Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

The Cultural Appropriation of Native American Cultural Symbols within the Majority

Culture of the United States

Kelly Highum and Hannah Baker

Winona State University

Abstract

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

The purpose of this research is to analyze the effect of cultural appropriation of Native American
cultural symbols, traditions, etc. by the United States majority culture on cross-cultural minority-
majority relations. We examined the macro-level effects of Native American cultural
appropriation on minority-majority communication relations, and conducted a micro-level
qualitative study. Four self-identified Native American students currently attending Winona State
University were recruited for the project. This research highlights the importance of examining
historical components when discussing minority-majority cross-cultural relations; cultural
appropriation is a modern day method of continued American colonization. We will describe the
connection between cultural appropriation and its erasure of Native identity, redefinition of
Native cultural symbols, and forced Native assimilation into the majority culture of the United
States.

Keywords: cultural appropriation, Native American, minority-majority communication

The Cultural Appropriation of Native American Cultural Symbols within the Majority Culture of

the United States

Why Did We Study This Culture?

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Twenty-first century globalization has amplified the amount of communication occurring

across cultures; the mixing of world cultures through different ethnicities, religions and

nationalities has increased with advanced communication, transportation and technology.

Cultural diffusion has allowed for an increase in public knowledge about previously covert

cultural practices; unfortunately, specific cultural practices and symbols that originate with the

native population of the continental United States have been appropriated by the ruling majority

culture. We chose to study the cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols by the

majority culture of the United States in order to emphasize the majority and minority cross-

cultural communication involved. Cultural appropriation can be defined as the taking, from a

culture that is not ones own, intellectual property, cultural expressions and artifacts, history and

ways of knowledge (Tsosie). America has a long history of oppression and exploitation of other

human populations, beginning with the conquest and genocide of Native Americans; we believe

it is important to examine the historical exploitation of native peoples by Western imperialism

and the United States government in order to fully understand the implications of modern day

appropriation of Native American cultural symbols. The United States majority culture has

historically colonized and commodified Native American people, traditions, and culture; this

appropriation of minority Native American culture continues today through popular media,

counterculture movements, and stereotypical depictions of the members of Native American

minority culture. The normalization of the objectification of Native culture, history, and tradition

aids to encourage modern day cultural appropriation.

Relevant literature on the cultural appropriation of Native American symbols was a

necessary component to examining the effect of this on intercultural communication between

minority and majority members. Shari Huhndorf, the author of Going Native, asserts throughout

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

the twentieth century, white America has repeatedly enacted rites of conquest to instantiate its

power over Native peoples, through confiscation of tribal lands and resources, and appropriation

of Native cultures and identities. Native culture is essential to the survival of Indian Nations as

distinctive cultural and political groups (Tsosie). Native American cultural stories have slowly

become appropriated by the United States majority culture; Native cultural stories are the

collective past, and the collective future of the Native people. Stories are the bedrock of cultural

survival for Native people, because they contain the philosophical core of tribal cultures,

including the norms and values that structure tribal world views (Tsosie). The cultural

appropriation by the majority culture of these Native cultural stories threatens to erase and

overpower the very core of tribal culture and history.

The United States majority culture exercises power over the Native American minority

culture by appropriating Native cultural symbols without popular media in order to turn a profit

(Whitt). Racist dimensions of Native American people are promoted by Hollywood, depicting

Native culture as a unified set of values, beliefs and practices; in reality there are over 562

federally recognized Native tribes within the United States, who hold diverse traditions, beliefs,

and are only unified by their common history of exploitation by the majority culture (Whitt).

This is a result of the outgroup homogeneity effect that affects the majority culture of the United

States. Hollywood, and the mainstream media as a whole, is presented from the standpoint of the

majority culture, largely erasing the standpoint of minority groups, specifically in accordance

with the Native American historical experience (Whitt). The commodification of Native

American culture within popular film media has historically promoted racist stereotypes about

Native American culture and its people. The 1995 Disney film Pocahontas is an example of the

racist and sexist depictions of Native American women within the majority culture of the United

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

States (Ono, Buescher). In the film, Pocahontas is portrayed as the White Mans Indian, a

caricature of Native American women, created to please the white majority and fulfill the racist

stereotypes promoted within popular American media (Ono, Buescher). The cultural

appropriation of Native American culture within popular American media promotes racist

stereotypes and fantasies about Native American culture and people; the discourse allows for the

majority culture to profit off of these racist depictions, and contributes to the stereotypes

surrounding Native American cultural symbols (Ono, Buescher).

