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SYSTEM PROTECTION
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INTRODUCTION TO
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POWER SYSTEM PROTECTON
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CONTENTS
Notes 1 C T S
Tutorial C T Selection
1.0 INTRODUCTION
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Relays are compact devices that are connected throughout the power
system to detect intolerable or unwanted conditions within an assigned
area. They are in effect, a form of active insurance designed to maintain
a high degree of service continuity and limit equipment damage. They
are "Silent Sentinels". While protective relays will be the main emphasis of
this chapter, other types of relays, applied on a more limited basis or used
as part df a total protective relays system will also be covered.
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other dangerous or intolerable conditions. These relays can either
initiate or permit switching or simply provide an alarm.
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b. M o n i t o r i n g R e l a y s , which verify conditions on the power system or in the
protection system. These relays include fault detectors, alarm units,
channel-monitoring relays, synchronism verification, and network
phasing. Power system conditions that do not involve opening circuit
, breakers during faults can be monitored by these relays.
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Input
Current
voltage
Power
Pressure
Frequency -
Temperature
Flow
Vibration
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The third and fourth considerations are perhaps better expressed as the
"personality of the system and the relay engineer".
A complex relaying system may result from poor system design or the
economic need to use fewer circuit breakers. Considerable savings can
be realized by using fewer circuit breakers and a more complex relay
system. Such systems usually involve design compromises requiring careful
evaluation, if acceptable protection is to be maintained.
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The application logic of protective relays divides the power system into --
several zones, each requiring its own group of relays. In all cases, the five
design criteria listed below are common to any well-designed and
efficient protective system or system segment:
4.1 Reliability
System reliability consists of two elements - dependability and security.
Dependability is the certainty of correct operation in response to system
trouble, while security i s the ability of the system to avoid mis-operation
between faults. Unfortunately, these aspects of reliability tend to counter
one another: increasing security tends to decrease dependability and
vice versa. In general, however, modern relaying systems are highly
reliable and provide practical compromise between security and
dependability.
Protective relay system must perform correctly under adverse sysfem and
environmental conditions. Regardless of whether other systems are
momentarily blinded during this period, the relays must perform
accurately and dependably. They must either operate in response to
trouble in their assigned area or block correctly i f the trouble is outside
their designated area.
4.2 Speed
Relays that could anticipate a fa~lltwo!~ldbe utopian. But, even if
'available, they would doubtlessly raise the question of whether or not the
fault gr trouble really required a trip-out. The development of faster relays
must always be measured against the increased probability of more
unwanted or unexplained operations. Time, no matter how short, is still the
best method of distinguishing between real and counterfeit trouble.
Applied to a relay, high speed indicates that the operating time usually
does not exceed 50 ms (3 cycles on a 60-hertz base). The term
instantaneous indicates that no delay is purposely introduced in the
operation. In practice, the terms high speed and instantaneous are
frequently used interchangeably.
4.4 Simplicity
As in any other engineering discipline, simplicity in a protective relay
system is always the hallmark of a good design. The simplest relay system,
however, is not always the most economical. As previously indicated,
major economies are possible with a complex relay system that uses a
minimum number of circuit breakers. Other factors being equal, simplicity
of design improves system reliability - if only because there are fewer
elements that can malfunction.
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i 5.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING RELAY PERFORMANCE
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( 1 ) Correct
(2) No conclusion
( 3 ) lncorrect
lncorrect tripping of circuit breakers not associated with the trouble area
is often as disastrous as c failure to trip. Hence, special care must be
taken in both appiication and installation to ensure against the possibility
of incorrect tripping. -
i1 Generators
ii) Transformers
iii) Buses
iv) Transmission and distribution circuits
v) Motors
. A typical power system and its zones of protection are shown in Figl. The
purpose of the protective system is to provide the first line of protection,
within the guide-lines outlined above. Since failures .do occur, however
some form of backup protection is provided to trip out the adjace13f
breakers or zones surrounding the trouble area. Protection in each zone is
overlapped to avoid the possibility of unprotected areas
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Checking
( Interlocking
Relay
or protective relaying system,
except as specifically provided b y
device function 48, 62 and 79
described later.
It is a device which operates in
response to the position of a number
of other devices (or to a number of
predetermined conditions), in an
equipment, to allow an operating
sequence to proceed, to stop, or to
provide a check of the position of
these devices or of these conditions
!L- 1 / for any purpose.
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Device Nurr~
ber Definition Function
4 Master It is a device, generally controlled b y
Contactor the device No.1 or equivalent. and
the required permissive and I
protective devices, that sr=rL/rs to
make and break the rlecessarY
control circuits to place art,
equipment into operation vrde! 'the I
desired ~onditiof?s end to toke i i out
of operation ~ n d m TJ~I-!F-: Or 1
5
abnormal conditic:;~.
. Stopping Device It is a coritiol d,-\:jCe usee ;,:irr~arily I
____----
I
to shut down c;;equipn.5~1: arid)
hold it out of oge:2-i&n- -,;rli: .
C;e/ice i
-.
may be mancc:ii. or I:5c.::i~~lly ,
actuated, but exc,,zss ;r,5 f;,..ctior~
1 of elect!-ical I C ~ ~ - , - 1-, ~ :;edice ~ 2
..
5 '
1
Breaker purpose oi inte---, ---2 - , - ,:- 4:;'l t l ~ e r
- / T
I
disconnecting ii-5 5 z . - - z-l -' -_,<-,irC~l
power t2 ~ : ; df: I-- -- - - -- - * / r~1.J:
or equipr:ie!~i.
-- -
Note: C ~ r ] i l .PO\.*.
~ / 5- 1 1 -;:;*5?
.
1 ... -
,
9 Reversing it i
s used iL7:. :he ___
r*-.-.,- - - -L2 ...-cs~r~:;
A
I ( Device /
a mactlifie fiei& -- - :-- ---./-,s - -<,!irtr;A, 1
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_
,-'"; '
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/
-- ..
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- J . 2
1 -
I presence of the pilot or main flame
-In such apparatus as a gas turbine
or a steam boiler.
29 I Isolating It is a device used for disconnecting
( Contcctor one circuit from another for the
purposes of emergency operation,
maintenance, or test.
30 Annunciator It is a non-automatically reset
relay - device that gives a number of
separate visual indications upon the
functioning of protective devices
and which may also be arranged to
perform a lockout function.
31 Sepcrzlte It connects a circuit such as the
Excitciion shunt field of a synchronous
Device converter, to a source of separate
excitation during the starting
sequence ; or one which energises
the excitation and ignition circuits of
a nower rectifier.
L- 32 I Direc:'anal ( It is a device which functions on a I
4
Mechanical
Condition occurrence abnormal
Monitor
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excitation.
Field 1
Circuit It is a device, which functions to
Breaker apply, or to remove the field
- excitation of a machine.
42 -p
Breaker function is to connect a machine to
its source of running or operating
voltage. This function may also be
used for a device, such as a
contactor, that is used in series with
1 a circuit breaker or other fault
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protecting means, primarily for
frequent opening and closing of the
circuit.
Manual Transfer It transfers the control circuits so as
/
Selector to modify the plan of operation of
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Device transfers the switching equipment or of some
of the devices.
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Unit Sequence It is a device, whichfunctions to start
Starting Relay
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the next available unit in a multiple-
unit equipment on the failure or on.
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I ( the non-availability of the normally 1
preceding unit.
I Atmospheric It is a device that functions upon the
I Condition occurrence of an abnormal
Monitor ! atmospheric condition, such as
damaging fumes, ex'plosive mixture,
smoke or fire.
46 I Reverse-Phase. It is a relav which functions when the 1
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lachn
ie, or It is a relay that functions w.hen the
Transformer, temperature - of a machine
Thermal Relay armature, or other -load carrying
winding or element of a machine, or
the temperature of a power rectifier
or power transformer (including a
power rectifier transformer) exceeds
an medetermined value.
Ilnstantaneous [ I t is a relay that functions1
overcurrent, or instantaneously on an excessive
Rate of rise value of current, or on an excessive
Relay - current rise, thus indicating a fault in
the apparatus or circuit being
protected.
AC Time It is a relay with either a definile or
Overcurrent an inverse time characteristic lhat
Relay functions when the current in an ac
circuit exceeds a predetermined
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value.
52 / AC Circuit It i s a device that is used to close
1 I Breaker and interrupt an ac power circuit 1
1 under normal conditions or to
42 (
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Running Circuit It is a device whose principal
( Breaker function i s to connect a machine to
its source of running or operating
voltage. This function may also be
.
used for a device, such as- a
contactor, that is used in series with
a circuit breaker or other fault
protecting means, primarily
frequent opening and closing of the
circuit.
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43 Manual Transfer It transfers the control circuits so as
or Selector to modify the plan of operation of
Device transfers the switching equipment or of some
1 of the devices.
44 Unit Sequence It is a device, which functions to start
Starting Relay the next available unit in a multiple-
1I unit equipment on the failure or on
I I 1 the non-availability of the normally 1
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apparatus under predetermined
conditions, or co-ordinates with
other devices to block tripping or to
block re-closing on an out-of-step
' - . condition or on powerswing:.
ermissive It is - generally a two position,
! Control ~ e v i c e ' manudlly operated switch that in
I one position permits the closing of a
circuit breaker, or the placing of an
equipment into operation, and in
the other posilion prevents the
circuit breaker or the equipment
! from being operated.
70 I Rheostat It is a variable resistance device
used in an electric circuit, which is
electrically operated or has other
I electrical accessories, such as
1
I auxiliary position or limit switches.
1 Level switch It is a switch which operates on
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I given values, or on a given rate of I
change, of level.
72 I DC circuit It is used to close and interrupt a dc
1 Breaker - power circuit under normal
1 conditions or to interrupt this circuit
under fault or emergency
conditions.
73 i Load - Resistor It is used to shunt or insert a step of
' Contactor load limiting, shifting, or indicating
1I
resistance in a power circuit, or to
switch a space heater in circuit, or
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to switch a light, or regenerative
load resistor of a power reclifier or
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i 78
/( ",n
r:i'g,
out-of-ste-)
Angle It is a relay that funclions at a
or predetermined phase
between two voltages or between
angle
that controls
Relay automatic reclosing and locking out
-11 82
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DC
Relay
Re-closing
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frequency.
It i
s a relay that controls the
1 automatic closing and reclosing of a (
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Device Number 1
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Definition Function
1 mechanical positioning.
67 1 AC directional It is a relay that functions on a
/ Overcurrent desired value of ac overcurrent
( Relay flowing in a predetermined
I direction.
68
I Blocking Relay
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It is a relay that initiates a pilot signal
for blocking of tripping on external
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I faults in a transmission line or in other
apparatus under predetermined
conditions, or co-ordinates with
!
other devices to block tripping or to
block re-closing on an out-of-step
! -
condition or on po\der swings:
69 1 Permissive It is generally a two position,
i Control Device manually operated switch that in
one position permits the closing of a
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1 electrically operated or has other
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electrical accessories, such a:
- auxiliary position or limit switches.
71 i Level Switch It is a switch which operates or
given values, or on a given rate of
change, of level.
72 I DC circuit It is used to close
1 Breaker - power circuit under normal
I conditions or to interrupt this circuit
under fault or emergency
conditions.
73 : Load - Resistor It is used to shunt or insert a step of
Contactor load limiting, shifting, or indicating
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I resistance in a power circuit, or to
switch a space heater in circuit, or
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1 to switch a light, or regenerative
load resistor of a power rectifier or
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I Protective two currents or between voltage
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Relay and current.
I 79 AC Re-closing It is a relay that controls the
Relay automatic reclosing and locking out
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of an ac circuit interrupter.
80 Flow Switch It is a switch, which operates on
given values, or on a given rate of
change, of flow.
81 ~tequenc~ It is a relay that functions or-) a
Relay predetermined value of frequency,
e~therunderJover on normal system
frequency or rate of change of
-
frequency.
82 DC Re-closing It is a relay that controls
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Relay automatic closing and reclosing of a
dc circuit inter~upter,generally in
response to load circuit conditions.
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8.3 SuffixNumbers
If h.10 or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if
used) are present in the same equipment, they rlay be distinguished by
numbered suffixes as for example, 52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when
necessary.
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on
electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. Th,e letters should
generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS. 71 W, or
49D. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection
with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them
by a slanted line or'dash, as for example, 20D/CS or 2OD-CS. .
The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which
cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written directly below the device function number on drawings,
as for example, 52/CC or 43/A.
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( 1 ) 'These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting devices comprising
rheostats, springs. levers, or other components for the purpose.
( 2 ) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
p,osition is dependent only upon the degree of energisation of the operating or
restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous
energisation. The de-energised position of the device i s that with all coils de-
energised.
(3) The energising influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing pressure.
The simple designation "a" or "b" is used in all cases where there is no
need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in
the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel, where the
contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating
scheme. Hence fhe "a" or "b" designations usually are sufficient for
circuit breaker auxiliary switches.
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on
electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. The letters should
generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS, 71 W, or
490. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection
with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them
by a slanted line or'das!?,as for example, 20DJCS or 20D-CS.
The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which
cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written direcily below the device function number on drawings,
as for example, 52lCC or 43lA.
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IClutch
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I Disengaged Position
Turning Gear Disengaged 'Position
Power Electrodes Maximum Posilion
Rheostat - Maximum resistance Posilion
Adjusting Means ( 1 ) Low or Down Position
Relay (2) De-energised position
Contactor (2) De-energised Position .
Contactor (latched-in-type) Main Contacts Open
Temperature Relay ( 3 ) Lowest Temperature I
I Level Detector 131 ! Lowest Level 1
Flow Detector (3) 1 Lowest Flow I
Speed Switch (3) Lowest Speed I
Vibration Detector (3) Minimum Vibration
Pressure Switch (3) Lowest Pressure
1
Vacuum Switch (3) 1 Lowest Pressure i.e., Highest Vacuum
Note : If several similar auxiliary switches are present on the same device, they should be
designated numerically 1,2,3 etc, when necessary.
( 1 ) These may be speed, voltage, current, load. or similar adjusting devices conlprising
rheostats, springs, levers, or other components for the purpose.
(2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
position is dependent only upon the degree of energisation of the operating or
restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous
energisation. The de-energised position of the device is that with all coils de-
energised.
(3) The energising influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing pressure.
The simple designation "a" or "b" is used in all cases where there is no
need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in
the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel, where the
contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating
scheme. Hence fhe "a" or "b" designations usually are sufficient for
circuit breaker auxiliary switches.
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I Relays
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1 Electromechanical 1
.-- -+ Analogue
I Numerical I
TYPES OF PROTECTION
FUSES
The simplest form of overcurrent protection is the fuse. The fuse is capable of operating
in less than 10ms for very large values of current, thus considerably limiting fault energy.
However, it does have a number of disadvantages, namely;
Can be difficult to co-ordinate
Its characteristic is fixed
Needs replacing ioiiowing iauit ciearance
Has limited sensitivity to earthfaults since it is rated above the full load current of the
feeder
Operation of single fuse results in a condition refereed to as single phasing. Single
phasing .can be disastrous for rotating plant such as motors.
The fuse characteristic is split into two sections, the 'Pre-arcing Time' and the 'Arcing
Time'. The addition of these times is referred to as the 'Total Operating Time'.
Fault
DISCRIMINATION BY CURRENT
Discrimination by current relies upon the fact that the fault curren't varies with the
position of the fault. This variation is due to the impedance of various items of plant,
such as cables and transformers, between the source and the fault. Relays throughout
the system are set to operate at suitable values such that only the relay nearest to the
fault operates.
Relays which adopt this of operation are generally termed Instantaneous
overcurrent relays.
(Where the fault level does not vary greatly between two relay location then the use of
i n s t a n t a n e ~ sovercurrent relays is not possible).
DISCRIMINATION BY TIME
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If the fault level over a system is reasonably constant then discrimination by current will
not be possible. An alternatlile Is tc use time discrimination in which each overcurrent
relay is given a fixed ?irr?edelay with the relay farthest away from the source having the
shortest time delay. Operating time is thus substantially,independent of fault level but
the main disadvantage is that the relay nearest the source will have the longest time
delay and this is the point with the highest fault level.
Relays which adopt this principle of operation are generally termed definite
(independent) time overcurrent relays.
NOTE : When applying definite time overcurrent relays care must be taken to ensure
that the thermal rating of the current measuring element is not exceeded.
TlME
IS Applied Current'
(Relay Current Setting)
PRINCIPLES OF CO-ORDINATION
The principle of co-ordination refers to the procedure of setting overcurrent relays to
ensure that the relay nearest the fault operates first and all other relays have adequate
additional time to prevent them from operating. If the relay nearest fo the fault fails to
clear the fault, and the co-ordination is correct, then the next up-stream relay should
operate and so on towards the source, thus isolating the minimum amount of plant.
The principle of co-ordination is often referred to as 'grading'.
When performing any co-ordination exercise the following need to be considered:
Relay Characteristics -
Relay Characteristics
There are numerous characteristics, however they all confirm to either BS142lIEC or
ANSIIIEEE standards. The BS142lIEC standard incorporates the following
characteristics.
Standard Inverse
Very lnverse
Extremely Irlverse
Long Time Inverse
The BS142lIEC standard curves are mainly adopted in the LIK and the most commonly
used ones are explained in more detail below:
-
- applied current
where I
-
- setting current
15
111,
-
- multiple of setting current
The standard inverse time characteristic is widely applied at all system voltages - a s
back up protection on EHV systems and as the main protection on HV and MV
distribution systems.
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There are no co-ordination requirements with other types of protective equipm2nt further
out on the system, e.g. Fuses, thermal characteristics of transformers, motors etc.
The fault levels at the near and far ends of the system do not vary significantly.
Page 3
There is minimal inrush on cold load pick up. Cold load inrush is that c u i e n t which
occurs when a feeder is energised after a prolonged outage. In general the relay cannot
be set above this value but the current should decrease below the relay setting before
the relay operates.
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Very lnverse Time This type of characteristic is normally used to obtain greater time
selectivity when the limiting overall time factor is very low, and the fault current at any
point does not vary tno :vlde!y with system conditions. It is particularly suitable, if there is
a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source increases.
The steeper inverse curve gives tonger time grading intervals. Its operating time is
approximately doubled for a reduction in setting from figures 7 to 4 times the relay
current setting. This permits the same time multiplier setting for several relays in series.
{i: I]
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Extremely lnverse Time With this characteristic the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the square of the current. The long operating time of the relay
at peak values of load current make the relay particularly suitable for grading with fuses
and also for protection of feeders which are subject to peak currents on switching in,
such as feeders supplying refrigerators, pumps, water heaters etc., which remain
connected even after a prolonged interruption of supply.
For cases where the generation is practically constant and discrimination with low
tripping times is difficult to obtain, because of the low impedance per line section, an
extremely inverse relay can be very useful since only a small difference of current is
necessary to obtain an adequate time difference.
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Another application for this relay is with auto reclosers in low vo'ltage distribution circuits.
As the majority of faults are of a transient nature, the relay is set to operate before the
normal operating time of the fuse: thus preventing perhaps unnecessary blowing of the
fuse.
Upon reclosure, if the fault persists, the recloser locks itself in the closed posjtion and
allows the fuse to blow to clear the fault.
This characteristic is also widely used for protecting plant against overheating since
overheating is usually an I,t function.
Page 4
This characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :
80
t =
{ti' -
-
b o n g Time Inverse This type of characteristic has a long time characteristic and may
be used for protection of neutral earthing resistors (which normally have a 30 sec rating).
The relay operating time at 5 times current setting is 30 secs at TMS of 1.
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Current Setting
The current setting of a relay is typically described aS either a percentage or multiple of
the current transformer primary or secondary rating.
If the CT primary rating is equal to the normal full load current of the circuit then the
percentage setting will refer directly to the primary system. This is an important point as
if, for example, the normal primary full load current was, say, 400 amp but the CT ratio
was 50015 then a relay with setting range 50-200% of 5 amp set at 100% would not
represent a "full load" setting;-the actual setting would in fact be 125% of full load
current.
The choice of current setting thus depends on the load current and the CT ratio and is
normally close to but above the maximum load current (typically'lO%) - assuming of
course the circuit is capable of carrying the maximum foreseeable load. It should be
stressed at this point, that the relay is neither designed nor intended to be used as an
overload relay but as a protective relay to protect the system under fault conditions.
It is also important to consider the resetting of the relay. The relay will reset when the
current is reduced to 90%-95% of the setting (Depending on relay design) and if the
normal load current is above this value the relay will not reset after starting to operate
under through fault conditions which are cleared by other switchgear.
The setting for a typical overcurrent relay with a reset ratio of 95% can be determined
using the following:
Where: Is = Setting
IF^ = Full Load Current
Grading Margin
As previously mentioned, to obtain correct discrimination it is necessary to have a time
interval between the operation of two adjacent relays. This time interval or grading
margin depends upon a number of factors :
Operating of the relay may continue for a short time after the relay is de-energised until
a n i stored energy is dissipated. For example, an induction disc 'element will have stored
kinetic energy (or inertia) and a numerical relay may have stored energy in capacitors.
Although these factors are minimised by design, some allowance is usually necessary.
It is common to use a figure of 50 ms.
NO-TE: The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes plan but is the time that the relay would have taken to travel
the same distance had the relay remained energised.
Travel I
looO/o
Overshoot
Travel t l = relay de-energised
t3 - t l = actual overshoot time
t2 - t l = overshoot time used in the
calculation of margin
tl t2 t3
All measuring dev~cessuch as rejays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error The t ~ m echaracteristic of either or both of the relays involved may have
positive or negat~veerrors. Current transformer errors are mainly due to the
rnagnetis~ngcharacteristic. It should be noted the CT errors do not affect definite time
overcurrent relays.
A safety margin of 100 ms is normally added to the final calculated margin to ensure
correct discrirn~nation.This additional time ensures a satisfactory contact gap (or
equivalent) is maintained.
In the past, a fixed margin of 0-4 secs was considered adequate for correct
discrimination. With faster modern switchgear and lower overshoot times a figure of
0.35 secs is quite reasonable and under the best possible conditions 0-3secs may be
feasible.
However, rather than using a fixed margin it is better to adopt a fixed time for circuit
breaker operation and relay overshoot and add to this a variable time value which takes
into account relay and CT errors and the safety margin. This is particularly so when
grading at low values multiples of setting current where the relay operating time is
longer and a fixed total margin may be of the same order as the relay timing error.
A fixed value 0-25 secs is chosen which is made up of 0.1 secs for circuit breaker
operating time. 0.05 secs for relay overshoot time and 0.1 sec for safety margin.
In considering the variable time value, it is assumed that each IDMT relay complies with
basic assigned error class 7.5 according to British practice in BS 142. The error for a
class 7.5 relay IS 5 7.5%, but allowance should be made for the effects of temperature,
frequency and departure from the reference conditions as laid down in the BS. A more
practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7-5 i.e. 15% and
is to apbly to the relay nearest the fault which'is considered slow. To this total effective
relay error a further 10% is added to allow for overall CT error.
Page 6
Thus it is proposed to adopt the following equstior: ,:t determine the grading margin
between IDMT relays :
As far as definite time overcurrent relays are concerned, the fixed value will remain the
+
same but the relays are assumed to comply with error class 10 i.e. 10%. For the
reasons stated .previously, a practical approximation is to assume a total effective error
of 20% with the relay nearest the fault considered slow. As previously stated, CT errors
will have little effect of the operating time, thus it is proposed to adopt the equation :
-
I t' - 0.25 + 0.25 secs
For the majority of systems an overcurrent grading exercise can be performed quite
adequately using a fixed margin of 0.4 secs. It is only when a number of stages are
involved and difficulties are being encountered that it may become necessary to
invmtigate margin times in more detail. To summarise, each system is different and
should be treated as so, it is not possible to lay down rigid rules regarding grading
I margins and every grading exercise will ultimately be a compromise of some form.
I The above formula assumes a minimum fuse operating time of 0.01 seconds
I TMS = Treq 1 T I
Plotting Of Characteristic
It is convenient to show the standard inverse time characteristic on logllog graph paper
with the 'y' axis scaled in seconds and the"x' axis in terms of "multiples of current
setting". By doing this the characteristic can be applied to any relay, irrespective of
setting range and nominal rating.
i
*
";
;:, Page
-
HIGH SET OVERCURRENT
Where the source impedance is small in comparison with the protected circ~lit.i.mped.ance,. . -.
the use of high set instantaneous overcurrent units can be advantageous (for example on
long transmission lines or transformer feeders).
I
f
The application of an instantaneous unit makes possible a reduction in the tripping time at
high fault levels and also allows the discriminating curves behind the high set unit to be
lowered thereby improving overall system grading.
i
!
f:
i i is important io note iiiai when grading with the relay immediately behind the high set
units, the grading interval should be established at the current setting of the high set unit
.and not at the maximum fault level that would normally be used for grading IDMT relays.
When using high set units it is important to ensure that the relay does not operate for
faults outside the protected section. The relays are normally set at 1.2 - 1.3 times the
maximum fault level at the remote end of the protected section.
.This particularly applies when using instantaneous units on the HV side of a transformer
when the instantaneous unit should not operate for faults on the LV side. ,
The 1-2- 1.3 factor allows for transient overreach, CT errors and slight errors in .'
transformer impedance and line length.
Transient overreach occurs when the current wave contains a dc component. Although a
relay may have a setting above the rms value of current, the initial peak value of current
due to the dc offset may be sufficient to operate the relay, if it has high transient
overreach.
Modern Relays have integral instantaneous elements which have low transient overreach.
The degree of transient overreach is normally affected by the time constant of the
measured fault current. For example, a typical transient overreacn of a numerical
overcurrent relay is less than 5% for time constants up to 30 ms and less than 10% for
t ~ m econstant up to 100 ms. This allows the instantaneous elements to be used as h ~ g h
set un~tsfor application to transformers and long feeders. The low'transient overreach
allows settings to be just above the maximum fault current at which discrimination IS
required. The instantaneous elements are also suitable for use as low set elements in
conlunction with auto-reclose on distribution systems
Earth faults, which are by far the most frequent type of fault, will be detected by phase
overcurrent units as previously described but it is possible to obtain more sensitive
protection by utilising a relay which responds only to the residual current in a system.
Residual (or zero sequence) current only exists when a current flows to earth.
Time Grading
The procedure for grading is similar to that for phase fault relays.
It is important to appreciate that fuses cannot discriminate between phase faults and earth
faults and therefore grading of earth fault relays (which have relatively sensitive settings)
with fuses is not possible.
When the system contains some neutral earthing impedance, the earth fault level is
practically constant over the whole system and grading is carried out at !his fault level. As
the fault level is consJant there is no particulai advantage is using IDMT earth fault relays
over definite time earth fault relays.
Where the earth path resistivity is high which may be the case on systems that do not
utilise earth conductors, the earth fault current may be limited to such an extent that
normal earth fault protection may not be sensitive enough. To overcome these problems
a very sensitive relay is requirgd, but the relay must have a very low burden in order that
the effective setting is not increased. This very sensitive protection cannot be graded with
other conventional systems and it is normal to apply this protection with a definite time
delay of up to 10 or 15 secs. This time delay will prevent unwanted operation due to
transient unbalance under phase fault conditions. Care must be taken to ensure that the
relay setting is above any residual current that may be present under normal load
conditions. This may be due to slight d~fferencesin CT characteristics or unbalanced
leakage (capacitive) currents in the primary system. In order to ensure that the relay will
reset after the transient operation of the current measuring unit, the dolpu ratio should be
high, i.e.. approximately 99%.
IN'TERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
The foregoing has basically looked at grading procedure as applied to radial feeders. If
the system is interconnected and involves parallel paths and rings, the grading can
become increasingly more complex.
For example, the operation of a particular circuit breaker may not itself result in the
isolation of the faulty plant, but may affect the fault current distribution in the other circuits.
The affect of this may be to start other relays operating or to change the operating
parameters of relays that havealready started. On such interconnected systems the fault
level does not tend to vary very much and it may be found impossible to obtain correct
discrimination for all faults. The system must be looked at in detail under maximum and
minimum fault conditions and the best compromise reached. Very often directional
overcurrent relaying can help to overcome the problems slightly.
Page 9
Directional Overcurrent
GiRECTiGNAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS
If fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location it is necessary to
add directional properties to the overcurrent relays in order to obtain correct
discrimination. Directional protection is commonly applied in two areas, namely,
parallel feeders(transf0rmers) and ring mains.
-
RING MAINS
The more usual application of directional relays is to ring mains. In the case of a ring
system, fed at one point only the relays at the generafion end and at the mid-point
substation, where the setting of both overcurrent relays are identical, the relays can
be made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the
same feeder, one at each substation. In this respect it is interesting to note that
when the numbers of feeders in the rings is an even number, the two relays with the
shme operating time are at the same substation and.will have to be directional
whereas when the number of feeders is odd, the two relays.with the same operating
time are at different substations and therefore, do not need'to be directional. Also at
intermediate substations it will be noted that whenever the times of the two relays at
a substation are different, the difference in operating time is never less than the
grading interval of 0-4 seconds and consequently it is permissible for the relay with
the larger operating time to be non-directional.
The usual practice for grading relays in an interconnected system is to open the ring
at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-clockwise.
Thus, the relays looking in a clockwise direction around the ring are arranged to trip
in the sequence 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 -3and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise
direction are arranged to trip in the sequence 1' - 2' - 3' - 4' - 5' - 6'. The arrows
indicate the direction in which the power must flow in order that the directional units
will close their contacts and prepare the overcurrent elements for operation. The
double headed arrows on each of the two ieeders at the generating station indicate
non-directional relays, directional features being unnecessary at these points,
because power can flow in one direction only, that is out of the generating station. At
all other points s~ngleheaded arrows are shown. These ind~catedirect~onalrelays
connected so as to operate with power flow in the direction of the arrow which is in
every case from the substat~onbus bars and into the protected line. See Figure 1.
This rule is invariable and applies to all forms of directional relays. Selection of the
faulty section is by time and fault power direction. Fault power has two phases x and
y. It divides between the two paths in the inverse ratio of the impedances an.d
passes through all the substations in the ring. Thus, at every substation one set of
relays will be inoperative because the power flow is against the arrow and other set
operative because the flow is with the arrow. In every case it will be found that the
time settings of the relays that are inoperative are shorter than those of the operative
relays, except in the case of substation C where the settings happened to coincide.
In this way, all relays with short time on sections between the fault one and the
generating station are prevented from operation. The others, which are operative are
graded downwards towards the fault and the last to be traversed by the fault current,
namely that on the faulty feeder section, has the shortest time and operates first.
This applies to both paths to the fault. Consequently, the faulty sectioh is the only
one to be isolated and supply is maintained to all substations.
Page 1
Grading Ring Mains With More Than One Source
When grading ring systems with more than one infeed (say two sources of supply)
the best method of approach is to either :
a) Open the ring at one the supply points by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous overcurrent relays and then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
b) Treat the inter-connector between the two sources of supply as a continuous
bus, separate from the ring and protect it by means of a unit system of
protection such as pilot wire relays. Then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
PARALLEL FEEDERS
-
If non-directional overcurrent relays are applied to parallel feeders any faults
occurring on any one line will inevitably, irrespective of the relay setting chosen,
isolate both lines and completely disrupt the supply. To ensure discriminative
operation of the relays during line faults, it is usual with this type of system to design
and connect relays Rq' and R2' such that they will only operate for faults occurring on
the protected line in the direction indicated by the arrows. See Figure 2. With
parallel feeders to ensure correct discrimination during line faults, it is important that
the correct direct~onalrelay R1' or R2' operates before the non-d~rectionalrelays Rq
and R2. For this reason relays R1' and R2' are given lower time settings than relays
R1 and R2 and also lower current settings. The usual practice is to set relays Rq'
and R2' to 50% of the normal full load of the circuit (ensure that the relays are
capable of carrying without damage, twice their setting current continuously),
operating with an IOMT characteristic with a TMS 4.0
Care should be taken when using definite time relays. For such applications the
directional relays should be set above full load current to prevent them operating due
to load current reversal as a result of a phase to phase fault on the other side of the
transformer.
ESTABLISING DIRECTION -
The direction of alternating current can only be determined with respect to a common
reference. In relay terms, the reference is commonly referred to as the polarising
quantity. The most convenient reference quantity is polarising voltage taken from the
power system voltages.
The relay compares the power system current against this fixed polarising reference
to determine direction of operation.
This is a setting on the relay and is defined as the angle by which the current applied
to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to produce
maximum sensitivity.
Page 2
-
RELAY CONNECTIONS
This is the angle by which the current applied to the relay is displaced from the
voltage applied to the relay at unity power factor.
The 90" connection (quadrature connection) is now used for all overcurrent relays.
n
30" and 60" connections were used in the past, but no longer, as the 90" conneciion
gives better performance. The 90" connection is achieved by using IA and VBC.
Hence, for an A phase fault the polarising voltage does not collapse. Without a
polaring voltage most relays are unable to make a directional decision. Modern
numerical relays are able to use prefault data to make a decision, a technique
referred to as memory .polarising.
The 'a' phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc volts displaced 45" in an anti-
clockwise direction. ln-this case the relay maximum sensitivity is produced when the
current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45". This connection gives a
correct directional tripping zone over the range of current 45" leading to 135" lagging
See Figure 3.
In the case of transformer feeders or feeders which have a zero sequence source in
front of the relay, a quadrature connected relay is recommended but it is preferable
when protecting this type of feeder that the directional relay is designed to have an
RCA 45".
'Three fault conditions may theoretically cause mal-operation of the directional relay.
They are phase to phase to ground on a plain feeder; phase to ground fault on -a
transformer feTdmwlththezero sequence s o u r c e ~ l n f r o n t o t t h e l a ~ p h W t t o
phase fault on a transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of the
transformer.
These relays are similar in construction to the overcurrent relays but are polarised by
residual voltage or current. The polarising voltage is obtained from the secondary of
a three phase voltage transformer connected in broken delta. It is essential to
ensure that the correct voltage is fed to the relay that the voltage transformer primary
neutral is earthed and that it be a three phase, five limb type or consist of three single
phase units. Current polarisation is normally obtained by connecting a current
transformer in a local jransformer neutral. If voltage polarisation is used a 45" RCA
is normally used for solidly earthed systems and 0" for resistance earthed systems.
Page 3
Voltage Polarised Earth Fault Relays
Some care is necessary when using voltage polarised relays on solidly earthed
systems, as the residual voltage under single phase to earth fault conditions will be
equal to the phase to neutral voltage at the fault location or a sol~dearth fault only.
Any line impedance between the fault point and the relay, or resistance in the fault
itself will tend to reduce the value of the voltage and it can be very small if the line
impedance between the fault point and the relaying point is large compared with the
source impedance behind the relay. With modern directional relays however, which
will operate down to 1OO/ of normal voltage, no trouble should be experienced.
-
Current Polarised Earth Fault Relays
A staristar power transformer is not suitable for polarising relays even if both star
points are earthed. A current transformer in one neutral would not be suitable as the
current would reverse depending upon which side of the transformer the fault is on.
Paralleling two current transformers, one in each neutral connection, will not be
satisfactory as the resultant current would zero.
