ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE

Atmosphere

The term atmosphere is used to refer to the layer of gases that surrounds a planet or a
material object in space, which is held in its place by the gravitational force of the body. The properties of
the atmosphere such as its composition, density, pressure and height, depend on the gravitational field of
the planet and also on the temperature of the atmosphere.

The earths atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the earth. It consists of gases
like Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and water vapour. It also contains solid particles like dust and ice
crystals. It contains several phenomena like rain, hail, storms, rainbows, aurora and mist.

PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of mainly gases and small amount of dust, ice crystals and other particles like
aerosols. The gases are usually classified into two types, permanent and variable. Of the permanent gases,
Nitrogen is the most abundant, forming about 78% of the total atmosphere. The next major component is
Oxygen (O2) which makes up 21 % of the total volume of dry air. Near the surface of the earth, Nitrogen
is absorbed by living beings, particularly soil bacteria, for biological purposes and also by sea plants like
Plankton. It is returned to the atmosphere by decaying of dead plants and animals. Oxygen is absorbed
from the atmosphere through breathing and also by various biological processes whereby several oxides
are produced. Oxygen is released into atmosphere by plants as a result of photosynthesis. The rest of the
permanent gases are mostly inert gases like Argon and Xenon. The variable gases are those whose level in
the atmosphere varies from place to place and from time to time. The most prominent of these is water
vapour, whose concentration varies between 0 and 4 %. Water vapour molecules combine to form clouds,
and may solidify to form ice crystals of varying sizes and appear as hail or snow. Water vapour of the
atmosphere is important for two reasons- one, it releases large amounts of heat when vapour is converted
to liquid or ice, and this is a major source of energy for the atmosphere; second, it is a prominent
greenhouse gas and absorbs a large portion of radiation emitted by the earth and gives rise to the
greenhouse effect, which helps to keep the earth warmer. Thus water vapour is important for the heat-
energy balance of the atmosphere. The next important variable gas is carbon dioxide (CO 2). It is released
into the atmosphere by breathing of animals, through volcanic eruptions, by decay of vegetation and by
burning of fossil fuels. It is also released by deforestation since cut timber releases carbon dioxide directly
into the air. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis occurring in plants. The
other main component is Ozone ( O3 ) which absorbs UV light from Sun and thus protects life on Earth.
In addition to these, there are also present in the atmosphere, impurities which are both man-made and
natural. The most important of these are Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs. These are mostly released by
human activity. They absorb UV rays from the sun and release Chlorine gas which destroys Ozone. This
has led to the Ozone hole formation. Another form of atmospheric particles is aerosols, which are solid or
liquid suspended particles in the atmosphere. Man-made dust particles in the atmosphere are called
pollutants and form a small portion of the atmosphere.
Thermal structure of the atmosphere

Temperature is one of the most important properties of our atmosphere. The atmospheric
temperature varies with altitude and based on the variation of temperature with altitude, one can classify
the atmosphere into different layers. The vertical structure of the atmosphere based on temperature is as
shown.
The lowermost region is called the Troposphere. It ranges from the surface of the earth to about 11 km.
Here the temperature steadily decreases with altitude. It is in this region that the usual weather and
climate are studied. However at about 11 km altitude, the temperature starts increasing with height. This
region is called the tropopause. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the
stratosphere. Above the tropopause the temperature increases with height. This is known as inversion. The
region of atmosphere above the tropopause where the temperature increases with altitude called
Stratosphere. It extends up to a height of about 50 km. The Ozone concentration becomes maximum in
the stratosphere. Since Ozone absorbs UV light from sunlight, it heats up the surrounding air and this is
the reason for the temperature inversion in the stratosphere. At about 50 km altitude, the temperature
stops increasing and starts decreasing again. This region is called the stratopause. The stratosphere is the
boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. The region of atmosphere above the stratopause,
in which the temperature decreases with height, is termed the Mesosphere. The temperature goes on
decreasing in this region and reaches the minimum at about 85 km. This decrease is because of the
absence of any Ozone molecules to release heat and also due to the low density of the air. Most meteors
are found in the mesosphere where they burn off. The mesosphere is the coldest part of the atmosphere.
Above about 85 km, the temperature again starts increasing. This layer above the mesosphere at which the
temperature starts increasing is called the mesopause. The mesopause is the boundary between the
mesosphere and the thermosphere. The region above the mesopause in which the atmospheric temperature
increases with height is called Thermosphere. The auroras that are observed in the Polar Regions occur in
the thermosphere. The thermosphere is the warmest part of the atmosphere. Above the Thermosphere,
about 500 km above the surface of the earth, the atmosphere is very tenuous and the molecules and atoms
can sometimes escape from gravity of earth. This region above the thermosphere is called the Exosphere
and form s the upper limit of the earths atmosphere.

The Ozone layer: The Ozone gas ( O3 ) is mostly seen in the stratosphere. The Ozone layer absorbs the
dangerous Ultraviolet rays in sunlight and thus protects life on earth. Ozone is produced in the
atmosphere by Oxygen molecules through the absorption of UV rays. This is a two step process as shown.

The Ozone molecules absorb UV rays and turn into Oxygen through a two-step process as shown. It is by
this process that the Ozone layer protects life from UV rays. This also is the cause for the increase in
temperature in the stratosphere. This process in which Ozone is continually created and turned into
Oxygen is called the Ozone Oxygen cycle.
The presence of CFCs in the atmosphere causes destruction of Ozone molecules. This is because the CFC
molecules absorb UV rays and break up, releasing Chlorine atoms. These Chlorine atoms combine with
the Ozone molecules and turn them into Oxygen molecules as shown.

