NUMBER SYSTEM AND COUNTING.

Concept : Basics of Numbers

Concept : Co-primes and Application of Euler

Concept : Difference of Squares

Concept : Divisibility Rules

Concept : Factor Theorem

Concept : Factorial

Concept : Finding the unit digit

Concept : Number of digits in a^b

Concept : Numbers & Digits

Concept : Perfect Squares

Concept : Writing a number as the product of 2 natural numbers

Basics of Numbers.

Numbers can be categorized into different types such as composite, prime, natural, whole,
integers, fractions, rational , irrational and more.
Whole Numbers : 0,1,2,3,4.
Natural Number : 1,2,3,4.
Prime number : Number which have only 2 factors (1 and the number itself) Eg : 2,3,5,7
All prime numbers are odd except 2. Since otherwise, they would be a multiple of 2 and will end
up having more than 2 factors.
Factors : A number that completely divided a greater or equal number. Example : 2 is a factor
of 16, 5 is a factor of 15 etc.

Note: Any number that can be written in p/q form can be said to be a fraction.

There are certain properties of zeroes.They are as follows:

1) Zero is neither negative nor positive.

2) For any Number X, apart from 0, X0 = 1

3) 00 = Undefined

4) Any number when divided by 0 is undefined. X / 0 = Undefined

Properties of Prime Numbers :

1) 2 is the first prime number

2) All primes except 2 are odd

 3) Any prime number greater than 3 can be expressed as : 6k+1 or 6k-1, but the reverse is not
always true.

4) Given below is the number of primes for different ranges :

Number Range Number of Primes

1-100 25

101-200 21

201- 300 16

How to find a number is Prime number or not?

Take the root of the number and look for the number of primes below it. Check the divisibility
with them. If divisible by any one, Number is not prime, otherwise, the number is prime.

Example : Is 101 a prime number ?

Solution : Root 101 = 10.xx

Primes below 10 = 2,3,5,7

101 is not divisible by any of these. Hence 101 is a prime number.

Summation of Numbers :

i. The sum of first n consecutive natural numbers 1+2+3+4.n = n(n+1)/2

ii. Sum of the first n consecutive squares = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

 iii. Sum of the first n consecutive cubes = ((n(n+1)/2)2

Co-primes and Application of Euler

In CAT and other similar examinations we will face questions where will be given a range and
asked to find out the multiples of certain primes or their multiples. It will be time consuming if we
apply the fundamentals of progression here. So in this chapter we will learn a new concept of
how to solve these sums quickly.

Co-Prime : Coprime numbers are those which do not contain any other common factor other
than 1 between them . Example : 2 and 3 are co prime, but 3 and 12 are not.

We will use the concept of Euler here, since we are having co primes.

Euler Number of any prime which will be used in these sums will be viewed as = N *(1-
(1/a))*(1- (1/b)) , where a,b are the primes present in the number . N is the original
number.

So Euler of 2 = (1-(1/2)) = 1/2

To find the Euler number of greater numbers which arent prime, we will factorize them and then
consider the primes which are in them.

Example : Euler number of 12 = ?

Solution : 12= 2^2 * 3 , So the primes present are : 2 and 3.

Hence Euler Number of 12 = 12 * (1- (1/2)) * (1-(1/3)) = 12 *(1/2)*(2/3) = 4

Let us look at an example that will help us understanding the application.

Example : Find the number of numbers which are co prime to 120 and less than it ?

Solution: 2 and 3 are co-primes. Hence Total such numbers= 120 * (1- (1/2)) * (1-(1/3) * (1-
(1/5)) = 32

Sum of co-primes :

Example : Find the sum of all co primes to 144 less than it.

Solution : Let $ signify the euler number

$(144) = 144 * * 2/3 = 48

Sum of all co primes = $(N) * N /2

= 48 * 144/2 = 48 *72

= 3456

Products of Co-primes.

The number of ways of writing a number N as a product of two co-prime numbers = 2^(n-1)
where n=the number of prime factors of the number.

Example : In how many ways can 30 be written as product of 2 co primes ?

Solution : Factors of 30 = 2*3*5 = 8 factors

Prime factors = 2,3,5 = 3
Ways = 2^(3-1) = 2^2 = 4 ways

Difference of Squares

We will often face questions where we need to find the ways in which we can write a number as
difference of squares of natural numbers.

Example : In how many ways can 45 be written as the difference of squares of 2 natural
numbers ?

Solution : 45 = 1*45

= 3*15

= 5*9

We can write it as :

45 = x^2 y^2

So, (x+y)*(x-y) = 45

Taking into consideration the above divisors,

x+y = 45, x-y = 1 : x= 23, y=22 is a pair.

x+y = 15, x-y = 3 : x = 9, y = 6 is a pair

x+y = 9 , x-y = 5 : x=7 , y=2 is a pair

Hence there are 3 ways .

