A.

VARIABLE

1. Definition of Variable

Variable is defined as characteristics that tend to differ from individual to individual,

though any two or more individuals may have the same variable trait or measure. Variables
must be clear in construct as well as in content. A better variable would be school childrens
achievement in English at the end of grade 7 in Malang for example. Some variables can be
measured physically, like weight, height, and speed, others like intelligence, achievement and
personality are mental construct which require operational definitions to measure.

2. Types of Variables
a. Continuous Variables
Continuous variables as classified as continuous if they show gradational differences
in the same trait possessed by individuals (Charles, C.M. 1995:29). These variables can
be explained by the adjective modifier, very and more like very high, very fast, very tall,
very big or taller, bigger, faster. Variable sex or profession does not belong to continuous
variables. Continuous variables can be used in correlation research and cannot be use in
causal designs to measure.

b. Discrete Variables
Variables are classified as discrete if they are naturally categorical, like sex or
handedness which gives the choice of either male or female, right handed or left handed
(Charles, C.M 1995:29). In sex, it divided people into male and female group. Male
group consists of members which are all male and female group consists of members
which are all female. Variable Intelligence is not discrete. It can be used in causal designs
to measure the effect of.

c. Independent and Dependent Variables

These variables are used in causal designs which measure the effect of independent
variables to the dependent variables. Like the effect of sex (independent variables) to
students language achievement at school (dependent variables). In a correlation research
which measures the relationship between students reading skills and their writing skills,
the two variables are not dependent or independent because one of them does not exert
influence on the other.

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 d. Confounding Variables
A variable that obscures the effects of another variable. If one elementary reading
teacher used a phonics textbook in her class and another instructor used a whole language
textbook in his class, and students in the two classes were given achievement tests to see
how well they read, the independent variables (teacher effectiveness and textbooks)
would be confounded. There is no way to determine if differences in reading between the
two classes were caused by either or both of the independent variables.

e. Binary variable
Observations (i.e., dependent variables) that occur in one of two possible states, often
labeled zero and one. E.g., improved/not improved and completed task/failed to
complete task.

f. Categorical Variable
Usually an independent or predictor variable that contains values indicating
membership in one of several possible categories. E.g., gender (male or female), marital
status (married, single, divorced, widowed). The categories are often assigned numerical
values used as labels, e.g., 0 = male; 1 = female. Synonym for nominal variable.

3. Types of Measurement Scale

Measurement is essential to an enquiry especially when it is scientific. Stevens (1978:52)

in Kumar (2005:67) classified the different types of measurement scale into four categories
namely; nominal or classificatory scale, ordinal or ranking scale. Interval scale and lastly ratio
scale.

a. Nominal Scale

A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses

based on common/shared property or characteristic for example gender can be classified
into two sub-categories; male and female. Similarly, citizens in The Republic of South
Africa can be classified into two main sub-categories: The First economy and the second
economy.

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b. Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale has all the properties of a nominal scale plus one of its own. The
simplest ordinal scale is a ranking. When a market researcher asks one to rank 5 types of
beer from most flavorful to least flavorful, he/she is asking one to create an ordinal scale
of preference. There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective
scale. For you the top beer may be far superior to the second preferred beer but, to
another respondent with the same top and second beer, the distance may be subjectively
small. An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not the relative positional
distances. Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics. These would include: Median
and mode rank order correlation non-parametric analysis of variance.

c. Interval

The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale. When you are asked to rate
your satisfaction with a piece of software on a 7-point scale, from Dissatisfied to
Satisfied, you are using an interval scale. It is an interval scale because it is assumed to
have equidistant points between each of the scale elements. This means that we can
interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale
where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree of order.
Interval scales are also scales which are defined by metrics such as logarithms. In these
cases, the distances are not equal but they are strictly definable based on the metric used.

d. Ratio Scale

A ratio scale is the top level of measurement and is not often available in social
research. The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is that it has a true zero point. The
simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length (disregarding any
philosophical points about defining how we can identify zero length). The best way to
contrast interval and ratio scales is to look at temperature. The Centigrade scale has a
zero point but it is an arbitrary one. The Fahrenheit scale has its equivalent point at -32o.
(Physicists would probably argue that Absolute Zero is the zero point for temperature but
this is a theoretical concept.) So, even though temperature looks as if it would be a ratio

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 scale it is an interval scale. Currently, we cannot talk about no temperature - and this
would be needed if it were a ration scale.