Three winding or two winding power transformers with one winding delta connected
are suitable for relay polarisation. Provided the star point is earthed, then a current
transformer in t h ~ sneutral can be used to supply the relay. In the case of three
winding transformers, if two star connected windings have the star point earthed,
then current transformers in each neutral connected in parallel must be used having
ratios inversely proport~onalto the power transformers voltage ratio. An alternative to
this is to use one current transfomer within the delta winding provided that no load is
taken from the delta. If load is taken from the delta winding it is necessary to use a
current transformer in each leg of the delta to prevent unbalanced load or fault
current producing incorrect polarising current.
As the polarising current for current polarised earth fault relays is taken from a
current transformer in a local power transformer neutral, this may be lost if the
particular transformer is switched out of service and for this reason voltage
polarisation is in general more reliable. However, as pointed out, in solidly earthed
systems where the zero sequence source impedance is small the value of the
residual voltage can be very low and dual polarised relays, with both current and
voltage are used. It should be noted, however, that with modern relays the possibility
of voltage polarised relays failing to operate is very remote and that for all practical
conditions this possibility can in general be ignored.
Page 4
The operation of earth fault indication relays on systems earthed through a Petersen
Coil or totally insulated system is dependent on the capacitive current flowing in the
healthy feeders and when a Petersen Coil is used on the current due to the
suppression coil flowing in the faulty phase.
In the case of overhead lines the majority of earth faults are of a transient nature and
it is preferred that these faults shall not lead to automatic isolation of the faulty line. It
is desirable, however, that an indication should be given of sustained system faults in
order that the system may be supervised continuously and so that the faulty section
of the network is indicated.
For detection of a system earth fault, a sensitive directional relay or wattmetric relay
is used (Petersen Cod Systems)
The diagram in Figure 4 shows asystem 0-f radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. No current will flow in the 'C' phase of
the healthy feeders as they will be at earth potential. Capacative current will flow in
the healthy phases of all feeders to earth and back to the source via the fault. The
vector sum of the currents-in the current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder Is is
1 proportional to :
':I Where :
The vector diagram of the currents in the sound phases'shows that the total wattage
component of the currents in the restraining quadrant, hence the relays on the
healthy feeders will not operate. However, the current in the faulty feeder show that
the wattage component of the currents'is in the operating quadrant and hence, the
relay in the faulty feeder will operate.
The current transformers are of a special design, class 0.2, having an exceptionally
1 low phase angle error and because of this cannot be balanced accurately for currents
I greatly in excess of rated current. The relay is provided with 0" MTA.
I Insulated System
The diagram in Figure 5 shows a system of radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. The residual current flowing in the
current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder, neglecting the effect of magnetising
current, is proportional to the 2 lc where lcis the vector sum of the currents in the
healthy phases Ica and Icb. Since the system is an insulated one, the fault has the
effect of raising the neutral point of the system by a voltage equivalent to the phase
voltage and the voltages'of the healthy feeders by A .
Page 5
FIGURE I
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Page 6
. :.
FIGLIRE 2
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
UNITY P.F.
+ZERO P.F.
- -
ZERO SENSITIWTY
LINE
FIGURE 3
90" CONNECTION 45O RCA
i
. .
I
Page 8
a b c
I +La
dB w
1 +lcb
ib
db
I T
1c
T.-A-----).--
iD I +lca w I
Source 4D I +Icb I
dB 4D 4 T
I
0 I
I
dD
I
-\ - -
- ----
1c
+ - I- ,
1
I I
----) 1ca
dB I I c b w
. I
0
4B
I
I
T -
1
. I
I
T I I
I I
I
I
I
. - - 1-1- c 7 21,
-+- /
Location of CT's
I Restrain
Operate
~ o c a t i i nCT'S
Faulty Feeder
t vRE
~VRE. AVRE
/ kA
#
/
- = -21,
/ '
. RCA 1 RCA
Restrain +Operate Restrain 4 +Operate
+ VPO
+ a
'VPO
FIGURE 5
ction Notes
Power transformer is one of the most important links in a power system. Its development stems
from the early days of electromagnetic induction, when it was discovered that varying magnetic
flux in an iron core linking two coils produces an inducted voltage. From the basic discovery
has evolved the power transformer we know today using advanced insulation materials and
having complex windings on a laminated core using special magnetic steels cold rolled to
ensure grain orientation for low loss and high operating density.
With transformers of large capacity, a single transformer fault can cause large interruption to
power supplies. If faulted transformer is not isolated quickly, this can cause serious damage
and also power system stability problems. Protective systems applied to transformers thus play
a vital role in the economics and operation of a power system.
In common with other electrical plants, choice of suitable protection is governed by economic
considerations brought more into prominence by the range of size of transformers which is
wider than for most items of electrical plant. Transformers used in distribution and transmission
range from a few KVA to several hundred MVA.
Fo( transformers of the lower ;stings, only the simplest protection such as fuses can be justified
and for large rating transformers; comprehensive protection scheme should be applied.
I
i) Winding and terminal faults
ii) Core faults
iii) Abnormal operating conditions such as overvoltage, overfluxing and overload
iv) Sustained or uncleared external faults.
I TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
With tlie development of polyphase systems with more complex transformer winding
connections and also possible phase displacement between primary and secondary windings,
standardisation was necessary to ensure universal compatibility. (BS171 : 1970)
There are a number of possible transformer connections but the more common connections are
divided into four main groups :
Page 1
indicate the phase displacement of the low voltage phase to neutral vector with respect to the
high voltage phase to neutral vector, eg Y d l indicates that the low voltage phase vectors lag the
high voltage phase vectors by 30" (-30"phase shift).
Individual phases are indicated by the letters A, B and C, again capital letters for the high
voltage winding and small letters for the low voltage winding. All windings on the same limb of a
core are given the same letter. A further numerical subscript serves to differentiate between
each end of the winding.
8
a) The line connections are normally made to the end of the winding which carries the
subscript 2, ie : A2, 62,C2 and a2, b2, c2.
b) The line terminal designation (both letter and subscript) are the same as those of the
phase windins to w h ~ c hthc line terminal is connected.
i) Draw the primary and secondary phase to neutral vectors showing the required phase
displacemed :
b
Primary Secondary
ii) . Complete the delta winding connection on the secondary side and indicate the respective
vector directions :
...
111)
C A 4 B \
It is now possible to indicate the winding subscript numbers bearing in mind t-hh if
the direction of induced voltage in the high voltage winding at a given instant is Crom
A1 to A2 (or vice verse) then the direction of the induced voltage in the low voliage
winding at the same instant will also be from a1 to a2.
Page 2
I -
iv)
. .
It can now be seen'that the delta connection should be made by connxting a2
to c l , b2 to a1 and c2 to b l :
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
I Fuses
Small distribution transformers are commonly protected only by fuses. In many cases no circu~t
breaker is provided, making fuse protection the only available means of automatic isolation.
Fuses are overcurrent devices, and must have ratings well above the maximum transformer
load current in order to carry, without blowing, the short duration overloads that may occur
because of such as motor starting. Also the fuse must withstand the magnetising inrush of the
transformer. It follows that fuses will do little to protect the transformer, serving only to protect
the system by disconnecting a faulty transformer after the fault has reached an advanced stage
( Overcurrent Relays
Overcurrent relays are often the only form of protection applied to small transformers. They are
used for backup protection for larger transformers and both instantaneous and time delayed
overcurrent can be applied.
Inverse time relays on the HV side of a transformer must grade with those on the LV
side which in turn must grade with the LV outgoing circuits. Due to this, the HV
overcurrent relays could have operating times which might cause operation of relays at
other substations. To overco-me this problem, high set instantaneous overcurrent relays
with low transient overreach are sometimes used. The settings of these relays should
be 120-13O0/0 of the through fault level of the transformer to ensure that the relays are
Page 3
. .
~.
~~ .
stable for through faults. Care must also be taken to ensure that the relays d o not
operate under magnetising inrush conditions.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The function of differential protection is to provide faster and more discriminative phase
fault protection than that obtainable from simple overcurrent relays. Overall differential
protection may only be justified for larger transformers( Typically >5MVA).
CTs on the HV side are balanced against'CTs on the LV side. There are a number of
different connections but there are some important points that are applicable to all
schemes.
Transformer Connection
Consider a deltalstar transformer. An external earth fault on the star side will result in
zero sequence current flowing in the line but due to the effect of the delta winding there
will be no zero sequence current in the line associated with the delta winding. In order to
ensure stability of the protection this zero sequence current must be eliminated from the
secondary connections on the star side of the transformer, ie the CTs on the star side of
the transformer should be connected in delta. With the CTs on the delta side of the
transformer connected in star, the 30" phase shift across the transformer is also catered
for.
Since the majorlty of faults are caused by flashovers at the transformer bushings, it is
advantageous to locate the CTs in the adjacent switchgear.
Interposing CT (ICT)
Where it is not possible to correct for zero sequence current and the phase shift across
the transformer by using delta connected line CT's on the star side of the transformer, or
were CT ratio mismatch exists between primary and secondary CT's, then interposing
CT's are used. Tranditional ICT's were external devices, however modern numerical
relays are able to account for ratio error, phase shift and zero sequence current within
the relay. This eliminates the use of external ICT's and allows the protection to be set up
and installed more easily.
If similar primary terminals ie PI or P2 are towards the transformer, then delta and star
connection for the CTs should be the same as the transformer (or 180" opposite).
It is usual to assume that if current flows from P i --+ P2 then the secondary current will
flow from S2 -+ SI.
Note :If the transformer induced voltage is A1 --+ A2 then the secondary induced voltage
will be a1 -+ a2. Therefor?, current flo'w will be A1 --+ A2 and a2 -+ a1
I
Page 4
Tap Changers
Any differential scheme can only be balanced at one point and it is usual to choose CT ratios
that match at the mid point of the tap range. Note that this might not necessarily be the normal
rated voltage. For example, if the tapping range is +1O0h, -20% then the CT ratio should be
based on a current corresponding to the -5% tap. The theoretical maximum out of balance in
the differential circuit is then +_ 15%.
Differential protection of three winding transformers is essentially similar to that of two winding
transformers. The same rules regarding CT connections still apply but the CT ratios used
shpuld be based on the MVA rating of one of the windings (usually the highest rated winding)
and not on the ratings of each individual winding.
For example, consider a 13213311'I kV transformer with windings rated for 100/60/40 MVA
respectively, then the current transformer ratios at all voltage levels should be based on 100
MVA, ie 44011. 176011 and 528011 respectively (these effective ratios are normally obtained by
the use of interposing CTs which means that, for example, all the main CTs associated with the
11 kV system can be made equal to 200011 - rated current).
If there is a source associated with only one of the transformer windings, then a relay with only
two bias coils can be used.- the CTs associated with the other two windings being connected in
parallel. If there is more than one source of supply then it is necessary to use a relay with three
bias windings in order to ensure that bias is available under all external fault conditions.
Page 5
Combined Differential and Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Although it is preferable to use separate CTs for restricted earth fault protection, it can be
combined with differential protection using the same current transformers, together with
: interposing current transformers. A CT is required in the neutral connection and should be the
same ratio as the line current transformers.
,
1
i
I
i
I
I
II
'I
DIFFERENTIAL
Page 6
Magnetising Inrush -
When a transformer is first energised, a transient magnetising currqnt flows, which may reach
instantaneous peaks of 8 to 30 times those of full load. The factors controlling the dirration and
magnitude of the magnetising inrush are :
I i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Size of the transformer bank
Size of the power system
Resistance in the power system from the source to the transformer bank
Residual flux level
Type of iron used for the core and its saturation level.
There are three conditions which can produce a magnetising inrush effect :
i) First energisation .
Under normal steaay state cond'itions the flux in the core changes from maximum negative
value to maximum positive value duriqg one half of the voltage cycle, ie a change of 2 0
maximum. Since flux cannot instantly be created or destroyed this transformers are normally
designed and run at values of flux approaching the saturation value, an increase of flux to
double this value corresponds to relationship must always be true. Thus, if the transformer is
energised at a voltage zero when the flux would normally be at its maximum negative value, the
flux would rise to twice its normal value over the first half cycle of voltage. This initial rise could
be further increased if there was any residual flux in the core at the moment the transformer
was energised.
Since extreme saturation which requires an extremely high value of magnetising current.
As the flux enters the highly saturated portion of the magnetising characteristic, the inductance
falls and the current rises rapidly. Magnetising impedance is of the order of 2000% but under
heavily saturated conditions this can reduce to around 40% ie an increase in magnetising
current of 50 times normal, This figure can represent 5 or 6 times normal full load current.
The offset in the wave is only restored to normal by the circuit losses. The time constant of the
transient can be quite long, typ~cally0.1 second for a 100 KVA transformer and up to 1 second
for larger units. Initial rate of decay is high due to the low value of air core reactance. When
below saturation level rate of decay is much slower.
The magnitude of the inrush current is limited by the air core inductance of the windings under
extreme saturation conditions. A transformer with concentric windings will draw a higher
magnetising current when energised from the LV side, since this winding is usually on the inside
and has a lower air core inductance. Sandwich windings have approximately equal magnitude
currents for both LV and HV.
Resistance in the source will reduce the magnitude current and increase the'iate of decay.
'
Page 7
I
p
. ..
Since magnetising inrush occurs on only one side of the transformer, the effect is similar to a
fault condition as far as differential protection is concerned. The following methods are used to
stabilise the relay during magnetising inrush period.
Time delayed - acceptable for small transformers or where high speed operation is not so
important. (Note : necessary time delay when associated with parallel transformers could be
.: . excessive). -
Harmonic restraint - usual to use 2nd H restraint since magnitude inrush current contains
pronounced 2nd harmonics.
a) Due to-delta connections in the main transformer and in the CT circuits (which provide a
closed path for third harmonic currents), no third harmonic current would reach the relay.
b) CT saturation under internal fault conditions'also produces harmonics of which the 3rd is
the most predominant. Second harmonics are also produced under these conditions
(combination of dc offset and fundamental) so excessive saturation of CTs should be
avoided.
The problem of any restraining tendency due to 2nd H currents produced by CTs saturating
under heavy internal fault conditions is usually overcome by using high set instantaneous un~ts
set at 8-10 x rated current.
While the second harmonic produces a useful restraint during external faults, it can produce
unwanted restraint for Internal faults, due to dc saturation of CTs. Extremely large CTs are
required such that they do not saturate and affect the operating times of the differential relay.
Gap Detection - If the various current waveforms that occur during magnetising inrush are
analysed, it can be found that the magnetising currents have a significant period in each cycle
where the current is substantially zero. Fault current, on the other hand, passes through zero
very quickly. Detection of this zero is considered a suitable criteria.
Thus, a transformer differential relay can be made to restrain if zero is detected In a cycle for
more than a certain period (typically 114f seconds). With the above principle of detection of
magnetising inrush, fast operation of the relay can be achieved for internal faults and
economically designed CTs can be used, without affecting the speed of operation.
Page 8
;?
:j;
. -$;?
. . .
I
VARIATION OF EARTHFAULT CURRENTS ON TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
1 -
a path exists for the current to flow into and out of the windings, ie a zero sequence path
I -
the ampere turns balance is maintained between the windings.
I
The magnitude of earthfault current is dependent on the method of earthing solid or resistance
and the transformer connection.
The ratio of transformation between the primary winding and the short circuited turns also varies
with the position of the fault, so that the current which flows through the transformer terminals
1 will be proportional to square of the fraction of the winding which is short circuited.
Page 9
-
For a fault at x p.u. distance from the neutrgl,
xL
:. C.T. secondary current (on prin~aryside of transformer) = --F
\I 3
A
For relay operation > 20/c
Y' 3
If as
multiple
of ~ F . L .
Pase 10
Star Winding - Solidly Earthed
In this case, the fault current is limited only by the leakage reactance of the winding, which
varies in a complex manner with the position of the fault. For the majority of the winding the fault
current is approximately 3 x Iflc, reaching a maximum of 5 x Iflc.
1
From a study of the various current distributions shown for earth faults, ~tis evident that
overcurrent relays do not provide aaequate earth fault protection. If the system is solidly
earthed, some differential relays adequately cover the majority of faults, but in general separate
earth fault protection is necessary.
I Balanced earth fault for a delta (or unearthed star) winding can be provlded by connecting three
line CTs in parallel (residual connection). The relay will only operate for internal earth faults
since the transformer itself cannot supply zero sequence current to the system. The
transformer must obviously be connected to an earth source.
Source
(Earthed)
w
Balanced
Earth Fault
For an earthed star winding, the residual connection of line CTs are further connected in parallel
with a CT located in the transformer neutral. Under external earth fault conditions the current in
the line CTs is balanced by the current in the neutral CT. Under internal fault conditions. current
only flows in the neutral CT and since there is no balancing current from the line CTs, the relay
will operate.
On four wire systems in order to negate the effect of the neutral return current a further CT
placed in the neutral and wired in parallel with the existing CT's. On a four wire system with the
transformer earthed at the neutral point 5 CT's are required. However, if the transformer is
earthed at the LV switch board only 4 CT's are required. If no neutral CT is used then therelay
will have to be set above the maximum expected unbalance current in the neutral return.
I
' I
Page 11
A relay, insensitive to the dc component of fault current is normally used for this type of .. .. .. .
protection. If a "current operated" relay is used, an external stabilising resistor is placed in . ..:
series with the relay to ensure protection stability under through fault conditions. The protection
setting voltage is calculated by conventional methods. To reduce the setting voltage it is often
useful to run three cores from the neutral CT in order that the relay is connected across
equ~potentialpoints.
Unrestricted earth fault or backup earth fault protection can be provided by utilising a single CT .;
mounted on an available earth connection eg transformer neutral, or (on an earthed systern) by ..
using a residual connection of three line CTs. In this case, the relay should be of the inverse or :.
definite time type in order to ensure correct discrimination.
On resistance earthed system, unrestricted earth fault protection is referred to as standby earth ,..;
fault protection. An inverse time relay is used which matches the thermal characteristic of the .::
earthing resistor. Earthing resistors normally have a 30 second rating and are designed to limit :
the earth fault current to transformer full load current.
4 : :,
FAULT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
Under fault conditions, currents are distributed in different ways according to winding
connections. Understanding of the various fault current distribution is essential for the design of
differential protection. performance of directional relays and settings of overcurrent relays.
Fault current distribution on a delta-star transformer, star-star transformer with unloaded tertiary
and star-delta transformer with earthing transformer for phase and earthfaults are shown in the
diagrams below :
b2
Source
_ _ P __t
PH-E Fault
I3
-
- B
-
Source
I
c2
-
PH-PH Fault
BUCHHOLZ PROTECTION
All types o i fault wlth~na transformer w~llproduce heat which will cause decomposition of the
transformer oil The resulting gases that are formed rise to the top of the tank and then to the
conservator. A buchholz relay connected between the tank and conservator collects the gas
and glves an alarm when a certain volume of gas has been collected. A severe fault causes so
much gas to be produced that pressure is built up in the tank and causes a surge of oil. The
buchholz relay will also detect these oil surges and under these conditions is arranged to trip the
transformer circu~tbreakers.
The maln advantage of the buchholz re4ay is that it will detect incipient faults which would not
oiherw~sebe detected by conventional protection arrangements. The relay is often the only way
of detect~nginterturn faults which cause a large current to flow in the shorted turns but due to
the large ratlo between the shorted turns and the rest of the winding, the change in terminal
currents IS very small
PARALLEL TRANSFORMERS
Parallel transformers are typically protected by directional overcurrent and earthfault protection
on the LV side set to look back into the transformers. Where an LV bussection exists the
directional relays can be replaced by non-directional relays, with the addition of a non-directional
overcurrent and earthfault relay at the bus-section.
Page 14
-
( I
- p s far as protection IS concerned, non-harmonic restraint should not be used due to the long
time delay required. A harmonic restrained relay should be used for each transformer since if a
common relay were used the 2nd harmonic resGaint could be lost due to cancellation as
described above.
I
,
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
Overloads can be sustained for long periods with the limiting factor being the allowable
temperature rise in the windings and the cooling medium. Excessive overloading will result in
deterioration of insulation and subsequent failure.
8 .
!
Overloads can be split into two categories :
Overloads which do not reduce the normal expectation of life of the transformers. Overloads in
this category are possible because the thermal time constant of the transformer means that
, ,
there is a con,siderable time lag before the maximum temperature correspond to a particular
load is reached. Quite high overloads can therefore be carried for short period.
) !
: Overloads in which an allowance is made for a rapid use of life than normal.
The length of life of insulation is not easily determined but it is generally agreed that the rate of
using life is doubled for every 6C temperature increase over the range 80-140C (below 80C
I
the use of life can be considered negltgible).
; A hot spot temperature of 98C gives what may be considered the normal rate of using life, ie a
normal life of some tens of years. This temperature corresponds to a hot spot temperature.rise
of 78C above an ambient temperature of 20C. The graph below indicates the relative'rate of
using life against hot spot temperature.
Relative
rate of
using
life
Protection f o r Overloads
Since overloads cause heating of the transformer above the normal recommended
temperatures, protection against overloads is normally based on winding temperature
Page 15
Transformer Setting Tutorials
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria &
: Protection Tutorials
Page 1 of 33
INTRODUCTION
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
.
-
?$
Individual phases are ind~catedby the letters A,B &C , again capital
letters for the low voltage winding. All windings on the same limb of a
core are given the same letter. A further numerical subscript serves to
differentiate between each end of the winding.
Plain overcurrent and earth fault protection utilising IDMTL relays are
used primarily to protect the transformer against the effects of
exiernal short circuits and excess overloads. The current settings of
the protection must be above the permitted sustained over load
allowance and below the minimum short circuit current. The ideal
characteristic i s the extremely inverse (CDG14)as it is closely
approximates to the thermal curve of the transformer.
On choosing the type and setting of the high set relay, it i s important
to consider the magnetising inrush currents under normal switching ,
offset fault currents and starting currents of motors.The first two
problems can be overcome by using a relay sensitive only to
fundamental frequency currents, while the third is overcome by
setting the relay above the max. starting current level.
Some times a two stage relay is employed, each stage set to operate
at a different time. The first staqe arranged to trip the LV breaker and
if still the fault is persisting, Ihe second stage relay trips the HV side
breaker thus isolating the transiormer completely.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
.?
The rated currents of the primary and the secondary sides of a two .,:.;.%
:
winding transformers the rated current will depend on the MVA rating ...
.';.I.
-4
- Sh
Further more , zero sequence current flowing on the star side of the
power transformer .will not produce current outside the delta on the
other side. The zerosequence therefore be eliminated from the star
side by connecting the CTs in delta, from which i t follows that the CTs
on the delta side of the transformers must be connected in star, in
order to give 30 degree phase shift. This is a general rule ; if the
#
- .
. . . < . ....
- --- , .... - . .- .
..- ,
. A , . -
. . . . .--.
or1r
-. .. ..... ....a . --
, .
:. . . .
....
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....... . . . . . .-
. .
ld,(
.. . ._ ._ l i
..-.
. - ... -.
..
. , 8
. ' .
..... .
.--,-.-. :'.., !-.: ,
........
. . .. . .. . .: . , ;'
. .-. .- . . . . -. .
.. .. ..
.. . . . .
j
. t ' , ,
> 3 . -
. .- . : , : i :
'
,-:
,.-;.[!:: . . . .:. - I,
. .---,i :
,
..:
I
. ......
, v.1, : , 2'- . L-.,,-.-
, .
. L . .,
.. . . v - :
--- ---..
r - - -,
:
,
, , 8 . V ' ,
,
.-..-
N.. ! . :' 4
-. ..: : . .; : .-.--A.
,.<,
,. . :
, i
: . :.
-
:
7..
. .. . ... . .
. <>-. ; . ,, ,: .->-:
., .. :. a : .
4
I.4 . +A : -3 . , L.
.
.. , ,.
r--
4 I
,-----
. a n -.
. - _ I '
--.:., *. .:,. -,..- ! .-I
.: .
.!_
:A
I
.:
; . . . . . .,. . .,i . . .
. -
la -. -.
-. ....... i - 0 ;
, !
I
.... ,
4
- a ,
.-.... -.
-. ....
. . -:! !
-. - ...
i i*: < .
,
, -->
,:..-..
M
.-I . ._ ... - -, . . . -.. ; , I
..
!
i . ,
...... 2 t. .
,.
. I. ..
.: . .. , .. ..
. .
, :. ,
!
.
.
I
...... ..
. . . _ .... _ , .
. . . . . . - ........
. __-_
;.-
--
.- .- 'I
2
-ffKmsKX W ~ C O a t l * * S
NOTES O N R L U I COU~CCTIOMS
1.
2.
L
W
X 01
WIWQ wu ~ o r urv r -
q
T a 0.4d
I* a u r u r l IN, C? c-m.
to b C-OUCW
S l udZ.mdt-lharwdhrnbp.1
ul .rV..d. -
em.rpo..64 ff. r e W-QDmCYd.
*1.3
m -1
-I b NCJJ lo
m*
IN n(n- ---a
m h ull
1-
d 3 k*WchCLbrdlon-rtuCI'srn-ang.2.~3-vb.conaa.d
d CT. r. MU-d v. . I
th. CT.
. ormlod
m n d .rn' u
rw.ut.d m'
Figure 1
If the transfor-n~er
hcs a tapping range enabling its ratio to be varied ,
this must be allowed for in the differential system. This is because the
CTs selecled to balance, for the mean ratio of the power transformer, ,
a variation in ratio from the mean will create an unbalance
proportional to the ratio change. At maximum through fault current ,
the spill oputput produced by the small percentage unbalance may
be substantial.
.- -. --
Figure 2
a
2 20--
1
-----.-.
w ' OPERATE
.. .. - - -
to- P . - - . - . --
. . - . --.
A -- --- -
'- 2-0 3;O 4-0
b
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria &
Protection Tutorials
- Page 8 of 33
The Merz-price principle remains valid for a system having more than
two connections, so a transformer with three or more windings can
still be protected by the application of above principles.
.?
.-.
.
. . .8 . .
. .
. .
! W j ,- >g - - . ,. .
-- i i
:
i__ . . . . .: j
.
,
.
.... -, .
i . . .. .. !,P.7'-$
.; . :
' '
; '
... .-
i - - J > ' :
- . . . . . .
<__ --
,
.-.. , ... ..i
I -..,-........ : j :
iI i
-,
-:.
:--. :.... ............. .... ; ..:
I :
!
i
!
: ,
'
. .
' "
! . . j / j
j ; ii
I ! !
'--L_1------- ,-. ,--
;:;,5V..."
d l . . ti:: ..;..
.... ; ! i
i
j /
;
\
1 I
1
I
0
I
,-;:
I
i
1
!
~2Y-y::-
:
;i
/ I
I.
!
. . !
. ..
.?
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria &
Protection Tutorials
Page 10 of 33
Figure 4
. .
. .
SUPPLY-
--J. !. -.-
'END
BlAS\'I'WDINGS
. - . .. - . , . .
-
..
. - ..
SUPPLY
Em
First the primary ratings of 1600A and200A chosen for the main CTs
should not be less than the max. full load currents in each winding ,
which are ,
Equivaienf secondary currents in the line CTs are 0.984 A and 0.69 A.
Thus the ratio of the star /delta interposing CTs to achieve ideal
n7atching is given by:
.' >
.
..
.
..
i
, ..;- .
. . _
. . .
. A
r-- -
. ... ...
, .
. . 2::,s z.:.;;;:.,:;,.
,
,
2
L---
:
.
9
.
,
_- .
,
- ,- ,-4
.- --* .? ~p-.-_ll d
t- *
,
!i :x*-,-->.
3
i
,
,
,
...
0
! .-'
.-..
--'
-1_--I_
.-. .-
... -
.
-- - -- - i -- -_ .__.
._
,--.
..
....
.. *-., I-\
.i 7-
. .I
..
(~jpL,,*,,,i 8, ,-,,d*r;:.3;:4G:
,.T-\.,
2:
L, !
/
i L:
2-.
,. ,, .; .. .: ,' .
s
,A,
- 2 .
i>."
, .
'y' \/
I
R E U Y RATED CURRfNT 1A -
Figure 5
12OMVA SOMVA
2OO/M W k V . 1 W V
-
RELAY FATED CURKEICT - !2.
Figure 6
-.
lnele iore ratio of required starldelta interposing CTs
= 3.461 5 A OR 3.461 2.89 A
\'3
Secondary current from 138 KV line CTs corresponding io 120 M V A
= 17.1715 A
Els/
Under full load conditions of 30MVA, for the 13.45 KV delta winding ,
the current appearing in the primary of the 17.17/5 A inter posing CT
1
I
1 .
will only be 4.29 A , the corresponding secondary current being 1.25
I A . However the ratings of the primary and the secondary windings
I
i !
should ideally be 17.1 7 A and 5 A respectively to minimise winding
resistances.
Harmonic Restraint.
. ..
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria & .$
Protection Tutorials :,
Page 16 of 33 !(
The portion of second harmonics varies some what with the degrce
of saturation of core , but is always present as long as the
unidireciior~ai~ormponentof flux exists. It has been shown to have a
minimum value of about 20% of the amount by which the inrush
current exceecjs the steady state magnetising current.
..-. . - A -- -
II Page 17 of 33
c. Third harmonic
The third harmonic is also present in the inrush current in roughly
comparable proportion to the second harmonic. The separate
I phase inrush currents are still related in phase to the primary applied
electromotive forces and the harmonics have a similar time spacing,
I
!
which brings the third harmonic waves in the three windings into
phase. If the windings are connected in delta, the line currents are
each the difference of two phase currents. As the inrush
components vary during the progress of the transient condition it is
i possible for this qifference to pass,through zero, so that the third
i.
i.
. .
f; .,:.,
%?
,.%
...
OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information
. .
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria &
Protection . Tutorials
Page 18 of 33
harmonic component in the line current vanishes; this component,
therefore, be regarded as a reliable source of bias.
All this means that the third harmonic is not a desirable means of
stabilizing a protective system against inrush effects.
d. Higher harmonics , ,
All other harmonics are theoretically present in inrush current but the
relative magnitude diminishes rapidly as the order of harmonic
increases; there may be 5% of fourth harmonic in a given inrush
'current. This component would be similar in response to the second
harmonic but the small magnitude hardly justifies the provision of an
extra filter circuit.
A simple overcurrent and earth fault system will not give good y
protection cover for a star-connected primary winding, part~cularlyil
the neutral is eaithed through an impedance. The degree of
protection is very much improved by the application of a ur-lil
differential earth fault system or restricted earth fault protection, as
shown in Figure 7. The residual current of three line current
The system is operalive for faults within the region between current
transformers, t h a t Is, fs: fai;lts on the star winding in question. The
I
system will remain stable for all faults outside this zone
HIGH lMPEDANCE
RELAY
offering stability for any type of fault occuring outside the protected :-zI2'
zone and satisfactdry operation for faults with in the zone. ....
. .,f
voltage setting is not less tnan the calculated rnax. voltage which. .
-
--
..4:
....-cJ.
. '. :.=s
can appear across its terminal under the assigned-max.through fault -
-.-<$
To achieve the stability for external faults, the.stability voltage for the
protection Vs must be determined by the formula,
Vs = If (Rct +2RL )
Where Rct = CT secondary winding resistance
RL= max. lead resistance from the CT to the common point
I
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting criteria.&
Protection . -- Tutorials
Page 21 of 33
I
To ensure satisfactory operation of the relay under internal fault
conditions the CT Knee point voltage should not be less than twice
the relay setting voltage. i.e
Protection
Page 22 of 33
-
Vf = If (Rct +2rl+Rst + Rr ) %
.,.%
:
:g
.>.%
. .: >
;$
Where Vp= Peak voltage developed by the CT under internal fault :s
$
:
conditions
Vk = CT knee point voltage
Vf = max. voltage that would be produced if CT saturation did
.,#
.
i% :.
.3
not occur .,.kt
~ ..
..,
Max. internal fault sec. Current C?
."
,
Rct = CT secondary winding resistance
RL = max. lead burden from CT to relay
Rst = stabilising resistor
Rr = relay ohmic impedance .at setting
At the relay voltage setting , the non linear resistor, current should be
as low as possible but no greater than approximately 30mA r.m.s for
1 A CT and approx. 100mA for 5A CTs.
-
Advanced Industrial Power System Transformer setting Criteria &
Protection
Base current = 80 x 10 6
43x415
= 1 1 1 296 Amps
There fore fault current = If = 3x 0.071 4 ~ 1 1 1 2 9 6
Setting voltage Vs = If ( R c t + 2 R L )
Assuming Earth CT saturates,
= 1.482 ohms . .-
. . . ,...
. -.
. .
= 93.6 V
Stabilising Resistor
= 836 ohms
i i n e side CTs:
= 190 Amps
Therefore Vp = 2 1
1 2 x330 ( 13946 - 330)
OVERFLUXING PROTEC'TION
Feedback techniques are used in the type GTT relay to make the
measured ratio accurate over a wide range of frequency and
voltage.Two time delay outputs are given by auxiliary elements, each
with multiple contacts. One element, the contact of which are used
to effect a control operation to reclify the abnormal condition,
operates after a pre-selected fixed,time delay between 0.5s and 1.0s
or between 2s and 5 s.
SOiJQCf
it-;
.,">
Y:
"2
.-.
.. . ., .<is
'
. $
$f
.:g+
...?$ 5
..$
The use of instantaneous relays for the primary side of the transformer .;.+
..a ?i
.??
is recommended inorder to improve fault clearance time and enable .+,..*
:* .
.-
a lower time multiplier setting on relays elsewhere on the system. The .:. --
>. . _ I
-...
relay should have low transient overreach and be set to ...
,:>:
, ,.
.A
.<.;
..
5
.,.
:1*.:,;
x
,' '$5
...?, :(1
i
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OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information ..$.4
.A?
Generator and Generator
Transf - Protection
Generator and
Generator-Transformer
-*:-
-":<&-"
:y-..,,>.x.
<zz+$+>e.i;
.:.;:.:
'The core of an electric power system is the generation. $.': - ~..'&.'.:<.'.: ~
7.
~ ~ ~ :
With the exception of emerging fuel cell and solar-cell $ , : ~ ; ~ ~ y : ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ -
technology for power systems, the conversion o f the
fundamental energy into its electrical equivalent .
normally reqdires a 'prime mover' to develop mechafiical
power as an intermediate stage.
The nature of this machine depends upon the source of
energy and i n turn this has some bearing on the design
o f the generator. Generators based on steam, gas, water
or wind turbines, and reciprocating combustion engines
are all i n use. Electrical ratings extend from a f e w
hundred kVA (or even less] for reciprocating engine and
renewable energy sets, up t o steam turbine sets
exceeding 1200MVA.
Small and medium sized sets may be directly connected
to a power distribution system. A larger set may be
associated with an individual transformer, through
which it is coupled to the EHV primary transmission
system.
Switchgear may or may not be provided between t h e
generator and transformer. In some cases, operational
and economic advantages can be attained by providing
a generator circuit breaker i n addition to a high voltage
circuit breaker, but special demands will be placed on
the generator circuit breaker for interruption o f
generator fault current waveforms that do not have an
early zero crossing.
