Early Literacy 1

Early Literacy

Being a kindergarten teacher for the past five years in the Clark County School District

(CCSD), I have come to realize the importance of early literacy development. In order for

students to succeed academically, it is important to begin teaching them skills that will prepare

them to be good readers and writers at an early age. Early literacy is especially important now

because CCSD recently implemented SB391 (Read by Third Grade). This senate bill was

established to promote effective literacy instruction in kindergarten through third grade in order

to achieve proficiency for reading by the end of grade three. Students who are not proficient will

not be promoted to fourth grade the following year, unless under special circumstances as

indicated by the bill. Therefore, it is crucial for us to provide students with effective literacy

instruction in the early grades.

The idea of early literacy began back in the 1980s, when a New Zealand scholar named

Marie Clay suggested that literacy learning begins before any formal instruction, that reading and

writing were interrelated, and should be learned concurrently rather than sequentially (Giles &

Tunks, 2014). Her theory led to further research and findings on developmentally appropriate

practices. These practices indicated teaching print awareness, comprehension, and reading skills

through childrens work and play. Then in 2000, the National Reading Panel (NRP) published a

report indicating the best approach to literacy instruction is one that incorporates the components

of explicit phonemic awareness instruction, systematic phonics instruction, fluency instruction,

vocabulary instruction, and instruction on comprehension strategies. Their findings indicate a

combination of these techniques will be effective for children to learn to read and write.

Phonemic Awareness
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Importance. Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate individual sounds

within words. According to Timothy Shanahan (2005), a member of the National Reading Panel,

being aware of sounds in spoken words can be a difficult task for young children. Their ability to

hear individual sounds within words vary greatly, and this variation led some scientists to

hypothesize that phonemic awareness might be an essential early reading skill (p.6). If a child

cannot separate sounds within words, then they will have a difficult time matching sounds with

letters when learning to read. Shanahan (2005) further addresses the 52 studies examined by the

NRP on teaching phonemic awareness and considered the impact of phonemic awareness on

three types of learners: young children who were at risk of failure, young children progressing

normally, and older children who were learning disabled. These studies found that phonemic

awareness instruction improved the childrens phonemic awareness ability, which in turn led to

higher achievement in early literacy. Therefore, in order for children to be successful readers,

phonemic awareness skills must be well developed.

Instruction. Phonemic awareness instruction is most effective when taught in small

groups and explicitly so that children are able to apply skills to reading and writing (National

Reading Panel, 2000). Skills such as blending (pronouncing sounds together to form a word) and

segmenting (dividing words into sounds) were found to be most helpful in learning how to

decode and spell words. According to the NRP (2000), data from studies indicate that phonemic

awareness instruction does not need to be long periods of time in order to be effective. Rather,

sessions lasting 15 to 25 minutes per day are recommended, or as needed to meet the needs of an

individual child. Hallie Kay Yopp and Ruth Helen Yopp (2000) state in their article, that

phonemic awareness activities should be child appropriate and playful, deliberate and

intentional, and can readily be included into a comprehensive reading program. Activities can be
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modified and adapted depending on the purpose. Yopp & Yopp (2000) indicate the use of

concrete objects and visual cues to represent sounds or focusing on familiar letters/sounds that

can be elongated aide in supporting phonemic awareness development in children that are not

catching on. Phonemic awareness instruction should be thoughtful and a conscious component of

early literacy programs.

Connection. Based on reflections of my own teaching experience, I can see and

understand how phonemic awareness is an important factor to early literacy development. For

my kindergarteners, this concept is difficult when initially taught, but given the opportunity to

practice it becomes easier with time. My students who demonstrate a higher ability in phonemic

awareness do substantially better in reading emergent reader texts and writing simple sentences.

Knowing this, I have phonemic awareness instruction each day during my literacy block so that

all my students have the opportunity to develop and build this foundational skill.

At my school site, our primary grade classrooms utilize Heggertys phonemic awareness

guide to teach. The guide provides detailed instruction on phonemic awareness skills (blending,

segmenting, isolating beginning, middle, ending sounds, etc.) for each week and will

progressively get more difficult the further students venture. I began utilizing this guide when it

was first introduced to us during my second year of teaching and I absolutely love it. The

improvement I saw in terms of phonemic awareness between my first years class and my second

years class was astonishing.