Commercial exploitation of Native American spiritual traditions has permeated the New

Age movement since its emergence in the 1980s (Aldred). The cultural appropriation of Native

American cultural symbols and spiritual traditions has become an inherent component of the

New Age movement. The New Age movement focuses on spiritual growth and community

belonging; the majority of those who practice within this movement tend to be white, middle-

aged, and college educated, with a middle- to upper-middle-class income (Aldred). The members

of the New Age movement claim to be members of the counterculture, rebelling against the

majority culture within the United States; in reality, the members of this movement are

contributing directly to the commercial exploitation of Native American culture through

consumerism (Aldred). The cultural appropriation of Native American spiritual traditions and

cultural symbols is being aided by the New Age movement. Radical environmentalism has also

contributed to the cultural appropriation of Native American beliefs through their movement as

well (Taylor).

The social-structural approach to minority-majority cross-cultural relations focuses on

collectivities of people: groups and societies. It suggests that the nature of interaction between

racial and ethnic groups is determined not by the characteristics of individual members but rather

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

by the nature of the groups themselves and by the society in which they are found (reading:

majority and minority group relations, p. 71). The social-structural approach focuses on the

nature of the political system, the nature of the economic system, and the historical components

of both systems, as well as the historical relationship between the majority and minority groups.

This approach is applicable to current cross-cultural communication between Native culture

minority members and majority members. Noels theory of ethnic stratification, based on

ethnocentrism, competition or opportunity for exploitation, and unequal power, directly

correlates with the historical exploitation and oppression of the Native minority by the majority

white population within the United States. Cultural appropriation of Native culture by the

majority culture within the United States promotes stereotypical depictions of Native culture and

people, promoting the outgroup homogeneity effect for the Native minority.

Why Did We Use This Method?

As researchers, we wanted to examine the historical significance behind the cultural

appropriation of Native American cultural symbols both by reviewing relevant research, and in-

depth interviews with Native American people. We used a small sample of self-identified Native

American students currently attending Winona State University to conduct our research. We

interviewed four students who self-identified as having at least partial Native American heritage;

we interviewed three women, and one man about the Native American culture and its symbols,

as well as their own personal opinions about the cultural appropriation of Native American

cultural symbols by the majority culture. We reviewed relevant research in order to further

understand the historical oppression of Native American people, and how it is a present problem

within our society, blatantly displayed through the appropriation of Native American cultural

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

symbols. The majority culture appropriates and commodifies these symbols, and we used direct

in depth interviews to analyze this practice on members of the Native American culture, as well

as reviewing relevant literature in order to further understand the historical Western imperialism

present behind modern day cultural appropriation and its effect on majority-minority relations.

We chose to study cultural appropriation of Native American symbols, traditions,

heritage, etc. by using both a macro and micro level viewpoint in order to understand the effect

of this modern day form of colonization on majority-minority relations. We examined a macro

level view of Native cultural appropriation by the majority media, and then we examined of

micro level view of the same phenomenon. We interviewed four Native American students

attending Winona State University, and questioned them about their experiences within the

Native minority culture, as well as their opinions about modern day Native cultural appropriation

and exploitation by the majority culture.

Who Did We Study?

We studied four Native American students currently attending Winona State University

through in-depth interviews. We used relevant previous literature in order to gain a more macro

view of how cultural appropriation is viewed by members of the Native American culture in

relation to the majority culture. We interviewed four self-identified Native students currently

attending Winona State University; we interviewed three women, and one man. Two of the

participants had Ojibwe heritage, one had Sioux heritage, and one had Chippewa heritage. The

participants were ages 19-22. The interviews remained anonymous, but all four participants

agreed to share their age, sex, heritage, and personal family history. Participant A was female,

nineteen years of age, and of Chippewa heritage. Participant B was female, twenty-one years of

age, and of Ojibwe heritage. Participant C was female, nineteen years of age, and of Sioux

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

heritage. Participant D was male, twenty-two years of age, and of Ojibwe heritage. The

interviews are available following the discussion of this project.

How Did We Conduct This Study?