A unit transformer may be tapped o f f t h e
interconnection between generator and transformer for
the supply of power to auxiliary plant, as shown i n
Figure 17.1. The unit transformer could be of the order ., :.;:,.: --..
of 10% of the unit rating for a large fossil-fuelled steam .:f.?:<.;?:
set with additions( flue-gas desulphurisation plant. b u t %?~;~~;~~~<~;:
.,,.
it may only be of the order o f 1% o f unit rating for a
hydro set.
.+s;:;~,:.:,:
6.:.<.7,..,;.
:-.
-
., ... .
..?..$<!:
.
.->
.;:, ;:..:
., ..
,. :y.;:..:,
. . . . .:::,..:
required. The amount of protection applied w i l l be
Generator Main ttansformcr
governed b y economic considerations, t a k i n g i n t o
account the value of the machine, and t h e value o f its
output t o the plant owner.
,--, HV busbars
The following problems require consideration f r o m the
. .
*'<. Unit transforrncr point o f view o f applying protection:
i :
I : '-4'
a. stator electrical faults
,' b. overload
-.--
:
Auxiliary
supplics switchboard
d. unbalanced loading
the generator and the lower voltage winding o f the sufficient that the transformer be designed to have a
transformer can be treated as an isolated system that is primary winding knee-point e m f . equal t o 1.3 times the
not influenced by the earthing requirements o f the generator rated line voltage.
power system.
p r . t r..... ? A ..........;....
Conventional generator protection systems would be calculation, after measurement of the individual q :
blind t o a n interturn fault, b u t the extra cost and secondary currents. I n such relay designs, there is full.:
complication of providing detection of a purely interturn galvanic separation o f the neutral-tail and terminal Q.;
fault is n o t usually justified. I n this case, an interturn secondary circuits, as indicated i n Figure 17.5(a). This is
fault must develop into an earth fault before it can be not the case for the application of high-impedance
c!eared. An exception may be where a machine has an differential protection. This difference can impose some
abnormally complicated or multiple winding special relay design requirements t o achieve s t a b i l i t y f ~ ~ ,
arrangement, where the probqbility o f an interturn fault biased differential protection i n some applications.
might be increased. .@
.;-,4
.:,@
;i>2
..w
.,=.&
-
.--
'4
normally applied t o generators rated in excess of 1MVA.
For large generating units, fast fault clearance will also
threshold setting I,, can be set as low as 5% o f rated :.
generator current, to provide protection for as much of:
2 maintain stability of the main power system. The zone the winding as possible. The bias slope break-point$&
-
P of differential protection can be extended t o include an threshold setting I;, would typically be set t o a value.?$,
above generator rated current, say 12O01o, to achieve::?.
associated step-up transformer. For smaller generators,
..&
-5-
L
IDMT/instantaneous overcurrent protection is usually the
only phase fault protection applied. Sections 17.5-17.8
external fault stability i'n the event of transient,{2
asymmetric CT saturation. Bias slope I;, setting would:?
,
- !
.o detail the various methods that are available for stator typically be set at 150%. >
.: c:
-r--. i: ,.:.
,.:
-
L
winding protection.
Stator
-1?'3
. - ..-
-.
A
latively low CT impedance), will allow the current from To calculate the primary operating current, the following
unsaturated CT t o flow mainly through the saturated expression is used:
rather than through the relay. This provides the
uired protection stability where a tuned relay element I,, = N X(is, + nl,)
$4 is employed. I n practice, external resistance is added t o where:
the relay circuit i o prwidc the necessary high
lop
= prima y operating current
impedance. The principle of high-impedance protection
application is illustrated i n Figure 17.6, together with a N = CT ratio
summary of the calculations required t o determine ttie ls l setting
= relay
value o f external stabilising resistance.
n = number of CT's in parallel with relay element
I, = CT magnetising currerft at V,
i Hcalthy CT Saturated CT I,, is typically set to 5% of generator rated secondary
current.
*I
It can be seen from the above that the calculations for
the application of high impedance differential protection
are more complex than for biased differential protection.
However. the ~rotectionscheme is actually cuite simple
a
and it bffers high level of stability for through f a k
and external switching events. 2
2
L', = K V , L
wherc J . O < K r l . S
With the advent of multi-function numerical relays and
with a desire to dispense with external components; high
5
-=
Stabilising resistor, R,, limits spill currcnt to <I, lrclay sctting)
impedance differential protection is not as popular as 2
5I - R R -
R,,=
whcn RE - r:lay burden
biased differential protection i n modern relaying
practice. . . . . - ..
9 L
0
..- . - . .
. . . . . . .
-
..,...
. ., :..
,.l
:., ; ... .i.Ji... ........
!.. .
. .
-
2
.-.
9)
i
'.' i n some applications, protection may be required to limit
The CT requirements for differential protection will vary
G-
voltages across the CT secondary circuits when the .%
according t o the relay used. Modern numerical relays E
differential secondary current for an internal phasc fault
I
may not require Ci's specifically designed for differential
flows through the high impedance relay circuit(s1, but
this is not commonly a requirement for generator protection to IEC 60044-1 class PX (or BS 3938 class X). 3
differential applications unless very high impedance
However, requirements i n respect of CT knee-point 2
:
. .ii..
... . : ,..,.l
..::
. a.
.. . . ,...",
relays .are applied. Where necessary, shunt-connected.
non-linear resistors, should be deployed, as shown in
voltage will still have to be checked for the specific
relays used. High impedance differential protection may
be more onerous i n this respect than biased differential
protection.
Many factors affect this, including the other protection 1.7.
functions fed by the CT's and the knee-point
requirements of the particular relay concerned. Relay
manufacturers are able to provide detailed guidance on
this matter.
.
generator and step-up transformer. Differential f. ' .i:.
protection can be arranged as follows.
chz.17-20-31 11/06/02 1044 Page 206 &
- .
.
.. .....;,<:...: ,*,\>'
. .
$>,$$.
. ..
.+
'
..<. .T:y<?$
. .....
.. ~ $ . j ~ ~17.6.1
. ; ~ ~ :Gencrato~.iSrcp-upTra~isiorrner transformer rating is extremely low in relation to th
. . ... . .. .
. . .,...
> , v,,
::. .. Dlffc-rcntial Protection generator rating, e.g. for some hydro applications. ~h
...i.,,.
.' : * ,.",.
. ,','
location of the third set o f current transformers
.. ..c:~$~..~;: The generator stator and step-up transformer can be
..
. . . _. ~ normally on the primary side of the unit transformer.
...:
..c
::.:
%.a+-:,'.
protected
~ ~ by . ~a single
i ~ ~ zone- of
~ overall
~ differential
... k:z:4>$;t. located on secondary side of the unit transformer, th(
.., .,.. . % . protection (Figure 17.8).
!...:1.+.,.. This will be in addition to
:....:. :.. . differential protection applied to the generator only. The
:Y:: ' wnuld have-to- be of an exceptionally high ratio, :
. .,.- ..< ..
current transformers should be located in the generator exceptionally high ratio interposing CT's would have.
.
....
.....
... . neutral connections- and i n the -transformer HV
connections. Alternatively, C r s within the HV
: be used. Thus, the use of secondary side CTs is not to I
recommended. Cne advantage is that unit transform
. .
. switchyard may be employed if the distance is not faults would be' within the zone of protection of
, - technically prohibitive. Even where there is a generator generator. However, the sensitivity of the generat
circuit breaker, overall differential protection can still be protection to unit transformer phase faults would
provided i f desired. considered inadequate, due to the relatively low rating
--
-.u
0 ...................................
the transformer in relation to that of the generat
Thus, the unit transformer should have its 0,
-
U
-
Generator transformer transformer is covered in Chapter 16, including methc
.
r
2
L
3/-
\.....- -;<i y7-p-!~
,;. ,\ ,'
for stabilising the protection against magnetising inn
conditions.
-
4
a. .
-- 1
!
-Protcctcd zonc C
-. --
.O ! busbars
; > .-
.
,...:E3{.; :).,r,'
.i.:c .*-. ..... c.,
-
3 , . 52t..%<.,-s x.>J-,i..: :>..j:;:>. <ti<
3 I Id>
s - - .
2 Ti+: :
Overcurrent protection of generators may take :
forms. Plain overcurrent protection may be used a;
LI iI
;:
- . principle form of protection for small generaton,.
-4
s....... A.
- -
. ' ... . .. . . . . . . . . .-... -. . . - .. -. . . . . - .
.
back-up for larger ones where differer
protection. is used asthe primaty method of ge&i
El
E:
... 5qurc :7.5: O,.rr:?:i :<?:rr~l<;t-i::n~rcrzi~i. stat0.i winding protection. Voltage dep;nc
t r - . :~.i!cr<,cr;:;; Ji<<::m:i<nn
a . . ovekcurrent protection may tie applied where differel
-
'.'
protection isnot justified on larger generators, or w
2 problems are met i n applying plain overcur
C The current transformers should be rated according to
-
L protection.
Section 16.8.2. Since a power transformer is included
.r-
within the zone o f protection, biased transformer
Q differential protection, with rnagnetising inrush restraint ;,; r>,;2ir; .:!Tc:2zL;ah.:
c;c,,j .L:L:yrc!l:,
z
should be applied, as discussed in Section 16.8.5.
C3 Transient overfluxing of the generator transformer may It is time-delayed plain overcu
arise due to overvoltage following generator load protection to generators. For generators rated less
rejection. In some applications, this may threaten the lMVA, this will form the principal stator wi'
. 172...
..
stability of the differential protection. In such cases.
A
, protection phase For larger gener
Overcurrent protection can be applied as remote ba
consideration should be given to applying protection
4
-:,:..,
. ...,.
,
is::.:
....,pv.j**&-. with transient overfluxing restraintlblocking (e.g. based ~rotection,to disconnect the unit from any uncl
,
:
..-.
. . ..z.'-..$' . on a 5th harmonic differential currentthreshold). external fault. Where there is only one set of differ
main protection, for a smaller generator, the OverC
Protection against sustained overfluxing is covered i n
Section 17.14. protection will also provide local back-up protecti
the protected plant, i n the event that the
protection fails t o operate. The general princi~
.! :..,!.
. ;, i.j,,,l - , ;,,.. ,,,:,7-,Ll. (I;.:,, . I . i . . -
.,4 ,! ,.!(.!;.
:, setting overcurrent relays are given in Chapter 9.
... ..... . The current taken by the unit transformer must be In the case of a single generator feeding an i:
. . . .
..... .. ..;_,;
.
,.,. allowed for by arranging the generator differential system, current transformers at the neutral end
:'el '' protection as a three-ended scheme. Unit transformer machine should energise the overcurrent protect
I..
. . current transformers are usually applied to balance the allow a response to winding fault conditions.
. . generator differential protection and prevent the unit characteristics should be selected to take into ;
. . transformer through current being seen as differential the fault current decrement behaviour of the ge
. : current. An exception might be where the unit with allowance for the performance of the ex
...-. .. -
.
,.:. .,. -
-.*.:.: .
.-,qC/c '
;& -T&*;;
;>ipiQi
.L7;.ps.**
.z.;
. - I16
_/ N,tw.rk Pr.t<rti.m & ,f.t.m.ri.a C
- .... : z m
2G3y5..
I -.s- . .
I . .. .
+tern and its field-forcing capability. Without the The choice depends upon the power system
provision o f fault current compounding from generator characteristics and level of protection t o be provided.
CT's, an excitation system that is powered from an Voltage-dependent overcurrent relays are often found
wcitation transformer a t the generator terminals will applied t o generators used on industrial systems as an
whibit a pronounced fault current decrement for a alternative to full differential protection.
terminal fault. With failure t o consider this effect, the
potential exists for the initial high fault current to decay
to a value below the overcurrent protection pick-up Voltage controlled overcurrent protection has t w o
setting before a relay element can operate, unless a low timelcurrent ciiaracteristics which are selected according
current setting and/or time setting is applied. The t o the status of a generator terminal voltage measuring
protection would then fail to trip the generator. The element. The voltage threshold setting for the switching
settings chosen must be the best compromise between element is chosen according t o the following criteria.
assured operation i n the foregoing circumstances and 1. during overloads, when the system voltage is
discrimination with the system protection and passage sustained near normal, the overcurrent protection
of normal load current, but this can be impossible with should have a current setting above full load current
plain overcurrent protection. and an operating time characteristic that will prevent
In the more usual case o f a generator that operates i n the generating plant from passing current to a remote
parallel with others and which forms part o f an extensive external fault for a period i n excess o f the plant short-
time withstand limits
interconnected system, back-up phase fault protection
for a generator and its transformer will be provided by HV - 5-*
" 9
2. under close-up fault conditions, the busbar voltage - .-
overcurrent protection. This will respond to the higher- must fall below the voltage threshold so that the
level backfeed from the power system to a unit fault.
Other generators i n parallel would supply this current
second protection characteristic will be selected. This
characteristic ihould be set t o allow relay operation '
is
sg
and, being stabilised by the system impedance, it will not
suffer a major decrement. This protection is usually a
with fault current decrement for a close-up fault a t
the generator terminals or- a t the,HV- b u s b a .~ T h e . ~ ~ , ~ , & ; : ..:~~:
.-
5
requirement of the power system operator. Settings must protection
. . . . .sh&d
.. also ..time~jrade..'.with:~xteI??l~-
......
.....24y.-i:
'i.=:;". 0 ,-.. .' . .
..
-;
be chosen to prevent operation for external faults fed by protection..~~&ie jy&-be.gdditiond i"fe&ds t o I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ' - : , . . ~ ' ' - '
instantaneous high-set elements. The time-delayed Typical characteristics are shown i n Figure 17.9.
-a
elements should be set t o ensure that the protected items =
P
of plant cannot pass levels o f through fault current i n . - ...... - ..... .........
--. - .... ................ - 2-
excess o f their short-time withstand limits. The Currcnr pick-up k v c l
instantaneous elements should be set above the
maximum possible fault current that the generator can
supply, but less than the system-supplied fault current in
the event of a generator winding fault. This back-up
protection will minimise plant damage in the event of
main protection failure for a generat~ngplant fault and
instantaneous tripping for an HV-side fault will aid the
recovery of the power system and parallel generation.
-
terminals. Alternatively, the relay element may be considerations.
regarded as an impedance type with a long dependent
time delay. In consequence, for a given fault condition,
the relay continues t o operate mnre or less This method is used i n the following situations:
independently of current decrement i n the machine. A a. direct-connected generators operating i n parallel
typical characteristic is shown i n Figure 17.10.
b. generators with high-impedance neotral earthin,
the earth fault current being limited to a few ter
of amps
c. installations where the resistance of the grour
fault path is very high, due to the nature of t[
ground
In these cases, conventional earth fault protection
described i n Section 17.8.1.1 is of little use.
The principles o f sensitive earth fault protection ;
described i n Sections 9.17.1. 9.18 and 9.19. The ea:
fault (residual] current can be obtained from residl
connection of line CT's, a line-connected CBCT, or a 0
5 2 V , Voltage level
the generator. neutral. The latter is not possible
directional protection is used. The polarising voltagt
usually the neutral voltage displacement input to .
relay, or the residual o f the three phase voltages, s.
suitable VT must be used. For Petersen Coil earthin!
wattmetric technique {Section 9.19) can also be usec
Earth fault protection must be appl~edwhere impedance
. For 'direct '&nnected. operating in. para
earthing is employed that limits the earth-fault current
- . directional'..&nsitive earth: fault :protection. may
t o less than the pick-up threshold of the overcurrent
andlor differential protection for a fault located down to necessary. This is t o ensure that a faulted ge&rat~r
the bottom 5% o f the stator winding from the star- be tripped. before there is any ossibility of the:+
point. The type of protection required will depend on the ~ " e r c u r r e n tprotection tripping a parallel he;
method of earth~ngand connection of the generator to generator. When being driven by residually-conne
the power system phase CT's, the protection must be stabilised ag;
incorrect tripping with transient spill current i n thee
of asymmetric CT saturation when phase faul
magnetising inrush current is being passed. Stabil
techniques include the addition o f relay ci
A single direct-connected generator operating on an
impedance and/or the application of a time delay. W
isolated system will normally be directly earthed.
the required setting o f the protection is very lo
However, i f several direct-connected generators are
' 17*. . operated in parallel, only one generator is normally comparison t o the rated current of the phase C
... would be necessary to employ a single CBCT for the
...\!. ....
.,t,.
. . earthed a t a time. For the unearthed generators, a
fault protection to ensure transient stability.
........
. .:..i",':;,.simple measurement of the neutral current is not
~. . possible, and other methods of protection must be used. Since any generator i n the paralleled group m:
. The following sections describe the methods available. earthed, all generators will require to be fitted wit1
neutral overcurrent protection and sensitive direc
earth fault protection.
With this form of protection, a current transformer i n the
The setting o f the sensitive directional earth
neutral-earth connection energises an overcurrent relay
protection is chosen to co-ordinate with ger
element. This provides unrestricted earth-fault
differential protection andlor neutral v
protection and 'so i t must be graded with feeder
protection. The relay element will thereforfhave a zime- displacement protection t o ensure that 95% of thc
winding is protected. Figure 17.11 illustrat,
delayed operating characteristic. Grading must be
carried out in accordance with the principles detailed in complete scheme, including optional blocking
where difficulties i n co-ordinating the generat
Chapter 9. The setting should not be more than 33/~of
the maximum earth fault current of the generator, and a downstream feeder earth-fault protection occur.
lower setting would be preferably, depending on grading
)-315 17/06/02 10:46 Page 285
.: 3 - . . . . .
;
pr8>:wrifir;S C I I C V ~:CI:C , ; , : c c I - ~ - , ; , I : ; ~ ,c~ . ~ c
.
o~nrra!:lrs :),8eroi;.za . ir: 13;;ruiir.i
.
;z
For cases (b) and (c) above, it is not necessary t o use a
= directional facility. Care must be taken t o use the correct E:
@ Ocrivcd from phasc ncutral voltagcs
RCA setting - for instance if the earthing impedance is 2
mainly resistive, this should be 0". On insulated or very @ Measurcd from carth impcdancc . &
I
1
.:
.'
.,-.hig.h impedance earthed systems, an RCA o f -90" would @ Mcasurcd from brokcn dclta VI -L
0
-.
:,'.?-.-be
. :used, as the .earth fault current is -predominately .
.....
-.
..
?,w,r< 17. 1.:: ?:<!i,fr": b.:,j:,>:c <:::;::;<?:c;e!!!
..- .
.
.=.'. -.
. . .u. . .
.
.;. . j
: = .
.-2: . -..
,- -..:;<.
" ,..L 7 , : C,
... ..
... .. . .. . . . . . . .. . ... .... .. .... .. ....
:.:~irectional
.-
. .
sensitive earth-fault protection can also be
used for detecting winding earth faults. I n this case, the As noted in Section 17.2, a directly-earthed generator- %
. relay element is applied t o the terminalsof the generator transformer u n i t cannot interchange zero-sequence 2
and is set to respond t o faults only within the machine current with the remainder o f the network, and hence an L .
windings. Hence earth faults o n the external system do earth fault protection grading problem does n o t exist *0
e
not result i n relay operation. However, current flowing The following sections detail the protection methods for k .,,
from the system into a winding earth fault causes relay the various forms of impedance earthing of generators. E : .
C,
operation. It will not operate on the earthed machine, so . . . . , . ... ..I. _ .. .. . .. . .
: . . .< .- u
that other types of earth fault protection must also be
1 applied. All generators must be so fitted. since any can
be operated as the earthed machine. A current transformer mounted on the neutral-earth 17
conductor can drive an instantaneous and/or time
77.13, 7 :?;:r.,l:..:: !,(!';: . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .
delayed overcurrent relay element, as shown i n Figure
In a balanced network, the addition of the three phase- 17.13. I t is impossible to provide protection for the whole
earth voltages produces a nominally zero residual of the winding, and Figure 17.13 also details how the
. voltage, since there would be little zero sequence voltage percentage of winding covered can be calculated. For a
Present. Any earth fault will set up a zero sequence relay element with an instantaneous setting, protection is
system voltage, which will give rise t o a non-zero typically limited t o 90% of the winding. This is t o ensure
residual voltage. This can be measured by a suitable that the protection will not maloperate w i t h zero
relay element. The voltage signal must be derived from sequence current during operation of a primary fuse for a
a VT that is suitable - i.e. it must be capable of W earth fault or with any transient surge currents that ........
...... .
. , -. -
transforming zero-sequence voltage, so 3-limb types and could flow through the interwinding capacitance of the . . . . . ..,,.,...
........ , ..
.: .; . .-"?.-.;: ,,-
-
. .<...:'.:....':. .!.
.:.. .. -..
........ .
i;i:r:.:.
>....,.. .:." ,.
\ . .. ,::,,>c .., :
+
$&
;:,; >?\&?
,;.:
.:yv:*. ..
.-,.:*>:,:*..:
"r?":.!..,
-,*.
:_ .>
.;. !.$.,. .,..> z , . .
.........
. ,. ' " , .. ..... often applied, with settings of 10% and 5% of maximum
!
,.?
. x 2 :Y,,. ,.... .".. earth fau It
,,~~:,z&&;;g~id;~
,.+&. -:!,'.:.
.
current respectively; this is the optimum :
&*,3,$y
,*:,**$3::l,,w
...... : compromise i n performance. The portion of the winding
:..-c<. .'-. :...v
..& .z,..... :,.>' ..
;',.
:.
left unprotected for an earth fault is a t the neutral end. :
.: @
!"" 2 %
.i.::::$,:<,
..-., C.,?.A,:
+.:+.. Since
..:,.-.. the voltage t o earth a t this end of the winding is
-.:
.;> ..::<,.. ,.. '.;a-.
:...
>::?~
<<
.,
2 ..,.:~;i.
2%: . ,..
........... low, the probability of an eartn fauit occurring is also lo^.
. .. . .
~ .;.
............ : . . . Hence additional protection is often not applied.
I-
I
k .: .. ............................... .. .................
I
!. -v
,i
i .
:
.
+ ..
I
........................ ,.. / *, ,. .........
., . :
-*- 12
,-.
! T
(a) Protection using a currcnt clcmcnt
i i
-U
).
.
0
I .........
-
U
j *;.
P
=4 -
-
-
1,
W
L
2
6
I ( R
I....,
- 7-71
-
0
'2, ..-..
-
hI
C-
2 -
%co~rwd (I-omic1 x 1100% .-
--
(bl Protection uring a voltagc clcmcnt :.c
%C
...-
i . . . .....- . . .,
C.',
..2
D
U - .. . . . . . . .
F;q,,r< I?.?:;: <,::I, I">!<
.- . .
,>!o;?<l;cc c i l:!<h-,c5::!::7:?
. . ..........
?b;i:<
.w%... .... :. ..... ,,
. . . r.afrh-bup.
G:zni:fcr kl.!i::!:nc;
? I.?f;:
.-*.-3, :rc~$:c:?.?;~:&hh&
.:...,:i.
, .- . . -. ....
. ,.
QJ
z %-t;rrc,?r:!<.-:.:i
:
-
.--b
.. . '2,'
j- . 2'. ednhea $ c ? : : z i v z : d : ~ ~ r2...<::%?..?s
. : s : z-
_
. . ..\
..2;
.,r
.
u I
... . _ . . . . . . I . . .
.. .. .. . . .
. . .
.-::%,
2 .
-
c
... . . -. .
.,
,(. . . . . . .
.........
Earth fault protection can also be provided using a voltag
. . ..,..
. ..*$
.' .".>.'.
'P"ei
1
.-,i
M
1,
In this arrangement, shown in Figure 17.14(a), the measuring element i n the secondary circuit instead. ;T.
generator is earthed via the primary winding of a setting considerations would be similar to those for:$
0
r distribution transformer. The secondary winding is fitted current operated ~ ~ o t e c t ~ obut
n * transposed to voltat
with a loading resistor to limit the earth fault current. The circuit diagram is shown i n Figure 17.l4(b). .;
An overcurrent relay element energised from a current Application of both voltage and current opera.
transformer connected i n the resistor circuit is used to elements to a generator with distribution transfon
17.0 measure secondary earth fault current. The relay should earthing provides some advantages. The curr
. . .;.j ,,,;.,>,;:
.;.. ., :
have an effective setting equivalent to 5% of the operated function will continue to operate i n the ev
. . ,, '.., .
<> ,
;.$?,.
- ;:.
. . .,;,. ..ie+;>:Gc. < . . maximum earth fault current at rated generator voltage, of a short-circuited loading resistor and the volt
. . ..
.. .... ...:. i n order to protect 95% of the stator winding. The relay protection still functions in the event of an OF
...
- ,.: ... . * element response to third harmonic curre_nt should be circuited resistor. However, neither scheme will ope
.. i n the event of a flashover on the primary terminal
. .
,,_..I
. limited to prevent incorrect operation when a sensitive
............
.,;-.,*.*
.... .'.9
. ... . setting is applied. the transformer or of the neutral cable between
generator and the transformer during an earth faul
As discussed i n Section 17.8.2.1 for neutral overcurrent
CT could be added in the neutral connection closet,
protection, the protection should be time delayed when generator, to energise a high-set overcurrent elerne
a sensitive setting is in order to prevent pro'
detect such a fault, but the fault current
maloperation under transient conditions. It also must high enough to operate the phase differ<
grade with generator VT primary protection (for a, VT protection.
primary earth fault). An operation time i n the range . .,..,
:;
.,
...,., ....;. .,.';.,
. .:.
. . ." :::...,.,.;. .
0.5s-3s is usual. Less sensitive instantaneous protection
can also be applied to provide fast tripping for a heavier This can be applied in the same manner as for c
earth fault condition. connected generators (Section 17.8.1.3). The
. - .. ....-
. . 190 . ................
N*tr*.l Pr.r<rli.. U
.
A.l.-ari.m C.
: :
-280-315 17/06/02 10:46 Page 2 9 1
!
can therefore be used, enabling cover o f up t o 95% of CT in the neutral connection. Settings of the order of 5010 .-A
:.&+:w,
*.-e
the stator winding t o be achieved. o f maximum earth fault current at the generator
terminals are typical. The usual requirements i n respect
~sm.
I
@+-
-.-. .-.-'
*:;
?:.$-3.
- of stabilising resistor and non-linear resistor to guard
17.t3.3 Rcs:rir';ccl E a r l ! i F:i~l: P~.nicc::ic~$
*2;
:%
F-+., -?.c:
;y;:<.-
against excessive voltage across the relay must be taken, $$*$>,
This technique can beused on small generators not fitted where necessary. g... , : ~ -. : ,
. . .!$
&:.
i
..... ..
with differential protection to provide fast acting earth >.."<.-:<6--.
wrtr .>.-
fault protection within a defined zone that encompasses .,\.....
..;,\-
..i ;
8 . > E,>,:i\l* . . ;Q;
i:<<j;<:.<;;.,:j,> . ..: . : . - v.....
the generator. It is cheaper than full differential ;i.l.c.'..: . - . . . . . : . . ..,.
..: : .:, . . . . .
..'6?.Z
.:.:.,,:" .
......... . . . . . . . . ... .. . . .. .. ...
protection but only provides protection against earth . . ..
protection, as detailed in Section 16.7. However, in far leave part of the winding unprotected. In most cases, ,.:::&. . .
contrast t o transformer REF protection, both biased low- this is of no consequence as the probability of a fault o
impedance and high-impedance techniques can be used. occurring in the 5010 of the winding nearest the neutral :.:'?:$%'' . .
.-,q.; :i .
!/ .,......... !'<;--:": ....' ...
: :.
".":' ,I:;.:!.,L::+>::
. .:..;:<. .. connection is very low,due to the reduced phase to earth 2 r. 0
. .
..
voltage. However, a fault can occur anywhere along the ::-
l1 I,
etc. When a fa'ult occurs in.the p a r t o f the stator
winding nearest the neutral end, the third harmonic
voltage drops to near zero, and hence a relay element
%
r:
. . .
G .r ,-
The principle of high impedance differential protection is A problem encountered is that the level o f third '
given in Chapter 10 and also described further in Section harmonic voltage generated is related to the output of
17-52. The same technique can be used for earth-fault the generator. The voltage is low when generator output
- *
-
-315 17/06/02 10:46 Page 292
+
i s low. I n order t o avoid maloperation when operdting at
low power output, the relay element can be inhibited
using an overcurrent or power element (kW, kvar or kVA)
For these reasons, it is prudent to provide powerx
and internal programmable logic.
frequency overvoltage protection, i n the form of a time-
LS2%j:;<:;>;. :,.>f.:j<>,:..., ...
. . ., . , . . . . .,. . .:.'.(,. >
, ........
; y,<?,,;..; ," 9. '1
delayed element, either IDMT or definite time. The time *; .
Another method for protecting the entire stator winding delay should be long enough t o prevent operation during .~.- l%;
of a generator is t o deploy signal injection equipment to normal regulator action, and therefore should take ;V
inject a low frequency voltage between the stator star account of the type of AVR fitted and its transient ,;:.
I 2;;.
I point and earth. An earth fault at any winding location response. Sometimes a high-set element is provided as j
- .. .>.,
i will result i n the flow of a measurable iniection current well, w i t h a very short definite-tirne delay
!?+
t o cause protection operation. This form of protection instantaneous setting t o provide a rapid trip in extreme<:$
can provide earth fault protection when the generator is circumstances. The usefulness of this is questionable ford
a t standstill, prior t o run-up. It is also an appropriate generators fitted with an excitation system other than
---
0
method t o apply t o variable speed synchronous
machines. Such machines may be employed for variable
speed motoring i n pumped-storage generation schemes
static type, because the excitation will decay in$
accordance with the open-circuit time constant of the;::
field winding. This decay can last several seconds. The-j
.
-
)r
Is,
.. or for starting a large gas turbine prime mover. relay element is arranged to trip both the main circuit,
breaker (if not already open) and the excitation; trippingL!
-- L
C,
i
. I . .;
,,.:
.': ,.
>.>.
..
.
: . :
.
....
the main circuit breaker alone is not sufficient. . -A
--
.+'
I s ..
'5:
.a Overvoltages on a generator may occur due t o transient
- surges on the network, or prolonged power frequency
overvoltages may arise from a variety of conditions.
. . . ,
.%
z- Surge arrestors may be required t o protect against is sometimes used as an interlock element for anothe
. transient overvoltages, but relay protection may be used protection function or scheme. such as field failu.6;
0
to protect against power frequency overvoltages.
*
protection or inadvertent energisation protection,.+yheg
- . A sustained overvoltage condition should not occur for a
mach~newith a healthy voltage regulator, but i t may be
the abnormality t o be detected leads -directly$...
indirectly to an undervoltage condition. . . .
. -.
..-.
...
. -..
Q
-q,
...
caused by the fol!owing cont~hgencies.
"ct A transmission system u n d e ~ o l t a g econdition may arix
E
c: a. defective operation of the automatic voltage when there is insufficient reactive power generation to
r, regulator when the machine is i n isolated operation maintain the system voltage profile and the conditior
.-. 0
b. operation under manual control with the voltage must be addressed to avoid the possible phenomenon
2 system voltage collapse.
.-. C)
.r
regulator out of service. A sudden variation of the
Q, load, i n particular the reactive power component. However, i t should be addressed by the deployment o
u will give rise to a substantial change i n voltage 'system protection' schemes. The generation should no
because of the large voltage regulatinn inherent in be tripped. The greatest case for undervoltage protectio
a typical alternator
.
.. 17.-
. ,.. c. sudden loss of load (due to tripping of outgoing
being required would be for a generator supplying a
isolated power system or to meet Utility demands fl
. . . . . . . : feeders, leaving the set isolated or feeding a very small connection of embedded generation (see Section 17.21
. . .. ? .
load) may cause a sudden rise in terminal voltage due
In the case of generators feeding an isolated systei
. . to the trapped field flux and/or overspeed
undervoltage may occur for several reasons, typica
Sudden loss of load should only cause a transient overloading or failure of the AVR. In some cases. t
overvoltage w h ~ l ethe voltage regulator and governor act performance of generator auxiliav plant fed via a u
to correct the situation. A maladjusted voltage regulator transformer from the generator terminals could
..<
may trlp to manual, ma~ntalnlngexcitation a t the value adversely affected by prolonged undervoltage.
,
>' /.
. prior to load loss while the generator supplies little or no
........ \
Where undervoltage protection is required, it sho
d':::.!;':,
. .,.I"...... .! load. The terminal voltage will increase substantially,
... .2,... . ..
- ..... and i n severe cases i t would be limited only by the comprise an undervoltage element 'and an associa
<:;:7,.
"'.B'..
;i time delay. Settings must be chosen t o a\
.:. ....
. saturation characteristic of the generator. A rise in speed
,.: -.,:
-,.;,....
,. ,
,
., ..
,
I
simply compounds the problem. I f load that is sensitive maloperation during the inevitable voltage dips du,
........
. .
>-
to overvoltages remains connected, the consequences i n power system fault clearance or associated with m1
.,. ..
... ...
... terms of equipment damage and lost revenue can be starting. Transient reductions in voltage down to 80'
. a -
, A,,.
.'- severe. Prolonged overvoltages may also occur on less may be encountered during motor starting.
7-280-315 17/06/02 10:46 Page 2Sf -
, .
;7.!1 LOV.; FOR;hJ;;RC F-<,'>;ERj~Fb~E:t5z where a protection sensitivity o f better than 3% is
PC'. ::7Y - ~1 ---.'
(-(.-Ji[).?.i
J ,
required, a metering class CT should be employed t o
,Low forward power or reverse power protection may be avoid incorrect protection behaviour due to CT phase
required for some generators to protect the prime mover. angle errors when the generator supplies a significant
Parts o f the prime mover may not be designed t o level of reactive power a t close t o zero power factor.
experience reverse torque or they may become damaged The reverse power protection should be provided with a
throuqh continued rotation after the prime mover has definite time delay on operation to prevent spurious
suffered some form o f failure. operation with transient power swings that may arise
following synchronisation or i n the event of a power
transmission system disturbance.
highly stressed mechanically and cannot tolerate much load. The zero sequence component produces.no main a
overspeed. While the governor should control overspeed armature reaction. . a
. . L
conditions, it is not good practice t o open the main '3
'S
->
circuit breaker simultaneously with tripping of the prime u
mover for non-urgent trips. For a steam turbine, for . ... .-., .
r . . ;:; :; ,:.
. ;:j;si. ,.
:............
,,:,L:I'.C ct.i?i:.!?!
in simultaneous prime mover and generator breaker double frequency currents i n the field system and i n the 'e
tripping must be accepted. rotor body. The resulting eddy-currents are very large .
I I
firclcrplosion due
to unburnt fucl above the rotor surface, when it is possible t h a t they may
Dicxl Engine i 5-25 Mechanical damaqc strike the stator core.
A generator is assigned a continuous negative sequence
(split shaft)
Gas Tuhinc ........... gcarbox damage rating. For turbo-generators this rating is low; standard
>M4Lo
' (single *ah1 values of 10% and 15% of the generator continuous
................. - . . . . . . . .
0.2-2 rating have been adopted. The lower rating applies when
Hydro . (bladcs out>2 of watcrl bladc and runncr
cavitation
the more intensive cooling techniques are applied, for
I
.....
(bladcs in water) example hydrogen-cooling with gas ducts i n the rotor to
turbinc bladc damaqc facilitate direct cooling of the winding.