I also realized that my English language learners (ELLs) and learners with Individualized

Education Plans (IEP) experienced great difficulty with the phonemic awareness activities. Some

methods in which I adapted instruction was to include visuals or manipulatives when providing

them with words to segment or sounds to blend. I also incorporated total physical response
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(TPR) movements in association with the skills like figuratively chopping their arm when

isolating sounds. Our school also has a license for the computerized learning program, iReady. It

provides reading instruction through the guise of games and within it are activities on phonemic

awareness development. Whether my students receive instruction from me or through a

technology program, my students are provided opportunities to develop phonemic awareness

skills daily.

Phonics

Importance. Phonics is another important component of early literacy. Phonics refers to

how letters and sounds correspond to each other and how it can be used to decode or pronounce

words in text. According to the National Reading Panel (2000), the primary focus of phonics

instruction is to help learners understand how letters correspond to sounds and spelling patterns

so that it may be applied to beginning reading. They examined 38 studies involving phonics

instruction to determine its relation to reading improvement and its benefits towards literacy.

Data indicated that the use of phonics instruction enhances childrens success in learning to

read and is significantly more effective than instruction that teaches little to no phonics

(Questions Guiding the NRP Analysis of Phonics Instruction Section, para. 3). The effects of

phonics instruction were most significant in kindergarten and first grade. In those grades,

noticeable improvement on word recognition, spelling skills, and a positive impact on reading

comprehension was evident (National Reading Panel, 2000). The NRPs findings indicated that

phonics instruction should be implemented at those early ages in order to promote a faster start in

learning to read.

Instruction. Shanahan (2005) states that phonics instruction should coincide with

phonemic awareness instruction. He reports the NRPs research indicating that the key to phonics
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and phonemic awareness instruction is to teach phonics until students can easily decode words

and to teach phonemic awareness until students can easily segment words. Some programs of

instruction introduce phonemic awareness and then follow with phonics while others mix the two

skills together (Shanahan, 2005). However, both methods are proven effective and there is not a

right or wrong sequence to teaching it.

According to the National Reading Panel (2000), phonics should be taught explicitly and

systematically a planned sequential introduction of phonic elements through teaching and

practice. They further explain the several different approaches to teaching phonics: synthetic

phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics, analogy phonics, onset-rime phonics, and phonics

through spelling. All approaches are explicit and systematic, but content and application vary in

terms of approach. Peter Fisher (2008) specifies in his article, that for students to become good

readers, we must teach them various possible ways to decode words so that they do not become

dependent on one strategy. It is important for teachers to understand the different approaches to

teaching phonics and tailor their phonics instruction to meet the needs of childrens varying

abilities.

Connection. For my kindergartens, I realize my students who have a better

understanding of letter sounds do significantly better at decoding emergent text than my students

who do not know all their letter sounds. I also noticed that the most effective approach in

teaching phonics with my group of students is through explicit phonics or synthetic phonics.

Majority of my students are ELLs or are children coming from a low socioeconomic background

that come to school without knowledge on letter names or sounds. That is why, at the beginning

of the year, I use explicit phonics to teach the letters and their corresponding sounds. I do this

through what I call the action alphabet, where students produce the sound, say its name, and
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demonstrate an action to go with it. Due to majority of my students being ELLs, I chose to

modify my instruction with TPR so that recognition of letters is mastered sooner.

Once my students have some knowledge of letters and sounds, I begin demonstrating

how to decode words by blending individual sounds. As my students begin to understand the

concept of blending individual sounds to decode, I also introduce other approaches to phonics to

provide them with knowledge on various methods. Analogy phonics, recognizing a familiar rime

segment then blending the onset to read the word, is another approach I often use with my

kindergarteners. When my students have a good grasp on letter sounds, the ability to decode text

becomes easier for them. Similarly, once they understand how to decode text, reading simple

sentences from emergent readers become easier too.

Fluency

Importance. Another important component of literacy instruction is reading fluency.

Fluency is the ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. Shanahan

(2005) reports how the 51 studies examined by the NRP on oral fluency instruction found

evidence supporting the idea that teaching oral fluency positively impacts reading achievement.

He indicates that fluency instruction not only improves oral reading fluency, but also improves

childrens decoding, word recognition, and reading comprehension. If a child is not able to read

with fluency, it will be difficult for the child to recall information being read or connect that

information to personal experiences or background knowledge. Fluency is an important factor

for reading comprehension.