A result of the above process is that the Chlorine molecule is again released back into the atmosphere.
This Chlorine atom again combines with an Ozone molecule as above. Thus a single Chlorine atom is
able to destroy several Ozone molecules. This leads to the depletion of the Ozone layer.

Lapse rate: The temperature of the atmosphere decreases with altitude in the lower parts. The rate of
decrease of atmospheric temperature with altitude is called the lapse rate. In the troposphere, the average
lapse rate is about 6.5o C per km. The lapse rate is highly variable and depends on the motion of
T
atmospheric winds and several other factors. It is mathematically given by the expression,
= ,
z

where T is the temperature and z is the altitude.

Inversion: The atmospheric temperature usually decreases with increase in height. However, in the
stratosphere, as the height increases, the air temperature also increases. This phenomenon is called
inversion. This is due to the presence of Ozone molecules in the stratosphere. These Ozone molecules
absorb energy from UV radiation of the sunlight and produce heat. This causes the temperature in the
stratosphere to increase. However, the Ozone concentration is almost zero above the stratosphere and so
the temperature of the air decreases with height above the stratosphere.

\
The atmospheric layers based on composition

The atmosphere is divided into different layers based on the composition and its
properties like density and uniformity. The lower part of the atmosphere up to about 80 km is uniform in
composition and all gases mix equally. This layer is called the homosphere. Above 80 km, the atmosphere
is not uniform in composition and the different gases split up into different layers according to their
molecular masses. This region of the atmosphere where the composition is not uniform is called the
heterosphere. The heterosphere consists of about four layers. The lower layer is made up of molecular
Nitrogen (N2) which is the heaviest. The next upper layer is made up of atomic Oxygen ( O ). The next
layer is formed from Helium ( He ). The topmost layer is composed of Hydrogen ( H ) atoms. Below
about 80 km, the atmosphere is mostly electrically neutral. Above about 80 km, the atmosphere begins to
get ionized and is in the form of a plasma. This region of the atmosphere where there is large amount of
ionized gas is called the ionosphere. The ionosphere extends from 80 km up to about 500 km. Below
about 500 km, the atmosphere contains sufficient amount of neutral gas and its motion is controlled by
winds. At altitudes above 500 km, the atmosphere is mostly ionized and hence its dynamics is controlled
by the earths magnetic field. This region of the atmosphere is called the magnetosphere.

Variation of atmospheric pressure and density with altitude

The atmospheric pressure is the force exerted per unit area by the atmospheric gases on
an object. It is a maximum at the earths surface and decreases with altitude. The atmospheric pressure
decreases rapidly at low altitudes and then the rate of decrease slows down. The atmosphere is held in its
place by gravity. Since the gravitational force near the surface is greater, the air density is greatest at the
earths surface. The air density goes on decreasing with height. The variation of pressure with altitude is
z
H
approximately given by P=P0 e . Here P0 is the pressure at the earths surface, z is the altitude and

1
H is called scale height. It is the altitude at which the pressure becomes e times that at the surface.
 z
H
Similarly, the atmospheric density also varies with height as = 0 e . Here 0 is the density at the

earths surface. The variation of atmospheric density and pressure with altitude is as shown. The
atmospheric pressure at the surface has the average value of 1.013 x 10 5 Pascals or 1013hPa. This is
termed 1 atmos pressure.

Atmospheric thermodynamics

The earths atmosphere receives energy from the sun. Most of this is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. This energy is received by the earths atmosphere in a number of ways. A part
of the energy is absorbed. A part is transmitted. A part is redirected either by refraction or by scattering.
Most of the energy is transmitted by the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earths surface and re-
radiated. This re-radiated energy heats the atmosphere. Of the incoming solar radiation, about 50 % is
transmitted by the atmosphere and absorbed by the earth. About 30 % is reflected back by the atmosphere.
The remaining 20 % is absorbed by atmosphere, through clouds, snow and water vapour. The energy
received by the atmosphere is partly scattered in all directions and is responsible for the blue colour of the
sky as well as the reddishness of sunrise and sunset. The energy in the atmosphere is continually kept in
motion by the processes of conduction, convection and radiation. The atmosphere conducts thermal
energy and this is responsible for the heat energy received in the upper atmosphere to reach the lower
regions. But the air is a poor conductor of thermal energy. The increase in temperature of an air mass
causes a decrease in density. Hence when a part of the atmosphere is heated, the air becomes lighter and
rises up. This causes the thermal energy to reach the upper regions. This up going air mass pushes the air
there into lower regions, which again gets heated. In this way, thermal energy is continually transported
across the atmosphere through convection.
Another important source of atmospheric energy is latent heat. The water vapour in the atmosphere is
formed by evaporation of liquid water in the oceans and other water bodies. In the process of evaporation,
heat is absorbed and this heat is present in the vapour in the atmosphere. Thus the water vapour present in
the atmosphere is a large reservoir of thermal energy. When the water vapour cools to form ice or snow or
water droplets to from clouds, large amounts of energy is released into the atmosphere. This cycle of
evaporation-condensation-transportation is an important process in atmospheric thermodynamics.
Gas laws