Stcam Turbinc : 0.54 gcarbox damayc
..- . . . . . . . . .
on gcarcd XIS Short time heating is of interest during system fault
7lJh!< 17. 1 ; (i<-,:,cc<,><-
l.:::; e:wcr
<;~ :,::sll;%.:c, conditions and it is usual i n determining the generator
-. . . . . . . . .
negative sequence withstand capability to assume that
the heat dissipation during such periods is negligible.
Reverse power protection is applied to prevent damage
Using this approximation i t is possible to express the
to mechanical plant items in the event o f failure of the
heating by the law:
prime mover. Table 17.1 gives details o f the potential
problems for various prime mover types and the typical
settings for reverse power protection. For applications
.. .
. .-A .... -- . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . .
. . . . .
fft'\;. ; 3 ,
G.5
where: sequence capacity and may not require protection.-,;@
IZR = negative sequence component Modern numerical relays derive the negative s e q u e n ~ $3
current level by calculation, with no need for speIci
(per unit of MCR)
t = time (seconds) circuits to extract the negative sequence component. A.'.&
true thermal replica approach is often followed. to aliOw i.;$
>.........
K = constant proportional to the thennal capacity for:
of the generator rotor
- a. standing levels of negative sequence current below
For heating over a period of more than a few seconds, it the continuous withstand capability. This has the
is necessary to allow for the heat dissipated. From a effect of shortening the time to reach the critial a
combination of the continuous and short time ratings, temperature after an increase in negative sequence
the overall heating characteristic can be deduced to be: current above the continuous withstand capability .'
b. cooling effects when negative sequence current
levels are below the continuous withstand .
capability
k
u
Q.l
The advantage of this approach is thz: cooling effects are -
where: modelled more accurately, but the disadvantage is that
-P
%
= Ilegarive PIIaSe requetlce corrrilluousratillg ill the tripping characteristic m3Y not follow th; withstand
L per unit of MCR characteristic specified by the manufacturer accurately. .,
U
The heating character;stics of various designs of The typical relay element characteristic takes the form of ;:
generator are shown in Figure 17.16.
time to trip
;:.:. .; ( . ,,:.... .
... i fI earth and phase-phase faults where sufficient negative
..L.J?.&'L m l o r qcr;r~irluri
":',?>.;:. sequence current arises. Grading with downstream.
:;:*;w:
q>'a;uS, 1 I . iIj.7 N:~;J-.I,!~,I',;L:.V :,b::::.:.::i I: a . . . ~iun power system protection relays is therefore required. A,
&
.:&
-!
..:.:&s!:
'!:<q ?
i!L..
,,..:
This protection is applied to prevent overheating due to
definite minimum time setting must be applied to the
negative sequence relay element to ensure
.' :.
.?(;:;> negative sequence currents. Small -salient-pole grading. A maximum trip time setting may also be used
.:,,.......
........ generators have a P ~ P negative
~ larger ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
to ensure correcttripping
~
when
~ ~ ~
xquenF ~
. .:.,..;s.;.:; ., *
.. _%'..
-280-315 17/06/02 10:46 Page 295 -
rrent level is only slightly i n excess of the continuous of the transformer differential protection schemes
thstand capability and hence the trip time from the applied a t the power station (see Chapter 16 for
ay depart significantly from the rotor transformer protection). Sustained overfluxing can arise
during run up, i f excitation is applied too early with the
AVR i n service, or i f the generator is run down, w i t h the
excitation still applied. Other overfluxing instances have
occurred from loss of the AVR voltage feedback signal,
due to a reference VT problem. Such sustained
Accidental energisation of a generator when it is not conditions must be detected by a dedicated overfluxing
running may cause severe damage to it. With the protection function that will raise an alarm and possibly
generator a t standstill, closing the circuit breaker results force an immediate reduction i n excitation.
. .:' . ., , i . .
in the generator acting as an induction motor; the field Most AVRs' have an overfluxing protection facility ...... < ...-
- -.;$>.
winding (if closed) and the rotor solid ironldamper
......
.......
.:;,.?, - ..
.-..,?. .
.,&
p..;~::*-.:. .' .
.:.z
stator, with resultant rapid overheating and damage. ow ever, this facility is not engineered t o protection z....$ :.?~:.u.
.... ..i.
::;.
$;%;z'
:
relay standards, and should not be solely relied upon t o .,. r .1.
...
'I-
A combination of stator undervoltage and overcurrent provide o v e k ~ u x i nprotection.
~ A separate relay element Y':>&
can be used t o detect this condition. An instantaneous is therefore desirable and provided i n most modern
overcurrent element is used, and gated with a three-
phase undervoltage element (fed from a VT on the
relays.
CI
E
-
.?
. -
:-,. is -typical. VT failure can cause maloperation o f the
. .
protection, so the element should be inhibited under
:.:
=
W .
w
'
-
. . .
. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . ? . . : > : . :<;. - u
these conditions. -%
The governor fitted to the prime mover normally provides r
protection against overfrequency. Underfrequency may
occur as a result of overload of generators operating on 2
an isolated system, or a serious fault on the power 2
system that results in a deficit of generation compared
These conditions are grouped together because these
to load. This may occur i f a grid system suffers a major
problems often occur due to a departure from
fault on transmission lines linking two parts o f the
synchronous speed.
system, and the system then splits into two. I t is likely
that one part will have an excess of generation over load, 17 -
and the other will have a corresponding deficit.
Frequency will fall fairly rapidly i n the latter part, and the
Overfluxing occurs when the ratio o f voltage to normal response is load shedding, either by load
frequency is too high. The iron saturates owing to the shedding relays or operator action. However, prime
high flux density and results in stray flux occurring in movers may have to be protected against excessively low
components not designed to carry it. Overheating can frequency by tripping of the generators concerned.
then occur, resulting i n damage. The problem affects
both direct-and indirectly-connected generators. Either W ~ t hsome prime movers, operation i n narrow frequency
excessive voltage, or low frequency, or a combination of bands that lie close to normal running speed (either
both can result i n overfluxing, a voltage to frequency above or below) may only be permitted for short periods, -
ratio i n excess of 1.05p.u. normally being indicative of together with a cumulative lifetime duration of .. '
. . .
this condition. Excessive flux can arise transiently, which operation i n such frequency bands. This typically occurs ai,.:,..
....... :
: is not a problem for the generator. For example, a due to the presence of rotor torsional frequencies in such ~ .... ~ ~ ~
. generator can be subjected t o a transiently high power frequency bands. In such cases, monitoring o f the period iij?.:::
. frequency voltage. at nominal frequency. immediately of time spent i n these frequency bands is required. A :'.,...:. .
. '
after full load rejection. Since the condition would not special relay is fitted i n such cases, arranged t o provide
2.: !.
be sustained, it only presents a problem for the stability alarm and trip facilities if either an inoividual or I- ,>-.
L!. .
k-...- -..... -........... .....
: ~ ~ t v ~ ~
r . t rr , ri i , m u ~ . r , - a r i a * ~ . i , r .
:hepl7-280-325 17/06/02 10:48 Page 2 9 6
cumulative period exceeds a set time. - produce a balancing force on this axis. The result is an
unbalanced force t h a t in a large machine may be o f the
order o f 50-100 tons. A violent vibration is set up that
may damage bearing surfaces or even displace t h e rotor
The field circuit of a generator, comprising the field by an amount sufficient t o cause it t o foul the stator.
winding of the generator and the armature o f the exciter,
together w i t h any associated field circuit breaker if it , ;. .
. .
:,!.; :<,<;;;<,! ;
: : >;-::;j;jit ;><<>f<~,,,:.;,jg.:
exists, is an isolated d.c. c i r c u ~ twhich is not normally
earthed. I f an earth fault occurs, there will be no steady- Two methods are available t o detect this type o f f a u l t
state fault current and the need for action will not be The first method is suitable for generators that
evident. incorporate brushes in the main generator field windina:
The second method requires at least a slip-ring
Danger arises if a second earth fault occurs at a separate
connection t o the field circuit:
point i n the field system, t o cause the high field current
= to be diverted, in part at least, from the intervening a. potentiometer method
--
0
%.A
turns. Serious- damage t o the conductors and .possibly
the rotor can occur very rapidly under these conditions.
b. a.c. injection method
. .. . .. :. .. . . ; ,.,:: . . . . . . . . .. ~
. . .!r:!.;,!>.!>,:
-%.A
-
e
o Short Circtiil
.
I,
=
1,
0
E
c2
U
17.
[;?arc ;7. IS: LI;;:: : U ! I I : p x : ~ c t t ~~fi;&f
!~ ..
. .. . . . : . . . . . . .. .
,:ir8::,:: !~y?,):#:r!!;?;cc!,.r?crno,i . .:..
. . ,. , . .. .,. r,. . -
:.,
:.i
I t will be seen from Figure 17.17 that the flux is will give rise to a Current that is detekted as an;?
concentrated on one pole but widely dispersed over the equivalent voltage across the adjustable rcsistor by the.$
other and intervening surfaces. .[he attracting force is in relay. The capacitive coupling blocks the normal d.~.fie143
consequence large on one pole but very weak on the voltage, preventing the discharge of a large d i r c ~ e
axis will current through thc protection scheme. T h c c o m b i n a t i ~ ? ~ ~
. . opposite one, while fluxon the
.i
.
...
x!
i3.
C
... : g
....c-. ;'. l: z
'
..
... :,' . -!I:.:;;
.I ,r
P.,.,.. .:
..f.5. ...
......... .
.
.
..
.
_.
.
.
..
.
A_
_
-
. 196 - I
,
.............................
~ 8 l w ~ ' rP kr , l r < , i . q U
.............
Amr,r.ri,# C w i l t
,.,+.-!?.&$%.
:L:-.:;'r.*.
:
..%.
,.'.i.'..;.f~;l
....... .',
,,, ;;:->-...>.
.? .~~*:>;+?g,
LC.,- <.b, . .
+.:
. . .
..
.
:. ..' ..
1-280-315 17/06/02 10:48 Page 297 -
of series capacitor and reactor forms a low-pass tuned 17.1 5.2 Rotor Earth Faul? Proreaior?
L ...:
through the machine bearings to cause erosion of the 'PI"
CI
'.
bearing surface. For power frequency schemes, a %=
.. j ..: : ,.. : ,. . ,,L..!.>.
. . :;!.#~:.:;! !:. ,
,.....<....\:..
.-: L
solution is to insulate the bearings and provide an
earthing brush for the shaft. As detailed in Section 17.15 a shorted section of field E:
5
winding will result in an unsymmetrical rotor flux 2
pattern and in potentially damaging rotor vibration. ... b . . .. ,.
~etection of such an electrical fault is possible using a -;. & . -..: . -
*.. ,
.
probe consisting of a coil placed i n the airgap. The flux. -1: .-ct.. . . .
C-' .
;;rator
winding
I pittern i f t k positi"e and negative poles is me&ured". ,
and any significant difference in flux pattern between .".- PI
the poles is indicative of a shorted turn or turns.
Automated waveform comparison techniques can be
2C .
'U
?J
t,
'
.
1
1
I.
used to provide a protection scheme, or the waveform '1
can be inspected visually a t regular intervals. An 0
, - 197 - .........
.. ,
+ . ,
. , .,.,
Fuses t o disconnect the faulty diode after failure may be 7.1 6 LcjsS i l F [_X::[';p,TigN ?g:)';Ei;;iQx.i
fitted. The fuses are of the indicating type, and an
Loss of excitation may occur for a variety of reasons. i f . :
inspection window can be fitted over the diode wheel t o
enable diode health t o be monitored manually.
the generator was initially operating a t only 20%-3(&,, 1
o f rated power, it may settle t o run super-synchronously I
P. dinde that fails open-circuit occurs less often. I f there as an induction generator, at a low level of slip. I n doing !:
is more than one diode i n parallel for each arm of the so, it will draw reactive current from the power system . ' -
3,s
diode bridge. the only impact is t o restrict the maximum for rotor excitation. This form of response is particularlv ~ 2 z i
. .'(:I.,
continuous excitation possible. If only a single diode per true of salient pole generators. In these circumstances, ;$ ti:
6:.
bridge arm i s fitted, some ripple will be present on the the generator may be able to run for several minute- .<%-
main field supply but the inductance of the circuit will without requiring to be tripped. There may be sufficient $,;:.
smooth this t o a degree and again the main effect is t o time for remedial action to restore the excitation, but the '-:%.
I restrict the maximum continuous excitation. The set can reactive power demand o f the machine during the failure
be kept running until a convenient shutdown can be may severely depress the power system voltage t o an {.$
' arranged. unacceptable level. For operation at high initial power &;
- 0
w
+r
output, the rotor speed may rise t o approximately 105% :$;
of rated speed, where there would be low power output -$$
L.
9, 17.I 5.5 i i c ' c s!,rl.?fiy;;o:.i
and where a high reactive current of up to 2.0p.u. may ,:$
-1'
0 ..,,., .
be drawn from the supply. Rapid .;automatic.'%
The need t o rapidly suppress the field o f Ti'machine in
which a fault has developed should be obvious, because
disconnection is then required t o protect the stator 3:
windings from excessive current and t o protect the rotor :-'
as long as the excitation is maintained, the machine will
feed its own fault even though isolated from the power
from damage caused by induced slip frequency currents. '4:
system. Any delay i n the decay o f rotor flux will extend
the fault damage. Braking the rotor i s n o solution,
because of its large kinetic energy. .::*.
The protection used varies according to the s.ize of .i.2: .;.,.
-.- The field - w i n d i n g current cannot b e interrupted generator being protected. . -. -+S+:. r!
..
.... %
;-.
_
resistor, which may have a resistance value of The field undercurrent relay must have a setting below
approximately five times the rotor winding resistance, is the minimum exciting current, which may be 8% of that.
connected by an auxiliary contact on the field circuit corresponding to the MCR of the machine. Time delay
breaker. The breaker duty is thereby reduced to that of relays are used t o stabilise the protection againsti
opening a circuit with a low L/R ratio. After the breaker maloperation in response t o transient conditions and to!.
has opened, the field current flows through the discharge ensure that field current fluctuations due to pole slipping
resistance and dies down harmlessly. The use of a fairly do not cause the protection to reset.
high value o f discharge resistance reduces the field time I f the generator field current is not measurable. then the
constant t o an acceptably low value, though i t may still technique detailed in the following section is utilised.
be more than onc second. Alternatively. generators
fitted with static excitation systems may temporarily
invert the applied field voltage to reduce excitation For generators above about SMVA rating, protection
current rapidly to zero before the excitation system is against loss of excitation and pole slipping conditions is
tripped. normally applied.
Consider a generator connected to network, as shown i n The general case can be represented by a system of
Figure 17.20. On loss of excitation, the terminal voltage circles with centres on the line CD; see Figure 17.21.
will begin to decrease and the stator current will increase, Also shown is a typical machine terminal impedance
resulting in a decrease of impedance viewed frEm the locus during loss of excitation conditions.
generator terminals and also a change i n power factor.
field
I
!. The special cases of EG=Esand EG=O result in a
A relay to detect loss of synchronism can be located at straight-line locus that is the right-angled bisector of
point A. It can be shown that the impedance presented CD, and in a circular locus that is shrunk t o point C,
to the relay under loss of synchronism conditions (phase respectively.
swingi~gor pole slipping) is given by:
!_. . When excitation is removed from a generator operating r=
a
synchronously the flux dies away slowly, during which
period the ratio of is decreasing, and the rotor angle
of the machine is increasing. The operating condition
plotted on an impedance diagram therefore travels along
a locus that crosses the power swing circles. At the same
17.
time, it progresses in the direction of increasing rotor
angle. After passing the anti-phase position, the locus
bends round as the internal e m f . collapses, condensing on
an impedance value equal to the machine reactance. 'The
locus is illustrated in Figure 17.21.
'The relay location is displaced from point C by the
generator reactanceXG. One problem in determining the . : ,... . .. .'. .
O = E(; 1cc~tl.cli,
n i ~ g l cby 11~11icll position of these loci relative to the relay location is that ..';..;j::i.i>:
the value of machine impedance varies with the rate of :,:7:$,$$:i:G.:...... .-.., .
If the generator and system voltages are equal, thcabove
slip. At zero slip XG is equal to Xd, the synchronous ;>!:$@&?$$;I:~
expression becomes: -..<z*&?zi'. ..
reactance. and at 10090 slip XGis equal to X ' j , the sub- : ; : i ~ ~ t ~ ~ g ~ ; ~ .
transient reactance. The impedance in a typical case has 7;-:Fi$y ,.,.,
:;:s+<,:.,:&';;>:~:
.............
.,;.;.
' 9 9 ' . +* .$;:f, -
5;;;"..<-..:.:
;,;:.;tg,..,
C
........
.. ,.:,?.,';*.,:.':.-'."...
..
.. . ..,?....<,,, ;?.,.
. ,-
.:ca51:~,:.
I'
t
1s.
f :'
low, perhaps 146, so that for the purpose o f assessing the
power swing locus it is sufficient to take the value
scheme for loss o f excitation could be based on
impedance measurement The impedance characteristic
XG=2Xd. must be appropriately set or shaped to ensure decisive
;i '
operation for loss of excitation whilst permitting stable
ti
This consideration has assumed a single value for XG.
However, the reacranceXq on the quadrature axis differs generator operation within allowable limits. One or two
from the direct-axis value. the ratio of Xd/Xgbeing offset mho under impedance elements (see Chapter. 11
known as the saliency factor. This factor varies with the for the principles of operation) are ideally suited for
providing loss of excitation protection as long as a
slip speed. The effect of this factor during asynchronous
A
k;r.
>.:
i:
; -
Y-.
p rotor angle, taken to be a t 120'. The locus of operation
can be represented as a circle on the impedance plane.
g-.. as shown in Figure 17.22. stable operation conditions Normal machinc opcraring impcdancc
gI
g:,,
S
- lying outside the circle.
-
5,: ... . ... .. . .
$<.. I
+jA' Locus of conyant MVA
t<< IC
_ ._!.
, .... . - ,. . figvrc ;7.2;: LC'.,;, <I/ii!:li:i.?$ c>c!,v:!th! pole-slipping protection is not required (see Section
. . . ..
.o.::,
, I
' ' ,;,!,>:!',I;,,!,< C! s,.,:cc.,;,:<>"> ,?,:;<I:;,:,: 17.17.2). timer tdo, can be set to give instantaneous
.,< . .
.*.
....
:
reset. The second field failure element, comprising
. ..
.
,
.i.\
< settings X b l , and associated timcrs IdI and tdo2can
!
...
.
.,>,.,<:..
. -.
..:... .
.
On the~samediagram the full load impedance locus for be used to give instantaneous tripping follovring loss of
...
5$-i,*.':
c~.:.~
..
one per unit power can be drawn. Part of this circle excitation under full load conditions.
*";:;
;<:.?A:
$$%
represents a condition that is not feasible, but the point
of intersection with the maximum rotor anqlc curve can
ig+ ;
&.
v=:
p+
-.
,,
Q.
"F
be taken as a limiting operating condition for setting
impedance-based loss o f excitation protection.
1 /.I ti.:? ~ : O : C f ' ~ ~ 2 : 1S~l:!r,v:
. - -....- -.-
. - -- ... . - - ---- .-
. . -+
ii0-315 17/06/02 l0:re page 301
impedance element offset X, = -0.75X; command would be issued, if i t is a requirement to limit :...,jj.?$.:.:"<.;"'.'
time delay on pick-up, fdl = 0.5s - 10s the breaker current interruption duty. There is also the , , ' j '.:+!(:.
difficulty of determining suitable settings. %
time delay on drop-off, tdol = 0s Determination of settings in the field, from a deliberate . :,!
fietypical impedancesettings
for the second element, if pole-slipping test is not possible and analytical studies E
L
may not discover all conditions under which pole-
- . =.-
MVA <:..;.>.-,.,-
...a,..........
. . .
+.. . ::
. . . .. .
With reference to Figure 17.21. a !ass of excitation und&
. .
-*
r : 2.:.
. ,. .-
-
1
. &. -.
impedanke characteristic may also be capable - o f - . pi
CY
. :+
The time delay settings i d 2 and tdO2 are Set to zero to give detecting loss of-synchronism, in applications where the I
fs
instantaneous operation and reset. electrical centre of the power system and the generator r=
lies 'behind' the relaying point This would typically be
the case for a relatively small generator that is 2
connected to a power transmission system (XG >> (XT + . 2
A generator may pole-slip, or fall out of synchronism Xsll- With reference to Figure 17.23; i f pole-slipping 2
with the power system for a number of reasons. The protection response is required. the drop-off timer tdorof
principal causes are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault the larger d ~ ~ m e t eimpedance
r measuring element
on the power system, when the generator is operating at should be set to prevent its reset of in each slip cycle,
a high load angle close to the stability limit, or partial or
Complete loss of excitation. Weak transmission links *
until the rdl trip time delay has expired.
- 17.
with reverse power protection, this would be an
between the generator 2nd the bulk of the Power system elementary form of pole-slipping protection. I t may not
aggravate the situation. I t can also occur with be suitable for large machines where rapid tripping is
embedded generators running in parallel with a strong .
required during the first slip cycleand where some
Utility network if the time for a fault clearancean the controlis required for the system angleat which ,the
slow. perhaps because only lDMT relays generator circuit breaker trip command is given. Where
are provided. Pole slipping is characterised by large and protection against pole-slipping must be guaranteed, a
rapid oscillations in active and reactive power. Rapid more sophisticated method of protection should be used.
of the generator the network is A typical reset timer delay for pole-slipping protection , ... . .
avoidedand that loads supplied the are additional impedance infront of the relaying point may
. , '
. .
affected for very long.
. _ ..
take the system impedance outside the under impedance ..::.: :~~:~~-.'~=!:;::'::.
. ..: .,
Protection can be provided using several methods. The relay characteristic required for loss of excitation ~.~..:~;.-;:~<;:~.,
. . :.... *
choice of method will depend on the probability of pole protection. Therefore, the acceptability of this pole- . . . +;.:*:
.\._.!:.
occurring and on the consequences should it slipping protection scheme will be dependent on the ... . . :. -,.... -7.
. .
application. A=-..,..,.:: >.;:
. .. . . ,.. .. . . .
........
?.* ..:
.-'...i
.: -:'.".:.:
.' '-.5<:e(<: :y;::r;
.... .: ..-?,+
,: .:" .........
........
.
.. ;,.. ......,.
:,. .1. .::; .
JOI ' '
%
..
...
-..::.: ....y8.s. .
,
." ~,':::~.:,~:,~~:.'.
_ _ -. .. .
. .
Large generator-transformer units directly connected to A more sophisticated approach is tb measure the
grid systems often require a dedicated pole-slipping impedance of the generator and use a lenticular
protection .scheme to ensure rapid tripping and with impedance characteristic to determine i f a pole-slipping
system angle control. Historically, dedicated protection condition e~ists.The lenticular characteristic is shown i n
schemes have usually been based on a n ohm-type Figure 17.25. The characteristic is divided into two haives
by a straight line, called the blinder. ;9
A<'
impedance measurement characteristic.
8
The inclination, 6, of the lens and blinder is determined.by
the angle of the total system impedance. The impedance ;::
of the system and generator-transformer determines the .:..
Although a mho type element for detecting the change
forward reach of the lens, ZA,and the transient reactance i :
i n impedance during pole-slipping can be used in some
o f the generator determines the reverse reach ZB.
applications, b u t with performance limits, a straight line
- ohm characteristic is more suitable. The protection
principle is that o f detecting the passage of the
. . . . . . . .
.
4
U
generator impedance through a zone defined by two
3 such impedance characteristics, as shown in Figure
-
P 17.24. The characteristic is divided into three zones, A,
B, and C. Normal operation o f the generator lies i n zone
+
A. When a pole-slip occurs. the impedance traverses
-
6
D
zones B and C, and tripping occurs when the impedance
characteristic enters zone C.
-
5
,.
tz
L +j.Y
*
Ohm relay 1
.... _ ...................
windings and t o issue an alarm or trip t o prevent
damage.
Although current-operated thermal replica protection
cannot take i n t o account the effects o f ambient
temperature or uneven heat distribution, it is often
applied as a back-up .to direct stator temperature
measuring devices t o prevent overheating due t o high
stator current. With some relays, the thermal replica
temperature estimate can be made more accurate
through the integration of direct measuring resistance
temperature devices.
Irrespective of whether current-operated thermal replica
protection is applied or not, it is a requirement t o
monitor the stator temperature of a large generator i n .:;.%E.$$~:s
order t o detect overheating from whatever cause. ..1 c j ~ ~ : ~
-N
:., ; ~ ~ ;
c..,-. :.-:>-.:,
,$:.2*;ccf7':ii-.--.
'-
I
confidence checks are introduced by requiring t h a t the
.
~mpedancelocus spends a minimum tlme withln each
Various faults may occur on the mechanical -side o f a
generating set. The following sections detail the m i r e
:.- 2
6
: -I
.. f l
zone for the pole-slipping condition t o be valid. The trip important ones from an electrical point of view.
signal may also be delayed for a number o f slip cycles
even i f a generator pole-slip occurs - thls IS t o both
provide confirmation of a pole-slipping condition and
allow time for other relays to operate i f the cause of the
When a generator operating in parallel with others loses
1 pole slip lles somewhere In the power system. Should
its power input, it remains in synchronism with the
1 the impedance locus traverse the zones i n any other
sequence. trlpping IS blocked.
-
system and continues to run as a synchronous motor.
drawing sufficient power t o drive the prime mover. This
I condition may not appear to be dangerous and i n some
circumstances will not be so. However, there is a danger
of further damage being caused. Table 17.1 lists some
Overheating of the stator may result from: typical problems that may occur.
Protection is provided by a low forward powerlreverse
ii. failure o f the cooling system power relay, as detailed in Section 17.11
rapidly. The speed governor is designed t o prevent a event of loss of vacuum, as this would cause rapid
dangerous speed rise even with a 100% load rejection, overheating of the low-pressure turbine blades.
but nevertheless an additional centrifugal overspeed trip
device is provided t o initiate an emergency mechanical
shutdown i f the overspeed exceeds 10%. 17-20 CO>JP;flE GEFJERAioz pr<(jiEn!Q>:
To minimise overspeed on load rejection and hence the
mechanical stresses on the rotor, the following sequence . From the preceding sections, it is obvious
.........
..
..:. . .:. .I . is used whenever electrical tripping is not urgently
.-.:
protection scheme for a generator has t o take account of
- -h 3
- required: many possible faults and plant design variations. :;SEzJ
i. trip prime mover or gradually reduce power input t o
Determination of the types of protection used for a ., ;,@{
zero
particular generator will depend on the nature of the :$&,
plant and upon economic considerations, which i n turn :;$$$
>.,-
ii. allow generated power to decay towards zero is affected by set size. Fortunately, modern, multi- ,'-?$ . -7
?
is
A failure of the condenser vacuum i n a steam turbine illustrated, due to the wide variation in generator sizes i$$:
and types.
driven generator results i n heating of the tubes. This
.-. then produces strain i n the tubes, anJ a rise i n
temperature o f the low-pressure end of the turbine.
. ... :
. . .
. . .. . . . ., .. . .. . . . . ; . :.:
.... ..
vh Vacuum pressure devices initiate progressive unloading ..-"
.zc.,
I.
I
L of the set and, if eventually necessary, tripping of the A typical protection scheme for a direct-connected :;'$;>
0
. . turbine valves followed by the high voltage circuit generator is shown i n Figure 17.27. It comprises the:::@
..-
>
breaker. The set must not be allowed t o motor i n the following protection functions: . - .~
.,: =:e
:.::..-;.g
E ... . .:
. .:__: :. =rv*Z
G
. . . . . . . -:>;.
5 , .
3 -
L
.
/
Elcctr~caltrlp of govcmor
L
w
Emcrgcncv push b u ~ o n J - L
Iv
P
E)
II:
Q.,
C P
1 Loss
1 - 0
Stator winding tcmpcraturc Excitation
P
1. stator differential protection instantaneous electrical trip and which can be time
2. overcurrent protection - conventional or voltage delayed until electrical power has been reduced t o a low
dependent value. The faults that require tripping o f the prime mover
as well as the generator circuit breaker are also shown.
3. stator earth fault protection
4. over;o!:agc protection
5. undervoltage protection
6. overloadllow forward power1 reverse.-power These units are generally of higher output than direct-
protection (according t o prime mover type) connected generators, and hence more comprehensive
protection is warranted. In addition, the generator
7. unbalanced loading
transformer also requires protection,. for which the
8. overheating protection detailed in Chapter 16 is appropriate -
9. pole slipping Overall biased generatorlgenerator transformer
10. loss of excitation differential protection is commonly applied i n addition,
or instead of, differential protection for the transformer
'11. underfrequency
alone. A single protection relay may incorporate all of
12. inadyertent energisation the required functions, or tbe protection o f the
13. overfluxing transformer (including overall generatorlgenerator
transformer differential protection) may utilise a
14. mechanical faults
separate relay.
. . . . -.... ,.: :. .
. .
. .
distribution system or not. since there may exist fault - . e. loss o f ~ t i l i t ~ s .u.:, ~ .~ l ~. . . - .: %
.. ..:-. ...i;g
.... - .
.2:,.:..,,
.7;,-'r...
..,.
- tripping o f the interconnecting circuit breakers i f there is a. embedded generation may be overloaded, leadin!
....
.. >+.A i
.=.,I... a significant departure outside permissible levels of t o generator undervoltage/underfrequency
.,.;.', ;.,
..-., .. . .
-315 17/06/02 10:50 Page 307
otection. Detection of condition (c) must be A voltage vector shift relay detects the drift i n voltage
d if the requirements of the Utility are to be met. phase angle beyond a defined setpoint as long as it takes
ossible methods have been suggested, but the place within a set period. Again, the voltage signal is
t often used is the Rate of Change of Frequency a voltage transformer connected 'loseto
the Point o f Common Coupling (PCC). The principal
relay. - I t s application is ba;ed on the fact that
method used is to measure the' time period between
of change o f small changes i n absolute
successive zero-crossings to determine the duration o f ?.%
, in response to inevitable small load changes,
ter with the generation isolated than when the
each half-cycle, and then to the durations . . =
C-
s.
L
the memorised average duration of earlierhalf-cycles in
is i n parallel with the public, interconnected order to determine the phase angle drift. -E
tern. However, problems w i t h nuisance P
tional power system events. &
-:;...::k;
;. . . .: . . .
. .. .% . = . .. . : .
following the loss of a large generator.or a . sho;ld loss of the Utility supply occur, .it is . - & - , .; c .
2:;. -*,-;; :-.. .::
-
r interconnector, have occurred. "nlikely that there will be an exact match between'the 5': o, : - - -...
:; . :
ularly true for geographically islanded power output o f the. embedded generator(s) and the connected -.?,. o, -.:-
h as those of the British Isles. An alternative load. A small frequency change or voltage bhase angle +I
u
-3
otection is a technique sometimes referred change will therefore occur, t o which can be added any
vector shifts protection. lnthis technique changes due t o the small natural variations i n loading o f
L
ase ,-hange between the directly an isolated generator with time. Once the rate of change 2
mpared with a memorised ax.
of frequency exceeds the setting of the ROCOF relay for 2
a set time, or once the voltage phase angle drift exceeds
........... -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . .
;.-. . . ..'. :;
N,tw.rl P,.rr,ti.m U rl.r.-.ri.. Gmil* '\ - J07 -.. -..-.....- .-
.
<
,
1
:.,.:
.. ... : . . .
.
:+:.. . . .. . . .
....
:,.. . . :
.*;..
. :
.,
requirements, may actually conflict with the interests o f Salient details o f the generator, network and protection
the national power system operator. With the growing required are given i n Table 17.2. The example ?.
contribution of non-dispatched embedded generation t o calculations are based on a MiCOM P343 relay in respeq
the aggregate national power demand, the loss o f the o f setting ranges, etc.
embedded generation following a transmission system . . ., .. ' .:.'.?;,, <.. . ... ...,.. :-.,. .....
. ,~
. . . . . . . . . . . . >.... :' 'i. ..:.
.< -
incident tnai may aireaiiy ciialleilge the security-of the
system can only aggravate the problem. There have been Biased differential protection involves the determinatio
claims that voltage vector shift protection might offer of values for four setting values: I,,. ISz, K I and Kz in :;$
better security. but it will have operation times that vary Figure 17.5. I;., can be set a t 5OIoof the generator rating, .@
with the rate o f change of frequency. As a result, in accordance with the recommendations for the relay, j:"
depending on the settings used, operation-times might and similarly the values of I,, 1120010) and K2 (15Wo) of ;
not comply with Utility requirements under all generator rating. It remains for the value of K , to be :,
circumstances. Reference 17.1 provides further details determined. The recommended value is generally @h, :;
of the operation of ROCOF relays and the problems that but this only applies where CT's that conform t o IEC .:
may be encountered. 60044-1 class PX (or the superseded BS 3938 Class X] /j:#$
are used - i.e. CT's specifically designed for use in .$@
'!x$s-
Nevertheless. because such protection is a common
differential protection schemes. In this application, the
requirement of some Utilities, the 'loss o f mains'
CT's are conventional class 5P CT's that meet the relay
protyction may have to be provided and the possibility of P
,
%'
:
.
requirements in respect of knee-point vcltage, e t c $3 :.
.*,.
spurious trips will have t o be accepted in those cases.
Where neutral tail and terminal CT's can saturate at :!..:-&:
Site measurements over a period of time of the typical
.:&;
>.
- . ~ ---
- under thew conditions.
...:,
%.:.
,4'L . z AWL' . -c--"-., ..-, ,. . . . =.x ...- &>.*~.d*4
17 .
......
; kv* Lw : PF Ra;~d Rarcd Rarcd Ralcd Primc Movcr ~t normal voltage, the current setting must be greater
than the maximum generator load current of 328A. A '1
, ,
....,,:. 1 wl;agc cuncnl frcqucncy spccd 0.pc
,:
. . ..,-;
' .r.;i
,
..:>..;.,,:3.:5+ I
. . . . ... .. . .
;::: / 6250 1 ,5000 1 0.8 j
I
llw 328 : 50 : 1500 !Stcam Turbinc
margin must be allowed for resetting of the relay at this ';j
'
I
.. ,.
...
.
! hlicm ~ I C / 2349 1 0.297 50011 : 11000,110 ; conditions), therefore the current setting is calculated as: ,.:
... ,......
,
.. ..-.
.-,
. 3. v. ,.
1
:-.G
...
...
.,....,. ..,,..
.. j Eanhing . Maximum carth ! Minimum pharc Maximum downslrcam
,..
. .,... rcsistor . faull currcnl fault currcnl p h a faull
~ CunCnl
/ . 31.7.n >:I,';:
,, . . . .
..*,.-o>-.
::;;A+::::,~ -:2004 1.. ,'.. 145.
, .2,,<e:Js:.! I
:;.%>.?
!.;'i$aig&,.
:& ?:?.
The nearest settable value is 3 6 5 4 or 0.731,.
kc?*: ih? Eanh Faull Scllingr 1
~.,,.:F,>,,,;g<:.: ?r' 2: The minimum phase-phase voltage for a close-up single- ..
,:.;!.,
", ".'.,>
.:I
. .. -.. . i. . j 20011 j"' ,SI . ;144 1 0.176 j 51 : 48A j 0.15 j phase to earth fault is 57%. so the voltage setting V,
.....
....... ....-..-..