Instruction. The National Reading Panel (2000) states, reading practice is generally

recognized as an important contributor to fluency and the two instructional approaches for

reading practice is guided oral repeated reading and independent silent reading (Fluency section,
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para. 2). Guided oral repeated reading encourages students to read orally with feedback. It

incorporates guidance from teachers, parents, or peers. On the other hand, independent silent

reading encourages students to read on their own without feedback. The NRP (2000) found that

guided repeated oral reading had significant and positive impact on fluency, word recognition,

and comprehension across grade levels. On the contrary, studies do not indicate that independent

silent reading practice improves reading skills, but it also does not negate the positive correlation

it has with reading fluency. According to the NRP, more sufficient data from well-designed

studies is necessary to determine its impact on reading skills.

Whether it is through guided repeated oral reading or independent silent reading, Timothy

Rasinski (2012) states in his article, fluency instruction should be authentic, engaging, and

meaningful to the classroom. Stories from basal reading series or trade books are helpful

materials for guided repeated oral reading as materials are authentic and readily accessible for

groups of students. The article notes that another approach to engage students in fluency

instruction is through performance and voice. Texts that lend themselves to performance and

voice include readers theater scripts, dialogues, monologues, poetry, songs, narratives or

stories and is embedded in them a strong sense of voice (Rasinski, 2012, p.520). The idea of

repeatedly reading with guidance for the purpose of performing will result in improvement with

reading fluency and comprehension. Katie Toppel (2015) states in her article, Another fun way

to engage students is by incorporating rhythmic patterns, music, and movement (p.558).

Fluency instruction may become boring to young children when having to read the same text

over and over again, so another method to adapt instruction is by using texts with rhythm, music,

or incorporating movement along with it. Young children are often more engaged and motivated

to learn when music or movement is involved.

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Connection. In my classroom, I utilize various approaches to teach fluency. The first, and

what I think is most commonly used by educators, is small group guided reading. During my

small group guided reading, we read stories from Capstone publishing that contain repetitive and

predictable text. Books are selected based on their ability level and interest or correlating theme.

This approach helps my students learn to read with expression and accuracy since I am there to

guide and support them. Another approach is through poems, songs, or chants related to the

theme being taught. The poem, song, or chant will be displayed on chart paper or sentence strips

on pocket charts. As a class or group, we would read, sing, or chant to build fluency. My students

find the poems, songs, and chants enjoyable and fun due to the content and rhymes. An approach

I use to teaching letter or word recognition fluency is through engaging activities like Fluency

and Fitness. My students absolutely love these activities and are completely engaged in

learning. They require students to read the letter or word being displayed via PowerPoint quickly

because it changes within seconds. After a few letters or words, music will play and will instruct

them to do a physical activity like jumping jacks or arm stretches. After a minute or less of

physical activity, letters or words will be displayed for students to read again and the process

repeats itself. This activity helps build letter and word recognition fluency while incorporating

exercise and fun. As their teacher, I try my best to plan and incorporate instructional activities

that engage them in building fluency through meaningful and fun ways.

Vocabulary

Importance. Vocabulary instruction is another critical aspect of literacy development and

it refers to teaching word meanings to students. Vocabulary is without a doubt essential to

reading comprehension. If a child does not know or understand the meaning of a word, then the

child will not be able to comprehend the meaning of what is read or said. Learning vocabulary
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can be incidental or direct. According to Shanahan (2005), incidental learning of vocabulary can

come from interactions with peers, the media, or reading texts. Thus, direct learning is the

purposeful instruction of vocabulary. In other words, vocabulary can be implicitly or explicitly

taught. Shanahan (2005) reports how 45 studies, reviewed by the NRP, on vocabulary instruction

found that teaching vocabulary words to students improved reading achievement as measured by

reading comprehension tests. He further reports that studies on both explicit and implicit

vocabulary instruction were found to be beneficial to students, and that explicit instruction

provided students with clear, consistent gains in reading. Therefore, in order to help ensure

growth in literacy performance, vocabulary should both be taught directly and indirectly

(Shanahan, 2005, p.24). It is apparent through research findings that vocabulary instruction is

beneficial to reading achievement and should be incorporated in early literacy development.

