Outline of Functional Organization of Nervous - Bundles of myelinated and unmyelinated

System axons
- Enclosed in several layers of connective
Overview of the Nervous System tissue
o Endoneurium
- One of the bodys homeostatic control Wraps each axon
systems o Perineurium
- Contains sensors, integrating centers, Wraps a bundle (fascicle) of
and output pathways axon
- More interneurons in a pathway = o Epineurium
greater number of interconnections and Wraps the entire nerve
ability to integrate info - Mixed Nerves
- 2/48!!!!!! o Contain both afferent and efferent
neurons
Cnidarians
Each neuron is either
- Most nervous systems are organized into afferent (sensory) or
3 functional divisions: efferent (motor)
o Afferent sensory
o Integrating Nervous Systems Across Animal Groups
o Efferent motor
- Cephalization Occurs in most animals
- Cnidarians are an exception
o Cnidarians and echinoderms lack
o Nervous system is interconnected
cephalization
web or nerve net
- Organisms with more complex nervous
o Neurons are not specialized into
systems have more neurons = more
diff. divisions
synapses
o Neurons carry AP in both directions
o Increased # of synapses allow for
Neurons not specific
more integration of info, and more
sensory/motor
complex behaviors
Nervous System Terms: o Memories are stored in synapses, a
complex nervous system also
- Bilaterally symmetrical allows for a greater potential for
o Right and left side are mirror learning
images
- Cephalization FIGURE 8.4!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
o Sense organs are concentrated at
anterior end The Vertebrate CNS
- Ganglia
o Groups of neuronal cell bodies - High degree of cephalization
- Nuclei - Uniqe in having a hollow dorsal nerve
o Groups of neuronal cell bodies cord (spinal cord)
- Part of Nervous system is encased within
within the brain
- Brain cartilage or bone
o Integrating center made up of o CNS = brain + spinal cord)
- Part of Nervous system extends to
clusters of nuclei
- Tracts periphery of body
o Bunds of many axons within the o PNS = nerves outside CNS
CNS
Cranial & Spinal Nerves
- Nerve
o Bundle of many axons outside of Cranial Nerves
CNS
- Exit directly from skull
Structure of a Nerve - 13 pairs
- Some afferent, some motor, some mixed
Spinal Nerves
- Branch from spinal cord
- Enter and exit between adjacent
vertebrae
- Named based on region of vertebral
column from which they emerge
o Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
and coccygeal
- Mixed nerves
Gray and White Matter
- Brain and spinal cord contain 2 types of
tissues:
o Gray Matter (neuronal cell bodies)
o White Matter (tracts of axons and
myelin sheaths)
- Spinal cord white matter on surface, gray
matter inside
- Cerebral Cortex gray matter on surface,
white matter inside
CNS is isolated and protected
- Meninges
o Layers of CT surrounding brain +
Spinal Cord
o # of meninges vary across taxa
(mammals have 3; fishes have 1)
- Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
o Fills spaces within the CNS and
acts as shock absorber
- Blood brain barrier
o Tight junctions in brain capillary
endothelium limit passage of
solutes from bloodstream into CSF
The Vertebrate Brain
- Brain is an extension of SC
o Nerve tracts extend between brain
and SC
- Several cavities called ventricles
containing CSF
- 3 regions
o Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Reflexes and involuntary
behaviors
o Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Coordination of sensory info
Relay center in mammals
o Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Integration of olfactory info
with other senses
Regulate body temp,
reproduction, eating,
emotion
Learning and memory in
mammals
Brain Size and Morphology
- Most groups of verts have the same
major brain structures although these
structure vary in relative size
- Much of variation due to body size
- Birds and mammals have larger brains
than other verts
- Animals with large brains have more
neurons
o More complex integ centers and
more behaviors
Parts of Mammalian Brain
- TABLE 8.2!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Cerebrum
- Outer layer is cortex
- Divided into 2 cerebral hemispheres
o Left side = controls right side of
body
o Right side = controls left side of
body
**neurons pass between the
2 sides via corpus callosum
Hypothalamus
- Located at base of forebrain
o Under thalamus
- Helps maintain homeostasis
o Body temp, thirst, hunger,
reproduction
o Interaction with autonomic
nervous system
o Regulates secretion of pituitary
hormones
Limbic System
- A network of connected structures that
lie between the cortex and the rest of the
brain
- Influences emotions, motivation, memory
- Sometimes called the emotional brain
- Includes hypothalamus and other parts
o Amygdala
 Aggression and fear
responses
o Hippocampus
Converts Short- term
memory to long term
memory
o Olfactory bulbs
Sense of smell
Topology of the Cerebral Cortex
- Each region of cortex corresponds to a
specific part of the body that it controls
by motor output or from which it receives
sensory input
- Size of brain region devoted to diff. parts
of body varies widely