B. HYPOTHESIS
1. Definition of Hypothesis
a. Bailey (1978)
A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and predicts a particular
relationship between two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a
relationship exists, he should first state it as a hypothesis and then test the
hypothesis in the field.

b. Grinnell (1988)
Hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid
and reliable data.

c. Eric Rogers (1966)

Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches assumed for use in
devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible.

d. MacleoClark J and Hockey (1981)

An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or
observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved.
.

2. The Functional of Hypothesis

a. Enhance the objectivity and purpose of a research work.
b. Provide a research with focus and tells a researcher the specific scope of a
research problem to investigate.
c. Help a researcher in prioritizing data collection, hence providing focus on the
study.
d. Enable the formulation of theory for a researcher to specifically conclude what is
true and what is not.

e.
Hypothesis Data collection Data analysis, conclusion about
Formulation hypothesis; true or false

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 That shapes shows the processes involved in testing whether a hypothesis is true or false.
Testing a hypothesis is crucial to ensure the verification of the research outcome .Process of
hypothesis testing adapted from Ranjit Kumar research methodology.

3. Characteristic Hypothesis
a. A hypothesis must be Capable of Verification
In your research work, there must be methods and techniques used for data
collection and analysis. Formulating a hypothesis that cannot be verified will lead to
nowhere. There must be techniques to verify your hypothesis. However, in some
cases, researchers may develop new techniques to verifytheir hypotheses during the
research process.

b. Hypothesis must be Related to the Existing Body of Knowledge

You must ensure that the hypothesis you construct emerges from an existing body
of knowledge and adds to it. This is crucial in academic research methodology. This
criterion can only be achieved if the hypothesis has its foundation in existing
knowledge.

c. Hypothesis Needs to be Precise, Simple and Specific

To be able to develop a good hypothesis, you need to equip yourself well in the
literature review of your subject area (as discussed in Topic 2). The hypothesis should
be able to test one relationship at a time. For example:

4. Type Hypothesis
a. Theoretical hypothesis
Tuckman, 1999:89: Brog and Gall, 1983:78. In a study applying quantitative
approach or which relies the expected finding on quantitative data. A reasearcher who
is trying to meeasure the relationship between two or more variabels must predict the
answer to the problem or the finding of the research base on theory or based on
logical truth in it. All of all theoretical hypothesis aimed at predicting the outcome of
the research.

b. Statistical Hypothesis

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 This is a statement that has to be made by the researcher while computing the data
to allow statement that has to be made by the researcher while computing the data to
allow statistical hypothesis testing (Tuckman, 1999:8). This statistical hypothesis is
transformed from the theoretical hypothesis and should, therefore, not be mentioned
after the ststement of the researcher in chapter 1 of the researcherch report or thesis.
Statistical hypothesis always takes the form of null hyphothesis, represented as
Ho, followed with its alternative (s), alternative one hyphotesis, represented as H1,
and alternative two hypothesis, represented as H2. It is this Ho that is to be tested in
the statistical analysis.
This allows the reasearcher to test Ho and to determiner whatever the evidance
suggests rejecting or not rejecting it. If the statistical analysis results justify rejecting
the Ho, then they provide support for its alternative hyphotesis.

c. Null Hypothesis
This is the conventional approach to making a prediction. It involves a statement
that says there is no relationship between two groups that the researcher compares on a
certain variable. The hypothesis also may state that there is no significant difference
when different groups are compared with respect to a particular variable. For example,
There is no difference in the academic performance of high school students who
participate in extracurricular activities and those who do not participate in such activities
is a null hypothesis. In many cases, the purpose of a null hypothesis is to allow the
experimental results to contradict the hypothesis and prove the point that there is a
definite relationship.

d. Empirical Hypothesis

Empirical evidence is information acquired by observation or experimentation.

This data is recorded and analyzed by scientists and is a central process as part of the
scientific method.