..',&..', 1.
=45.6V
L
where: 0
h
t = K/(M-I)sec
. . . .
;..:.,*.>,
. ?<,.+,. :...
- .,
.
.<$
F@
IEC '6&34-1;-.the'&ntinuok withstand is-8qo of rating
~ h i s ' i siequiied t o protect the generator from s;&i$$$
and the ~ : r w l u e ii:20s. . ~sin<.G~uatTon
-' 17.i, the
overloid conditions during periods df op'eration.isii~tdh
required relay settingsmn found as f2>>,=0.05 and K = :.;;qG
from the Utility supply. The generating set manufacturer#
8.6s. The nearest available values are I,>> = 0.05 and
will normally provide the details o f machine short-tim$$
K = 8.6s. The relay also has a cooling time constant
K,,,,,that is normally set equal t o the value o f K. To co- capabilities. The example relay provides four stages @$
underfrequency protection. In this case, the first stageis!
ordinate with clearance o f heavy asymmetric system
used for alarm purposes and a second stage would b$,
faults, that might otherwise cause unnecessary operation
applied to trip the set. *i
a
,"$
of this protection, a minimum operation time tmi, should <;.
01
Q
be applied. I t is recommended t o set this to a value of 1. The alarm stage might typically be set to 49Hz, w i t h a
Similarly, a maximum time can be applied to ensure that time delay of 20s, to avoid an alarm being raised unds
the thermal rating o f the generator is not exceeded (as transient conditions, e.g. during plant motor starting;
x?..
The trip stage might be set to 48Hz. with a time delay of
17,. ,:, this is uncertain, data not available) and to take account
_,,..C .::F&+;i
-, of the fact that the P343 characteristic is not identical 0.5s, to avoid tripping for transient, but recoverable, dips
6c;$&$$$i with that specified i n .lEC 60034. The recommended in frequency below this value.
.: ,..,".&.k%,~.
setting for t,,, is 600s.
. !..,. :.~,.'',
.
... , . . ,... ,:
. . ;:,..
. .i. . . D :j:..:. ,.:, , ;.;j.: ..:: :.
. . . .'.'.:f.- '
:
........... ..1 .
....,.. ." 7 : ;. - .. :. .,. <:.;. . . . . . t
.........
.. ..
:.:I;.'
The relay setting i s 5% of rated power.
---
,....-.
.,
This is required to guard against various failure modes,
..; . - .
0.05~5~10~ !C
:-.:+ . e.g. AVR failure, resulting in excessive stator voltage. A
8"-. .:.?
.-a
:..:,
,.., r,-i.l two-stage protection is available, the first being a low- -L:
C.;!'
. -
: :.!
....
.'. ,..
>
/06/02 10:50 Page 3 1 1
pu
,:*&.>:
i
Gcncrator ncgativc xqucncc factor, Kg 1 . . 1 . .' . ,'
. . ,.
. : : . a
Loss of excitation xb
j i z ? ~ ' ::
' Gcncntormotoring powcr
Id 1 3s
... .-._ ........... Iw1 , 0.55
0.73-
Gcncrator ovcwoltagc
.... I,,,
.: ,"I...". .""'."ll..J ovcrc"ncnt vs j '3 Gcnuator ~ n d c w o l t y c
K 0.6 Max polc slipping frcqucncy
Gcncntor trhsformcr rating
yi ir>> 0.05 Gcncrator tnnsformcr lcaka~crcactancc 0.244 DU
.
. .
,,<\.
',G..
X" K . I 86s '. \ ' Gcncrator transfoicr o w d u x alarm . I 1 . : pu :::!
.... .!
~mox
V, mcas modc
--
1.5s
6005
.
kc-phasc
Nctwohrcristanct (rcfcncd to 18W
Nctwoh rcactancc (rcfcrrcd to 18kW
Systcm impcdancc anglc (cstirnatcdl
056
OD199
80
mfl
Q
dcg
:
i -
. . i-
~
Z
.?
~
,:I. w '::
. .
F<l tim; dclay 205 . i
I.'..
Undcrfrcqucncy
F<Z wtting i 48k
F<2 timc
..... - .-.... - . . . . . . . . . .0.5s
dclay
PI h a r t i o n
........
; lrvmc powcr
The setting current has t o be greater than the full-
load current o f the generator (6019A). A suitable margin
2Q
L
..... -.-.-.-. . . . . - . . -...... must be allowed for operation a t reduced voltage, so use
2
PI tirnc dclay j 5s a multiplying factor of 1.2. The nearest settable value is
PI DO limc Or
2
72OUA. The factor K is calculated so that the operating 9)
. . . r:
! I I : I ; - r : - 5 1 current is less than the current for a remote end three P,
VN = 110-load p h n r c - ~ r e u t r a gl o l c r a t o r volrngc
The settings follow the guidelines previously stated. AS . . ' >, ..
Xd = golerator d-aris synchronous rcoctance ~~:,';;,..-r:.?~:~-
. .;..,,, ,.-...- .......
. 1OOoIo stator winding earth-fault protection is provided.
8: ,,.high sensitivity is n o t required and hence J,, can bc set
;::"' to 1O0Io of generator rated current. This equates t o 602A.
E'' and the nearest settable value on the relay is M O A I=
0.08 of rated CT current]. The settings for K , . I,, and K,
'
.'a
78kV xO.02
3 -
%
This protection is a combination of overcurrent with
4T
undervoltage, the voltage signa! being obtained from a
h VT on :he generator side of the system. The current =207.8V
-
;I
- D
P,
setting used is that of rated generator current of 6019A.
in accordance with IEEE C37.102 as the generator-ii for .
installation i n the USA. Use 6000A nearest settable-
The setting- of,..the :.third har
protettion-hu;t.be b e l o 6 this-"
. .. .
- E - . value. The voltage setting cannot be more than 85% of . beingacceptable: use-avslue 6f 166.3V. A tiiiiqde
Q
a the generator rated voltage t o ensure operation does not of 0.5s is used. . lnhibiiion o f the e1ement:at.l
% occur under normal operation. For this application, a generator output requires determination dur~n
z
value of 50010 of rated voltage is chosen. commissioning.
--
0
C
The generator has a maximum steady-state capability of
.... .......
; ;....... / , ;:,;:>.., ::: (;.<:::<;<i.:!:
2
8010 of rating, and a value o f 1;9 of 10. Settings of I,,,,,, protection function. The first is alarm only. while th
VJ = 0.06 (=480A) and I;, = 10 are therefore used. second provides tripping under high load conditions.:
Minimum and maximum timedelaysof 1s and 1300s are achieve this, the first impedance element of the P3
used to co-ordinate with external protectiori and ensure loss of excitation protection can be set i n a c c ~ r d a n . ~
17 tripping at low levels of negative sequence current are with the guidelines of Section 17.16.3 for a generatok
used. operating at rotor angles up to 120", as follows:
. . . . ..
. . . . . . . ..,, ,..
Xbl = O.SXd = 1.666f2
The generator-transformer manufacturer supplied the X a , = 0.75X',j = 0.245R
.. ... following characteristics:
.....
- Use nearest settable values of 1.669fl and 0.25
.....
..
. ... . .. , .
...
.., ..
<.
Alarm: yf > I .J
time delay of 5s is used to prevent alarms
transient conditions. For the trip stage, settings fo
. .. .
- c.......... .
Trip: v/$ > J . ~ , ~ ~ Ili!i~c
, c ~cliaracfc"slic
sc load as given in Section 17.16.3 are used:
..........
:.;,A ...... ;
;>:".:.....,
+ .......
,..
;. ; p y<;? ....
~.? k V 2 - 18'
...
I
.,.I.s>.;!.,
.', Hence the alarm setting is J800xJ.05 = 3 1 5 V / H z . Xb,=-------=1.727Q
.+~;i;~
:::. +,.i'.i. A 0 MVA 187.65
. .<":
.::>,_:.
/ ,: .....I.-, .
'.,.?> . . A time delay of 5s is used to avoid alarms due to Xa,=-0.75X;=-0. 1406R
i. : .-.-.'
..' .3,
I : :-.?..; ., transient conditions.
i .>:. ..,, ..
.+. v.:
h: . ,-.<..
The nearest settable value for Xb2 is 1.72512. A
'$$z..:'.
. .:.Ly+.s
'.$.%.'j'.,,.
-...a:,
....
.
.
The tr,ip setting is J8000xJ-3/6O=360~/1fz
delay of 0.5s is used.
.:.c.->.:..
I;6:"'
c;:' .... ,. .
:I.
6;:
. .
Loss of cxcitalion
= 0.02 + 0.22
-
... F>2rime dclay 105
/'L
N ~ f w . t k P r a r a c r i s a ff A s f . - . r i . m
~ -
G m i l c
~
~ . . J I J . ;:;;.' -,y:
-. - .<<.s:
:;,~ ,
, ~ h * " ' ~
- I ~ .
. >; .-... . .
~
~ ~
,
. ..;-.
.. . . .,;....
..L.
{ ~ h a ~ 1 7 - 2 8 0 - 3 1 5 17/06/02 10:50 Page 314
m
-
--.-
.c1
commissioning. Timers T, and T, are set to l5ms as
experience has shown that these settings are satisfactory
to detect pole slipping frequenries up to IOtlz.
This completes the settings required for the generator,
o-
*-r
;?,
and the relay settings are given in Tabte 17.5. Of course,
additional protection is required for the generator
U
transformer, according t o the principles described in
Chapter 16.
L
5
E
c
C
L 17.1 Survey o f Rote O f Change o f Frequency Relays
2 - .
- ond Voltoge Phase Shif? Relays for Loss o f Moins
C F Protection. ERA Report 95-0712R. 1995. ERA
5 k Technology Ltd. .
ng Criteria
APPS Combined course
Generator Protection -Setting
Criteria & Tutorials
Page 1 of 45
- I i
7
Urgent shutdown
Non-urgent shutdo.:.
'i Alarm only
- A n urgent shutdown .:I 3uld .be required, for example, if a phase to phase
fault occurred within -vie generator electrical connection. A non-urgent
shutdown might be s ~ ~ u e n t i awhere
l, the prime mover may be shutdown
prior to electr-ically ur, zading the generator, in order to avoid over- spesd.
A non-urgent shutdc.-,,n may be initiated in the case of continued
1 . ...
I.
..:.<.
\
,:
,.
. ..-.
.:i p
..
. .: :.-
... ,.
i
:
:-
* . ..
..
.::.
..+'..
..d... .
a.-..;:- ;'.-.
.,.... ,,
~...:
,..
.&:'.
.<
unbalar~cedloading. n this case, it is desirable that an alarm should b e
given before shutdo\/. .- becomes necessary, in order to allow for operator
intervention to remed.. -iie situation.
- -- - -- -
The relay can be made stable for this maximum applied voltage by
increasing the overall impedance of the relay circuit, such that the
resulting current through the relay is less than its current setting. As the
impedance of the relay input alone is relatively low, a series connected
external resistor is required. The value of this resistor, RST , is calculated by
the formula shown in Figure 3. An additional on linear resistor, Metrosil,
may be required to limit the peak secondary circuit voltage during
internal fault conditions.
. .
APPS Combined course
Protected z o n e
-
R st --
VS <;.g
.. ..;:*:n
- R~
Is -.
*
.!*
. ...
;:
W'here R R = rdq burden ...,
.:
. =.: ;
To ensure that the protection will operate quickly during an internal fault
the CTs used to operate the protection must have a kneepoint voltage of
at least 4Vs.
42:;
"7%'.
Setting guidelines for high impedance differential protection .Is?
:g,
....
.p,
.
..G
..
,C:
..I*!
;:%$.
$.-
I:. ,
The differential current setting, should be set to a low setting to protect as
5r. .
much of the machine winding as possible. A setting of 5-10 % of rated-$$
current of the machine is generally considered to be adequate. ,;i& his'%
setting may need to be increased where low accuracy class CTs are used ;;.:
to supply the protection. A check should be made to ensure that t h e.:$
primary operating current of the element is less than the minimum fault&
, #
cyrrent for which the protection should operate. ,q 3
OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information 1
%
:
&;
APPS Combined course
Generator Protection -Setting
Criteria & Tutorials
Page 5 of 45
...
111. To express the protection primary operating current for a particular
relay operaling current and with a particular level of magnetising
current.
Vs
RST =
(I diff)
Metrosils are used to limit the peak voltage developed by the current
transformers under internal fault conditions, to a value below the insulation
level of the current transformers, relay and interconnecting leads, which
are normally able to withstand 3000V peak.
Where
The protection must be time graded with other earth fault protection.
The setting employed should be less than 33% of the earth fault level.
The second tripping stage can be utilised as a high set. A 10% setting and
instantaneous operation ensures fast clearance of generator earth faults.
In either mode of application, the main stator earth fault current oper
protection element (le>) should be set to have a primary sensitiv'
around 5% of the maximum earth fault current as limited by the ear
impedance. Such a setting would provide protection for up to 95% c
generator stator windings. The probability of an earth fault occurring
lower 5% of the generator windings would be extremely low, due i
fact that the winding voltage with respect to earth is low in this regior
Page 9 of 45
The conventional unit type generator has the neutral earthed through a
resistance loaded distribution type transformer. For a single ground fault
near the neutral end of the winding , there will be proportionately less
voltage available l o drive the current through the ground, resulting in a
lower fault current and a lower neutral bus voltage.
8,
Figure 4
-- --
, ,
depending on the f a ~ ~resistance,
lt VL3 & VN3 magnitudes will vary.
$!
p
f!.: . [rom the figure 5 it is clear that in order to remain stable under healthy
5::
conditions the relay should restrain with in the two lines . The slopes of the
I..;:
:
r
two lifles namely n11 & m2 can be suitably set to ensure stability and the
: same will vary from n~achineto machine.
Voltage operated
The voltage setting should be greater than the effective setting of any
down-strean?earth fault protection.
Fast earth fault protection can be enabled when the generator is no1
connected to the rest of the system.
For .tl-~is
mode of application, the neutral voltage displacement protection
f a,n,-tin
ILII,~ should be driven from a broken-delta-connected secondary
winding of a generator terminal VT that has its primary winding star-point
earthed. 'This VT should be made up of three single-phase units or should
be a single-phase unit with a 5-limb core. If the VT is not provided with an
independent set of secondary windings for broken delta connection, a
set of three single-phase interposing VT's should be applied. The
interposing VT's should have their primary windings connected in star to
the main VT secondary winding terminals and star-point. Their secondary
windings should be connected in broken-delta ,;ormat, to drive the neutral
voltage displacement protection function. ~lternafively,this protection
function could be driven from a single-phase VT connected between the
generator winding star-point and earth.
For this type of application, the voltage operated stator earth fault
protection function should be driven from the secondary winding of a
distribution earthing transformer. In the case of direct resistive.earthing, or
of no deliberate earth connection, the protection should be driven from a
VT winding.
In the simple overcurrent mode the system voltage has no effecl on the
current setting of the protection.
I1
between normal load current and a system fault. Here either the voltage
controlled or the voltage restrained modes of operation should be
se1ected.A step change in the current setting is initiated i f the system
voltage falls below a selected level.
I At normal system voltage the current setting should be 5% above full load
current.
I
The voltage-dependent overcurrent protection function is a three-phase
protection function that is driven by the general protection CT inputs and
which is intended to provide backup protection for an uncleared phase
fault on the generator busbar or on a feeder from the busbar.
Page 16 of45
X ti
. :
.., .
*.
possible, voltage-dependent overcurrent protection provides lime-
delayed backup protection with adequate sensitivity for a multi-phase 2
busbar or feeder fault, whiist remaining siabie for ;he highest aniicipaieci
level of generatar load current. The generator terminal voltage is
monitored as a way of being able to distinguish between normal load
and system fault conditions.
The level of power required to motor the generator will depend on the :;$ ,.
A high sensitivity current input is used to monitor the system power. his$
may be connected to the main system protection CT's or, for application^,$
which require a sensitive setting, the input can be driven from a high4
3%
accuracy measuren7ent CT. $3
QALSTOM ~ i k i t e dEnergy
, Automation & Information
>mbinedcourse
Generator Protection -Setting
I To detect fluctuating reverse power flow, which could result from failure of
a reciprocating prime mover, a delay on drop off timer is available, in
addition to .the delay on pick up timer.
11 Operates when the fom/ard power falls below the set level.
I
below.
The need for automatic disconnection is arguably less for plant that is
continuously supervised, but, in .the event of prime mover failure, the
attention
- of control
- staff could be diverted by other aspects of the
t
.
.
.
. ..
. .--4
.t:xd
.>',.;:2
.
The reverse power protection function needs to be time-delayed to'.$$ij
prevent false tripping or an alarm given during power system swings, ,$g ..-<
..I;:?;
. .,.-
This protection function is offered for those users who wish to interlock non-
power measuring element confirms that the mechanical drive has bee
cut. Such an arrangement would ensure that there w o ~ ~bel d no possibilif
of generator set over speed when any restraining electrical load is cut b
electrical tripping.
Even where valves, etc., do close fully, there will be some lag in dissipating
all the energy within a prime mover, especially in the event of a shutdown
from full-load. Some types of plant, are very prone to over speed following
rejection of full-load, but have a good over speed tolerance, e.g. slow-
speed hydro generators. Large turbo-alternators, with slender,low-inertia
rotor designs, do not have a high over speed tolerance and trapped
steam in the turbine, downstream of a valve that has just closed, can
rapidly lead to over speed. To reduce the risk of over speed damage to
such sets, it i s sometimes chosen to interlock non-urgent tripping of the
generator breaker and the excitation system with a low forward power
check. The delay in electrical tripping, until prime mover energy has been
completely absorbed by the power system, may be deemed acceptable
for 'non-urgent' protection trips; e.g. stator earth fault protection for an
indirectly connected generator. For 'urgent' trips by instantaneous
electrical protection, e.g. stator winding current differential protection,
any potentially delaying interlock should not be imposed. With the low
probab~lity of 'urgent' trips, the risk of over speed and possible
consequences must be accepted.
The time delay associated with the low forward power protection function
(t) could be set to zero. However, some delay is desirable so that
permission for a non-urgent electrical trip is not given in the event of
power fluctuations arising from sudden steam valvelthrottle closure. A
typical time delay for this reason is 2s.
lThe trip threshold should be set slightly higher than the constant negative
phase sequence current withstand of the generator.
lThe alarm element is commonly set to 70% of the trip setting with a time
delay well above the time taken to clear any system faults. The alarm ele-
ment functions directly on the measured level of negative phase
sequence current.
forced cooling employed and the presence of any ancillary metallic rotor
components.
The field failure protection time delay (t) should be set to minimise the risk
of operation of the protection function during stable power swings
following system disturbances or synchronisation. However, it should be
ensured that the time delay is not so long that stator winding or rotor
thermal damage will occur. The stator winding should be able to
withstand a current of 2.0 p.u. for the order of 15s. It is unlikely that rotor
damage would be incurred in much less time than this. It must also be
appreciated that it may take some seconds for the impedance seen at
the generator terminals to enter the selected characteristic of the
protection function. However, a time delay less than 10s would typically
be applied. The minimum permissible delay, to avoid potential problems
#
of false tripping due to stable power swings with the above impedance
settings, would be of the order cf 0.5s.
Operates when the three phase voltages fall below the common set
point. An adjustable timer is available.
Can detect failure of the AVR or system faults which have failed to be
cleared by other means.
nrc
;:<,
F;;7; *...
.2-' 9.. The pick up level sho~lldbe set to less than the voltage seen for a three
t:2t- phase fault at the remote end of any connected feeder.
#*?.;,.
$.. .
I
The time delay should be set to allow the appropriate feeder protection
I to operate first to clear the fault, and. also to prevent operation of the
protection during transient voltage dips.
- ...:......-. .
',: . For an isolated generator, or for an isolated set of generators, especially in
.
..:
.
:- .
the case of standby generating plant, -a prolonged, under voltage
., . . condition could arise for a number of reasons. One reason would be some
;.,..,. :.. ..
failure of automatic voltaae reaulation IAVRY eaui~ment.If such a
g::::
,
a fault exists somewhere on the power system that has not been cleared
P
.;, :..
by other means.
1:
,p ' .
s..:;
Fe;::
:, ,,
.~
In the case of generators feeding an industrial system, which is normally
fed from a public-power supply, system overcurrent protection settings
. ..,._ .. would have to be above maximum levels of system load current with the
i
5~:.. normal supply available. If the public supply fails, the local generation
.' %..
:.'. , ,. would be left feeding the entire system. Where the local generation is
;;
i
. ... unable to meet the entire system load, there would be a provision for the
:?:
I+'c automatic shedding of non-essential loads. If a fault subsequently
i
l.IC,
.>.< .
Occurred on the system, the relatively low fault current contribution of the
. local generation and its decrement with time may result in the system
>
:;,
,...
~s;.
.. overcurrent protection failing to respond. In this case it would be
:""
,:.> :
,
:;5 expected that the generator backup overcurrent should operate.
$:. .4;
I.
g2:.
;,:
v>;y,.:
& L~ Operation of generator overcurrent protection in the above
:,.,>-.. circumsfances can be assisted by employing voltage-dependent
:,.;
&;,:!
,2i:.....,
r.lr.bl-.
,
-
protecfion.Wt-,erethere is a parallel set of generators,
-- and where the fault
The under voltage protection function threshold (V<) should be set below
the steady-state phase-phase voltage 'for a. three-phase fault at the-'
remote end of any feeder connected to the generator bus or up to
selected locations within an industrial power network. Allowances should
be made for the fault curcent contribution of parallel generators, which
will tend to keep the generator voltage up. The time setting of the under
voltage protection function (t) should be set longer than the time required
for backup feeder protection to clear remote-end feeder faults. The delay
should preferably be longer than the time required for the generator
back-up overcurrent protection function to respond to such a fault.
~ddifionally,the delay should be long enough to prevent unwanted
operation of the under voltage protection function for transient voltage
dips during clearance of faults further into the power system or by starting
of local machines. The required time delay would typically be in excess ol
3s-5s.
* Operates when the three phase voltages are above the common s e t
point.
t
i Two tripping stages, each with an aajustable timer.
fi
t *Time delayed protection should be set with a pick up voltage of 100-
120% of the nominal voltage and a time delay ~ufficientto overcome
1 operation during transient over voltages.
E
II Instantaneous protection with a setting of 130% - 150% of the nominal
voltage can be implemented.
I -.
L-
An unsynchronised generator terminal over voltage condition could arise
when the generator is running, but not connected to a power system, or
where a single generator is running and providing power to an isolated
power system. Such an over v ~ l t a g ecould arise in the event of a fault
with automatic voltage regulating equipment or if the voltage regulator is
set for manual control and an operator error is made. Over voltage
protection should be set to prevent possible damage to generator
insulation, prolonged over fluxing of the generating plant or damage to
isolated power system loads,
E: When a generator
- i s synchronised to a power system with other sources, a
synchronised over voltage could only arise i f the generator was lightly
loaded and was requiced to supply a high level of power system
capacitive charging current. An over voltage condition might also be
possible following a system separation, where a generator might
experience full-load rejection whilst still being connected to part of the
original power system. The automatic voltage regulating equipment
should quickly respond to correct the over voltage condition, but over
voltage protection is advisable to cater for a possible failure of the
voltage 'regulator to correct the situation or for the possibility .of the
regulator having been set to manual control.
t.
4g
$
The worst case of generating plant over voltage following a system
separation, which results in full-load rejection, could be experienced by 3
hydrogenerators. The response time of the speed governing equipment
can be so slow that transient over speeding up to 200% of nominal speed
could occur. Even with voltage regulator action, such over speeding can ;
result in a transient over voltage as high as 150%. Such a high voltage
could result in rapid insulation damage.
First stage can be used to initiate load shedding for industrial systems.
Time delayed to allow any down stream load shedding equipment to
operate first.
the alternator rating, but not the prime mover rating, the alternator could
become overloaded without a frequency drop. !t would therefore be
important for the alternator manufacturer to provide stator winding
temperature measurem-entdevices, to give alarm or to automatically shut
down the generator before winding thermal damage results.
-
Power system overloading can arise when a power system becomes split,
with load left connected to a set of 'islanded' generators that is in excess
of their capacity. Such events should be allowed for by system planners
and automatic system load-shedding should be implemented so that the
load would rapidly be brought back within the generation capacity. In
this case, under frequency operation would be a transient condition; as
during power swings. The degree of load shedding would have to take
into account the fact that some generating plant, e.g. gas turbine plant,
may have a reduced power capability when running below nominal
frequency. In the event of under shedding of load, the generators should
be provided wit,h backup under frequency protection to shut down the
generating plant before plant damage or unprotected system load
._
.
.. .
.
.damage could' occur.
..
Under frequency running at nominal voltage will result in some over fluxing
of a generator, and its associated electrical plant, which needs to b e
borne in mind. However, the more critical considerations would b e in
relation to blade stresses being incurred with high-speed turbine
generators; especially steam-driven sets. When running away from
nominal frequency, abnormal blade resonance's can be set up which, if
prolonged, could lead to turbine disc component fractures. Such effects
can be accumulative and so operation at frequencies away from
nominal should be limited as much as possible, to avoid the need for early
plant inspections/overhaul. Under frequency running is most difficult to
contend with, since there is little action that can be taken at the
generating station in the event of load under shedding, other than to shut
the generator down.
-- 1
ti
i
Over frequency protection function (810)
. .
..'(
,;,2!.
..,&.
,
...
.'$?
ri
Single over frequency stage with associated timer. :,.
?.+$;
.'L:Lz*!
,& i <
,?$
Should be set abdve the sustainable over frequency level with a time #!.
delay sufficient to overcome transient over frequencies following load 3;..
.
.:,so<>
rejection. ..>
,!.:?>
..:
'..83
..*ln.:.4:?
.:....
..C i i
mechanical input power so that normal running speed is quickly regained. ..,:!;,
,:;
.rr)
. ..
.in.
,:?L
If a dead machine is energised from a live power system, rotor currents will
be induced and the machine will accelerate as an induction motor. The
induced currents in the rotor body and windings would be very high with
the machine initially at standstill and could rapidly result in thermal
damage unless the machine is designed for direct-on-line run-up as an
induction motor (possibly for starting a gas turbine prime m'over). 'The
unexpected shaft rotation could also result in rapid mechanical damage
if lubrication systems are not running or if a steam turbo-alternator is on
turning gear.
CTlG - I \
a a dead tl~lachine
1
t ?rip ping
Backup
Tripping
Pole-slipping protection
;-.: - .
:.-. . - . APPS Combined course -
$%
g2L
-. Generator Profection -Setting.
I'
Criteria & Tutorials
Page 33 of 45
The pole slipping relay ZTO has been designed to protect Synchronous
generators against the possibility of the machine running in the unstable
region of the power angle curve which would result in pole slip.
The relay consists of one directional relay and one blinder relay operating
in conjunction with 40-80 mSec timer . Both characteristics look into the
source and consequently ignore all condifions of load other than those
which produce a reversal of power flow such as would occur with a
condition of pole slip or power ;wing exceeding 90 degree.
..
If the fault never reaches the operate regionof the b1inder:or moves
between the directional and blinder char.acteristics in a time less than
the timer setting , no operation will occur.
lpodorro
.X
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:
i'.
h. .
i:',. '
'%;
k '.
6'-
5
c
APPS Combined course
Generator Protection -Setting
Criteria 6 Tutorials
Page 35 of 45
CT/ PT Ratio
(Voltage developed across the relay-Voltage acro'ss rely at pick up/ Pick
' '
..
Diameter setting 1.03 ohms
(0.5 x synchronous recatance)
Timer settings:
0.1 6 ohms
0.14 ohms
0.22
3.07 ohms
75 degree
55
. -
-
Generaivr Irr-~pedzjiice
. -~
Generator transformer impedance . :.A,
,...
,..
.-,.
Source impedance angle (generally assumed to be 80") .. .:>
,.,+
>;< , .
Rate of slip ( should be provided by the manufacturer, otherwise 26
:$*
assumed to be .I 600 Elec. Deg per second) -i*
I I.ti.,
,r
.p.
',,:.
,:2
...,.;-..
....,
Procedure : .*,
I'
.$
; .>:
1. Select a suitable scale for the diagram. Draw the X and Y axes with (8
5,.
Origin as (0) - ?:,
:..$
.*.
a
2. Plot .the Generator impedance along the negative "Y- axis" to get
.-
.. .
'i
point (G)
J
:..
..
, ...
.:
4 . Draw source imped&nce at an angle of 80 (or source, impedance;::.<$. .:-
.
. :,$<
. -.
6. The locus of Pole slip will be nearer to either (G) or (S) depending on the ;1
ratio between emfs at (G) and (S). We assume this ratio to be equal to
1. Thus the pole slip locus is the bisector of line (G)---(S). Mark the point
( 1 ) on the line (G) ---(S) where the Pole slip locus cuts it (centre of the
line).
7. With point ( 1 ) as center and (1)---(GIas radius draw a circle. Mark the
point where this circle cuts the locus as ( 2 ) .
8. Draw a line passing through the origin (0) at 75". Mark the point v,/here
this line cuts the pole slip locus as (3).This is the directional line.
9. Measure the obtuse angle at point (4) between the lines (G)---(4)and
This is named as (4.
(S)---(4).
1O.The obtuse angle at point (2) should be 270". Name this as (a,). .. .
. .
,
.-.
- - :.-
..
I
;.:
2,.:'
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OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information :d
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APPS C o m b i n e d course'
Generator Protection -Setting
Criteria 8. Tutorials
Page 40 of 45
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Generator Protection -Settina
Criteria 8, ~utofiag
Page 41 of 45
secondary
[
. ._..
-
: .~
..
~
.
; ~ : ~ o w areach
ohms
rd to be set in relay
12 Alarm setting
-
Pick-up setting
(depends on the type of prime mover)
Time setting need to be co-ordinated with down stream Earth Fault relays in;'!
case of Direct connected svstems. .-:+
;$
The required settings for this 95-100 % protection can be selected only on
measurement and studying the machine third harmonic behaviour a1 site.
Measurement of Generator
~ -~ ~ ~ -
- - . - - - - -~ Third
. ~ ~ Harmonic
-~ -~. ..~ Voltaaes
~ - ~
a) Measure the filtered third harmonic voltages from neutral side (VN3) and
Line side (VL3) at the following TEST SOCKET pins provided on the front of
the reiay PVMM. Digital muitimeter in AC millivolts range can be used for
this purpose.
I'
The third harmoni; voltages measured above are plotted in a graph with
VN3 on X-axis and VL3 on Y-axis. Drawtwo lines enclosing.all,measured
values with some tolera-nee.. ~
.. . v ' a l ~ a t e ~ i i o ~ e
. .. .and,m2
s ' m l of these lines. The
slopes can b e calculbted by ielecting any pointalongthe line-andb y
.. - . .
computing its V N ~ / \ /ratio;
L~ . . . . . .
..
The dead band setting K and the null setting potenliometer "a" can be
b calculated as given below and set it accordingly in the relay.
I'..
Example:
4
i OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information
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APPS Combined course R
- Generator Protection-~eftj,$
Criteria 8, TvtorialS-
Page 44 o f z
-,
The following table shows the actual values of the generator VL3 and VN3
obtained from site:
1. Before Synchronization:
Vn3(mvolts) Point: 187 V13(mvolts) Poi1
Volta e kV
20.9
193.6 - 76.4
!-L 2 324 1 28
4 3 49 1 194.5
5 4 658 263 -
6 5 810 325 -
7 6 967
-- 390.
8 -
7 1 1 16 452
9 8 1306 534
-
9 1570 650
10 1 680 698
- -
-
11 1730 720
-
, --
*
-
OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information
APPS. Combined course
Generafor Profecfion -Setting
criteria & Tutorials .
Page 45 of 45
m 1 = 0.454
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.. . ..
APPS Combined course
Generator Protection -Setting '
Criteria 8, Tutorials -
Page 46 of 45 -.
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The problem of combining fast fault clearance with selective tripping of plant is a key aim
for the protection of power systems. To meet these requirements, high-speed protection
systems for transmission and primary distribution circuits that are suitable for use with the
automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under continuous development and are very
widely applied.
I 1SIN
I
. . . .
. :. . . . . . . .. .
. .. . . .. . . . .
Page 3
. . . .
1.2 Principies of Distance Relays
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distana
measurement it is appropriate to-use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of :
line up to a predetermined point (the reach point). Such a relay is described as a distana
relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location an(
the selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur in differen
line sections.
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at th
relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated
compared with a predetermined impedance (normally the impedance of the circuit tieir
protected multiplied by some factor), known as. the reach point. If the measurc
impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on-tt
line between the relay and the reach point.
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersect
by the boundary characteristic of the relay. Since this is dependent on the ratio of volta
and current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an RMdiagram. 7
loci of power system impedances as seen by the relay during' faults, 'power swings c
load variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performar
of the relay in the preser,ce of system faults and disturbances may be studied. '
Operating times can vary with fault current, with fault position relative to the relay sc
and with the point on the voltage wave at which the fault occurs. Depending o
measuring techniques employed in a particular relay design, measuring signal t r a ~
errors, such as those produced by Capacitor Voltage Transformers or saturating
can also adversely delay relay operation for faults close to the reach point. It is us1
electromechanical and static distance relays to claim both maximum and mir
operating times. However, for modern digital or numerical distance relays, the va
between these is small over a wide range of system operating conditions an1
positions.
Page 4
' .
and
% relay rated v o l t a g e
L
,
Ll rn
(a) Phase-earth f a u l t s
o ioio3o4b~o6b70ao901bo
Fault position (Oh relay setting)
Figure 1.3: Typical operation time characteristics for Zone 1 phase-phase faults
........ / - - :.-
. ... . ..
. -. :.
-
.:. , .. .
... ...
.:.:;+;:
z : . , '
'.
. ... . . . ..
I :
. . .. .
. ... :
. . . . . .. . .. . ;; :.
-
.
. . . ..:...' . . . . . .:.
, .
. . . . . . . . . .. . . , . ... . .:>...
...
' : ! ;
;.-
: : i
,
=.
0.4 ............ J-! .
(
. ,
. . . - . . : -..
6 03 . . . . . .
5
Q
02 - . . .: . . . _ . . . . . . .
0,. .. . . . . ..........
. . ..
. .. . . . . . - . .. .. . . .
. . .
..-:-..; . . . . . . . . . :....
o o1 0.1 I a $to t~
Z p , or S i.R.
(a) Zone 1phase-phase fault: minlmum operation tlmeS
. . . . . ....... .... . .
%o,in<&sr . !
. . . . . . . .. .: .' ;.' ' .'.I ................ I , .
.I . . . . . ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. I.. . . . . . . . . .
. I , . , - .. :
.
T.i~~,u
...
-y~-?-...,,.
.......................... i : ;;4-I.: ............. - !...-.i
...-....
I : . I
.. ,
.. ,. I
....... .-...
. . ..
.. .......
. .
. . . . I . .
_ . . __,.__
.:! -..._ . .
. . . . . ..
I
. . ...'.,. ..
. . . I .
'!
I . .
. .. :
Z,fZ, or S1.R.