The ideal gas law is given by the equation, PV =nRT , where the symbols have their
usual meaning. The universal Gas constant R is related to the Boltzmann constant as R = N Ak, where NA
m
is the Avogadro number equal to 6.023 x 10 23. The number of moles of a gas is given by ,
n=
M

where m is the mass of the gas in grams and M is the molecular weight. In the study of atmospheric
thermodynamics, the ideal gas law is also written in the form , P=R ' T , where is the specific

density ( which is the reciprocal of density) and R' is the universal gas constant for 1 kg of a gas.
When the temperature is a constant, the ideal gas law becomes Boyles law. Boyles law states that the
pressure of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its volume. When the volume is a
constant, the ideal gas law becomes Charles laws. Charles first law states that when the pressure of a gas
is constant, the volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas. Charles second law
states that when the volume of a gas is a constant, the pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas. Avogadros hypothesis states that gases containing the same number of molecules,
at same temperature and pressure always occupy the same volume. An amount of air contains several
constituent gases. The total pressure of the air parcel is the sum of pressures due to each constituent gas.
The pressure exerted by each constituent gas, if it alone occupied the entire volume available, is called the
partial pressure. Daltons law of partial pressures states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of
non-interacting gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of each constituent gas.

The first law of thermodynamics in atmospheric physics

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy provided heat is
recognized as a form of energy. It is mathematically given as dQ = dU + PdV. If one considers the first
law for unit mass of a substance, then in terms of specific volume , the first law can be written as
d Q=C V dT + PdV
dQ = dU + Pd. In terms of specific heats, the first law is given as and
d Q=C P dT VdP
. The enthalpy is defined as H = U + PV. For unit mass of a substance, the
enthalpy is given as h = u + P. Here h is the enthalpy per unit mass and is called specific enthalpy. Hence
in terms of specific enthalpy and specific volume, the first law is given as dQ = dh dP.

Properties of dry and moist air

Air parcel: An air parcel is defined as a volume of air having the following properties

(i) The volume of air is thermally insulated from its surroundings so that it undergoes adiabatic
processes while moving about in the atmosphere.

(ii) During its motion in the atmosphere, it always remains at hydrostatic equilibrium and at the same
pressure as the surrounding or environmental air.
 (iii) The motion of the air packet is such that its kinetic energy can be neglected as compared to
its total energy. The total energy is contributed by several factors like water vapour content
and latent heat.

Apparent molecular mass: An amount of air contains several constituent gases. Dry air is air with no
content of water vapour. If m i is the mass of the ith component gas, and Mi is the molecular weight of the
ith component gas, then the apparent molecular weight of dry air is defined as the ratio of total mass of
the constituent gases divided by the total number of moles of the constituent gases. This is given as

mi
i
M d=
m . For dry air, the apparent molecular weight is 28.97. The gas constant for 1 kg of dry air
Mi
i i

R
R D=1000
is defined by the relation Md , where R is the universal gas constant. Since R = 8.314

and Md = 28.97, the value of gas constant for 1 kg of dry air is Rd = 287 Joules per K per kg.

Virtual temperature: Dry air does not contain water vapour. Air containing water vapour is called moist
air. Moist air has smaller apparent molecular weight than dry air. Hence the value of gas constant per kg,
R' for moist air is different from that of dry air. However, in practice, one always uses the value of
R' for dry air in the ideal gas equation for moist air, given by P=R ' T . Then the temperature

T
TV =
used is not the actual absolute temperature T but is defined as e . This temperature is
1 ( 1 )
P

called the virtual temperature. Here, e is the partial pressure of water vapour, P is the total pressure and
= 601.4 Pa is a constant. Virtual temperature of moist air is the temperature at which the dry air has same
density as the moist air at the same pressure. Since moist air always has less density than dry air at same
pressure, the virtual temperature is always less than actual temperature.

Geopotential: The geopotential at a point in the earths atmosphere is defined as the amount of work done
against the earths gravity to lift 1 kg of air from the sea level to that point. It is denoted as . Its unit is
z

joules per kg. The geopotential at a point at a height z is ( z ) = gdz . Here (0) = 0. Thus the
0

geopotential at the sea level is conventionally taken to be zero.

Enthalpy: The enthalpy of a system is the amount of energy received by the system as heat, under
constant pressure. It is denoted as H and is defined thermodynamically as H = U + PV, where U is the
internal energy. The specific enthalpy of a substance is the enthalpy per unit mass and is denoted as h. The
importance of enthalpy in atmospheric thermodynamics is that for a layer of air at hydrostatic equilibrium
in the atmosphere, which is heated by the radiation from earths surface, the heating occurs at constant
pressure, since the atmospheric pressure from the upper layers do not change. Enthalpy is also termed
H=C P dT .
sensible heat. It is related to the specific heat at constant pressure as

Dry adiabatic lapse rate: When an air parcel moves up or down through the atmosphere adiabatically, it
does not lose thermal energy. However, if its volume changes, the temperature will change. The dry
adiabatic lapse rate of an air parcel is defined as the rate of change of temperature with height for an air
parcel moving adiabatically through the atmosphere.

The potential temperature: The potential temperature of an air parcel is defined as the temperature that
the parcel of air would have if it is was expanded or compressed adiabatically from its existing pressure
and temperature to a standard pressure of 1000 hPa. It is denoted as . It is given by the expression
R
P
=T
( )
P0
CP

The importance of potential temperature is that for adiabatic motions of an air parcel, the potential
temperature remains a constant.

