1.0
0.4

ET / Enormal
0.8
0.2
0.6
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.4
Temperature (C)
0.2
Fig. 20. Comparison of thermal elongation predicted by BS 5950-8 and
EC3-1.2 with test results of G450 1.9 mm. 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (C)
loading process. The elastic data of the specimen at each
temperature are normalized with respect to the initial Fig. 21. Comparison of elastic modulus predicted by AS 4100, EC3-1.2
elastic modulus at normal room temperature of each and proposed equation with test results for transient and steady state tests.
specimen, so that the inuence of elastic modulus variation
can be eliminated. Some repeat tests were conducted and
the deviations between these tests results were quite small Table 9
with a maximum difference of 3%. Coefcients of proposed equation for elastic modulus

5.2. Elastic modulus
The transient state test results were rstly converted into
stressstain curves, and the reduction factor of elastic
modulus (ET/Enormal) for different temperatures was
determined. The reduction factor of elastic modulus
determined from the transient state tests was compared
with the steady state test results for G450 1.9 mm
specimens, as shown in Fig. 21. The transient state test
results are also compared with the AS 4100 and EC3-1.2
prediction as well as compared with the transient state tests
conducted by Outinen et al. [15], as shown in Fig. 21. It can
been seen that the reduction factor of elastic modulus
obtained from the transient state tests in this study agree
well with the EC3-1.2 prediction and the test results
obtained by Outinen et al. [15] for temperatures ranged
from 320 to 450 1C. For the temperatures ranged from 80
to 320 1C and from 550 to 660 1C, the values of the
reduction factor of elastic modulus obtained from the
transient state tests are smaller than those predicted by
the EC3-1.2 and the tests conducted by Outinen et al. [15].
The AS 4100 predictions of elastic modulus are unconser-
vative compared with the transient state test results. It
should be noted that the reduction factor of elastic
modulus obtained from the transient state tests is quite
different from the steady state tests. A unied equation is
proposed for G450 1.9 mm cold-formed steel at elevated
temperatures, as shown in Eq. (11). The coefcients a, b, c
and n of the equation are presented in Table 9, and T is the
temperature in degree Celsius (1C).
Proposed equation for elastic modulus:
ET T  b n
a , (11)
E normal c as shown in Table 10.
Eq. (11)
Temperature 22pTo450 450pTo650
(1C)
a 1.0 0.11
b 22 860
c 1.25  103 2.2  105
n 1 2
where Enormal is the elastic modulus at normal room
temperature.
It is shown that the test results obtained from the
transient state tests compared well with the values of elastic
modulus predicted by the proposed equation for G450
1.9 mm, as shown in Fig. 21.
5.3. Ultimate strength
The ultimate strength of the specimen is dened at a
specied load when the temperature reached a certain value
and the specimen undergoes a continuous elongation at an
appreciate rate. This specied load was considered as the
ultimate strength of the specimen at that particular
temperature in the transient state tests. In Table 10, the
ultimate strength obtained from the transient state tests
(ft,u,T) is compared with the ultimate strength obtained
from the steady state tests (fu,T) with and without
consideration of the static drop. The ultimate strength
obtained from steady state tests with consideration of the
static drop are closer to the results obtained from the
transient state tests than the results obtained from the
steady state tests without consideration of the static drop,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
110 J. Chen, B. Young / Thin-Walled Structures 45 (2007) 96110

Table 10 temperatures. Furthermore, equation for ultimate strength

Comparison of ultimate strength obtained from transient and steady state and ultimate strain of the cold-formed steel at elevated
tests
temperatures is also proposed, and the predicted values
Temperature (1C) ft,u,T (MPa) fu,T (MPa) fu,TDrop (MPa) obtained from the proposed equation compared well with
the test results. A full strain range expression up to the
22 4480 551 540 ultimate tensile strain for the stressstrain curves of cold-
80 4480 545 529
formed carbon steel at elevated temperatures is also
140 4480 538 521
220 4480 540 512 proposed.
320 4480 566 539
450 420450 509 440
550 180210 347 274 Acknowledgements
660 3060 92 71.5
760 230 The authors are grateful to BHP Steel Lysaght Singa-
870 o2 pore (now BlueScope Lysaght) for supplying the test
specimens.

6. Conclusions
An experimental investigation on the mechanical proper-
ties of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures has been
presented. The test programme included two steel grades of
G550 and G450 with nominal yield strengths of 550 and
450 MPa, respectively. The plate thicknesses of the coupon
test specimens were 1.0 and 1.9 mm. Both steady and
transient state tests were conducted at different tempera-
tures. A differential thermal analysis was also performed in
order to determine the chemical reaction of the tested
materials during the heating process.
The yield strengths, elastic modulus and thermal
elongation obtained from the tests were compared with
the Australian, British and European predictions. The test
results obtained from this study were also compared with
the test results obtained by other researchers. Generally, it
is shown that the yield strengths predicted by the
Australian, British and European standards are conserva-
tive, except for G550 1.0 mm steel from 450 to 970 1C and
G450 1.9 mm steel at 660 1C. Hence, the standards provide
unconservative predictions for high temperatures. It is also
shown that the elastic modulus predicted by the Australian
and European standards are conservative for the steady
state tests, but generally unconservative for the transient
state tests. In this paper, a unied equation has been
proposed to determine the yield strength of G550 1.0 mm
and G450 1.9 mm cold-formed steel for temperatures
ranged from 22 to 1000 1C. In addition, the unied
equation to determine the elastic modulus of G450
1.9 mm cold-formed steel for temperatures ranged from
22 to 650 1C based on the transient state tests has been also
proposed in this paper. The yield strength and elastic
modulus calculated from the proposed equation were
compared with the test results. It is shown that the
proposed equation accurately predicted the yield strength
and elastic modulus of the cold-formed steel at elevated
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