0
:b) Zone 1 phase-pnase fault: maximum operation times e
A single, generic, equivalent circuit, as sbown in Figure 1.5(a), may represent any fault
condition in a three-phase power system. The voltage V applied to the impedance loop is
the open circuit voltage of the power system. Point R represents the relay location; iR and
VR are the current and voltage measured by the relay, respectively.
The impedances Zs and ZLare described as source and line impedances because of their
position with respect to the relay location. Source impedance Zs is a measure of the fault
level at the relaying point. For faults involving earth it is dependent OP the method of
system earthing behind the relaying point. Line impedance ZL is a measure of the
impedance of the protected section. The voltage VR applied to the relay is, therefore,
For a fault at the reach point, this may be alternatively expressed in terms of source to
line impedance ratio Zs/ZL are by means of the following expressions:
VR = IRZL
where :
. .
therefore :
I
V, = V ... Equation 1.I
(Zs / Z L ) + 1
(a) P o w e r s y s t e m configuration
. . . : ;
. . . . . . . . ...... . . ... .- ...........-..... ...-..- .- .
. .
0 . . ..I. . .:. . . :
:
!
X j
:
i.. . . ! .. : .
: i s
i ; ! !
<
:
:
.
..:.. ....................
i
8
.
Figure 1.5: Relationship between source to line ratio and relay voltage
For phase faults, V is the phase-phase source voltage and Z d Z L is the positive sec
source to line impedance ratio. VR is the phase-phase relay voltage and IR is the
phase relay current, for the faulted phases
I
VR = "P -P ... Equation 1.2
(Zs / Z L ) + 1
Paoe 8 :
and
The ability of a distance relay to measure accurately for a reach point fault depends on
the minimum voltage at the relay location under this condition being above a declared
value. This voltage, which depends on the relay design, can also be quoted in terms of an
equivalent maximum ZslZL or S.I.R.
Distance relays are designed so that, provided the reach'point voltage criterion is met,
any increased mea~uringerrors for faults closer to the relay will not prevent relay
operation. Most modern relays are provided with healthy phase voltage polarisation
andlor memory voltage polarisation. The prime purpose of the relay polarising voltage is
to ensure correct relay directional response for close-up faults, in the f o h a r d or reverse
direction, .where the fault-loop voltage measured by the relay.may be very small. . . . .
Zones o f Protection
Careful selection of the reach settings and tripping times for the various zones of
measurement enables correct co-ordination between distance relays on a power system.
Basic distance protection will comprise instantaneous directional Zone 1 protection and
one or more time-delayed zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3-zone distance
protection are shown in Figure 1.6. Digital and numerical distance relays may have up to
five zones, some set to measure in the reverse direction. Typical settings for three
forward-looking zones of basic distance protection are given in the following sub-sections.
To determine the settings for a particular relay design or for a particular distance
teleprotection scheme, involving end-to-end signalling, the relay manufacturer's
instructions should be referred to.
Page 9
1.6.2 _Zone2 Setting
To ensure full coverage of the line with allowance for the sources of error already
listed in the previous section, the reach setting of the Zone 2 protection should be
at least 120% of the protected line impedance. In many applications it is common
practice to set the Zone 2 reach to be equal to the protected line section +50% of
the shortest adjacent line. Where possible, this ensures that the resulting
maximum effective Zone 2 reach does n.ot extend beyond i i ~ erniniiiiiii-ii zffective
Zone 1 reach of the adjacent line protection. This avoids the need to grade the
-Zone 2 time . settings between upstream and downstream relays. In
electromechanical and static relays, Zone 2 , protection is provided either by
separate elements or by extending the reach of the Zone 1 elements after a time
delay that is initiated by a fault detector. In most digital and numerical relays, the
Zone 2 elements are implemented in software.
Zone 2 tripping must be time-delayed to ensure grading with the primary relayins
applied to adjacent circuits that fall within the Zone 2 reach. Thus completc
coverage of a line section is obtained, with fast clearance of faults in the first 80
85% of the line and somewhat slower clearance of faults in the remaining sectior
of the line.
T~mel
A- <*
Source Sol
Time)
Zone 1 = 80435% of protected line impedance
Zone 2 (minimum)= 120% of protected line
Zone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second line
Zone 3F =-I .2 (protected line + longest second line)
Zone 3R = 20% of protected line
X = Circuit breaker tripping time
Y = Discriminating time
Figure 7.6: Typical time/distance characteristics for three zone distance protection
Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacent lines can be provided t
third zone of protection that is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 protec
plus circuit breaker trip time for the adjacent line. Zone 3 reach should be set 1
i least 1.2 times the impedance presented to the relay for a fault at the remote
of the second line section.
Page 10
_.
.. ..
:tx;. A'.
, . . .. . . . . . .. .
On interconnected power systems the effect of fault current infeed at the remote
busbars will cause the impedance presented to the relay to be much greater than
the actual impedance to the fault and this needs to be taken into amount wilen
setting Zone 3. In some systems, variations in the remote busbar infeed can
prevent the application of remote back-up Zone 3 protection. but on radial
distribution systems with single end infeed, no difficulties should arise.
Modern digital or numerical relays may have additional impedance zones that can
be utilised to provide additional protection functions. For example, where the first
three zones are set as above, Zone 4 might be used to provide back-up protection
for the local busbar, by applying a reverse reach setting of the order of 2.5% of the
Zone 1 reach. Alternatively, one of the forward-looking zones (typically zone-3)
&: could be set -with a small reverse offset reach from the origin of the- RIX diagram,
%:
i'. .
*:
L..
:.
:+'.
in addition to its forward reach setting. An offset impedance measurement
characteristic is non-directional. One advantage of a non-directional zone of
1:': impedance measurement is that it is able to operate for a close-up, zero-
.:.
!
. .
impedance fault, in situations where there may be no healthy phase voltage signal
or memory voltage signal available to allow operation of a directional impedance
zone. With the offset-zone time delay bypassed, there can be provision of 'Switch-
On-To-Fault' (SOTF) protection. This is required where there are line voltage
transfoimers, to provide fast tripping in the event of accidental line energisation
with maintenance earthing clamps left in position. Additional impedance zones
may be deployed as part of a distance protection scheme used in conjunction with
a teleprotection signalling channel.
Page 11
. .
. .
. . ..
..
. .- .:
. .
This characteristic takes no &ccount of the phase angle between the current an
the voltage applied to it; for this reason its impedance characteristic when plotted
on an R/X diagram is a circle with its centre at the origin of the co-ordinates and
radius equal to its setting in ohms. Operation occurs for all impedance values le
than the setting, that is, for all points within the circle. The relay characteris
shown in Figure 11.7, is therefore nondirectional, and in this form would oper
for all faults along the vector AL and also for all faults behind the busbars up to
impedance AM. It is to be noted that A is the relaying point and R A B is the a
by which the fault current lags the relay voltage for a fault on the line A 5 and
is the equivalent leading angle for a fault on line AC. Vector A 5 represents the -
impedance in-front of the relay between the relaying point A and the end o
AB. Vector A C represents the impedance of line A C behind the relaying point. AL
represents the reach of instantaneous Zone 1 protection, set to cover 80% to 85%
of the protected line. . .
t
C
Line GK Line G H :
I
B
Page 12 ..,
Iirect i I
el erne
(a) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c o m b i n e d directional!
impedance r e l a y
2 e- ...a.
source ! I ; Source
,
.
:
\-,>
- ..
i
..
:
,--.
. - . . .. . .
j C- D ..
+-/ ---. .. -.._- ..\
2
.
I
,
'
.
1 . .
. ;,
.*>:
ti-
F
(b) Illustration of u s e of directional!impedance relay:
circuit diagram
: ,R, d i s t a n c e element at A
R
:,, directional element at A
( c ) Logic f o r directional and impedance
elements at A
.-.
y+:
fi:
.. r Page 13
F.:. --
32:
,-a.
,!?
--
A relay using this characteristic has three important disadvantages:
Reversal of current through the relay from IF,to IF2 when C opens could then result :::
.-
..
.. - %
.
.-.
.. +
:,
,,..
It will be noted that the impedance reach varies with fault angle. As the line to be
protected is up of resistance and inductance,. its fault angle will be
dependent upon the relative values of R and X at the system operating frequency.
Under an arcing fault condition, or an earth fault involving additional resistance,
such as tower footing resistance or fault through vegetation, the value of the
resistive component of fault impedance will increase to change the impedance
angle. Thus relay having a characteristic angle equivalent to the line ang!e will
under-reach under resistive fault conditions.
( a ) P h a s e comparator i n p u t s
/x
K / Restrain
( b ) M h o impedance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Page 15
GQ Relay i m p e d a n c e s e t t i n g
Relay c h a r a c t e r i s t i c angle setting
GL P r o t e c t e d l i n e
PQ Arc r e s i s t a n c e
6' L ~ n eangle
It is usual, therefore, to set the RCA less than the line angle, so that it is possi
to accept a small amount of fault resistance without causing under-rea
However, when setting the relay, the difference between the line ar
"EQUATION MISSING" and the relay characteristic angle cp must be known. -
resulting characteristic is shown in Figure 11,9(c) where AB corresponds to
length of the line to be protected. With cp set less than 0, the actual amount of
protected, AB, would be equal to the relay setting value AQ multiplied by CO!
(0-cp). Therefore the required relay setting AQ is given by:
Page 16
Distance Protection Schemes
.. ,,
. . . . ,., .
12 Distance Protection
.. ..
. . . . .
-- .. . . .. . - . . ..
fr1Ii.a U A.r.-.,i.. C.idr
:hap12 exe 14/06/02 13::s Page 194' ,
. ... ~
-.
. ?..
... ......>..-A
..
:-., .. . -
,"..$;.::.c.::,...,,
.Pv ::;:e.: ....
.
I................
:.
I
...
.-..<.& -,< s-. . .:..-. . . .
Fi =- .?
;.;.:
...
><.-:. .:-...:
.... ,,..::. .
.
.-*. -. .:. . . . .
2 s : \ - L > . : : . . ., )I.*
I..... ,
+*,, -T,%K-$.??.*,.
,<:<%.>* $5:: y.
A contact operated by the Zone 1 relay element is
arranged to send a signal to the remote relay requesting a
.~E<%jf
,
. .+. 3.:
'$%:&%'
....
2:>?s.~,:.?
,*iq;
.........
trip. The scheme may be called a 'direct under-reach
;:.-::*
!?. $2":;.:,
transfer tripping scheme', 'transfer trip under-reaching < *; * 8.
.A<.
c o m ~ [ a n l yused.
s.,
5,-.?r.?y,.. f..;.: :,;:,c . r L .::.,
.,;':!,.:s
is permitted to trip in Zone 1 time.
-
,.'-.
r ' .-
,,.
~ . : ~ ,.
!. .
\;A number of these schemes are available, as described ----c Signal scnd
Signalling cquipmcnl
-End A
(bl Signalltng arrangcmcnt
u
' Signal r c c c w c
.
-
IchaPl2 exe 140602 13:15 Page 196
?#
..>
-..>l
1
- !
- -
K
0
-
(a1 Fault occurs-bus bar vollagc low so
ncgligiblc fault currcnl via cnd B i!3 Trip
L t(
S~gnalrcccivc 1I I
1
Signal
. "9
(b) Signal l o g ~ c .Y
I
(bl End A r c l a v clcars fault and c u r r c n l
s t a r t s lccdnng from cnd R
,.,
8 .
....... . . . . .%
- :.+
. . I..:keq
.:?;,
!,'
r;
The PUP schemes require only a single communications In this scheme, a distance relay element set t o re?:
channel for two-way signall~ngbetween the line ends, as the beyond the remote end of the protected line is used:
channel is keyed by the under-reaching Zone 1 elements send an intertripping signal t o the remote end. Howev;
it is essential that the receive relay contact is monito!:
When the circuit breaker a t one end is open, or there is by a difectional relay contact t o ensure that trippl!
a weak infeed such that the relevant relay element does does not take place unless the fault is within 9
not operate, instantaneous clearance cannot be achieved protected section; see Figure 12.8. The instantane6
for end-zone faults near the 'breaker open' terminal contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged t o send $
unless special features are included, as detailed in signal, and the received signal, supervised by zone;
section 12.3.5. operation, is used to energise the trip circuit.
scheme is then known as a 'permissive over-rc
transfer tripping scheme' (sometimes abbreviate1
'POP'). 'directional comparison scheme', or 'permi:
This scheme IS applicable only to zone sw~tchedd~stance ov~rreachdistance p r o t e c f i o ~scheme'.
14/06/02 :3:15 Page 15-
. . . . . .
w Signal
.-
-
7
- Trip
;
j
.-
<.,.
.. 23 Trip
.: . .
:
. t s i g n a ~ i v c ~ F ~ f p ' p ~ iI
$
this disadvantage, two possibilities exist. . . . - . . . .c-..:. !
- . 0 . -
because the resis:ivc coverage of the Zone 2 umt may be
The Weak lnfeed Echo feattire available i n s ' 6 m e 1.::: .
greater than that o f Zone 1. - .
protection relays allows theremote relay toecho the trip . 2
To prevent opera:ion under current reversal conditions in signal back to the sending relay even if the appropriate 2
a parallel feeder circuit, i t is necessary to use a current remote relay element has not operated. This caters for
reversal guard tirnrr to inhibit the tripping of the forward conditions of the remote end having a weak infeed or 2
Zone 2 elements. Otherwise maloptration of the scheme circuit breaker open condition, so that the relevant r
C
may occur under current reversal conditions. see Section
11.9.9 for more details. It is necessary only when the
remote relay element does not operate. Fast clearance
for these faults is now obtained at both ends of the line.
.L.
Q
h
--
Zone 2 reach is set greater than 1 5 0 0 f o of the protected The logic is shown in Figure 12.10. P, time delay (T,)is
line impedance. required in the echo circuit to prevent tripping of the
The timer is used to block the permissive trip and signal remote end breaker when the local breaker is tripped by
the busbar protection or breaker fail protection
1.2
send circuits as shown in Figure 12.9. The timer is
energised if a signal is received and there is no operation associated with other feeders connected to the busbar.
of Zone 2 elemer,:~. An adjustable time delay on pick-up The time delay ensures that the remote end Zone 2
(1,) is usually set to allow instantaneous tripping to take
element will reset by the time the echoed signal is
place for any ir,ternal faults, taking into account a received at that end.
possible slower operation of Zone 2. The timer will have
operated and blocked the 'permissive trip' and 'signal From 'POP' signal
send' circuits by the time the current reversal takes place. !gi.-l
The timer is de-energised i f the Zone 2 elements operate
or the 'signal received' element resets. The reset time
delay (),I of the timer is set to cover any overlap in time
caused by Zone 2 elements operating and the signal
resetting at the remote end. when the current i n the
healthy feeder reverses. Using a timer in this manner
means that no extra time delay is added in the
permissive trip circuit for an internal fault.
lap12 exe 14/06/02 13:15 Page 158
+
Signal transmission can take place even after the remote
end breaker has tripped. This gives rise t o the possibility
of continuous signal transmission due to lock-up of both initiated a t any end of the protected section.
signals. Timer T, is used to prevent this. After this time
delay, 'signal send' is blocked.
A variation on the Weak lnfeed Echo feature is to allow
tripping o f the remote relay under the circumstances
described above, providing that an undervoltage
condition exists, due to the fault. This is known as the
Weak lnfeed Trip feature and ensures that both ends are
tripped i f the conditions are satisfied. -
(a1 D ~ s r a n c c l r ~ r ncharaclcristics
c
- - Zone 1 elements.
Signalling cquipmcnl Signalling cquipmcnl
-End A -End B
(cl Signalling arrangcmcn(
196
. ,.
.
. -
-
2 13::s Page 1 9 9 -
-
e!..:,,.
...........+:: .: .:,
L-,;,;.3.:;+;:,;. ..:. .
I+_-
.......
"....::.........:
$
.
:I;:
-.,:. :
-+.:<.I.:.; - 4 . ~:-..;
.
:.
a .
- - 1.
52 . ;.
nal transmission takes place, since the I n a practical application, the reverse-looking relay .!???T,:.'<;;::'
ernal and the fault is cleared i n Zone 1 time a t elements may be set w i t h a forward offset characteristic
after the short time lag (STL) a t end A. t o provide back-up protection for busbar faults after the
zone time delay. It is then necessary t o stop the blocking
signal being sent for internal faults. This is achieved b y
making the 'signal send' circuit conditional upon non-
relay elements a't end B associated w i t h
operation o f the forward-looking Zone 2 elements, as $;tg&$Q?
_-:.. _.*_ ..
.::,...
. .
.. .. .,.: -1.. '
shown i n Figure 12.1 3. :,>: ,:..,
$ ..: ,.- ,.~.%....
the 2 2 elements a t end A f r o m tripping, the
Blocking schemes, like t h e permissive over-reach
scheme, are also affected b y the current reversal i n the
neously by the protection o n line section B-C, healthy feeder due t o a fault i n a double circuit line. If
current reversal conditions occur, as described i n section
11.9.9, it may be possible for the maloperation o f a
breaker on the healthy line t o occur., To avoid this, the
resetting o f the 'signal received' element provided i n the
blocking scheme is time delayed.
lity o f Zone 2 elements initiating tripping and the The timer w i t h delayed resetting (t,) is set t o cover the :
I c ~ k i n g Zone 3 elements failing t o see an time difference between the maximum resetting time o f
I fault. This would result i n instantaneous reverse-looking Zone 3 elements and the signalling
ing for a n external fault. When the signalling channel. So, if there is a momentary loss o f the blocking
nel is used for a stabilising signal, as i n the above signal during the current reversal, the timer does n o t
takes place over a healthy line section have time t o reset in the blocking mode t r i p circuit and
is used. The sigrialling channel n o false tripping takes place. -.
p.
uld then be more reliable when used i n the blocking
e-than, i n tripping mode.
. .
c,
imes may be delayed longer than is necessary.
L.
f the signalling channel fails, the scheme must be r;
The protection a t the strong infeed terminal will operate 2
$ranged t o revert t o conventioaal basic distance for all internal faults, since a blocking signal is not -2
uotection. Normally, the blocking mode trip circuit is received from the weak infeed terminal end. In the case Q
upervised b y a 'channel-in-service' contact so that the of external faults behind the weak infeed terminal, the
locking mode trip circuit is isolated when the channel is reverse-looking elements a t that end will see the fault
ut of service. as shown i n Figure 12.1 2. current fed from the strong infeed terminal and operate, . 12.
initiating a block signal t o the remote end. The relay a t
the strong infeed end operates correctly without the
need for any additional circuits. The relay a t the weak
infeed end cannot operate for internal faults, and so
tripping of that breaker is possible only b y means o f
direct intertripping from the strong source end.
:.. ...
The permissive over-reach scheme described i n Section ;:.,:. : -,-.-
. - .
12.3.4 can be arranged t o operate o n a directional :.;:+-.):..:,:?
. .
comparison unblocking principle by providing additional .;: . . . .,.:;, '
(b] Solid % t a l c logic of rcnd circuit circuitry i n the signalling equipment. I n this scheme ,:::''' -;',.":
-.
(also called a 'deblocking overreach distance protection . . . . ....
.:.'-.
....
... -
;Chap12 exe 14/06/02 13:lS Page 200
!
-
i'~~~~;j.:,,,,i;Ilq.@p qi~~ing.*mf;!~:~*~*;~:?~?~ : . ;
Spccd of opcrarion Fast Not as fast
Spccd with in-wnicc t e t i n g Slowcr 1 A$ fast i
SuiUblc lor auto-rcclosc Ycs YC8
Scarify against
malopcraticm duc l a : !
Cumnr r r v c m l Sprcial fcaturcs rcquircd Special fcalurcs rcqulrcd
Lou of communica~~ons Pmr ! Good
Wrak l n l r r d l O ~ nCB Sprcial fcaturcs rquircd Special fcalurn rcquircd
r.:
C-:
Busbar Protection
.:I
:,:..?,c;T?-7:<
p,:<"<;;.+-::,,.-<
:??A%;<&+#::'=.! -
g&=@$$;;, :.
:;*.<&;;+-:=;>
.... .'.
.?$ ,:*+;++,
:, <.
..5*?3&53;<.:.
...%**.<a.;
r?%yTmh
. .:1
-.
i
~ . . . y * ~ * - ' ,;
.<'-. .
. . .c.. . ...
.......
.......
t.'"",,'
.
:e.:3,
m.;+>g..:
,,<,>
g;~?.s<>.
,.;
p&%*2..;;
$;$k>y:
gg{*.:.
-?
.-%
,. :.
.... ..
&,<: :;* -
s:..;
:
sh.::<+$2;-.
..-_._.
.........
i. 5....-......,
...........
<..
'
. . . .......
.;;-;$i.;+..
.
*.>.?
'
..$> z.-:-:.
*...
. .
-................
... i:,*.i '.
.............
.a:..-
.....
..............
.
'
.L
'
.
;
:
..........
The protection scheme for a power system should cover ...-._. .I.:
.'. .-:.,.
..........
the whole system against all probable types of fault. ,.: .-;..\ .--... '
;"
.:.... . . . .
!
-
-. -
253 17/06/02 9:46 Page 2 3 5
2
zone on the faulty side o f the section switch scheme using harmonic restraint, were superseded b y
unbiased high impedance differential protection.
>
-a
c
C,
The relative simplicity o f the latter, and more importantly 2
Q
is obtained a t the expense of seriously delaying the bus the relative ease w i t h which its performance can be
:
k?.., protection for all other faults. This practice is therefore calculated. have ensured its success u p to the present
i !
[
increasing the amount o f equipment that is required t o
function t o complete a n 0peration;'and this inevitably
increases the statistical risk t h a t a tripping operation due
t o a f a u l t may fail. s u c h a failure, leaving aside the
Frame-earth protection systems have been i n use for
many years, mainly associated w i t h smaller busbar
protection schemes at distribution voltages and for
metalclad busbars (e.g. SF6 insulated busbars). However,
.
-. .
...
..... . . . . . . . . .
Switchgear framc
A
'
System protection that includes overcurrent or distance
C-_________________-~----------------------------------~
Neutral
cases the busbar protection obtained is slow and suitable ... . ... check rclav
I
only for limiting the consequential damage.
The only exception is the case of a mesh-connected
substation, i n which the current transformers are located
a t the circuit breakers. Here, the busbars are included, i n
sections, in the. individual zones o f the main circuit
protection, whether this is o f unit type or not. I n the
special case when the current transformer_s are located
. . . ,! "
on the line side o f the mesh. he circuit protection will circuit :,.$
:,.'7+?
....
-.c particular circumstances. However, the need t o insulate When planning the earthing arrangements of a frame- .',(:?:
-
2 the switchboard frame and provide cable gland leakage scheme, the use of one common electrode for $ :;
!XI insulation and the availabiliry of alternative schemes both the switchgear frame and the power system neutral '.$.?
::&,.
using numerical relays, has contributed t o a decline in point is preferred, because the fault path would :$;
- 15.
use o f frame leakage systems. otherwise include the two earthing electrodes i n seriel ;:<%,
I f either or both of these are of high resistance or have %,:
a simple instantaneous relay as shown in Figure 15.2. adequate rating and low resistance ensures sufficient $8
No other earth conncctions of any type, including current for scheme operation and limits the rise i n f r a m e i s
.$
:$
incidental conncctions t o structural steelwork are potential. When the system is resistance earthed, the ;g
allowed. 'This rcquircmcnt is so that: earthing connection from the switchgear frame is made
................... . . . . .
Outgoing Switchgear
- barriers
feeder frame
A
' G
t
I :, framcZonc
lcakagc
rclay
' '
I
Zonc 11
A: framclcakagc
rclay
:&
.
I
,- 1- - - - --, ,- - - - -1- -
rcsistancc to caYn
I
-
A
! :
, :
. .------- f
;;<,;,- .
'> C,;:;cni .....I...-. :.. 1 t 1
;;, ,>. :! ,. ; . Trip i; Trip L Trip iI1
Zonc G Zonc I1 ,
sheath. Preferably, the gland insulation should be Q ' .:
....
provided i n t w o layers or stages, with an interposing
layer of metal, t o facilitate the testing of the gland ..:..
insulation. A test level o f 5kV from each side is suitable. 15 i:,.
8- - . ..* . .
$&B--&
...
Zonc H
.
,!.>X.
For the above schemes to function it is necessary to have as operation due to mechanical shock or mistakes made ,.,$
2
a least one infeed or earthed source of supply, and i n the by personnel. Faults in the low voltage auxiliary wiring 3
latter case it is essential that this source o f supply be must also be prevented from causing operation by !#
%:
connected t o the side o f the switchboard not containing passing current to earth through the switchgear frame ':..$:
the section switch. Further, if possible, it is preferable
that an earthed source of supply be provided on both
A useful check is provided by a relay energised by the, 4
system neutral current, or residual current. I f the neutral ,f
sides of the switchboard, in order to ensure that any check cannot be provided, the frame-earth relays should ':
faults that may develop between the insulating barrier have a short time delay. .<+9
<! .
&,.
Insulation
A b a r r i c r s
. .
Zonc G
5 Zonc 1,
I I !
: I Zonc G
74 Alarm canccllat~onrelay
CS5 Control sclcctor swftch protcct~on~n/prolccl~on
out
L, Busbar prolcclcon In scrvtcc lamp 3
I, Busbar protcclton oul of scrv~ccl ~ m p
Tripptng
L , lrlpptng supply hcallhy lamp
rclayr
I , , Alarm and ~ n d ~ c a l ! osupply
n hcalthy lamp
. .?'.,.i
fis usual t o supervise the satisfactory operation o f the The scheme may consist of a single relay connected t o
h t c c t i o n scheme with audible and visual alarms and the bus wires connecting all the current transformers in
&$cations for the following: parallel, one set per circuit, associated with a particular
zone, as shown i n Figure 15.8(a). This will give earth
',
y:
busbar faults
b&?!. prc::diofi
c. busbar protection out o f service
ifi service
fault protection f o r the busbar. This arrangement has
often been thought t o be adequate.
If the current transformers are connected as a balanced
d. tripping supply healthy group for each phase together with a three-element
*- relay, as shown i n Figure 15.8(b), additional protection
' e. alarm supply healthy for phase faults can be obtained.
enable the protection equipment-of each zone t o be The phase and earth fault settings are identical, and this
out of service independently during maintenance scheme is recommended for its ease of application and
periods, isolating switches - one switch per zone - are good performance.
'.provided i n the trip supply circuits and an alarm
cancellation relay is used.
. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ................ . . .
. . . .; + ? ! ,,,:. ,;: . L i.
8
. 3.
Each section o f a divided bus is provided with a separate
+: 'The Merz-Price principle is applicable to a multi-terminal circulating current system. ~h~ zones so formed are
Zone such as a busbar- The principle is a direct over-lapped across the switches, so that a fault
i . application of Kirchhoffs first law. Usually, the the latter tripthe two adjacent zones. hi^ is
2f- circulating current arrangement is used, in which the
.. current transformers and interconnections form an
1;....-analogue of the busbar and circuit connections. A relay
illustrated in~i~~~~ 15.9.
Tripping two zones for a section switch fault can be
1
$.F?cQ?nected -across t h c . 0 bus .wires represents a fault avoided by using thetime-dela~ed technique Section ..
c;path:in the-prima-w.system i" the analogue and hence i s . 15.6.2. However instantaneous
. . operation is the .
- preferied
~~'%bt,n&gised
. .
until i f a u l t occurs o n t h e busbar; it then
........ ......... . .
ii3eceiyes an input that, in principle at Icast, represents - . .
..
........................................ = - f
---
> . . . . .
-
El
P
G
i
...... ..... Q
9
Q
-
C,
-
A
: . 15
I I Zonc C
a) Basic circulating currcnt schcmc (carth fault protcction only) i ...... .......
j
..'
i
H
-
Diffcrcntial r c h y i overlap the appropriate main busbar zone at the bus .:.;. . . . - .: .:,';::-. .
/ coupler.
.. -,, ; -
.,.:.I,.; ,.:.......
..,.;:s...-
;.: -:;:,:.
i ,,:- .:. . :;? ''.:; : ,
b) P ~ P S Cand carth fault circulating currcnt schcmc using
I Since any circuit may be transferred from one busbar to ;:+?i<~:l3:+;;!f:.
.-.
thrcc-clcmcnt rclay
. . . .. . . . . ,
---. i the other by isolator switches, these and the associated :;.!$.:;?& -;,
./-.'iz;c ....... -. . . - . . . . . . -
15.9: C i r c o l o r i n g c u r r c n r schcn;r
.....
tripping circuit must also.,be switched to the appropriate .. :,..::< ?; l/..,;~L:::?:,
..: :'..+~
..:.
*?
.;.;,<
;:.
,-;:;,:z.;z.'::<:::. :. .
I, . .
:. &
..; .- J.w.:
.,I . +:.*.
;
.:, , -e;,>. B
:.Y
:.;.-
..;,+,$.&$;.:~;;y:..
..,.; *;;-a,..
~ , r - . ~ p
l r.rrrri.. u A.r.-.ri*; Gail* \_ ZJ9 ! '. -:&;.;:.;,.,:, Y!?'..
\* , - -,.cp,;;:<,
, . ..+8s;+,$,.$%, ......>
1,
t>.:..v,;.;.:?< 3:
. .
ir.;,;44,5x.2;:,:.q:.-
... :.i;:>5fi5c.-.,., -. . i
.
. .
... .
.
. . . . . .
... .,: ;.;. e. , . . .
. . .. . . . . . .
. - .
,
....
Chap15-232-253 17/06/02 9:48 Page 240
:.. :
zone by 'early make' and 'late break' auxiliary contacts. Figure 15.10(a) shows the ideal arrangement i n which,...:
This is t o ensure that when the isolators are closing, the both the circuit and busbar zones are overlapped leaving!:
auxiliary switches make before the main contacts of the no region o f the primary circuit unprotected.
isolator, and that when the isolators are opened, their
main contacts part before the auxiliary switches open.
The result is that the secondary circuits of the t w o zones
a small region o f the priniary circuit unprote
concerned are briefly paralleled while the circuit is being
unprotected region is typically refcrred t o as the 's
. :-:. . .
ransferred: these t w o zones have i n anv case been zone: The fault shown will cause operation o f the busbar
,.::.2.:\c~,
........
. - .....
.. united through the circuit isolators during the transfer
protection, tripping the circuit breaker, but the fault will
?:?>:$;: operation.
.:;.y:<:.?: continue t o be fed from the circuit, if a source of p
:..\ ..
. . ......
. is present. It is necessary for the bus protecti
. . . .
intertrip the far end of the circuit protection, if the
is o f the unit type.
Ideally, the separate discriminating zones should overlap
With reference -to Figure 15.10(b), special 'short
each other and also the individual circuit protections.
The overlap should occur across a circuit bteaker, so that
the latter lies i n both zones. For this arrangement i t is
necessary to install current transformers on both sides o f
the circuit breakers, which is economically possible with
technique may be used, particularly when th
many but not all types o f switchgear. With both the
circuit and thc bus protection current transformers on
the fault is i n the switchgear connections
the same side o f the circuit breakers, the zones may be
generator; the latter is therefore tripped electrical
overlapped a t the current transformers, but a fault
shut down on the mechanical side so as to
between the CT location and the circuit breaker will not
, .be completely isolated. This m a t t e r is important i n all
. . . . . :.
. . . . .:., ..
. .1 .. .... . . switctigear,to '.wl%ch these . conditions apply, and is
. ...
:: .i:-;.::, paaiculaily impohant.in the case of outdopr switchgear
- . . . The protection of busbars.in.mesh c o h e
. .. --. . where . :se.parately 'mbirnted. muiti-secondary current '
gives rise t o additional considerations
- :., . .. .
,!s. - transformers are generally 'used. The conditions are.
location. A single mesh corner is s
;,o. -':/::.
shown i n Figure 15.10. . . . .
i *.
L a
W1
'L
. .
c , ) a . 7 ~s t l i c c . : c c cr,i,r!! f > * c g k c r *):.:,.
. -..- . -- ..
A
. . .. .
. . ... . .. . .. .
.
.
. .
:. . !.,ti
,.I
. .. . . : I.
I
'\$
I
hout any means of determining the faulted
'connection. Protection CT's must therefore be located on . :
each connection, as shown in Figure 15,11(b). This leaves
t R a RLG
hown i n Figure 15.11 (b).
RR
. .
.
. ..... . .
Id>
linear range of the junction points t o form the complete equivalent circuit '.;f
.
4
Q
Saturation has the effect of lowering the exciting
and is assumed take place severeiy in 2
region of the
1 characteristic; this not in itself a spill
current transformer H until, at the limil. the shunt
and the " can produce
b
output from a pair of balancing current transformers impedance becomes
23
1 output, This condition is represented by a short circuit.
1 provided
A group of
that are identical and equally
transformers, though b e of
the same design, will not be completely identical, but a
may shown i n broken line, across the exciting impedance. it
should be noted that this is not the equivalent of a
a7
.
.. ,.;<;
. . ..,,,,':.k.j,;
. . .A,,
,.: :.: ..........
:,: .:$,. ...<,::;S;t.i'
-
... .- . . . . . . . . . . . .., ..;,.:;.: ,.-.L,.,..,..: - a.
' .
Pr.rr,ri.. U C-id, 141 .. ? >, ,'.,.";*,.' jy;j
I . r . - # l * . . -.-I.
;
:\i_&~y>Tp ..
. ,?*<.~.?.>,?, %.5.*'.
- ..;.,;5:<.;: ::-'. .;.
; .&d9".+$i,?,.
,-
.....$,,,.'k
*a. L?<!s,<
; r,
>:
.
.. ,:
.
.. . .-... . - :j ..
..---.. . ..-
I ; - ;a!i.,,i
-253 17/06/02 9:48 Page 2 4 2
Equoliorr 1 5 . 5
= stabiliry of schetne
= relay circuit voltage setting
,--- . p__.__--
/ d A . t . r , r i . m
N ~ f w a r kP r . r r r t i . m Cailr
. ,
Fi; a. phase-phase faults give o n l y 8 6 % o f the three- This will not happen to any large degree if the fault
phase fault current current is a larger multiple of setting; for example, if the
E'
TI. . .- ,. .. '
':h resistance
fault current is five times the scheme primary operating
current and the CT knee-point e.m.f. is three times the
y reauce raulr currents somewhat
relay setting voltage, the additional delay is unlikely to
..
, .
c. a reasonable margin should be allowed to ensure exceed one cycle.
that relays operate quickly and decisively - The primary operating current is sometimes designed to
b! ,
~tis desirable that the primary effective setting should not exceed the maximum expected circuit load in order to
graceed 30% of the prospective minimum fault current. reduce the possibility of false operation under load
p current as a result of a broken CT lead. Desirable as this
earth fault safeguard may be, it will be seen that i t is better not to
%.protection, the minimum earth fault current should be increase the effective current settingtoo much, as this
8.:
.?
considered, taking into account any earthing impedance will sacrifice some speed; the check feature inany case,
iy that might be present as well. Furthermore, in the event maintains stabilitv.