If the number is odd, then calculate the factors of the number.

Let the number of factors be = N

Total number of ways = N/2

Example : In how many ways can 945 written as the difference of squares of 2 natural numbers
?

Solution : 945 = 3^3*5*7

Factors = 4*2*2 = 16 factors

Ways = 16/2 = 8 ways

What if the number is even ?

We will always consider the even factors, if the number is even.

In the number is even, we will follow the following rule :

Since we will always consider even number , let the factors be 2a and 2b

So , 2a*2b = N ( N is out number )

4ab = N

Ab = N/4
Let N/4 = M

Now calculate in how many ways can M be written as the product of 2 natural numbers.

We have already done that in out previous chapter. Hence we will get the answer in the
following manner.
Divisibility Rules

Divisibility by 2 : If the last digit of the number ends with an even digit, then the number
is said to be a multiple of 2. Example : 286238 is divisible by 2, but, 197327 is not .

Divisibility by 3 : Take the sum of all the digits present in the number. If the sum is
divisible by 3, then the number is also divisible by 3.
Example: 23937. Sum = 2+3+9+3+7 = 24. 24 is divisible by 3. Hence 23937 is divisible by 3

Divisibility by 4 : If the last 2 digits of the given number is divisible by 4, then the whole
number is said to be divisible by 4.
Example : 1973724. Last 2 digits = 24. 24 mod 4 = 0, hence the number is divisible by 4

Divisibility by 5 : If the Number ends with either 0 or 5, then the number will be divisible
by 5

Divisibility by 6 : If the number is divisible by both 2 and 3, then the number is said to be
divisible by 6. We already know the concept of divisibility of 2 and 3 . So we will need
them here.

Divisibility by 7 : To determine if a number is divisible, take the last digit off the number,
double it and subtract the doubled number from the remaining number. If the resultant
number is divisible by 7, it means the whole number is divisible by 7.

Divisibility by 8 : Similar to 4, but something more. If the last 3 digits of the given number
is divisible by 8, then the given number is said to be divisible by 8.
Example : 1682824 is divisible by 8 because the last three digits = 824 is divisible by 8.

Divisibility by 9 : If the sum of all the digits of the given number is divisible by 9, then the
whole number is said to be divisible by 9.

Divisibility by 11 : If E denotes the Sum of the digits present in the even places in the
number and O denotes the sum of digits present in the odd places of the number then
the Difference of O and E = |O-E| if is in the form of 11K, where k = 0,1,2,3,4 Then
the number is said to be divisible by 11.
Some important numbers :

101 is a prime number

1001 is not prime. 1001 = 7*11*13

Factor Theorem

Factor of a number is a number smaller or equal to it which divides the number wholly. Hence
factor of a number cannot exceed the number itself. Factors are always expressed as the
product of primes present in that number.

Example : Find the factors of 30.

Solution : 30 = 2*3*5

In simple terms we can say that the factors of 30 = 1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30 : Total 8 factors.

Let us look into a formula we can keep in mind so that we can calculate the number of factors
fast.

If the Number is represented in the form N =(a p)*(b q)*(c r)*(d s ). Where a,b,c,d.. are
the primes present in the number and p,q,r,s are their respective exponents.
So the number of factors in the number = (p+1)*(q+1)*(r+1)*(s+1). And so on.

Example : Find the factors of 30

Solution : 30 = 2^1 * 3^1 *5^1

P=1

Q=1

R=1

Hence the number of factors of 30 = (1+1)(1+1)(1+1) = 2*2*2 = 8 factors.

Factors are of two types :

Even factors : the factors which are divisible by 2

Odd factors : the factors which are not divisible by 2

Example :Find the number of even factors in the number 3600.

Solution :Break 3600 into its prime factors. 3600 = 100*36 = 2^4*3^2*5^2

Hence the total number of factors of 3600 = (4+1)*(2+1)*(2*1) = 45

Out of these how many are even. For being even factors the factors must have atleast one 2 in
them. Hence out of the four 2s present. Take out one. We are left with :

2^3*3^2*5^2

Hence, with these factors if we multiply the 2 we took out, we will get the total even factors.

Total even factors = (3+1)*(2+1)*(2+1) = 4*3*3 = 36

From this we can also find out the odd factors.

Total Factors = Even Factors + Odd factors.

Hence if the total number of factors = 45 and even factors are 36 then 45-36 = 9 odd factors are
present in the number.