Poissons equation from the first law of thermodynamics: To derive an expression for potential
temperature from the first law of thermodynamics, consider the first law in terms of specific heats as
dQ = CpdT dP. For adiabatic change, dQ = 0. Hence, CpdT dP = 0. Using P = RT and substituting
for , one gets

C P dT dP
=0
R T P

Let T be the temperature at the standard pressure P 0 = 1000 hPa. Then integrating the above equation,

C P T dT P dP
P =0
R 0 T 0

CP T P
R
ln ( ) ( )

ln
P0
=0

Rearranging,
R
P
=T
( )
P0
CP
This is called the Poissons equation. It gives the relation between the actual temperature and the potential
temperature.

The hydrostatic equation

The atmosphere can be considered as consisting of several layers of air, lying one above
the other. The pressure on a layer depends on the number of layers above it. As the altitude increases,
there is less air above an air layer and so the air pressure decreases. Consider a layer of air in the
atmosphere. The forces acting on it are the gravitational force acting downward and the atmospheric
pressure. Since the pressure decreases with height, one can consider a layer of air as having a net upward
force due to this pressure difference. When the upward force on a layer of air due to the pressure
difference equals the downward gravitational force, the layer is said to be hydrostatic equilibrium. To
derive the mathematical condition for hydrostatic equilibrium, consider a layer of air at a height z and
thickness z. Let the surface area be A. If is the density of air, then the mass of this layer is. Let the
pressure at the lower surface be P and at the upper surface be P + P. If the net upward force on it is F,
then at hydrostatic equilibrium,

F =mg

F =gAz

F
=gz
A

P=gz

P
=g
z

0
In the limit as ,

P
=g
z

This is called the hydrostatic equation. The hydrostatic equation gives the mathematical condition for
thermal equilibrium of an air parcel in the atmosphere. It gives the variation of pressure in the atmosphere
with altitude. The negative sign indicates that the pressure decreases with increase in altitude.
 CLOUD PHYSICS

A cloud is defined as a visible aggregate of tiny water droplets or minute ice crystals or a
mixture of both that remains suspended in air. There are several varieties of clouds which are
distinguished by their shape, size and height. Clouds are formed by condensation of water vapour on tiny
particles in the atmosphere. Certain types of clouds are responsible for the phenomenon of rain.

Basic Terms

Humidity: Humidity of air is a measure of the amount of water vapour contained in it. If a specified
volume of air is taken and the mass of water vapour in it is measured, the ratio of the mass of water
vapour in that air to the total volume of that amount of air is called the humidity of air. It is also called
absolute humidity. The greater the amount of humidity in air, the more will be the water vapour content in
it. It represents the water vapour density in air and is usually expressed in grams per cubic meter of air.
However, when the air moves through the atmosphere, changes in pressure or temperature causes changes
in the volume. This changes the value of absolute humidity even though no water vapour has been added
or removed. Hence, the absolute humidity is not a reliable parameter for estimating water vapour content.
Relative humidity: The ratio of amount of water vapour in the air to the amount of water vapour required
for the air to be saturated is called relative humidity. It is a ratio of the water vapour content of air to the
water vapour capacity of air. It is usually expressed as a percentage. Relative humidity indicates how
much closer the air is to saturation. If the relative humidity equal to 100 %, the air is saturated since it the
amount of water vapour is equal to the amount required for saturation. If the relative humidity is greater
than 100 %, the air is said to be supersaturated. The relative humidity of air can change by either change
in amount of water vapour in the air or by change in temperature. If the amount of water vapour in the air
increases without change in air temperature, the relative humidity increases. If the temperature of air
increases without change in the amount of water vapour, the relative humidity decreases. Water vapour
has lower mass compared to other constituents of air. Hence humid air is less dense than dry air and tends
to rise upward naturally and this is the reason behind formation of clouds and thunderstorms.

Effect of relative humidity on human body: The human body uses evaporative cooling of perspiration as
a mechanism to regulate the body temperature. When the relative humidity of air is high, there is low rate
of evaporation of perspiration in human body. As a result, humans feel that the air temperature is higher
than the actual value. Similarly, when the relative humidity is low, there is more evaporation of
perspiration from the human body so that humans feel the air temperature to be lower than the actual
value. Thus humans feel warmer when relative humidity is high.

Daily variation of relative humidity: The relative humidity of air depends on temperature if the water
vapour content does not change much. Thus the relative humidity is higher in the early morning when the
temperature is low and decreases during the daytime. It again starts increasing as night approaches. The
daily variation of relative humidity and temperature is as shown.

Mixing ratio: The ratio of mass of water vapour in a given amount of air to the mass of the remaining air
is termed the mixing ratio. The amount of water vapour is usually expressed in grams while the amount of
air is expressed in kilograms. The mass of remaining air is also called the mass of dry air since it does not
include water vapour. If mw is the mass of water vapour and m D is the mass of the remaining dry air, then
mw
the mixing ratio is given as w=
m D . It is used to indicate the amount of water vapour in air and its
value unaffected by other factors like air pressure or temperature. Its value varies from a few grams per
kilogram of dry air at the mid-latitudes to about 20 g per kg of dry air at the tropics.

Specific humidity: Specific humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapour in air. It is defined as
the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given quantity of air to the mass of that air. It is a dimensionless
number and is unaffected by other parameters of air like its air pressure or density. If m w is the mass of
water vapour and mD is the mass of the remaining dry air, then the specific humidity q is given as
mw w
= , where w is the mixing ratio. The specific humidity of the atmosphere varies with
mw +m D 1+ w

the geographical latitude. It has low values near the poles and is highest at the tropical regions. The
variation of specific humidity with latitude is as shown.