Instruction. Vocabulary instruction can be done through a variety of approaches.

According to the National Reading Panel (2000), the use of computers was found to be more

effective than traditional methods when teaching vocabulary. As we are now in the digital age of

literacy, the idea of utilizing technology to engage and support learning is understandable. The

NRP (2000) also states that vocabulary should also be taught with repetition and multiple

exposures through a variety of methods because a single vocabulary instruction method will

not result in optimal learning (Vocabulary Findings and Determinations, para. 2). As educators,

we need to provide students with opportunities to learn in a variety of ways and teach different

methods in order to accommodate all types of learners. Susan B. Neuman and Kathleen Roskos

(2012) recommend teaching vocabulary prior to reading so that students learn and understand

keywords that they will likely encounter or hear. They recommend introducing target words and

provide a child-friendly definition of them then reinforce the word meaning by using it in
Early Literacy 10

content (p.64-65). This method not only helps children build their vocabulary but will also help

with comprehending the text being read. Vocabulary should also be revisited and reviewed so

that it can become a part of the childrens knowledge base (Neuman & Roskos, 2012). After

teaching the new word, reviewing or revisiting the term after a few days or even weeks promote

multiple exposures. Multiple exposures will help ensure students understanding and ability to

retain the term.

Connection. In my opinion, vocabulary instruction is extremely important in early

literacy because children need to learn words in order to develop and expand their knowledge in

general. Learning vocabulary is especially important for English language learners because it not

only pertains to reading and writing, but also effectively communicating with others. Since my

kindergartners are all essentially learning the English language, I try my best to provide explicit

instruction of vocabulary but also implicit instruction. A lot of times, implicit instruction occurs

when they hear a word being used but do not understand. Their curiosity causes them to ask me,

and from there it becomes a teachable moment. Explicit instruction occurs before my read aloud

of a text. Typically, before I read aloud to them, I introduce vocabulary words I pulled from the

story. These words are usually important terms that they should know in order to be able to

comprehend the text. Often for vocabulary instruction, I utilize pictures and cards with simple

definitions written to go with the vocabulary word because majority of my students are unable to

read. If possible, I would also incorporate movement or actions to go with the word to help

students remember the term. These cards are displayed on a pocket chart and my students are

allowed to utilize and refer back to them throughout the day or week. When reviewing the words,

I often provide examples of how a word can be used in a sentence or would have students

develop their own sentence of how to use the word. To make instruction more engaging, I often
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utilize Kagan structures to encourage cooperative learning and with one another. Toppel (2015)

states in her article, Research affirms that student achievement drastically improves when

students have opportunities to collaborate (p.556). The use of Kagan structures are especially

helpful in encouraging cooperative learning and can be adapted and used in any subject or grade.

I utilize Kagan structures such as stand up, hand up, pair up or quiz, quiz, trade during

vocabulary instruction to help reinforce all students learning and understanding of the words. It

also makes learning more enjoyable and fun.

Comprehension

Importance. The last critical component to literacy development is reading

comprehension. Reading comprehension refers to the interpreting and understanding of

information within text. Shanahan (2005) states, comprehension is about the construction of

meaning more than about passive remembering (p.28). It is the process of interpreting

information that allows students to recall and understand the meaning presented. Without the

ability to interpret information, a person would not be able to understand anything. That is why it

is important to teach strategies for children to use for comprehending text. Comprehension

strategies are intentional actions that a reader can take to increase the chances of understanding

or remembering the information in a text (Shanahan, 2005). 205 studies regarding text

comprehension instruction were examined by the NRP and 16 comprehension strategies were

found to be helpful in improving reading comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000). Their

data suggests teaching and using a combination of strategies to be most effective. Therefore, it is

important for educators to know and understand various comprehension strategies so that

students are able to learn and grasp the concept effectively.

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Instruction. The following comprehension strategies were found by the NRP to be most

successful in helping children comprehend text: asking questions, comprehension monitoring,

summarization, answering questions, story mapping, graphic organizers, cooperative learning,

prior knowledge, and mental imagery (Shanahan, 2005). Students should be taught the various

comprehension strategies and encouraged to apply multiple strategies when comprehending text.