Note : To find the number of odd factors present in a number we can also calculate them
by removing all the 2s present in the number.
Problem :
We are given a number 64800. What are the total number of :
Prime Factors
Composite Factors
Odd factors
Even Factors

Answer : Breaking 64800 into its factors, we get : 2^5 * 3^4 * 5^2 .

Prime factors : 2,3,5 : hence 3 factors

Total factors = (5+1)*(4+1)*(2+1) = 6*5*3 = 90
Hence composite factors = total factors prime factors-1 (since 1 is neither prime nor
composite) = 90-3-1
Odd Factors = factors in the number : 3^4 * 5^2 = (4+1)*(2+1 ) = 15
Even Factors = total factors odd factors = 90-15 = 75
Factorial

In mathematics, the factorial of a non-negative integer n, denoted by n!, is the product of all
positive integers less than or equal to n. For example, 6 ! = 1*2*3*4*5*6 = 720

Keep in Mind :

1! = 1

2! = 2

3! = 6

4!= 24

5!=120

6!= 720

7! = 5040

8! = 40320

Note : The value of 0! = 1

Example : What is the Unit digit of the series : 1! + 2! + 3!+ 4!.... 100!

Solution : If we look at the series properly, It is a summation of factorials till 100.

So from 5!, all the unit digit of the individual factorials will be 0.

So basically the sum now turns till 4!

1! + 2! + 3!+ 4! = 1+2+6+24 = 33

Hence the Unit digit of the whole series will be 3

Highest Power of a prime in a number

Let us take an example for the following.

What is the highest power of 3 such that the number will divide 12!

If we write 12! , we get 12! = 1*2*3*4*5*6*7*8*9*10*11*12.

So from 3,6,9 and 12 we will get 3s.

Total 3s = 1 from 3,

1 from 6

2 from 9

1 from 12.

So a total of Five 3s in 12!.

But what about bigger numbers ? It will be very difficult to calculate this hence we will follow a
simple formula given below.
For any Factorial F denoted as F!, the number of primes p is found out using :

[F/p] + [F/p^2] + [F/p^3] and so on

Where [ ] denotes the greatest integer function.

Example : What is the highest power of 5 such that the number divided 125! ?

Solution : [125/5] + [125/25] + [125/125] = 25+5+1 = 31

Highest power of 5 in 125! = 31

Hence 5^31 divided 125!

Example : What is the highest power of 12 contained in 30!

Solution: 12= 2*2*3

So we need to find the number of 2s and 3s in 30!

2s :

[30/2] + [30/4] + [30/8] + [30/16]

= 15+7+3+1= 26

There are 26 2s , means there are 13 4s

Now 3s:

[30/3] + [30/9] + [30/27]

= 10+ 3+1 = 14

There are 14 3s

So highest power of 12 cannot be more than 13 since we have no more 4s to club with 3s to get
12s. Hence highest power of 12 in 30! = 13.

Number of Zeroes in a factorial

To find the number of zeroes in a factorial, find the number of 2s and 5s in the number

Example : What is the Number of zeroes at the end of 30!

Solution : 2s :
[30/2] + [30/4] + [30/8] + [30/16]

= 15+7+3+1= 26

5s :
[30/5] + [30/25]

= 6+1 = 7

There are only 7 5s but 26 2s , but to get a 0, we need one 2 and one 5. So maximum zeroes
possible = 7 (because we only have 7 5s)

Hence Highest power of 10 in 30! = 7

Finding the unit digit

The Concept of unit digit of a number is as important as any theory of Permutation

Combination. The application of unit digit is enormous. We can use the concept of unit digit
solve sums in seconds that would have taken us minutes working in the traditional
approaches. So today we will go through all these concepts.

Cyclicity of 2 : 2^1 = 2 , 2^2 = 4, 2^3 = 8, 2^4 =16 , 2^5 = 32

So we can see that for every 4 set of exponents starting from 1, the unit digit of 2^n remains
same. Hence We will call it as cycle order =4 (After every 4 terms, the unit digit is repeated)

Example : What is the unit digit of 2^73?

Solution : Find 73 mod 4 (Because cyclicity of 2 = 4) 73mod 4 =1. Hence 2^73 s unit digit
will be same as 2^1 = 2

Cyclicity of 3 : 3^1 =3; 3^2 = 9; 3^3 = 27 ; 3^4 = 81 ; 3^5= 243 . Hence again, after 4 terms
starting from 1, the unit digit of powers of 3 get repeated. Hence the cycle order for 3 = 4

Cyclicity of 4 : 4^ odd always ends with 4 / 4^even always ends with 6 => Hence the cycle
order of 4 = 2
For 5 and 6, 5^a and 6^b : where a and b are positive integers, both will end in 5 and 6
respectively.
Similarly we can find the cyclicity of other numbers
Example :What is the unit digit of the sum : 5^95+ 6^3?