Saturation: Moist air contains water vapour in varying amounts of concentration. If the amount of water
vapour in air is a maximum, any further addition of water vapour to it will cause the vapour to condense
to form water drops. In such a condition, the air is said to be saturated. The saturation condition depends
on several factors like the amount of water vapour present and the temperature of air. For air in saturation
condition, the rate of condensation equals that of evaporation.

Saturation vapour pressure: When a quantity of air is saturated, the water pressure in it will exert a
partial pressure in accordance with Daltons law of partial pressures. The partial pressure exerted by water
vapour in a quantity of saturated air is called saturation vapour pressure. Since the rate of evaporation of
water increases with increase in temperature, the saturation vapour pressure also increases with increase
in temperature.

Dew point: The temperature of air at which it becomes saturated is called dew point. Usually air at
temperatures below the dew point produces phenomena like fog, frost, clouds and rain. The dew point of
air depends on several factors like air temperature and relative humidity.
Relation between relative humidity and dew point: The relative humidity, air temperature and dew point
in a place are related to each other. The difference between air temperature and dew point can indicate
whether the relative humidity is high or low. If the dew point and air temperature are far apart, the relative
humidity is low. If they are close in value, the relative humidity is high. If the dew point and air
temperature are equal, the air is saturated and the relative humidity is 100%.

Condensation: The process of transformation of liquid form of matter into solid form is called
condensation. The change of water vapour to liquid water is an example. When air is saturated, it contains
large number of water molecules in the form of water vapour. These water molecules in the vapour form
come close together and are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals forces. Thus they collect
together on any surface to form water drops. This is the process behind condensation. The two necessary
conditions for condensation to occur in air are (i) the air must be saturated (ii) there should be a surface
on which the water molecules can condense.

Cloud formation

The basic process of cloud formation is as follows: Air near the surface may be lifted up
to higher altitudes by various processes. As this air moves upwards, it passes through regions of lower
pressures since the atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Hence the air starts expanding as it rises.
Since this expansion occurs spontaneously, the air temperature de creases and this is an adiabatic process.
This is called adiabatic cooling. As the air continues to rise, it undergoes adiabatic cooling further and
soon at a particular height, the temperature decreases below the dew point. At this stage, the air is
saturated and condensation occurs. If there are small particles present in the air, water vapour will
condense on their surfaces. Such particles are called cloud condensation nuclei. Examples are dust
particles, smoke or salt crystals. They serve the purpose of offering suitable surfaces for water vapour to
condense. Such condensed droplets collect together to form a cloud. Such a cloud will contain about a
billion droplets. The droplets in a cloud are very small so that they remain suspended in air. Initially the
combining of droplets is very rapid but it soon slows down.

Cloud condensation nuclei: In the formation of a cloud, the main necessity is that the water vapour in the
air should condense. For this, it is essential that there should be surfaces on which vapour can condense.
If there are particles in air, they offer surfaces over which the water vapour can condense. Such tiny
particles are called cloud condensation nuclei. Examples are microscopic dust particles, smoke particles
and salt crystals, which are usually found in air above oceans. Such dust particles originate from
geological activity like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or by man-made activities like automobiles or
factories. Water vapour condenses on such nuclei to form droplets which combine together to form
clouds. There are two types of condensation nuclei. Some types of particles are able to attract water
vapour molecules towards them. Such particles are called hygroscopic. Examples are salt particles,
sulfuric acid and nitric acid particles. Some nuclei are repellent to water molecules and are called
hydrophobic. Examples are oil particles, wax particles and synthetics like Teflon particles. Cloud
condensation nuclei vary widely in size. Nuclei with very small sizes, less than about 0.1 m, are called
Aitken nuclei. Nuclei ranging in size from 0.1m to 1m are called large nuclei. Particles with size
greater than 1m are called giant nuclei.

Cloud classification
 Clouds are classified into different types based on two factors, their shape or texture and
their height. Depending on shape, there are three forms of clouds, namely Cirrus clouds, Cumulus clouds
and stratus clouds. Cirrus clouds are white, thin clouds that have a feathery appearance. They appear are
collections and seems to be separated from each other by small filaments. Cumulus clouds are globular,
individual clouds. They appear like rising towers having flat base and have a cauliflower type structure.
Stratus clouds are clouds that appear as layers and cover most of the sky. They always appear as
collections are rarely seen individually. Based on height, there are three forms of clouds, namely high
clouds, middle clouds and low clouds. High clouds usually appear above an altitude of 6000m. Middle
clouds appear between 6000m and 2000m altitude. Low clouds occur below 2000m altitude. Based on
these forms there are ten basic cloud types.

High clouds There are three types of clouds in the high cloud family. They are Cirrus, Cirrostratus and
Cirrocumulus. They are present at great heights where the temperature is low and the water vapour is less.
Cirrus clouds are detached clouds made up of white, delicate, icy filaments and have a silky appearance.
These filamentary structures are altered in shape by winds. They generally denote fair weather. Cirrus
clouds with curved, hooked tails are usually called Mares tails. Cirrostratus clouds are whitish clouds
of filamentary or smooth appearance that cover all or much of the sky. They have a sheet like appearance.
Sometimes they are so thin that they are barely noticeable and the sun or moon can be seen through them.
Their thinness sometimes produces a halo around the sun or moon. Cirrocumulus clouds appear as white
patches composed of small cells or ripples. They appear as small globules that may appear merged or
separate and are arranged in a regular pattern. When they cover the sky, it is often referred to as
Mackerel sky. Cirrocumulus clouds appear bright red or orange across the setting or rising sun and are
described as the most beautiful of clouds. High clouds do not cause rain but their presence may warn
about impending rough weather.