We conducted this study using volunteers who agreed to participate in focus group

discussions. We interviewed four self-identified Native American students attending Winona

State University; we interviewed three women and one man. The interviews lasted approximately

thirty minutes each. Their responses were taken by type. We inquired about the students

experiences of oppression and discrimination as minority culture members by the majority

culture, specifically in relation the appropriation of Native American cultural symbols. We also

discussed their own personal opinions about the appropriation of their cultural symbols by the

majority culture. Our main goal through the conduction of these interviews way to allow for an

open dialogue about the cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols, and how

this has affected the students lives. We used relevant research to understand the cross cultural

communication between minority and majority cultures that is involved through cultural

appropriation.

1. What is your self-identified heritage?

2. Do you actively participate within the Native American culture? If so, how so?

3. What is cultural appropriation?

4. Where you ever teased/called names/looked down upon for your heritage?

5. What are some challenges of being a person of Native American heritage?

6. What are your feelings on cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols?

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

What Did We Find Out?

Participation within Native American Culture

Two of those interviewed have participated very little within Native American culture;

the other two Native students interviewed participated only minimally within the Native

American culture. Attendance of powwows and knowledge of traditional oral history was

common amongst Participant A and B. This knowledge of traditional Native American cultural

symbols and oral narratives was passed down from older generations (grandparents) in both

cases. Participants A, C, and D, were mainly raised within the majority culture; all three

participants were raised by a white parent, or a Native parent who assimilated within the majority

culture. Participant D discussed how he [doesnt] really look Native, so [he] figured [he] wasnt

really Native. This dissociation and disconnection from Native culture was common amongst all

four participants. The majority culture encourages people of Native American heritage to

assimilate within the majority culture; the participants felt a disconnect from their Native

American cultural heritage as a result of this pressure by the majority culture to conform.

Challenges of Being A Person of Native American Heritage

Participant A discussed how she grew up with White friends and family. [She] feel like

the Native part of myself has been slowly erased - and on purpose. I feel like I shouldnt have

Native pride. This theme of erasing Native culture and heritage by the majority culture is

discussed by all four participants. All four participants named stereotypes about Native people as

an obstacle confronting persons with Native American heritage. Participant C responded, no one

respects the culture, even when they [members of the majority culture] wear the headdress, or

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

traditional Native clothes. Native culture has become a fashion statement for hipster girls. The

four participants talked about specific racist stereotypes they have been subjected to because of

their Native heritage: chief, Pocahontas, alcoholic, homeless, lazy, and in one case, an

incidence of brown face. Halloween was specifically mentioned as an event that fosters

incidences of the cultural appropriation of Native cultural symbols by majority culture members.

The erasure of Native American culture and heritage is encouraged by the majority culture

through the cultural appropriation of Native symbols; by erasing the cultural and/or spiritual

meaning behavior specific traditions, clothing, etc. the majority culture pressures people of

Native American heritage to conform by redefining sacred symbols, traditions, and garments (e.i.

Halloween costumes promoting stereotypical depictions of Native Americans, as discussed

above).

Definition of Cultural Appropriation

The four participants collectively agreed that cultural appropriation of Native culture and

symbols is disrespectful and a form of mockery of Native culture by the majority culture.

Participant B defined cultural appropriation as the exploitation of Native culture for profit. Its a

new way for White people to colonize minority cultures - its a continuation of Americas history

of racism. Participant B has purely Native heritage - both of her parents are Ojibwe, and she

was born on Leech Lake Reservation in Cass Lake, Minnesota. Participant D was one-fourth

Ojibwe on his mothers side, but discussed his mothers feelings of shame for her extended

family, as well as having lighter skin than his brother and Native cousins. Participant A is half

Chippewa on her fathers side, but her father passed away when she was three; participant A was

raised by her mother, who is White, and was unaware of the discrimination her daughter faced as

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

a result of being brown and Native within the majority culture. Participant C is half Sioux on her

fathers side; however, her father was removed from his heritage and she attended a Minneapolis

public school with mostly White students. Although all four participants had Native ancestry,

participants A, C, D, voiced a disconnection from their Native heritage, and seemed

uncomfortable criticizing the majority culture that they were raised as partial members of.

Why Does This Matter?

Effective cross cultural communication between minority and majority culture members

is becoming increasingly important as the population of the United States continues to diversify.