Solution: Last digit of 5^95 = 5

Last digit of 6^39 =6

Unit digit of the sum = 5+6 = 1 1

Hence the Unit digit =1

Note : Always consider the last digit of the number, not the whole number.
Calculations become easy. But the exponent remains same.

Example: Find the unit digit of 26*31*48*37*94

Solution : Consider the last digits: 6*1*8*7*4 = 6*8*7*4 = 4 8 *7*4 = 8*7*4 = 6*4 = 4

Example: Find the unit digit 5^49*2^4*7^48*9^34

Solution : 5^49 will give 5 as its unit digit. 2^4 =16

So, 5*even = 0

So the unit digit = 0

Examples : What is the unit digit of 1! +2! +3!.....100! ?

Solution: Numbers after 4! : 5!,6!.. till 100! Will have 0 as their unit digit.

So the unit digit of the series =unit digit of the sum till 4! = 1+2+6+24 = 33
 Hence of the unit digit = 3

Number of digits in a^b

We might often see questions about the total number of digits in a number which is denoted
as a^b. Doing these manually is quite impossible and we dont want to give much time to
solve it. Hence we will today learn how to find the number of digits using the method of
Logarithm.

How to find the Number of digits in a^b ?

Number of digits = |_ 1+ log (a^b) _|

Here |_ x _| denotes the floor function

We will calculate the value of log(a^b) in base 10

Example : What is the number of digits in 35^29?

Solution: |_ 1+ log 10 (35^29) _|

= |_ 1+ 29 log 10 (35) _|

= |_ 1+ 29*1.54 _|
 = |_ 1+ 44.776 _|

= |_ 45.776 _|

= 45 digits
Numbers & Digits

Concept :
When questions of numbers (2 digit or 3 digit) are given and there are a few set of Restrictions,
we will take the unit digit to be b, tens digit to be a, Hundreds digit to be c and so on. So for
a 2 digit number, It may be represented as : 10a +b.
For a 3 digit number : 100c+10a+b

And So on.

Example: How many 2 digit possible numbers are possible if the digits when interchanged, The
absolute difference between the two 2-digit numbers is 63 ?

Solution : Let the number be N. N = 10a+b

Reversing N we get N= 10b+a

Difference between them = 10a+b (10b+a)= 9(a-b)

As said earlier, difference between the two numbers = 63

Hence 9(a-b) = 63

a-b = 7
Possibilities:

a=b=0 not possible, since both of them are said to be 2 digit.

A= 8, b=1

A=9, b=2

And their reverse numbers as well

Hence, 4 such numbers possible.

Perfect Squares

Let us consider the first few single digit perfect squares and their original number.

1^2 =1

2^2 =4

3^2 = 9

4^2= 16

5^2 = 25

6^2= 36

7^2=49

8^2 = 64

9^2= 81

10^2 = 100
So from the above observation, it can be inferred that no perfect squares end with : 2,3,7,8

So if the unit digit of a perfect square is any of 2,3,7 or 8 , the number is not a perfect square.

More Properties of Perfect Squares :

If the unit digit of a perfect square is 1, the tens digit must be even. Example : 1^2 = 01,
9^2 = 81, 11^2 = 121

If the unit digit of the perfect square is 5, then the tens digit must be 2.

If the Unit digit of a perfect square is 6, then the tens digit must be odd

The number of zeroes present at the end of any perfect square cannot be odd. They
must be in the form of 2k, where k =0,1,2,3..

A perfect Square of the form aabb is 7744 ( 88 2 = 7744 )

Writing a number as the product of 2 natural numbers.

The main motive of this article is to teach you how can one write any given number as the
product of two natural numbers.

Let us take an example to get this idea more straight

Example: In how many ways can we write a number as a product of 2 natural numbers ?

Solution : Factors of 80 = 8*10 = 2^3 * 2*5 = 2^4 * 5

Total factors = (4+1) * (1+1) = 5*2 = 10 factors

80 can be written as :

1*80

2*40

4*20

5*16

8*10
Hence 5 ways.

Proceeding with the number of factors we can say that , total ways that a number can be
expressed as product of 2 natural numbers = N/2 where N is the number of factors in the given
number.

Here N is even.

In case of the total number of factors in the number is odd, then ways = (N+1) /2

In case the question comes that in how many ways can we write a number as the product of 2
integers, here we can also use negative numbers hence the ways will be doubled. Since a * b
can also be written as : (-a) * (-b)