1 of the inter-
An overall earth fault scheme for a large distribution
.f. is available
board may be difficult t o design because of the large
In in the earth
number of current transformers paralleled together,
g;? n u l r currenc. Ine prlmary operating current must which may lead to an excessive setting. It may be
e not greater than 30/0 of the minimum advantageousinsuch a case to provide a three-element
se earth fau;t current. In order to achieve phase and earth fault scheme, mainly to reduce the
ed operation, it is desirable that settings should number of current transformers paralleled intoone group.
r, particularly in the rase of the solidly
of the
Ems-high-voltage substations usually present no such
power system. The transient
problem. Using the voltage-calibrated relay, the current
i n conjunction with wnfavourable residual
consumption can be very small.
can cause a high degree of saturation and
utput, possibly leading to a delay of several cycles A simplification can be achieved b y providing one relay
91 to the natural time of the element. per circuit, all connected to the CT paralleling buswires:
. .:
1'
Zonc R
.......... *.
r21.
..... .
/
Zonc AIZ 1
I '' '1
Zonc A I I
Bus wircs
Zonc A12
Bur wircl
Zonc
Bur wi
Chcck 208
Bur wir
IS-
30 Zonc indicating rclay Zonc bus wircs shorting relay
74 Alarm cancclla:~on relay CSS Control selector switch
80 D.C. volts supcw~sionrelay LI Indicating lamp protection in scrvicc
87 High impcdancc circulating current relay L2 Indicating lamp pcorection out of scrvicc ,
95 Bus wires supcwision rclay
This enables the trip circuits t o be confined to the least subdivision being necessary. For phase fault sche
area and reduces the risk o f accidental operation. the check will usually be a similar type of scheme ap
to the switchboard as a single overall zone.
: . : : .:;
i ..... :;. ; i':>,
A set of current transformers separate from those use
Schemes for earth faults only can be checked by a frame- the discriminating zones should be provided. No"
earth system, applied t o the switchboard as a whole, no switching is required and no current transformers
,
. . . . .-. .
- 244 . N,rr.rk Pr.rrrri.m
......
U A,r.n.ri.. C
-4-
: zone i n bus-coupler and bus- cubicle. It is possible that special circumstances
involving onerous conditions may over-ride this
CT Scconciarf Circuits convenience and make connection t o some other part o f
the ring desirable.
CT secondary circuit up to the
:tions will cause an unbalance i n Connecting leads will usually be not less than 710.67mm
equivalent t o the load being carried by the (2.5mm1), but for large sites or in other difficult
.-
-*
c i r c u i t Even though this degree o f
. ~ 'r i o u s output is below the effective setting the
circumstances it may be necessary to use cables of, for
example 711.04mm (6mm1] for the bus wire ring and the
'&dition cannot be ignored, since it is likely to lead t o CT connections t o it. The cable from the ring to the relay
a- . b i l i t y under any through fault condition. . need not be of the larger section.
PL
lcment; see Figures 15.13 and 15.14. the section isolators are closed.
.. .:
he alarm relay is set so that operation does not occur
~iththe protection system healthy under normal load.
ubject t o this proviso, the alarm relay is made as
wsitive as possible; the desired effective setting is 125 This section provides a summary of practical
imary amperes or 10% of the lowest circuit rating, considerations when implementing a high-impedance
hichever is the greater. - busbar protection scheme.
nce a relay of this order o f sensitivity is likely t o !:! ::: :: ; .,I. .;:;!:':! .i:r:!j,.;:::,. -,::;
. . . ..
a
%rate;during thrdugh faults; time delay, typically of
For normal circumstances, the stability level should be I- :-';: - . -
i&;:s@cd"ds; is . . avoid unn&cessary alarm,
to . .
. . : I
jnals. . - . designed t o correspond to the switchgear rating; even if . . - :
-. .. ... - .. . the available short-circuit power i n the systemis much
I
switches
The setting voltage is given by the equation
2. interconnections between marshalling k i d s to
form a closed ring v,> I f ( R , + Red
.I..,.
. ,.,
.., ,
rclay for each zone is connected to one point of the where: .,;:
!':..,
bus wire. For convenience of cabling, thc main zonc . .,..,..
VI = relay circuit voltage .. .,.<
I-.
ys will be connected through a multicorc cable
- steady-state through fault curreirt
>
.f.
*:I'
vcen the relay panel and the bus section-switch If .:!,.?;*
,!:
rhalling cubicle. The reserve bar zone and the check ., . , .
:I,
.. ;I$
.
. : ,..!I
,.i .
i .: ,.wk;
I.,
.
! : I$I.*
."..L,?.: ' *I
', ,~
[,:c;.,:
. .: , I.,,. ,.?,
'hap15-232-253 17/06/02 9:4a Page 246
- ,.
,..:. ,\L .'
. .
. .?&;.<,:;.-
,
..,?u"4'+ .,.G*.g
:
,.;;
-.
.,.+x?,< .- ..~fa:I:;~:ie:-?:
f5.&.6.<</:(:'<-3:?j17;.,;:.-.- , . . . ,.,r..;Ii!:,...'..r\
,<> secondary condition is:
:$<.:
. - $2:
...:brs This is given by the formula
.,.,'.
;.*.>,>
..
7..:vr<-b .The effective setting of the relay is given by
.:'..:'. I f =fault current
Ic k current a t knee - point voltage
= exciting
-. ..
VK= knee - point voltage
Is
= relay-circuit current settirlg
= CT
Ic s exritatiol~current at voltage seffi~lg
simple combination of burden and exciting impedance
n = number of CTS i n parallel
These formulae are therefore to be regarded only as
For the primary fault setting multiply IR
by the CT turns
guide to the possible peak voltage. With large current
ratio.
transformers, particularly those with a low sesonda
current rating, the voltage may be very high, above
It is clear from Equations 15.4 and 15.6 that i t is
advantageous to keep the secondary fault current low;
ceramic non-linear resistor in parallel
this is done by making the CT turns ratio high. I t is
common practice to use current transformers with a having a characteristic given by:
secondary rating of 1A. . v = CP
I t can be shown that there is an optimum turns ratio for where C is a constant depending on dimensions and
.. . ;.I the current transformers; thiswalue depends on all the a constant in the range 0.2-0.25. . '
?
Z Under in-zone fault conditions, a high impedance relay
-*
s
+,
'a
constitutes an excessive burden to the current
transformers, leading to the development of a high
voltage; the voltage waveform will be highly distorted
but the peak value may be many times the nominal
Instantaneous attracted armature relays are used. Simple
fast-operating relays would have a low safety factor
constant in the stability equation, Equation 15.5, as
discussed in Section 15.8.1. The performance is improved
saturation voltage.
by series-tuning the relay coil, thereby making the circuit
15 . When the burden resistance is finite although high, an resistive in effect. Inductive reactance would tend to
.
..-c.-. approximate formula for the peak voltage is: reduce stability, whereas the action of capacitance is to
block the unidirectional transient component of fault
current and so raise the stability constant.
&nique. Most modern busbar protection schemes use It must be recognised though that the use of any technique
for inhibiting operation, to improve stability performance
for through faults, must not be allowed t o diminish the
eprinciples of a check zone, zone selection, and .
abilii\i of the relay to respond to ir~iernaifauiu.
En . . gements can still be applied. Current
'kr_
tis=
'
transformer secondary circuits are not switched directly
by isolator contacts b u t instead by isolator repeat relays
after a secondary stage of current transformation. These
3 switching relays form a replica of the busbar within the For an internal fault, and with no through fault current
!:, protection and provide the complete selection logic. flowing, the effective setting (IR) is raised above the
basic relay setting (Is) by whatever biasing effect is
produced by the sum of the CT magnetising currents
flowing through the bias circuit. With low impedance
,.I biased differential schemes particularly where the busbar
;!< With some biased relays, the stability is not assured by. installation has relatively few circuits, these magnetising
I:...
,
the through current bias feature alone, b u t is enhanced currents may be negligible, depending on the value o f Is.
;: by the addition of a stabilising resistor, having a value . . .
.: The basic relay setting current was formerly defined as
:; which may be calculated as follows.
the minimum current required solely i n the differential
' The through current will increase the effective relay circuit to cause operation - Figure 15.45(a]. This $@@:1i&3&.
i minimum operating current for a biased relay as follows: approach simplified snalysis of performance. b u t was
considered t o be unrealistic, as i n practice any current -y*+c::7..~.
.;:s&:,;._.-::
-
.. ~
.
flowing i n the differential circuit must flow i n a t least . .-
where: one half o f the relay bias circuit causing the practical . .
25,
IR
= eflecfive 1nii1i111uii1o p r n t i ~ i g
currer~t minimum operating current always to be higher than the .... ,-
- .
nominal basic setting current.. As a.. result,.-a: later: :...-...,. +.- . . ..,L....r2,;
: .... ._:................
.-.' . -
;- G = relay s e n i i ~ gc u n e i l t definition, as shown i n Figure l5.l:5(b) w+.developed;: -;.i;~~;:~~.rl..i;~;r;~~~.
'. ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..:-:.
.........
.:._ . - , ........
..;..
.* .. ....
:-4
. . :.--:-..'
. ..c> . . . . . . . . . - . . .;,
Conversely, ifneedsto be. appreeiif& tkit applying' .thi~.1:6:.....1<.~....~~...r.
,.,-.-. ...........
:.
later definition of relay setting cu.rrent, whicti. flows . : -..$:;i= ::-..-.:-'-I -
;:!.:-.:...-:--
through at least half the bias circuit, the notional mini- i ~ r :".- :
As IF is generally much greater than Is,
effective current, IR= B k approximately.
the relay
mum operation current i n the differential circuit alone
is somewhat less, as shown in Figure 15.15(b).
rl
o
.L..
%.
-..
'a
From Equation 15.4, the value of stabilising resistor is Using the d e f i n i t i w presently.applicable, the effective .L..
where:
N = CT ratio
LH + <;!I
-
-
t3
It is interesting to note that the value of the stabilising
resistance is independent of current level, and that there
would appear to be no limit to the through-faults
stability level. This has been identified [15.1] as 'The
Principle of Infinite Stability:
The stabilising resistor still constitutes a significant
burden on - the current transformers during internal
faults.
An alternative technique, used by the MBCZ system
described i n Section 15.9.6, is to block the differential
measurement during the portion of the cycle that a
current transformer is saturated. If this is achieved by
momentarily short-circuiting the differential path, a very
low burden is placed on the current transformers. In this i (al Suocrxdcd definition (bl Currcnt dcfinition
way the differential circuit of the relay is preventtd from
responding to the spill current.
. .
For some low impedance schemes, only one set of main them to be connected into this busbar replica.
CT's is required. This seems to contradict the general
principle of all busbar protection systems with a check transformers available per circuit Where the facility of :.
feature that complete duplication of all equipment is a check zone is still required, this can still be achieved .'!
required. but it is claimed that the spirit of the checking with the low impedance biased protection by connecting :
principle is met by making operation of the protection-,
dependent on two different criteria such - as directional',
. . . . . . ...
and d.iffere?tialmeasllrements.
.In the MBCZ scheme, described i n Section 15.9.6, the
provision of auxiliary CT's as standard for ratio matching
also provides a ready means for introducing the check
feature duplication at the auxiliary CT's and onwards to
the relays. This may be an attractive compromise when
3nly one set of main CT's is available.
...
- added at any time as the busbar is extended.
. .. A separate module is used for each circuit breaker and
7
,.,.::., ;;r,f:, . ,.\ior::,
. ..
,I!:.,!: ..! ~ , , : ,
.. .
g:.
, :'.
also one for each zone of protection. In addition to these
It is a common modern requirement of low impedance
..
schemes that none of the main CT secondary circuits
..~. .
f, ,. should switched. in the previously convcptional manner,
1
,
1
. -.
I .
.. ~
188
-A
- ,'
. .. .~ ...
N<lo.r&
.
Pr.~rrti.. W A.I.r.1
. .
. .. . . .
&yL -lntcrmodulc plug-in buswire connections
5 :
i'*.. ......-........
,:.
6.. F;scre i s . 17: J y 2 c :,!3CZ b:iI;o! i c : c r : ! < . n >ir::b,;i:;.i ::.;rc.int!;!r!
..,,,.
t.'.:.. . berwccfl c8.rco8.:::?;+<,:? o,>d p,:t;,:c:+,:,; ?
:?
;:,>
..
L..
. .
\.j,.. .
...
2.
..:
'? '
.
%
.
;I: figure
,&:.
15.17 shows the correlation between the circuit . . . . ' ., ::
_; .
'-,.-
$;,.beakers
. and the protection modules for a typical double The traditional method for stabilisinga differential relay
~ ~ % u s.b 8 r i n s t a l l a t i o nIn
i+._ ,
. practice the modulesare mounted . is t o add a resistor t o the differential path. Whilst'this
@?nia,,multi-tier rack or cubicle: '
improves stability it increases the burden on the current
$<<vemodules a r c interconnected via a multicore cable
%
;:.-
transformer for internal faults. The technique used hi
ETthat is plugged i n t o the back o f the modules. There are the MBCZ scheme overcomes this problem.
$3'
i.,'.
five main groups o f buswires, allocated for: The MBCZ design detects when a 'CT is saturated and
I
:
'c- i. protection for main b u s b a ~ short-circuits the differential path for the portion o f the
I "
6p? iv. auxiliary connections used by the protection to with relatively small CT's.
,
combine modules for some of the more complex . . . .
kq. busbar configurations
+,,!'
F&,.;: V. protection for the check zone
If the CT's carrying fault current are n o t saturated there
, will be ample current i n the differential circuit t o operate
;.&:
E;: One extra module. n o t shown i n this diagram, is plugged the differential relay quickly for fault currents exceeding
h.?: into the multicore bus. This is the alarm module, which the m i n i m u m operating level. which is adjustable
??!
I
,
<?
; Wntains the common alarm circuits and the bias resistors. between 20%-200% rated current.
[<%-Thepower supplies are also fed in through this module.
E$j
.,."!,..$.
When the only CT(s) carrying internal fault current
,
if#^. f 5 3, ;;,.!
. >
become saturated, i t might be supposed that the CT
5.':" :
saturation detectors may completely inhibit operation by
@;,All zones o f measurement arc biased by the t o t a l current
y,k+, short-circuiting the differential circuit. However, the
B. .flowing t o or f r o m the busbar system via the feeders.
resulting inhibit pulses remove only an insignificant
h i s cnsurcs t h a t all zones o f measurement w i l l have
portion o f the differential current, so operation of the
similar fault sensitivity under all load conditions. The
relay is therefore virtually unaffected.
bias is derived from the check zone and fixed a t 20%
, w i t h a characteristic gencrally as shown i n Figure
. lS.lS(b). Thus some ratio mismatch is tolerable.
' '-3.1
Out of scrvicc !$$':
C
!,.&!
. .-
: : 5 .3 9::?$:i :i;vu,::r:: tji -r(:or;;r;ng o n i f ;
.>;t
: . .. .*'
. ..
. . ....I
.. . . .;:: . . . . .-..
. . .j <;: .. '. .:., . . . . . . . . . .. . . to operate the two busbar sections as a single bar:-:&
' !:
.-
, ; 7.. ..........;....... . , ,..., .. i t has failed to function. The circuit breakers in the n$
stage back in the system are then automatically trippet
When two sections of a busbar are connected together
by isolators i t will result in two measuring elements For a bus coupler or section breaker this would invc
5,
being connected in parallel when the isolators are closed tripping all the infeeds to the adjacent zone, a fat
that is included in the busbar protection scheme. .:I
13
,. r!
17/06/02 9:54 Page 2 5 1
+I+
Ccntral Unit
- CU
.-..
... '
p;;:
*;> .
;ig?.
r. :
-'.
. . . ., ..
. . .
d. dead zone protection
.,-..
c.
. . .
In addition, monitoring functions such as CB and isolator
The application of numerical relay technology t o busbar monitorinq, disturbance recordinq and transformer
j !.'.. protection has lagged behind that of other protection. supervision ace.provided:
. ..
. :... - . . . . .... . . . .. ... ... .
. . . . . . .
iP
i \?<functions. Static technology is still usual for such . . . . . . . . . - . . . .
, . . . - Because .- o f , . the : , distributed :-topology. used, r.:l".' :.:;.: .
......
. . :,
::&hemes,
. . -~. . . b u t numerical technology. is j o w ~ i e a d ' i l y ".'.
!--
k;;available.
,
The very latest d e v e l o p m ~ ~ t si n t h e .
- .
~ ~ n c h r o n i s a t i oon f the 'me&urernents. .taken-'.by
.
-pe;ifiheral u"its .is:of vital iipo.rt+ce. '.'rX1high&ability;
t h e '
. . . . .
:&;!-:;:
;;,
.-:;. .. .- , ;
, ~ ,:':,
, ~~2.'techriology
2,
are included, such as extensive use o f a data
bus t o link the various units involved, and fault tolerance
against loss o f a particular link by providing multiple
numerically-c6ntr;11e& oscillator is fitted-in'each o f the
central and peripheral units, with time synchronisation . . . . .
--
i between them. I n the event o f loss o f the .:.z
; i communications paths. The development process has synchronisation signal, the high stabilityof the oscillator . .
o
i been very rigorous, because the requirements for busbar %
,
:
i n the affected feeder unit(s) enables processing o f the ..
j protection i n respect-of immunity to maloperation are .
~ncomingdata to continue without significant errors
-
.. Q
; very high. : :2
! until svnchronisation can be restored. . . .
The philosophy adopted is one of distributed processing of
The peripheral units have responsibility for collecting the
the measured values, as shown in Figure 15.20. Feeders
required data, such as voltages and currents, and
each have their own processing unit, which collects
processing it into digital form for onwards transmission
together information on the state of the feeder (currents,
to the central unit. Modelling o f the CT response is
voltages. CB and isolator status, etc.) and communicates
included, t o eliminate errors caused by effects such as CT
it over high-speed fibre-optic data links to a central unit.
saturation. Disturbance recording for the monitored
For large substations, more than one central unit may be
feeder is implemented, for later download as required.
used, while i n the case of small installations, all of the
Because each peripheral unit is concerned only with an
units can be co-located, leading to fhe appearance of a
individual feeder, the protection algorithms must reside
traditional centralised architecture.
in the central unit.
feederr. interface units at a may be used The differential algoriihm can be much more
w i t h the data transmitted t o a single centrally
sophisticated than w i t h earlier technology, due t o
located peripheral unit. The central unit performs the
improvements in processing power addition to
calculations required for the protection functions.
calculating the sum of the measured currents, the
Available protection functions are:
-
algorithm can also evaluate differences between
a. protection successive current samples, since a large change above a
threshold may indicate a fault - the threshold being
b. backup overcurrent protection
choscn such that normal load changes, apart from inrush
c. breaker failure conditions do not exceed the threshold. The same
:CbaplS-232-253 17/06/02 9:5i Page 2 5 2
considerations can also be applied t o the phase angles o f I n contrast, modern numerical schemes are more
currents, and incremental changes i n them. .complex w i t h a much greater range o f facilities and a :\
m u c h high component count. Based o n low impedanc
One advantage gained f r o m the use o f numerical
technology is the a h i ! i q )ls easi!\t re-configure the bias techniques, and w i t h a greater range o f facilities t
,. <.+-.
set, setting calculations can also be more complex. . ..:
:::.>
protection t o cater for changes i n configuration o f the
substation. For example, addition o f a n extra feeder However, studies o f t h e comparative reliability of i6
involves the addition o f an extra peripheral unit, the conventional high impedance schemes and .modern
.~..-
,::-'
fibre-optic connection t o the central u n i t and entry via numerical schemes have shown that assessing relative
....!;I. .:+
the M M I o f the new configuration i n t o the central unit. reliability is not quite so simple as i t might appear. The ->&?..!*'
.. ?
Figure 15.21 illustrates th,e latest numerical technology numerical scheme has t w o advantages over its older ,;$;;i
employed. counterpart:
a. there is a reduction i n the number. o f external '..:
components such as switching and other auxiliary .
,
;
:
A
. The following table indicates typicall protection depending on the size of the motor. However,
other factors should be considered when selecting motor protection, for example importance of
PROTECTION
Contactor 1. Fuses
2. Fuses + ' ~ h e r r n a l
Overload + U N
'I MW-3MW
Options - Stalling &
Undercurrent
overcurrent +
The protection must be able to distinguish between abnormal conditions and normal motor
operation. Therefore, it is important to understand the behaviour of the motor under certain
conditions to be able to apply protection successfully. For example, the magnitude and
duration of the starting current affects the application of overload protection; the magnitude and
maximum allowable duration of stalling current in relation to those of staring current determir.~e
whether separate stalling protection is required.
The tolerance to overload of motors depends on the motor design and differs considerably iri
Practice. The risk of damage of the insulation depends on the temperature. It is very difficult il
not impossible to cover all types and ratings of motors with different applications, variety (1;
4
Page 1
If a motor is assumed to be a homogeneou
and dissipating heat at a rate directly proportional
temperature at any instant is given by :
b
'15
ii
where T,, = final steady teniperature
whent="C
. . .
ii.
g. 1
s;.
Rr
or t = r.10~~
,.,:;:.
I-:
5.)
....:....
-..
ti'
>;.
b h i l e infrequency overloads of short duration may not damage the motor, sustained overload
;of a few percent may result in premature ageing and failure of insulation so that the time lag
!:..characteristic of the device is of vital importance in permitting the normal starting duty and
/:pmviding close sustained overload protection for the motor at the same time.
C::,
1.
:.STARTISTALL
t.
PROTECTION
t
:A Direct-On-Line machine (DOL) will typically draw a starting current of approximately 6 times
\full load current for a period defined by the machines starting time. This is because the
:impedance of the machine is related to the slip frequency, which varies during start up; the
:impedance beirlg smaller at low speeds where the slip is larger.
With normal 3-phase supply, should a motor stall when running, or be unable to start due to
excessive load, it will draw a current equivalent to the locked rotor current. On the basis of
starting current being equal to locked rotor current it is not possible to distinguish between
3-phase stalling and healthy starting by monitoring the current alone.
In the majority of cases, the starting time of a normal induction motor is less than the maximum
. ..
stalling. time allowable to avoid excessive deterioration of the motor insulation.. Under this. '
condition it is possible to discriminate on a tim.e basis between the two and provide' protection
against. stalling. In applications where the stalling time is less than the startingtime 'such' as
motors driving high inertia loads, it is more difficult to discriminate between a healthy start and a
stall condition. A separate stalling relay may be required depending on the type of overload
xotection relay used and the ratio of normal starting time to the allowable stall time.
. , b
:?,
i
Is current setting < locked rotor current hut > load current ....
overcurrent
.. .
Motor starting
cilaracteristic
I - a a
1
-:L4
.z<
'3
;i '<
.,2
In this case a separate stalling relay in the form of a definite time over-current relay and a shaft
monitoring device are required. The latter is used to check the motor speed while the relay
-
j-e
measures the motor current. Instead of the overcurrent relay a simple definite time delay relay
-
may also be used as shown below : ..
Page 4
Use of a tachoswitch monitor with a definite time delay relay:-
TD < tSL
+ -
o o TD The tacho contact will open
when the set speed (say 10% of
rated speed) is reached. It m x t
operate well within TD.
F.i!i!
,
! '
TRIP
. -
:. ii) Use of a tachoswitch monitor with a definite time overcurrent relay:-
i
TD < tsL
-
-0-OcF-
TRl P
iii) Use of a 2-stage definite time overcurrent relay:-
TDI >t s ~
TD2 <t s ~
OIC < stall current
> load current
Page 5
. .
If tsL > tsT the same arrangement can be used in which case stalling protection is provided
during the starting period. This method provides additional advantage for motors with different '
hot and cold stall times in that TD2 cah be set to less than hot stall time irrespective of cold stall :,
time.
TD1 'ST
(TD1 + TD2) < tsL (cold)
The supply voltage to a 3-phase induction motor can become unbalanced due to such reasons
as single phase load, imperfect transportation of feeders etc. The degree of unbalance is small
in normal installation except when onephase become ope'n circuited. This would not affect at
first sight, the motor to any large extent, but a small voltage unbalance could produce a much
larger negative phase sequence current in the winding due t o the relative small negative phase
sequence impedance of the machine compared with the positive phase sequence impedance.
Consider the following equivalent circuits for positive and negative phase sequence currents,
the magnetising impedance being neglected:
. .-
.. .. .....,:
& ,?
-
...-
.-:,: ..,.
.. ,
,
-...<< .
.. .
. ..-.
/_--
.
;s,
.L.
.....
.l..j.
- - '5.
-
...7c
:.<-
I-S
-R'2 R'2 ' ' .
With positive phase sequence voltages a rotating field will be set up and the rotor will rotate in
the direction of rotation of the filed giving a slip s and slip frequency sf. With negative phase
sequence voltages the field will rotate in the opposite direction cutting a rotating rotor conductor
at almost twice the frequency. The actual frequency of negative phase sequence voltage and
current in the rotor circuit is (2 - s)f. From the equivalent circuits:
, Page 6
Motor -ve sequence impedance at a given slip s
-
~ ' 22
1
1"
,
~ ' 22
(R, + + (x, + l2 when s << 1 at normal running speed
i L J
I
L
!
The value of resistance is generally much less than the leakage reactance. Therefore
j neglecting the resistance term the motor -ve phase sequence impedance at normal running
: speed can be approximated to the +ve phase sequence impedance at standstill.
i.:
; . ~ tnormal running speed :
i'.
+ve sequence impedance - starting current
-ve sequence impedance normal load current
If a motor has a starting current 6 x the full load current, the -ve sequence impedance would be
about 116'~of the +ve sequence impedance.
Therefore if 1 pu +ve sequence voltage applied to the motor would produce 1 pu of +ve
;.;..sequence current, the same 1 pu of -ve sequence voltage would produce 6 pu - ve sequence
!::.'current.
.'
I.--
Consequently, if there is 5% -ve sequence voltage present in the supply it would result
. .
:z:;in-an
. approximate 30% of -ve sequence component of current.
~. - .
..
'The ac resistance of the rotor conductor to the induced -ve sequence current is greater than the
dc resistance due to the higher frequency [(Z-s)fl causing skin effect. The heating effect of -ve
sequence current is therefore greater and increases the motor losses. The machine output
must be reduced to avoid overheating.
Because of the reversed rotation of the magnetic field due to -ve sequence current, a small -ve
torque is also produced.
As mentioned previously one unit of -ve phase sequence current has a greater heating effect
than one unit of +ve phase sequence current, this unequal heating effect should be taken into
account in the design of a thermal characteristic based on:
I equivalent = JF"17
where 11 = +ve sequence component
12 = -ve sequence component
N = a fixed constant
A typical value of n in motor protection relays is 6. This value has been carefully chosen to
provide adequate protection to both the stator and rotor windings for all designs of motor
without causing nuisance tripping.
I. Page 7
.. .. .-. .. .. . _
. ... -_
- . .. . . .
.. .
LOSS OF ONE PHASE WHILE STARTING
Normal starting current IA 2 (VnN.Z)/2= Standstill impedance per phase of the motor
C phase :
i.e, Starting current with one phase open circuited = 0.866 x normal starting current.
Page 8
1
i.e. + ve sequence current = - normal starting current.
2
1 2
Similarly, I 2 = - (ItA + a IaB
)
3
.'--. For delta-connected winding motors the actual line starting current with one phase open circuit
e:. is the same as a wye-connected machine :
iZ.,
:Ir. :
-
- A-
-- x normal starting current
2
= 0.866 x normal starting current
Note that one winding will carry twice the current in the other two windings
!
;
t
Page 9
SINGLE PHASE STALLl'NG PROTECTION
On loss of one phase supply while starting the motor will remain stationary.. It has been sho
the motor will draw a current equal to 0.866 x the normal starting current. Therefore, if
measuring the total stator current is used it must have a time delay longer than the starting ti
of the motor. If the allowable stall time at that level of current is less than the starting ti
simi!ar arr=lr?gementsas in the case of 3-phase stalling protection have to be used.
However, it has also been shown that the negative phase sequence component present in
current is equal to half the normal starting current. A negative phase sequence curren
can therefore detect this condition. In the CTM relay an instantaneous negative
sequence current detector is fitted. It has a setting of 2-8 x rated current. If a setting of
normal starting current the relay will detect single phase stalling condition.
It is difficult to shown in simple mathematical terms the behaviour o f the motor when one ph
supply is lost with the motor running due to the complex nature of the s l i ~ calculation and
possibility of additional negative phase sequence current being fed into the motor from par
equipment. However, the following would happen:
i) Heating increases considerably due to high rotor losses caused by the -ve s
current
ii) Output of motor is reduced and depending on the load it could stall altogether. , .
-
... . .. . .. .. .
iii) Motor current increases..
Ir: many installations such as lift motors and conveyors, protection is occasionally requ
ensure correct direction of rotation. Although not damaging to the motor this can be detri
to the process.
Under reversed phase sequence conditions the relay is designed to respond to the ex
negative phase sequence component of current. A number of methods can be
disconnect the motor from the supply during this condition
Instantaneous Negative Sequence Overcurrent Relay - This will respond very quic
load current is sufficient on the system.
Time Delayed Thermal Trip - As mentioned previous the thermal overload prot
influenced by the negative phase sequence component of the current, this elemen
more benificial for smaller loads. . . .,
.+:
..:.;:$
."
..
I.
The disadvantage of the above methods is that in order for them to operate the motor must be:;
switched on, dpending on the inertia of the motor it may start to turn in the wrong direction.
,
this is unacceptable then a negative phase sequence voltage monitoring device can be used- *.
This device will monitor the phase rotation of the incoming supply to the motor and if interlocked.:
with the motor switching device will prevent closure onto a revese phase sequence supply. his': ,z
approach is also used when the motor can only draw very low load currents.
Page 70
- - -
-
)LOW VOLTAGE PROTECTION
P
A;
!for induction motor the torq;e developed is approximately proportional to the square of the
Tapplied voltage. Low voltage level prevents motors from reaching rated speed on starting or
'may draw heavy current on losing speed. Some form of undervoltage protection is therefore
desirable with suitable time delay to disconnect the motors when severe low voltage conditions
tpersist for more than a few seconds. The time delay is required to prevent tripping on
' momentary voltage dips
I INSULATION FAILURE
.The majority of stator winding faults are the result of prolonged or cyclical overheating which
causes the insulation to deteriorate. Most faults are cleared by instantaneous earth fault
protection as the windings are generally surrounded by earthed metal. Sensitivity of the earth
fault relay is limited by the spill current from residually connected CTs during starting, usually
20%.
' Most other faults are cleared by thermal or unbalance protection. Instantaneous overcurknt
units if fitted protect only against terminal flashovers and other heavy short circuits. This is
because of the high settings necessary to prevent maloperation on starting current surges. For
motors above say 1MW differential protection may be used to give high speed clearance of
phase and earth faults. This usually takes the form of high impedance differential or biased
differential. 6 current transformers are required with 2 per phase at the two ends of winding.
.:;,..-. . .
:'. .,.SELF BALANCE TYPE DIFFEREN'TIAL PROTECTION
.. .
(r
41 I I I
i
1
fb I I
A
-
-
' , If conductors are placed reasonably bncentric w~thinthe window of the core balance current
;: transformers, spill current can be kept to a minimum. W ~ t hthis low spill current and a
.-.
~
-
1 ,
Page 11
reasonably indepenaence of CT ratio to full load a lower fault setting could be achieved than:.
conventional high impedance circulating current differential schemes.
Disadvantages :
.,;q
the necessity of passing both ends of each phase winding through the CT and hence the
.3
i) -I,
need for extra cabling on the neutral end. ;. $
3~
I -'q
ii) to avoid long cabling position of CTs are restricted to the proximity of the machine output :+F
terminals in which case the cable between the machine output terminals and controlling '.
. .:.
.;i
OPERATION WITH FUSED CONTACTORS
.-r. -..
j:
Where the motor is switched via a fused contactor, the interrupting capacity of the contactor ':,
must be taken into consideration. In general they will not be rated to break the maximum fault ::
current. In this case it is important to prevent the protection attempting to operate the contactor '%
above its maximum rating. This is usually achieved by disabling all instantaneous tripping .'.
3
T*
elements and time co-ordinating with the associated fuije. This is illustrated in the following .?
,. j
diagram:
..a.
-
...
TIME
Ts . MPR
I
I ELEMENT
I
I
I T Ice CURRENT
Page 12
RING FAILURE PROTECTION
It is generally accepted that the bearing will need replacing following failure, however stall
protection will help niinimise damage to the motor itself. Unfortunately, in extreme cases
this .is not the case and distortion of the shaft may occur. One method used to prevent
this is direct temperature monitoring of the bearings using RTD's for example.
13 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Out-Of-Step Protection
1I
A synchronous motor decelerates and falls out of step when it is subjected to a mechanical
overload exceeding its maximum available output. It may also lose synchronism from a fall'in
field current or supply voltage. An out-of-step condition will subject the motor to undesirable
Overcurrent and pulsating torque leading to eventual stalling.
The alternating component of current induced in the field circuit when the motor falls out
of step provides the basis for this method. One arrangement is to connect a reactor in
series with the field circuit to divert alternating current to a polarised field-frequency relay,
a coil of which is connected i n parallel with the reactor.
Disadvantages :
Av
-
r 1'
..."ti:
possibility of the supply beingarestoredout of phase with the motor generated emf. - +, 3 .,.,-:
'I \
Q
Two ways of detecting loss of supply : -8
*?:-
-."
...-
-.I
..
:?:
i) Overvoltaqe and Underfrequency
If the supply busbars have no other load connected and the motor is not loaded the motor,;;
terminal voltage could rise instantaneously to 20-30% on loss of supply due to the open ii:
circuit regulation of the machine. If the motor is loaded it will decelerate fairly quickly on :
.,
loss of supply and the frequency of terminal voltage will fall.
Underpower - arranged to look into the machine; applicable when there is a possibility of
no load connected on loss of supply.
Reverse power - arranged'to look away from the machine; applicable where there is
always load connected.
Time delay is required to overcome momentary power reversal due to faults etc.
f ;3'
'::!I A . ~
-
Page 14
A C Motor Protection
A. C. Motor Protection
, . . .. , .. , \ ..
!
. . '>;: .
i
<- -- - -- -. .--- --
Extcmal Faults , In:crnal faults
Unbalanced rupplics , Bcating failurcs
! Undcrwltagcs ! Winding faults
Singlc phasing Overloads
Rcvcnc phasc wgucncc I . j
!- --.
-
- Q
C
b
. u:
-.
_; . ..?.. i.
.' .
.
. , .- .
. . ,.
.
... .. . .
Q.
should take into account both of these
L directly caused by overloading [either prolonged or typical equation for the equivalent current being:
cyclic), operation o n unbalanctd supply voltage, or single
-.
3 f a u l t occurs. The generally accepted rule is t h a t
insulation life is halved for each 10" C rise i n
where
I, = po5irive sequence current
2 tercperature above the rated value, modified by t h e
rr , length of time spent a t the higher temperature. As an
electrical machine has a relatively large heat storage
I2 = negative sequence ,current
2nd
capacity, it follows t h a t infrequent overloads of short
negative sequence rotor resistance
. 19 - duration m a y n o t adversely a f f e c t t h e machine. ,q=
positive sequence rotor resistance
However, sustained overloads o f only 'a' few percent may
- result i n premature ageing and insulation failure.
at rated spced. A typical value o f K is 3.
Furthermore, the thermal withstand capability of the
motor is affected by heating i n the winding prior to a Finally, the thermal replica model needs t o take i n t o
fault. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e relay account the iact that the motor will tend t o cool down
characteristic takes account o f t h e extremes o f zero and during periods of light load, and the initial state of the
full-load pre-fault current known respectively as the motor. The rllotor will have a cooling time constant, T,.