Demographic researchers predict that by the year 2050, the United States will have a minority-

majority population: the majority of the population will belong to an ethnic and/or racial

minority group. The current White majority population of the United States systematically

oppresses, categorizes, and assigns racist stereotypes to minority populations; this includes the

Native American population. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, American Indians and

Alaska Native represent approximately 2% of the United States general population, 1.1% of

Minnesotas general population, and 0.3% of the general population of Winona, MN. We chose

to study the cultural appropriation of Native cultural symbols by the majority culture within the

United States in relation to cross-cultural minority-majority relations.

The normalization of the objectification of Native culture, history, and tradition by the

White majority culture within the United States aids to encourage modern day cultural

appropriation. Cultural appropriation and commodification of Native cultural symbols and oral

traditions is a form of racism generally overlooked or misjudged as cultural appreciation.

Cultural diffusion implies a respect for minority cultures, and a willingness by the majority

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

culture to appreciate and admire the historical components present behind the minority cultural

symbols and traditions being reference. This is not the case when discussing Native cultural

symbols, history, and traditions; the historical racism and exploitation of Native American

peoples by the majority culture within the United States continues through modern day cultural

appropriation.

In order to understand the cross-cultural communication involved, we examined the

social-structural approach to majority-minority relations. The social-structural approach

examines the historical cultural factors and how they contribute to the modern day economic and

political system. The United States majority culture has historically colonized and commodified

Native lands and people; this continues today through the commodification of Native traditions

and culture. Intergroup threat theory has historically affected the White majority culture and its

relations with minority groups; the majority culture feels symbolically threatened by diverse

minority cultures, and feels compelled to combat that threat. This reaction led to the genocide of

Native Americans by European Americans; this reaction by the majority culture to combat

symbolic threats by the Native culture continues through the commodification and redefinition

process of Native cultural symbols by the majority culture and the mainstream media.

We interviewed four Native American students attending Winona State University in

order to further understand the effect of cultural appropriation on minority-majority group

relations. Although the research results of our qualitative study were not statistically significant,

the interviews revealed a common disconnect from Native culture amongst those with Native

American ancestry raised within the majority culture. Although all four participants were aware

that the majority culture and mainstream media portrayed Native people, cultural symbols, and

traditions in stereotypical and demeaning ways, three out of the four participants in our study

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

were hesitant to criticize the majority culture. These three participants were raised solely by a

white parent, or by parents who had assimilated into the majority culture; the three participants

were partially Native, and were raised with little knowledge of the Native culture and heritage;

they were all raised in White-majority communities, and attended White-majority schools. Only

one participant interviewed had purely Native heritage; she was raised by parents active within

the Native community and culture; she attended a school where a sizable portion of her peers

were Native; she was born on a reservation and brought up to feel pride for her Native heritage.

The majority culture encourages minority group members to assimilate within the

majority culture; minority identities are systematically erased and demeaned, creating a sense of

shame amongst minority group members. Cultural appropriation of Native American cultural

symbols and traditions is a form of racism, but also a method to encourage assimilation of

minority groups into the majority culture. By commodifying and redefining Native cultural

symbols and traditions, the White majority culture within the United States eradicates key Native

American cultural components; cultural appropriation by the majority culture threatens to erase

and overpower the very core of tribal culture and history.

In order to improve cross cultural communication between minority and majority groups

it is important to examine the historical components affecting the current relationship between

the two groups. Cultural appropriation of Native cultural symbols and traditions aides in the

creation of stereotypes and prejudices about the Native American population. An effective cross-

cultural communication connection can only be reached through an examination of the historical

oppression of the Native minority population by the White majority population, and the

continuation of this oppression through cultural appropriation today.

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

References

Tsosie, Rebecca A. "Reclaiming native stories: an essay on cultural appropriation and cultural
rights." Arizona State Law Journal 34 (2002): 299

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Taylor, B. (1997). Earthen spirituality or cultural genocide?: radical environmentalism's

appropriation of Native American spirituality. Religion, 27(2), 183-215.

Whitt, L. A. (1995). Cultural imperialism and the marketing of Native America. American Indian
Culture and Research Journal, 19(3), 1-31.

Aldred, L. (2000). Plastic shamans and Astroturf sun dances: new age commercialization of
Native American spirituality. The American Indian Quarterly, 24(3), 329-352.

Ono, K. A., & Buescher, D. T. (2001). De ciphering Pocahontas: Unpackaging the

commodification of a native American woman. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 18(1),
23-43.