Middle clouds These are of two types. They are altocumulus and altostratus. Altocumulus clouds are
seen in large round patches that may or may not merge. Since they are made up of water droplets rather
than ice crystals, the individual cells have distinct edges. Usually one part of altocumulus clouds appear
darker than the other. Altostratus clouds appear as large grayish clouds covering all or much of the sky.
Usually the sun appears through these clouds as a bright spot but the edges are not discernable. Such an
appearance is called watery sun. Usually light snow or drizzle may accompany these clouds. They
usually turn into nimbostratus clouds that give very large rainfall.

Low clouds: These are of three types. They are Stratus, Stratocumulus and Nimbostratus. Stratus clouds
are low lying clouds having a uniform grayish appearance that covers the entire sky. They resemble fog in
appearance. They do not generally produce rain but can produce mist or drizzle. They also have a uniform
base. Stratocumulus clouds appear as rows or patches or rounded masses with the blue sky visible in
between the patches. Their colour ranges from light to dark gray. Usually they appear at sunset.
Sometimes sunrays pass through Stratocumulus clouds in the form of bands of light called crepuscular
rays. Nimbostratus clouds are dark gray in appearance and are associated with continuously falling rains.
They are usually so opaque that the sun or the moon cannot be seen through them.

Clouds of vertical development: These are clouds which have a tower like appearance and grow upward
as water vapour condenses on them. They are of two types. These are Cumulus and Cumulonimbus. The
Cumulus clouds are puffy in appearance and resemble a piece of cotton with sharp edges and flat base.
Cumulus clouds with small vertical growth are termed Cumulus Himulus and denote fair weather. They
are hence also called Fair weather Cumulus. Ragged edged Cumulus clouds that appear scattered across
the sky are called Cumulus fractus. Cumulonimbus clouds are giant clouds usually associated with
thunderstorms. They contain many forms of precipitation like water droplets, ice crystals, large raindrops,
snowflakes and hailstones. Lightning, thunder and even tornadoes are associated with Cumulonimbus
clouds.

Cloud microphysics: The main forms of precipitation in clouds are rain and snow. However for these to
occur, the water droplets in a cloud should combine together, several million at a time, and that too in a
small time interval. For such processes to occur, several mechanisms are involved. The study of such
processes is called cloud microphysics. Cloud microphysical processes are responsible for electrification
of thunderstorms also.

Homogeneous nucleation: For a cloud to occur, the water vapour in the air should condense. For this the
air should be saturated and there should be a surface to condense on, which is called condensation nuclei.
However, in the absence of such nuclei, condensation can occur through spontaneous chance collisions
among vapour molecules. If there is a chance collision among the water vapour molecules, they will cling
together to form a drop. In course of time, such a drop will collide with more and more vapour molecules,
absorbs them and thus grows in size. In this way, condensation may occur in the absence of nuclei also.
This process is called homogeneous nucleation. This is an extremely rare process.

Heterogeneous nucleation: The process of cloud formation starts with condensation of water vapour
molecules. If the air is saturated and contains aerosols, then they may act as condensation nuclei to form
clouds. This process of formation of clouds from aerosols is termed heterogeneous nucleation.

Wettable and unwettable surfaces: A surface is said to be wettable or hydrophilic if it allows water to
spread on it to form a uniform thin layer. A surface is said to be unwettable or hydrophobic if water froms
spherical drops on it.
Warm clouds: In the troposphere, as the height increases, the temperature decreases. Hence at a particular
height the temperature will reach 0 0C and the 00 isotherm will lie at that altitude. Clouds that lie below
this isotherm are called warm clouds. They contain only water droplets and no solid material. The main
parameters related to warm clouds are the amount of liquid water per unit volume of air called Liquid
Water Content or LWC and expressed in grams per cubic meter, the total number of water droplets per
unit volume of air called Cloud Droplet Concentration and expressed in number per cubic centimeter and
size distribution of cloud droplets called Droplet Size Spectrum. These parameters are related to each
other.

In warm clouds, raindrops can grow by condensation in a saturated air and by colliding and
coalescing with other droplets. The formation of a water droplet by condensation is rapid at first but its
rate decreases after sometime. Hence such a process cannot lead to rain since a raindrop is millions of
times greater than the droplets formed by condensation. The formation of a raindrop is then the result of
collisions and coalescing of a large number of droplets formed by such condensation. If the cloud is
electrified by atmospheric friction, there will be electric fields present. These can increase the process of
coalescence of droplets.

Cold clouds: In the troposphere, as the height increases, the temperature decreases. Hence at a particular
height the temperature will reach 00C and the 00 isotherm will lie at that altitude. Clouds that lie above
this isotherm are called cold clouds. Cold clouds are of two types. Water droplets that are cooled below
freezing point are called supercooled droplets. If a cold cloud contains both ice crystals and supercooled
droplets, it is called a mixed cloud. If a clod cloud contains only ice, it is said to be glaciated.

A supercooled droplet is in an unstable state. If it collides with water molecules, they

combine together and crystallize to form an embryo of ice. This in turn absorbs more water droplets and
grows in size. If certain dust particles are present in air, these can act as condensation surfaces on which
water droplets will condense. As more and more droplets condense, the drop grows in size and freezes to
form ice crystals. Such a particle is called a freezing nucleus. Another process of ice formation is when a
dust particle collides with a water droplet and causes it to freeze. Such a process is called contact
nucleation and the particle is called a contact nucleus. If the air is supersaturated and the temperature is
low enough, water vapour can directly convert itself to ice without the intermediate liquid phase. This is
called deposition. The presence of certain types of dust particles can cause water vapour to undergo
deposition on them. Such particles are called deposition nuclei. Thus ice crystals can form in a cold cloud
through freezing nuclei, contact nuclei or deposition nuclei.