Thalamus Association Areas of Cerebrum

- Large grouping of gray matter above
hypothalamus
- Part of the reticular formation
- Receives input from limbic system and all
senses EXCEPT olfaction
- Relays info to cortex
- Acts as a filter by blocking some afferent
signals
Epithalamus
- Located above the thalamus
- Habenular nuclei
o Communicates with the
tegmentation of the midbrain
- Pineal Complex
o Establishes circadian rhythms
o Secretes melatonin
- Cortex
o Integrates and interprets sensory
info
o Initiates voluntary movements
o Takes over midbrain fxn of lower
verts
o Isocortex (outer layer
For cognition and higher
brain fxn
More folded in advanced
mammals
Gyri
Folds
Sulcus
Grooves
Cortical Layers
- 6 Layers
- Differs in shape and density of neurons
- Variable number of connections within
each layer
Cortical Lobes
- Lobes named according to their function
or overlying bones of the skull
- Receives info from adjacent areas and
further process and integrate info
- Size of areas is larger in animals with
more complex behaviors
PNS DIVISONS!!! FIGURE 7.16!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Autonomic Nervous System Involuntary
Nervous System
- Involved in Homeostasis
- Branches of ANS
o Sympathetic
Most active during periods
of stress/ physical activity
Fight or flight system
o Parasympathetic
Most active during rest
Rest and digesting system
o Enteric
Independent of 2 other
systems
Affects digestion by
innervating the organs of
the alimentary canal
Maintaining Homeostasis
- Balancing of sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems
- 3 mechanisms for regulating autonomic
function
o Dual innervations
Most organs receive input
from bothsystems
o Antagonistic Action
One system stimulates while
the other inhibits
o Basal Tone
Under resting conditions
Autonomic neurons carry
APs
- FIGURE 8.17!!!!!!!!!!!
Antagonistic Action Table 8.3!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Similarities in Autonomic Pathways
- Pathways contain 2 neurons in series
o Preganglionic
May synapse with many
postganglionic neurons and
instrinsic neurons
o Postganglionic
Neurotransmitter is released
at effector organ from
varicosities
- Pre & post neurons synapse with each
other in the autonomic ganglia
Differences in Autonomic Pathways
- Differences between the Sympathetic (S)
and Parasympathetic (PS) branches
o Preganglionic Cell body Locations
S thoracic and lumbar
regions of spinal cord
PS hind brain and sacral
region of spinal cord
o Ganglia location
S chain that runs close to
spinal cord
PS close to effector
- Number of postganglionic neurons that
synapse with a single preganglionic
neuron
Only Sympathetic Innervation
- Some effectors receive only sympathetic
innervations
o Adrenal medulla
Collection of modified
postganglionic neurons
o Sweat Glands
o Arrector pili muscles in the skin
o Kidneys
o Blood vessels
o FIGURE 8.20
Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic Systems
TABLE 8.4!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Regulation of the Autonomic System
Figure 8.21!!!!!
Autonomic Reflex Arcs
- Most autonomic changes occur via simple
neural circuits that do not involve
conscious centers of the brain
- Figure 8.22!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Somatic Motor Pathways Voluntary Nervous
System
- Control only 1 type of effector skeletal
muscles
- Usually under conscious control
o Cerebrum
- Cell bodies of motor neurons are located
in the CNS
- Monosynaptic
o Axons are very long, and extend all
the way muscle
- Axon splits into a cluster of axon
terminals at the NMJ release
acetylcholine
- Synaptic cleft between motor neuron and
the muscle is very narrow
- Effect on the muscle cell always
excitatory
o Eg. Causes depolarization and
contraction
- Some pathways are not under conscious
control
o Eg. Knee jerk reflex
Animal Behaviors
- 3 Categories
o Reflex behaviors
Involuntary and simple
o Rhythmic behaviors
Underlie locomotion,
breathing and the fxn of the
heart
o Voluntary behaviors
Most complex and diverse
Reflex Arcs
- Least complex integrated responses
- Can involve as few as 2 neurons
(monosynaptic) or more than 2
(polysynaptic)
- Figure 8.23!!!!
Convergence and Divergence in Reflex Arcs
- Neurons in reflex arcs arranged in 2
ways:
 o Convergence Retention and retrieval of
Allows spatial summation info
o Divergence o Plasticity
Amplify signals Changes in synaptic and
- Some reflex arcs have both convergence neuronal function in
and divergence response to stimuli
- FIGURE 8.24!!!!!!!!!!
Invertebrate Learning and Memory
Rhythmic Behaviors
- Well studied in sea slug (Aplysia)
- Governed by pattern generators - Habituation
o Groups of neurons that produce o Decline in response to a stimulus
self sustaining rhtymic after repeated exposure
depolarizations o Allows animal to ignore
- 2 types of pattern generators unimiportant stimuli and focus on
o Pace maker cell
novel stimuli
A cell generates o Caused by changes in presynaptic
spontaneous depolarizations axon terminal
that control the firing of all Inactivation of Ca2+
the cells in the network channels
Neurotransmitter release
o Emergent property of the network - Sensitization
Rhythmic depolarization o Increase in response to gentle
occurs because of the stimulus after exposure to a strong
organization of neurons in stimulus
the network o Caused by changes in presynaptic
axon terminal
Swimming Behavior of Leech
Involves a secondary circuit
- FIGURE 8.26!!!!!!!!!!!!
Serotonin released by
Tetrapod Locomotion facilitating
interneuron binds to
- Involves pattern generators and reflexes receptors
o Brainstem initiates the process and Activation of G
regulates speed proteins
o The spinal cord acts as a pattern Inactivation of K
generator channels, AP duration
o Afferent signals are sent back to
Ca2+ influx
CNS
neurotransmitter
o Cortex is involved with guiding
release by sensory
locomotion in complex envi
neuron
o Cerebellum coordinates locomotion
Mechanism of Serotonins effects
Voluntary movements!!!!! FIGURE 8.28
- FIGURE 8.31!!!!!!!!
Learning and Memory
Memory in Mammals
- Most animals can learn and form
memories due to the plasticity of the - Hippocampus involved in Long term
nervous system memory, but memories are stored in
o Learning cerebrum
Process of acquiring new o Memories are stored by increasing
info the efficiency of the synapse
o Memory
between 2 neurons
- Long term potentiation (LTP) increase in the response of the
o Repetitive stimulation of postsynaptic neuron
hippocampal tissue leads to an