An approach to teaching all strategies effectively is reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching

provides an excellent model for all strategy instruction (Shanahan, 2005, p.31). It is a gradual

release approach where the teacher models or demonstrates the task first, then allows for students

to practice with guidance and support from the teacher, and finally students independently

practice the skill without support. Another familiar name for this approach is the I do it, we do

it, you do it method. A variety of instructional strategies can be applied to teaching

comprehension strategies. As teachers we plan and adapt instruction based on our students. Ellin

Olver Keene and Susan Zimmermann (2013) encourage educators to incorporate instructional

strategies that promote thinking, discussion, and careful reading when teaching comprehension.

They continue to say that these strategies should not be turned into a mere labeling system,

which drains away the enjoyment and true grappling with the ideas in the text (Keene &

Zimmermann, 2013, p.605). Without engagement in learning and executing comprehension

strategies, students will less likely be able to do well in comprehending a text.

Connection. When I reflect on my own teaching of comprehension strategies, I realize I

do so in a reciprocal teaching approach. During my read aloud instruction, I often think aloud

and model how to interpret or analyze information within the text to construct meaning. I often

read a text more than once throughout the week, so I would explicitly teach one comprehension

strategy to my students each day using the same text. Throughout the days of the week, my
Early Literacy 13

students would practice using multiple comprehension strategies to understand and comprehend

the story. As my students begin to demonstrate understanding and an ability to do the strategy

effectively, I would begin incorporating multiple strategies during one sitting. The most frequent

combination I have recently been utilizing is prior knowledge, question answering, question

asking, mental imagery, and graphic organizers.

An instructional strategy that I use when teaching comprehension through read alouds is

dramatization: fluctuating voice volume, dramatizing characters, incorporating movement, etc.

Toppel (2015) explains that the use of dramatization provides teachers with the opportunity to

enhance reading programs with some features of ethnic and cultural diversity. The use of

dramatization engages the readers and thus helps foster critical thinking and comprehension. I

also realize that the use of dramatization and movement help my ELLs understand the meaning

of words in the sentence better. I began using dramatization often during read alouds because my

kindergarteners had a difficult time sitting still and focusing. Without focus, my students are

unable to learn the comprehension strategies I plan to teach.

Conclusion

As educators, it is our responsibility to provide students with opportunities to learn and

develop important skills required for them to read and write. The idea of early literacy began

back in the 1980s focusing on concepts such as print awareness and comprehension skills. It has

now evolved into focusing on components of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary,

and comprehension strategies as founded by research evaluated by the National Reading Panel.

These components are critical to providing the best approach to literacy instruction. Research

and studies will continue to happen in order to improve literacy development and instruction. It

is our responsibility as educators to be aware of the numerous valuable research so that we may
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improve our instructional practices. It is our responsibility to educate these children and prepare

them early with literacy skills so that they become good readers and writers. It is our

responsibility to provide various opportunities and methods of learning so that we meet the needs

of all our learners. We impact the lives our students tremendously with our teaching. We have a

huge responsibility as teachers. However, despite the weight of responsibility and stress, the job

of a teacher is also a very rewarding one. Ultimately, we are the ones that help make a difference

in childrens lives and help them become the intelligent individuals that they can be. Each year, I

smile when my students move on to first grade. Their growth as learners make me proud to be

called their teacher.

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References

Fisher, P. (2008). Learning about literacy: From theories to trends. Teacher Librarian, 35(3), 8-

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Giles, R. M., & Tunks, K. (2014). Teachers thoughts on teaching reading: An investigation of

early childhood teachers perceptions of literacy acquisition. Early Childhood Education

Journal, 43(1), 523-530.

Keene, E.O., & Zimmermann, S. (2013). Years later, comprehension strategies still at work. The

Reading Teacher, 66(8), 601-606.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the

scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction.

Retrieved from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development website:

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/pages/smallbook.aspx

Neuman, S.B., & Roskos, K. (2012). More than teachable moments: Enhancing oral vocabulary

instruction in your classroom. The Reading Teacher, 66(1), 63-67.

Rasinski, T. (2012). Why reading fluency should be hot! The Reading Teacher, 65(8), 516-522.

Shanahan, T. (2005). The national reading panel report: practical advice for teachers.

Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.

Toppel, K. (2015). Enhancing core reading programs with culturally responsive practices. The

Reading Teacher, 68(7), 552-559.

Yopp, H.K., & Yopp, R.H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the

classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 130-143.