Artificial rainmaking

In a cloud, the main causes of raindrop formation are through cloud condensation nuclei
and through the formation of ice crystals. These are formed by instabilities within the microstructure of
the cloud. These instabilities are of two types. The first is that in warm clouds, the growth of a raindrop is
by collisions and coalescence of a water drop with smaller droplets. The second is that in cold clouds,
particularly in a mixed cloud, if there is an optimum concentration of ice, they can undergo deposition on
dust particles. These two properties can be used to produce artificial rain from both warm and cold
clouds. This technique is called cloud seeding or artificial rainmaking. The main mechanisms are (i)
introducing large hygroscopic particles into warm clouds to stimulate collision-coalescence of droplets
(ii) introducing artificial ice nuclei into cold clouds to stimulate ice crystal formation leading to rain.
Cloud seeding in warm clouds: In warm clouds, cloud seeding may be done by introducing water droplets
of the size of 30m or hygroscopic particles like NaCl into the cloud.

Cloud seeding in cold clouds: In cold clouds, cloud seeding may be done by introducing small ice crystals
into the cloud. A more effective particle is crystals of dry ice( Solid Carbon dioxide). A single crystal of
dry ice can induce the production of large amount of ice crystals. Another effective material is silver
iodide. The efficiency of silver iodide is due to the fact that silver iodide crystals are crystallographically
similar to ice. Some other seeding materials are lead iodide and cupric sulphide and some organic
compounds like phloroglucinol and metaldehyde.

Lighting

Lightning and thunder are usually associated with cold clouds. All clouds are electrified
to a certain extent. The main reason for the origin of this electricity is the occurrence of heavy
precipitation within the cloud in the form of hailstones. The motion of these hailstones through the cloud
by undergoing collisions leads to electrification. Cloud electrification also occurs by frictional interaction
between clouds. In such an electrified cloud, usually the negative charges are collected in the middle
layers of the cloud and the upper and lower layers are positively charged. The region of negative charge is
called the main charging zone. When the separation of electrical charges occurs within a cloud above a
certain extent, the air will undergo dielectric breakdown due to the large electric fields present. This leads
to lighting that can occur either within the cloud or between the cloud and the ground. The formation of
lightning flashes to the ground occurs in the following way: The base of the cloud is positively charges.
This induces a negative charge region just below the base and current flows through the air to neutralize
this. This in turn leads to the formation of another negatively charged region below the previous one. This
again causes a lightning stroke between the regions and in this way, the charge from the cloud moves
down through the air. This leading edge of negative charge is called stepped leader. As this moves towards
her ground, it induces a large positive charge on the ground. When the stepped leader reaches a height of
about 100 m above the ground, the positive charge on the ground moves up to meet the negative charged
region and neutralize it. At this moment, large number of electrons flow to the ground and this is seen as a
lightning stroke. This first stroke of lighting carries at an average current of about 30000 A. Subsequent
minor strokes and flashes may occur. Most lighting consists of three to four strokes and the time interval
between successive strokes is about 50 ms. The sudden flow of current through the air causes heating and
rapid expansion of adjacent air. Since the heated air expands, air from surrounding regions rushes in the
fill the gap and this produces sound waves that are heard as thunder.
Chemical composition of rain

The pH of pure water in contact with only its vapour is 7. The pH of rainwater in contact
with very clean air is 5.6. The lowering of pH by clean air is due to the absorption of Carbon dioxide into
rainwater leading to the formation of carbolic acid. If the air is polluted and contain chemicals like
sulphates and nitrates, these are absorbed into the rainwater leading to pH much less than 5.6. This is
known as acid rain.

INSTRUMENTATION IN ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Diurnal variation of temperature: The variation of air temperature over a 24 hour period from midnight
to midnight is termed the diurnal variation of temperature. The difference between the maximum and the
minimum in a diurnal temperature variation pattern is called the diurnal temperature range. The diurnal
temperature range is greatest for deserts while it is lowest for places near water bodies like sea or lake.
The main factors affecting the diurnal temperature range are presence of clouds, humidity and presence of
large water bodies. The presence of clouds usually leads to lower temperature ranges. High values of
humidity also lead to smaller temperature ranges. The presence of large water bodies like sea or lake can
lead to lower temperature ranges. The average value of temperature over a 24 hour period is termed the
daily temperature. This is the temperature value reported usually in the media. The main factors affecting
the variation of temperature in a region are called controls of temperature. These are (1) latitude (2) land
and water distribution (3) ocean currents and (4) elevation. The temperature usually decreases with
increasing latitude. But during mid year, the temperature of mid latitudes is usually greater than that of the
tropics. Also, the higher the elevation, the lower will be the temperature of the place. The presence of
ocean currents tends to produce more winds leading to lower temperatures. The presence of large water
bodies also leads to lowering of daily temperature.

Thermometers

A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature. There are different types
of thermometers used in measuring atmospheric temperature. A main type is the liquid-in-glass
thermometer. It has a glass bulb attached to a sealed, graduated tube about 25 cm long. A small narrow
bore extends from one end of the tube to the bulb. The liquid, usually mercury or red coloured alcohol can
move through the hole and on variations of temperature, indicate it by their height in the tube.