Rogers, R. A. (2006), From Cultural Exchange to Transculturation: A Review and

Reconceptualization of Cultural Appropriation. Communication Theory, 16: 474503. doi:
10.1111/j.1468-2885.2006.00277.x

U.S. Census Bureau (2010).

Xu, Jin. Class Notes: Majority-Minority Relations.

Participant A
Female, 19

What is your self-identified heritage?

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Chippewa (father)

Do you actively participate within the Native American culture? If so, how so?

No, my dad was Native but he died when I was three and Im not in touch with my extended
family.

What is cultural appropriation?

Using a cultures symbols as a mockery of that culture. Like, Halloween when people dress up as
Pocahontas.

Where you ever teased/called names/looked down upon for your heritage?

Yeah I grew up with my mom who is white she doesnt understand being brown. Looked down
upon and stuff. I learned and read more about Native history when I was older and appreciated it
more.

What are some challenges of being a person of Native American heritage?

Stereotypes about my heritage. I grew up with white friends and family who didnt look like me.
I feel like the Native part of myself has been slowly erased and on purpose. Its like I shouldnt
have Native pride.

What are your feelings on cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols?

I hate it. I think its really racist and I make it a point to call people out when it happens. John
Wayne movies especially bother me they just portray Natives as like these primitive savage
people and they still do in movies and advertisements and stuff.

Participant B
Female, 21

What is your self-identified heritage?

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Ojibwe. I was born on Leech Lake Reservation, but my mom got a job in the cities so we moved
there.

Do you actively participate within the Native American culture? If so, how so?

I grew up learning and surrounded by Ojibwe culture. I dont know how you would define
actively participate but Ive been to a lot of powwows my whole life and have read Native
American history and oral history.

What is cultural appropriation?

The exploitation of Native culture for profit. Its a new way for White people to colonize
minority cultures - its a continuation of Americas history of racism.

Where you ever teased/called names/looked down upon for your heritage?

Yes. Pocahontas was my nickname for a lot of my high school experience. People assumed I
was homeless or drank a lot or didnt have a father.

What are some challenges of being a person of Native American heritage?

Racist stereotypes. Teachers dont think you are anything or someone worth trying to teach.
Theres always preconceptions about your life.

What are your feelings on cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols?

Its a pure form of racism. White people and the media practice it.

Participant C
Female, 19

What is your self-identified heritage?

Sioux (father)

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Do you actively participate within the Native American culture? If so, how so?

My nana taught me some traditions, but my dad was really removed from his Native background
and even his extended family. I never really went to powwows and grew up with white kids and
the popular culture.

What is cultural appropriation?

Using Native traditional costumes and culture and whatever for your own benefit and not really
considering the history behind it. White girls on Halloween is honestly the first thing I think of.

Where you ever teased/called names/looked down upon for your heritage?

I was the brown kid in a white school. I was the odd one out. Everyone wanted to know if my
dad was an alcoholic or if we were homeless. Hes a lawyer.

What are some challenges of being a person of Native American heritage?

The stereotypes about Native people. No one respects the culture, even when they wear the
headdress, or traditional Native clothes. Native culture has become a fashion statement for
hipster girls.

What are your feelings on cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols?

Its just another way to make fun of Native people. Its a form of discrimination.

Participant D
Male, 22

What is your self-identified heritage?

Ojibwe (mother)

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Running Head: CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Do you actively participate within the Native American culture? If so, how so?

No, not really. I dont really look Native so I figured Im not really Native. My mom is kind of
ashamed of that side of her family. Theres a history of alcoholism, she doesnt really talk about
it.

What is cultural appropriation?

Taking someones culture for your own use. Its disrespectful.

Where you ever teased/called names/looked down upon for your heritage?

No, but my brother was. He looks really Native. Hes darker than me. His nickname is high
school was chief.

What are some challenges of being a person of Native American heritage?

Stereotypes about Native people. I dont really have to deal with it because I look White but my
brother and cousins have been labeled as lazy. My brother doesnt drink at all because he has a
liver condition but hes been accused of being an alcoholic.

What are your feelings on cultural appropriation of Native American cultural symbols?

Its disrespectful and in some cases racist. My friend dressed up for Halloween as a chief one
year and went around bugging white girls. He painted his skin brown and everything.

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