The scientific method begins with scientists forming questions, or hypotheses, and
then acquiring the knowledge to either support or disprove a specific theory. That is
where the collection of empirical data comes into play. Empirical research is the

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 process of finding empirical evidence. Empirical data is the information that comes
from the research.

Before any pieces of empirical data are collected, scientists carefully design their
research methods to ensure the accuracy, quality and integrity of the data. If there are
flaws in the way that empirical data is collected, the research will not be considered
valid.

The scientific method often involves lab experiments that are repeated over and
over, and these experiments result in quantitative data in the form of numbers and
statistics. However, that is not the only process used for gathering information to
support or refute a theory.

Empirical evidence includes measurements or data collected through direct

observation or experimentation," said Jaime Tanner, a professor of biology There are
two research methods used to gather empirical measurements and data' qualitative
and quantitative. Qualitative research, often used in the social sciences, examines the
reasons behind human behavior, according to klahoma State University. It involves
data that can be found using the human senses. This type of research is often done in
the beginning of an experiment.

Quantitative research involves methods that are used to collect numerical data and
analyze it using statistical methods, according to the IT University of Copenhagen.
Quantitative numerical data can be any data that uses measurements, including mass,
size or volume.

5. How to Create a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is not just a random question floating around in the area that anyone can
create. In fact, a hypothesis is an important part of the scientific method. Therefore, we will look
at it in that context. Reviewing the steps that come before hypothesis creation in the scientific
method will allow you to see how a proper hypothesis should be formed.

The steps to create a hypothesis are:

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a. Ask a Question

b. Gather Background Information

c. Form the Hypothesis

6. Ask a Question

In the scientific method, the first step is to ask a question. For the most basic learners and
even some intermediate learners, try focusing around the concepts of who, what, where, when,
why, and how. These suggestions should help you to get started with the development of your
question.

We are not saying that you should necessarily use the following suggestions, as many of them
may already have been answered. However, they are just examples of the format that you want to
follow for the "ask a question" phase.

a. How long does it take carrots to grow?

b. Why does the sky get darker earlier?
c. What happened to the dinosaurs?
d. How did we evolve from monkeys?

See how these are all simple questions with rather complex answers? Even if you are well
advanced in the scientific field, you can still use this model. The difference here though is that
you might not need to sit down a formulate a question. You might just have questions posed to
you, or you might wind up coming up with questions very quickly. In general, you just might not
need to brainstorm as much.

7. Gather Background Information

Before you really begin to form your hypothesis, you need to do some research on your
topic. You will start with your question as a basis. You might think that you should immediately
go into your hypothesis, and that you should not bother to gather information before that.
However, you are incorrect.

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 Say that the question that you want to answer has no answer, or perhaps you are not
correct in your assumptions about the topic. Doing some basic and often simple research will
prevent you from finding out this information when you are knee deep in your experiment.

For example, let's say that question that you posed was, "How did we evolve from
monkeys?" If you do some basic research, you will find that Charles Darwin did not say that we
evolved from monkeys, as many people seem to think that he said. In fact, Darwin said that
human beings and apes shared a common ancestor. This statement is radically different than
"humans evolved from monkeys." Finding this fact out now is important to later success in your
experiment.

8. Form the Hypothesis

Now that you have gathered sufficient information about your general topic, it is time to
narrow it down into a more specific unit that you can actually conduct an experiment on. Let us
return to the questions we posed above, and put them into a hypothesis format.

a. Will it take carrots longer to grow in deep soil or shallow soil?

b. How does the Earth's rotation affect the number of daylight hours?
c. The dinosaurs disappeared because a comet hit the Earth.
d. Human beings and apes shared a common ancestor.

A hypothesis involves a statement about what you will do, but also what you expect to
happen or speculation about what could occur. They can be in statement or question form.

C. CONCLUSSION

Variable is defined as characteristics that tend to differ from individual to individual,

though any two or more individuals may have the same variable trait or measure. Variables
must be clear in construct as well as in content. A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and
predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a
relationship exists, he should first state it as a hypothesis and then test the hypothesis in the field.
A hypothesis is not just a random question floating around in the area that anyone can create. In
fact, a hypothesis is an important part of the scientific method. Therefore, we will look at it in
that context. Reviewing the steps that come before hypothesis creation in the scientific method
will allow you to see how a proper hypothesis should be formed.

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