A maximum thermometer is used to measure the maximum value of temperature in a day. It is just like an
ordinary liquid-in-glass thermometer except that it has a small constriction in the tube just above the bulb.
When the temperature increases, the mercury will rise in the tube and when the temperature reaches
above a value, mercury will enter the bulb through the constriction. However, the constriction prevents
the mercury from dropping back when the temperature lowers and so, the maximum value of temperature
is registered. When the temperature increases even further, the mercury within the tube above the
constriction again rises but is prevented from falling back by the constriction. Thus the maximum value of
temperature for a day can be recorded. The thermometer may be returned to normal state by allowing the
mercury to go back by using a suitable turning mechanism.

A minimum thermometer is used to measure the minimum value of temperature for a day. It usually uses
alcohol since it can easily freeze at low temperatures. The minimum thermometer is similar to a liquid-in-
glass thermometer except that it has a small bell shaped index marker in the bore. The index marker is
free to slide within the bore. A minimum thermometer kept horizontally. When the air cools, the liquid
moves to one side and drags the index marker along. When the air warms up, the liquid will flow back but
the index marker remains in its place. Thus the lowest temperature can be recorded. To reset the
thermometer, it is simply placed vertically allowing the index marker to slide freely.
Measuring with a thermometer: A thermometer that is used to measure air temperature is never kept
directly in the sunlight. This is because the thermometer absorbs radiation from the direct sunlight also,
thereby showing higher temperatures than the actual temperature of the surrounding air. Hence
thermometers are always used in the shade. Usually for this thermometers and other such instruments are
kept within special casing called instrument shelters.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY

Hair Hygrometer: A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric humidity. A common type
of hygrometer is the hair hygrometer. It works on the observation that the human hair increases in length
by about 2.5% as the relative humidity increases from 0 to 100%. The instrument consists of a strand of
several human or horse hairs, with no oil content, attached to a system of levers. A small change in hair
length is magnified by a linkage system and moves a pointer on a dial. The dial is calibrated to show
relative humidity. It is usually not always accurate and needs frequent calibration in regions where the
variations of humidity is large and rapid.

An electrical hygrometer is used to electrically measure the relative humidity of the atmosphere. It
consists of a flat plate of material coated with carbon. A current is send across the plate. As the
atmospheric water vapour content changes, the resistance of the carbon coating changes. This in turn
affects the current and this indicates the relative humidity.

The infrared hygrometer uses a ray of infrared rays send into air to measure the relative humidity. The
instrument sends a ray of infrared radiation into a sample of air and measures the amount of radiation
absorbed. The amount of radiation absorbed depends on the water vapour content in the sample.
The Psychrometer is an instrument used to measure the dew point and relative humidity. It uses a wet and
dry bulb thermometer. It consists of two thermometers placed side by side as shown. One is called a wet
bulb thermometer and its bulb is covered with a piece of cloth or wick. This is dipped in clean distilled
water. The other is called dry bulb thermometer and its bulb is kept dry. Both thermometer bulbs are
exposed to air. The water in the wet bulb evaporates and the wet bulb thermometer cools to a low
temperature, called the wet bulb temperature. The dry thermometer shows the actual air temperature
called the dry bulb temperature. The difference between the two readings is called wet-bulb depression.
The greater the relative humidity of the air, the lower will be the number of water vapour molecules in the
air, and hence, the less will be the evaporation from the wet bulb and hence the less will be the
depression. A low value of relative humidity leads to greater depression. If there is no depression and the
levels in the two thermometers are the same, then the air is saturated and the relative humidity is 100%.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Units of atmospheric pressure: A common unit of atmospheric ptressure is the bar, which is defined as the
pressure of 10000dynes over 1 square metre. Usually the millibar, mb, is used. Another unit is the height
of mercury column. The normal atmospheric pressure is 76 cms of mercury. This equals 1013.25 mb. The
SI unit is Pascal. 100 Pascals equal 1 millibar. Usually the hectopascal or hPa is used in atmospheric
studies. 1 hPa equals 1 mb.

A barometer is an instrument for detecting and measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercury barometer
is the one of the oldest types. It consists of a long tube of mercury dipped with its mouth within a bowl of
mercury. In such a case, the atmospheric pressure is balanced by a column of mercury of height 76 cm.
The weight of mercury is balanced by the atmospheric pressure. Mercury is used instead of water
because(i) water has more tendency to evaporate(ii) Since water is much less dense than mercury, the
height of water required to balance the air pressure comes out to be 1034 cm, which is practically
inconvenient.
An aneroid barometer is a device to measure atmospheric pressure. It does not use any liquid for its
working. An aneroid barometer consists of an aneroid cell, which is a small, tightly sealed metallic box.
The air within the box is partially removed so that the changes in atmospheric pressure will cause the cell
to expand or contract. The size of the cell is calibrated to indicate different pressure values. The change in
volume of the cell is amplified by lever mechanisms and indicated by a pointer. A constant or steady
increase in pressure usually denotes fair weather while a decrease in pressure indicates rough weather.

An altimeter is an aneroid barometer which measures not only atmospheric pressure but is also calibrated
to indicate altitude.

A barograph is an aneroid barometer in which there is a provision for recording of pressure. In a

barograph, a pen is attached to the pointer in the aneroid barometer. The pen marks changes in
atmospheric pressure on a piece of graph paper mounted on a rotating drum.