'Cold' a n d 'Hot' conditions. - that defines the rate of cooling. Hence, t h e final thermal
model can bc expressed as:
The variety o f motor designs, diverse applications, variety
o f possible abnormal operating conditions and resulting
modes o f failure result i n a complex thermal relationship. ,= T0 [k2 - A j 2 -7 [,7* ,.,,(." ; . j ,
A generic mathematical model t h a t is accurate is
therefore impossible t o create. However. i t is possible to
develop an approximate model if it is assumed that the
m o t o r is a homogeneous body. creating and dissipating
-..
.-..
.. -,?,.,.; .-,-..
8
, . ..
.
~
_ ...;
.> &,.'
.A
;
. .~
JJ8 \ . , ~ . o r h P r . ( r . t i o . V A W I . - . , ; . ~ C i l r
- ,>...'.
I.:;.
,:-.'-.
....
.?
. ...:<c.&
. *, : ;f i>,...
4-
''
:... -,+,.:+.-, .
. . .
,
10:42 Page 339
i a l stare of rr~oror[cold o r /lor) normal in protection practice to assume that the motor
current remains constant throughout the starting period!. . .. .
?la/ setriug c l t r r e n t ....
:.
.
The starting current will vary depending on the design of
into account the 'cold' and 'hot' the motor and method of starting. For motors started \ . .
,. . . . . . .
. . . .. ..
. .
d i n IEC 60255, part 8. - DOL (direct-on-line], the nominal starting current can be
ays may use a dual slope characteristic for the 4-8 times full-load current. However, when a star-delta
time and hence values the starter is used, the line current will only be 7 / f i o f the
&time constant are required. Switching between DOL starting
current.
"'
values takes place a t a pre-defined motor
.....
Should a motor stall whilst running. or fail to start, due
knee
rjtarterA
may. be used to obtain better tripping
during starting
~~~i~~
on motors that use a star-
starting,the motor windings cam/
to excessive loading, the motor will draw a current equal
to its' locked rotor current. It is not therefore possible t o
'<-+..
.+ :
'
..
L 'i' 2..
!
.
-
m .
.
.
.
. .: . . . .
CL
-
0
. .
. . -
. .
A motor may fail to accelerate from rest for a number o f 2
b
reasons: c=
CQ . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . loss of a supply phase 6
................. :. . .
. . mechanical problems \
h
. .
low supply voltage
excessive load torque 19-
etc.
A large current will be drawn from the supply, and cause
.......
extremely high temperatures to be generated within the
...... motor. This is made worse by the fact that the motor is
not rotating, and hence no cooling due to rotation is
...
...- .. available. Winding damage will occur very quickly -
!..
i either to the stator or rotor windings depending on the
:--............... ............
thermal limitations of the particular design (motors are - z.'.
, : . :.
-8 .
..':P ' <
. .
. . . .. . - , :ii:;.',
-351 20/06/02 10-42 Page 340
"(
i.
'-.?
200% o f motor rated current. For the case of both successful start is used t o select relay timer used for the
conditions being sensed, they may have t o occur within safe run up time. This time can be longer than the safe :!
a narrow aperture of time for a start to be recognised. stall tjme, as there is both a (small) decrease in current 2;
drawn by the motor during the start and the rotor fans ':;
~ ~ c L ; arequirements
.---a,., ! may exist for certain types of
< begin to improve cooling of the machine as i t :;.,*
motors installed i n hazardous areas (e.g. motors with
accelerates. I f a start is sensed by the relay through
type o f protection EEx 'e') and the setting of the relay
monitoring current and/or start device closure, but the . :S$
must take these into account. Sometimes a permissive
interlock for machine pressurisation (on EEx 'p'
speed switch does not operate, the relay element uses .:$
the safe stall time setting to trip the motor before :;:
machines) may be required, and this can be conveniently
damage can occur. Figure 19.3(a) illustrates the principle i$J
achieved by use o f a relay digital input and the in-built
of operation for a successful start. and Figure 19.3(b) for . :$
logic capabilities. .
an unsuccessful start. ~t
..*a
'I 36
little longer than the start time, but less than the Spccd rime
permitted safe .starting time of the motor. Figure 19.2 Swctch
Information Ot
I
............ - -
illustrates the principle of operation for a successful
T;m.
.,.,,. .. ..:.*:>:..-
Trip 31
. II-'
.A,<
,..B
start. Command oi ....
(a] Successful start :.&
'3,
.-..qfi-
..
Ce Closcd "
o ---J
1
.. . - r--
Currcnt
oI.....
_ .., . .........
Spccd ,i ;
Switch . ,
Information '; , ,>,a>, ,>,>*C ~i~~ .:-.=a
Trip ' .r . p.?;
1.
: L rcnms . . . ....-L.,4
Command o' --
Time . .-.-,,
?Av,.
I:
*:
!T.
. . .
S t a a lockout A
i ;
> .
..............
3
:3
9
r draw a current similar t o the starting current for a period . , . ...;:,,?fit,,..
.
... :>1 :>:;:,:I. i ,!".: .
: that may be several seconds. It is thus above the motor
Any motor has a restriction on the number of starts that
: stall relay element c u r r e n t threshold. The stall
are allowed i n a defined period without the permitted
protection would be expected t o operate and defeat the
winding, etc. temperatures being exceeded. Starting
?bject of the re-acceleration scheme.
should be blocked if the permitted number o f starts is
motor protection relay w i l l therefore recognise the exceeded. The situation is complicated b y the fact the
'resence o f a voltage dip and recovery. and inhibit stall number o f permitted 'hot' starts i n a given period is less
lrotection for a defined period. The undervoltage, than the number o f 'cold' starts, due t o the differing
'rotection element (Section 19.11) can be used t o detect initial temperatures o f the motor. The relay must
he presence o f the voltage dip and i n h i b i t stall maintain a separate count o f 'cold' and 'hot' starts. By
'rotection for a set period after voltage recovery. making use o f the data held i n the motor thermal replica,
'rotection against stalled m o t o r s i n case of a n 'hot' and 'cold' starts can be distinguished.
nsuccessful re-acceleration is therefore maintained.
To allow the motor t o cool down between starts, a time
he time delay s e t t i n g is dependent o n the re- delay may be specified between consecutive starts (again
c~elerationscheme adopted and the characteristics o f distinguishing between 'hot' and 'cold' starts). The start
ldividual motors. I t should be established after inhibit is released after a time determined by the motor
Vforming a transient stability study for the re- specification. The overall protection function is ilhstrated
Seleration scheme proposed. in Figure 19.4.
Cha~ ~ 1 9 - 3 3 6 - 3 5 12 0 / 0 6 / 0 2 10:42 Page 3 4 2
casing will ensure that i t rapidly develops into a fault Rslah = stabilising resistor value (ohms]
involving earth. Therefore. provision of earth fault = d.c. resistance of CT secondary (ohms)
R,
protection is very important. The type andscnsitivity of
RI = CT single lead rcstistance (ohms)
protection provided depeAds largely' on the system
earthing, so the various types will be dealt with i n turn.
Page 3 4 3
m,
ent maloperation during a motor start, but short
gh t o provide effective protection i n case o f afault. I Cablc gland
Timc
. Furc : Contactor
8 brcaklng
: capacnty
4
, ., C / f rclay
I .
:brcaking
' capacity
\ I
\; .
,
These are commonly found on HV systems, where the . . .
I,:..
7;
Current intention is to limit damage caused by earth faults . . . ,..::
.I :. ,
(b) Correct - through limiting the earth fault current that can flow. . . .. .. ..
... I%
$$,!
Two methods of resistance earthing are commonly used: ' ,:.....
.$.
I
:. .-. ::1.(. tnr;lrrq s!rc$:tv::,: b.vai.in!cr.:ro:
..
i
. . ,
,
@
! Chap19-336-351 20/06/02 10:46 Page 344
..'P
'i
i .+.
.\.;: ~ : .. . . .. .
.
.. - sensitivity that is possible using a simple non-directional
In this method, the value of resistance is chosen to limit earth fault relay element is limited to three times the .:$
the fault current to a few hundred amps - values of steady-state charging current of the feeder. The setting i j
~ O O A - ~ O Obeing
A typical. With a residual connection of shoild not be greater than about 30% of the minimum 'i
line crs, the senjjliviti; pos;i';le is about !no/, earth fault current expected. Other than this, t h e <,-.
of CT rated primary current, due to the possibility of CT considerations in respect of settings and time delays arc .#
saturation during starting. For a core-balance CT, the as for solidly earthed systems.
,
1
I \ * 'I, I
I T I
applying earth faults a t various parts of the system and
R
O g m e HV systems, high resistance earthing is used t o measuring the resulting residual currents.
&rt the earth fault current t o a f e w amps. I n this case, If it is possible t o set the relay to a value between the
S;c system capacitive charging current will normally charging current on the feeder being protected and the
&vent conventional sensitive earth fault protection charging current for the rest o f the system, the
&ng applied, as the magnitude of the charging current directional facility is not required and the VT can be
ill be comparable w i t h the earth fault current i n the dispensed with.
of a fault. The solution is t o use a sensitive
The comments made in earlier sections on grading with
ircctional earth fault relay. A core balance CT isused in
fused contactors also apply.
rnjunction w i t h a VT measuring the residual voltage of
he system, with a relay characteristic angle setting o f
45' [see Chapter 9 for details). The VT must be suitable
the relay and therefore the relay manufacturer should
:consulted over suitable types - some relays require
)at the VT must be able t o carry residual flux and this
lies out use-of a 3-limb. 3-phase VT. F,. setting o f 125%
f the single phase capacitive charging current for the
hole system is possible usins this method. The time
:lay used is not critical but must be fast enough to
sconnect equipment rapidly in the event o f a second
~ r t hfault occurring immediately after the first.
'inimal damage is caused by the first fault, b u t the
,cond effectively removes the current l i m i t i n g
sistance from the fault path leading to very large fault
!rrents.
1 alternativetechnique using residual voltage detection
also posible, and is described in the next section.
. 't
, ..
. . !L.,
., .,'4
. .., ,
.'i
. . . . , .
...
. . :
. . . .
. . . . . .- ..
. . .: . . , ' :,
.. . .. . . . . . . ..:;fia
. . .
,
. -
-
'
..
I.. .
. . . .
. ...
-
.. ....
.... . . ,
.'..
tor positive sequence impedance at slip s - ' leading to' excessive heating. F o r the same motor,
negative sequence voltages i n excess of 17% will result
i n a negative sequence current larger than rated f u l l load
rice, a t standstill (s=1.0), impedance Negative sequence current is a t twice supply frequency.
Skin effect in the rotor means that the heating effect i n
the rotor of a given negative sequence current is larger
than the same positive sequence current. Thus, negative
sequence current may result in rapid heating o f the
motor. Larger motors are more susceptible i n this
respect, as the rotor resistance of such machines tends t o
be higher. Protection against negative sequence currents
is therefore essential.
Modern motor protection relays have a negative
sequence current measurement capability, i n order to.
provide such prote~tion. The level of negative sequence
unbalance depends largely upon the type of fault. For
loss of a single phase at start, the negative sequence . .
-+.
R , + R; j(X, + X;l o
protection must take into account the fact that the y;::i,..:c.:.-..
motor circuit protected by the relay may not be the f!:.:' :..;
rf f -SJSI I R; ?ource of the negative 5equence current. Time s h ~ u \ d b e =% . : :-
.<
x
allowed for the appropriate protection to clear -the .: 1: -'
;
introducing risk of overheating to the motor being
considered. This indicates a two stage tripping o
%
K,+ R ; j ( X , + X;/
characteristic, similar i n principle t o overcurrent <
protection. A low-set definite time-delay element can
be used to provide an alarm, with an IDMT element used
u
to trip the motor in the case of higher levels of negative
seq"ence current, such as loss-of-phase conditions at
start, occurring. Typical settings might be 20% o f CT
rated primary current for the definite time element and ' 19 '
50010 for the IDMT element. The IDMT time delay has to
be chosen to protect.the motor while, if possible, grading
negative sequence relays on the system.
s may not incorporate two ekments, i n which
ingle element should be set to protect the
speed is approximately equal t o the positive sequence motor, with grading being a secondary consideration.
reactance at standstill. An alternative more meaningful
way of expressing this is:
- ..
;. ...,.
~
':>:.'
. .,,,...
.
!. .
, ,,.,.:. ., : :., , 1 ', 1 ' . : . . ; ;;\; ,,:j';..);:~?ib' : .:,;.>.:..; ..>*.,,, ::;,.
:
?:.:
.
. ... .
positive seq. impedance starting current . ,. ,+..;~:-..;..{.; .:
..
-
negative seq. impedance rated current On wound rotor machines, some degree of protection ,..c,:.;~ p;.!:$>.j2;?'...;:,>:: ,.+?:
against faults i n the rotor winding can be given by an ;<g';;::;:
and i t is noted that a typical LV motor starting current is instantaneous stator current overcurrent relay element. i~~~~iz;,22;!$f~.:
GxFLC. Therefore, a 50j0 negative sequence voltage (due As the starting current is normally limited by resistance
'- 1 p. ~+P",P".
'$$~ii~$
to, say, unbalanced loads on the system) would produce to a maximum of twice full load, the instantaneous unit 5:??$?:,,;$;2:
a 30010 negative sequence current in the machine, can safely be set to about three times full load if a slight :,:!'6~!T!. , . ~-:!~'
. . ..,.. ,
. .. I .
4':;:.;;:;:,.;:, <.
'
. ....
@. @
~ -
.. . . .. . . . .. . ..
h f ~ f - . r lP , . r r r r ; . .
.
Cai'r \ ---. 3 4 7 . .. . . . ~-
~..
. .
. ,.:c. ;...
" . :.:.v.,,
....
.,....
<?,::~
"
.
i
.s,.ha
;.?*+\.V":
-! :br,kgat i m e delay o f approximately 3 0 milliseconds is
:;;.. +$:$.:&$.
-..,..++.z;
: ;.3:::*&:$ incorporated.
; It should be noted that faults occurring i n
., y,~.~ : : .t hi e rotor windinq would n o t be detected b y any
:. .c ~ ~
:::<!;>;$e:::.:
.
.
d~fferentialprotection applied t o the stator.
;$;:?*;!@*->
.
>*>.< x...% $,.;?.
;**:..?&$
<.
:::
..........
>+:..5:.:
,
:.:@s.~:..........
.:. ..,.... e:::~. RTD's are used t o measure temperatures o f motor
,
A\.. ',!
.:.:.*>:,: windings or shaft bearings. A rise i n temperature may
>
>
,, . denote overloading o f the machine, or the beginning of
a fault i n the affected part. A motor protection relay will
therefore usually have the capability of accepting a
number of RTD inputs and internal logic t o initiate an
alarm and/or trip when the temperature exceeds the
appropriate setpoint(s). Occasionally, HV motors are fed
via a unit transformer. and i n the;e circumstances, some
o f the motor protection relay RTD in.puts may be factors in mind.
assigned t o the transformer winding temperature RTD's.
thus providing overtemperature protection for the
transformer without the use o f a separate relay.
'
failure i n a mechanical transmission (e.g. conveyor belt),
There are t w o types o f bearings to be considered: the
or i t can be used with synchronous motors t o protect,
.. anti-friction bearing (ball or roller), used mainly on small
'a.
. .a.
.I .:.. ,.' . motors (up to,.around 3 5 0 k ~ ) ,and the sleeve bearing.
L . ,..?.. .. -used mainly on large motors:
.- D ;.-:-:
The failure of ball or roller bearings usually occurs very
quickly, causing the motor t o come to a standstill as
pieces of the damaged roller get entangled with the
others. There is therefore very little chance that any
relay operating from the input current can detect maloperation.
Searing failures of this type before the bearing is
completely destroyed. Therefore, protection is limited to
disconnecting the stalled m o t o r rapidly to avoid
consequential damage. Refer t o Section 19.2 on stall system transients. This is especially important for
protection for details of suitable protection. synchronous motor loss-of supply protection.
- . : +:;: .
.......
.
Failure of a sleeve bearing can be detected by means of
.
_ I .I
a: - 1 %
p2;.;
:w:, Motors may stall when subjected t o prolonged
F?:
,-,r, undervo!tage conditions. Transient undervoltages will
z.%r
>:
....... ?'
generally allow a motor to recover when the voltage is
....
........ ~
. ~ ....
+
6-351 20/06/02 :C:46 Page 3 4 9 -
ied voltage to stator or field windings. Such a fall A low forward power relay can detect this condition. See-
n o t need to be prolonged, a voltage dip o f a few Section 19.12 for details. A time delay will be required
nds may be all that is required. An out-of-step to prevent operation during system transients leading t o
ition causes the motor to draw excessive current momentary reverse power flow i n the motor.
generate a pulsating torque. Even if the cause is .. -
oved promptly, the motor will probably not recover 19.14- MOTOR PROTECTION E X A M P L E S
chronism, but eventually stall. Hence, it must be
m&iinecird from the supply. This section gives examples o f the protection o f HV and
&. LV induction motors.
i q e current drawn during an out-of-step condition is a t
5 v e r y low power factor. Hence a' relay element that
b o n d s t o low power factor can be used to provide
- The element must be inhibited during Table 19.2 gives relevant parameters of a HV induction
rting, when a similar low power factor condition motor to be protected. Using a MiCOM P241 motor
rs. This can conveniently be achieved by use of a protection relay, the important protection settings are
!&finite time delay, set t o a value slightly i n excess of the calculated i n the following sections.
k.
g otor start time.
n e power factor setting will vary depending on the rated
tpwer factor of the motor. It would typically be 0.1 less
fh& the motor rated power factor i.e. for a motor rated 1 Ratcd Voltagc
, 33kV j ,. ,-c
at 0.85 power factor, the setting would be 0.75. i Ratcd frequency I WHz !
.
!.I
<
j Ratcd powcr factorlcficicncy 0.9lO.92
j
i
Stall withstand timc cuIdIhot
Slaning cumnt
! 2017s
5505 DOL
i Rrmincd starts culd/hot i 312 I
i CI ratio 250/1 !
5=
If the supply to a synchronous motor is interrupted, it 4.
start tirncal- ~ltagc I . 4s
1 -< .. ..- 0
- .--
a essential that the motor breaker be tripped as quickly
3s possible if there IS any possibil~tyo f the supply
Start tirnc@ f)(PYo+tagc , ,
.
.
2 :~.}:;~-'
.
I
. . . f;;:;25,75~i
.
;
. .55s . . ,
..i
,..*:: ...+'.'......;:. ;::+
. .,
. < :.
, .
, , 47..,.
condition at starting.
19.1.I..? Ptotcctioti of ;at; S! r ~ i ~ , t < j :
In accordance with Section 19.7, use a ~ e t t i n go f 2O0I0
/02 10:46 Page351
\I Contactor
250 A
(a1 LV motor cxamplc data
setting Ib 4.4 A :
P~xlimcdcla~..;..
:.
b. .
.....5!> ..........
l b l Rclay settings
5 .. --
j
5 .
1 \-\
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
%b;cr3.3: ;L:!.<c:arpn!r<f :ion w!;r;g c,.oc;,?i ...........................................
.... ....- . - . . . . . . . . .
. . . I . 1 ....................................
.................. . . . ..
" ....................... .
1
I ..
..
....................................
--
.
..__
1: ..
'3 !
......
..............................
-
.. .... ...... .. ..;:-.. . . . ........
. . .. .. . .. ..........
. . . . . . .
............................
....... -
....-...
.
Re relay is set i n secondary quantities, and therefore a I
I
.
. .
.-
hitable CT r a t i o has t o be calculated. From the relay 4
1 3
i a n u a l , a CT w i t h 5A secondary rating and a motor rated 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . 8
I//,
:urrent i n the range of 4-6.4 when referred t o the
[b] Rclay trip c h a r a c l c ~ ~ ~ t i c
secondary of CT is required. Use o f a 15015A CT gives a
notor rated cuirent o f 4.4A when referred t o -the CT
iecondary, so use this CT ratio.
- . . - .............. -- .
N,ru.rl P,.rrrri.. 3 A.r.r.1i.m C.iJr -7
..........
Motor Protection Setting Criteria
and Tutorials
Page 1 of 38
&*?
MOTOR PROTECTION IETTING CRITERIA
,..
1 r,
Motor Details :
by. -
M ~ t o Rating
r iri KW
..- .-
/ Rated Voltage in KV -
- - - -
6
OALSTOM Limited, fnergy Automation & Information
Advanced Industrial Power System
Protection - Motor Protection Settins Crie
and Tutofi,
Page 2 G
X 4.0 85 57
X 5.0 48 30
X Stalling current . 30 20
Calculations
Set the pick-LIPat 103% of the rated current = 230 x 1.03 = 236.9
Amps -
Calculation for the time constant at overload levels ( 1 <leq<2) times the
pick-up current
Cold Curve :
The operating time for the thermal overload characteristic available in the
relay is as follows :
t = T x In { ( PSM2)/( PSM2- 1 )
''
. .
......
. . .
Calculation for the time constant at overload levels ( leq > 2) times the
pic k-up current
The minimum value of the time constant is considered. So the time j:.?
Based on the above setting, the hot curve based on the Hot to Cold R ~ I
.. .$
setting can be calculated as follows.
pmparing the above values with the hot withstand characteristic of the
&tor, we find that the safety margin between relay curve and the motor
h e is clearly more than 30 %.
Start Protection -
-
- 1 380 Amps
Maximum ~ o t o starting
r current
-
-
at lower voltage of say 80% 80% of max starting curent
1 104 Amps
This protection will operate if the motor takes longer time to start. The
setting will b e based on the worst case type of voltage for starting, which
occurs when starting with low voltage
Therefore Current setting will be 80% of Max current during starting at low
voltage
-
Time Setting will determine after how much time with this current will the
relay detect it as a prolonged start. This requires the value of the
maximum starting time, which is applicable, when the motor starts with
low voltage.
GALSTOM
Limited, Energy Automation & Information @
lvanced Industrial Power System ..
of start limita.lions
!&' Number of Cold starts per hour Set = 3 as motor is rated for 4 starts per
hour
Number of Hot starts per hour Set = 1 as motor is rated for 2 starts per hour
d
i..i As the motor most probably will be unidirectional, it is generally advised to
enable Reverse Phase sequence protection.
-
Set RPS as enabled
Siait Protection -
1380 Ar;ips
1 104 Amps
This protection will operate if the motor takes longer time to start. The
setting will be based on the worst case type of voltage for starting, which
occurs when starting with low voltage.
Therefore Current setting will be 80% of Max current during starting at low
voltage
-
Time Setting will determine after how much time with this current will the
relay detect it as a prolonged start. This requires the value of the
maximum starting time, which is applicable, when the motor starts with
low voltage.
-
.
g;? i . .. . . .
F
f .:
g.
'{dvanced Industrial Power System ..
'' This setting can be changed depending on how frequently we use the
-
Set RPS as enabled
Ne~ativePhase Sequence:
The negative phase sequence protection has to be graded with the NPS
withstand levels of the motor. In absence of this, it is recommended to
provide current setting equal to rated current.
This means that i f the negative sequence settings reaches rated current,
the relay will operate instantaneously.
-
Protection , '
Motor Protection Setting Critei
and Tutori~
- Page 10 of I
The negative phase sequence protection has to be graded with the NPS
withstand levels of the motor. In absence of this, it is recommended to
provide current-settingequal to rated current.
This means that if the negative sequence settings reaches rated current,
the relay will operate instantaneously.
-
Current setting -
- 0.1 x full load Current x CTsec x1000
CTpri
-
- 0.1-x230 x 1 x 1000
300
= 76.67
-
Set lo = 80mA
Time delay setting may be set to instantaneous which will be 0.1 sec (
100mA ) . This is an intentional delay and is used to prevent inrush currents,
which last for couple of cycles from operating the e/f element during
-.
-.
Advanced Industrial Power System
.:.g
have the inverse withstand level of motor.
..:-"$
; :>&<
.
,,\,,$!
.4b,
The definite time setting can be set to 0.1 sec. * .I.$
:.a>
.:x.
.'Y%
.':.A
, c.
,!,.jn.*
I
This means that if the negative sequence settings reaches rated current, $!
:.$
the relay will operate instantaneously.
- .:.,
.&:
..?.
..
,"..,i
Current setting -
- 0.1 x full load Current x CTsec x1000
CTpri
Set lo = 80mA
Time delay setting may be set to instantaneous which will be 0.1 sec (
100mA ) . This is an intentional delay and is used t o prevent inrush currents,
which last for couple of cycles from operating the e/f element during
starting.
!g
'-';Current h n s f o r m e r s are among the most commonly used items of electrical apparatus and yet,
"~surprisingly,there seems to be a general lack of even the most elementary knowledge
-2*.
$'concerning their characteristics, performance and limitations among those engineers who are
$,continually using them. The importance of current transformers in the transmission and
:&distribution of electrical energy cannot be over emphasised because it is upon the efficiency of
+<.
Ecurrent transformers, and the associated voltage transformers, th& the accurst=: metering and
" effective protection of those distribution circuits and plant depend.
-
Current and voltage transformers insulate the secondary (relay, instrument and meter) circuits
from primary (power) circuit and provide quantities in the secondary which are proportional to
those in the primary. The role of a current transformer in protective relaying is not as readily
defined as that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the essential role of a measuring
transformer is to deliver from its secondary winding a quantity accurately representative of that
which is applied to the primary side, a protective transformer varies in its role according to the
type of protective gear it serves.
. Failure of a protective system to perform its function correctly is often due to incorrect selection
of the associated current transformer. Hence, current and voltage transformers must be
regarded as constituting part of the protective system and carefully matched with the relays to
fulfil the esseqtial requirements of the protection system.
There are two basic groups of current transformer, the requirements of which are often radically
different. It is true in some cases the same transformer may serve both purposes but in modern
practice this is the exception rather than the rule:
Various international standards are available. Such standards give information on the
classification, selection, error and operation of current transformers. They are a valuable source
of reference and can be used in conjunction with the relay manufacturer guide when selecting
the appropriate CT. The list below gives some examples:
Page 1
. . -. . . . .
, ..
Please note that the above are the applicable standards at the ti,me of print of this document an'
therefore they may vary.
A current transformer consists essentially of an iron core with two windings. One winding is 7
connected in the circuit whose current is to be measured and is called the primary and the other
winding is connected to burden, and called the secondary. Two of the most basic construction of
current transformers are the bar type and wound type:
1. Bar Type - Sometimes referred to as 'Bushing Type'. Such current transformers normally
'
have a single concentrically placed primary conductor, sometimes permanently built into the.
CT and provided with the necessary primary insulation, but very often the bushing of a circuit
breaker or power transformer. At low primary current ratings it may be difficult to obtain
~ufficientoutput at the desired accuracy because a large core section is needed to provide
enough flux to induce the secondary emf in the small number of turns.
PRIMARY
DARY
2. Wound Type -With this device it is possible to change the number of primary turns, thus
increasing the CT output voltage with altering the turns ratio. Therefore, for the same output
the wound CT is smaller in CSA than the bar type.
I
Page 2
TENT TRANSFORMER POLARITY
: is
no official standard when it comes to defining the polarity of current transformers.
ver, most Engineers will use P I and P2 to define the primary winding and S1 and S2 to
the secondary winding. Generally speaking when P1 goes high S1 goes high. Therefore
current flows from P1 to P2 it is transferred and flows through the external circuit from S1
Typically P2lS2 is towards the Item of plant being protected.
3w current in the primary winding produces an alternating flux in the core and this flux
2s an e.m.f. in the secondary winding which results in the flow of secondary current when
~ndingis connected to an external closed circuit. -The magnetic effect of the secondary
~ t in
, accordance with fundamental principles, is in opposition to that of the primary and the
of the secondary current automatically adjusts itself to such a value, that the resultant
2tic effect of the primary and secondary currents, produces a flux required to induce the
necessary to drive the secondary current through the impedance of the secondary. In an
ransformer, the primary ampere-turns are always exactly equal to the secondary ampere-
and the secondary current is, therefore, always proportional to the primary current. In an
current transformer, however, this is never the case. All core materials, so far discovered,
e a certain number of ampere-turns to induce the magnetic flux required to induce the
sary voltage.
lost accurate current transformer is one in which the exciting ampere-turns are least in
rtion to the secondary ampere-turns. Exciting ampere-turns may be reduced in three
~ l ways:
e
Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel (C.R.O.S.S.) has a magnetisation characteristic . ,, ,
. .
with a knee point at 1.6 tesla.
,. .4!
, .
....I
Nickel steel (Proprietary name Mumetal) has a knee point of 0.7 tesla. :! . . .
, ..
:,t.,
,I ' .C
.
,
..a
.,
By decreasing the mean magnetic path of the core. ./
. ..I
>,
:7:;
:!
. 2.
:
."; Q:.
.<
By reducing the flux density in the core. :?.;&A ,
:I. $'.&
,:.L .g+\;
:,; ,b#
8
': >;:g ;.
;,
. . ,. :!'.
(,!b!,I$t
Page 3
, j
.
,
,r:r:.a.>L.
.,
i,;::
;!$;pb
:.'.:,;:,$,!)i
!, 2 .y
p,,: :,
'!
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS BASIC FORMULAE
.$
.;*
-'a
Protective relays are designed to operate from secondary quantities supplied from current ...,.
.....
transformers and from voltage (or potential) transformers. The secondary output of these .
devices is the information used by the relays to determine the conditions existing in the plan >
being protected. It is necessary, therefore, that the secondary output of current and voltage ?
present a true picture to the relays of the conditions in the primary circuit during faults as well as -,.
during normal loads. Or, alternatively, that their performance be known under extreme
conditions so that any error in reproduction in the secondary circuit can be partially or completely
compensated for in the setting and characteristics of the relay.
In many applications, core saturation will .almost inevitably occur during the transient phase of a
heavy short circuit. The performance of the associated instrument transformers during faults is,
therefore, an important consideration in providing an effective relaying scheme. The relays and
their associated current transformers must be considered as a unit in determining the overall
performance of the protective scheme. Consequently, the characteristic of the current and
potential transformers at high currents and low voltage respectively, must be known. In any
current transformer the first consideration is the highest secondary winding voltage possible prior
to core saturation. This may be calculated from :
Ek = 4.44 x B A f N volts
Where :
Ek = secondary induced volts (rms value, known as the knee-point
voltage)
N = number of secondary turns
f = system frequency in hertz
A = net core cross-sectional area in square meters.
This induced voltage causes the maximum current to flow through the external burden whilst still
maintaining a virtually sinusoidal secondary current. Any higher value of primary current
demanding further increase in secondary current would, due to core saturation, tend to produce
a distorted secondary current. -
Equation 1
Where :
In any given case, several of these quantities are known or can usually be estimated in order to
predict the performance of the transformers. From the ac magnetisation characteristic,
commonly plotted in secondary volts versus exciting current, Es can be determined for a
minimum exciting current. The equation for the relevant circuit voltage given above then
indicates whether the voltage required is adequate.
Page 4
-
at a bar primary type 200015A (CROSS core) current transformer having a core csa
square cm's is available with a secondary resistance of 0.31 ohm. The maximum
to which the transformer must maintain its current ratio is 40,000 amperes. It is
--
k:required
P'
to determine the maximum secondary burden permissible if core saturation is to be , ,;.
- ..C<,
Assume that the current transformer core will start to saturate at 1.6 tesla.
) :
P
r From the data given :
= 284 volts
Maximum burden permissible (including ct secondary resistance and lead burden) is equal to
284 / 100 = 2 84 ohms
Consequently, the connected burden including that of the p~lotscan be as high as 2.84 - 0.31 = 2
-53 ohms for negligible saturation in the core. Thus it mav be seen that the secondary burden
and the maximum available fault current are two important criteria in determining the
performance of a given current transformer.
'The primary current contains two components. These are respectively the secondary current
which is transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio and an exciting current, which supplies
the eddy and hysteresis losses and magnetises the core. This latter current flows in the primary
.. winding only and therefore, is the cause of the transformer errors. It is, therefore, not sufficient to
assume a value of secondary current and to work backwards to determine the value of primary
current by invoking the constant ampere-turns rule, since this approach does not take into
account the exciting current. From this observation it may be concluded that certain values of
secondary current could never be produced whatever the value of primary current and this is of
course, the case when the core saturates and a disproportionate amount of primary current is
required to magnetise the core.
The amount of exciting current drawn by a current transformer depends upon the core m
and the amount of flux which must be developed in the core to satisfy the burden require
the current transformer. The appropriate current may be obtained directly from the exciting
characteristic of the transformer since the secondary e.m.f. and therefore the flux develope
proportional to the product of secondary current and burden impedance.
-
The general shape of the exciting characteristic for a typicai yrade of CRZSS (cold rol!e
orientated silicon steel) is shown. The characteristic is divided into three regions, define
'ankle-point' and the 'knee-point'. The w o r k i ~ grange of a protective current transformer e
over the full range between the 'ankle-point' and the 'knee-point' and beyond, while a mea
current transformer usually only operates in the region of the 'ankle-point'. The difference in
working ranges between metering and protective current transformers stems from the radical
difference in their functions. Metering current transformers work over the range 10% to 1
load and it is even an advantage if the current transformer saturates for currents above this
range in order to provide thermal protection for the instruments. Protection current trans
on the other hand are required t o operate correctly at many times-rated current-.
:
;
@
&&1x..
.@$
,$X
-;z':
,, . ; + i
.-;+?
.:
;A
.gg
g (+
.-. '
.::yzc
**.
..c::
. ,.
.,!...
(>
,' .
. ...A
.-:<.I.'
b'
MMF ampere-turns per metre
KNEE-POINT
.: The knee-point of the excitation characteristic is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in
secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in exciting current. It may, therefore, be regarded
as practical limit beyond which a specified current ratio may be maintained.
::. The current transformer magnetisationcurve, is usually expressed in terms of Kv and Ki which
when multiplied by the flux density in teslas and ampere-turns per cm respectively gives
!, I corresponding volts and amperes :
Page 6
equation, the flux density 6 is in teslas and the core cross-sectional area is in squar
e exciting current le in amps can be obtained from the M'MF using the relationship:
le = Ki x MMF
! EXAMPLE
' Consider the case of a current transformer ratio 10015A connected to an earth fault relay. Relay
: burden at minimum tap setting of 1O0/0 of rated current is given as 2 VA. Calculate the required
' values of Kv and Ki to provide the necessary output up to 10 times the plug setting, with :
Therefore, 40 volts must correspond to the knee-point of the saturation curve which
represents a flux density of 1.6 tesla.
Assuming :
I.D. = 18 cms
O.D. = 30 cms
Depth = 10.2 cms
Wound Primary CT , .. --. . -
l o o = 100
econdary turns = 5 x -
5
-
49 = 4-44 x 53 x 1.6 100 x A. 7 9-4 (A in cm'j
7 . 1 1.26
m - le. csa = -= 12.24 cm'
0.92
18 cm
30 cm
2.04 cm
2 6 x 100
= 25
45
= 0.754 c m 1 turn
The secondary circuit of a current transformer should never be left open-circuited whilst primary
continues to flow. In these circumstances only the primary winding is effective and thus the
current transformer behaves.as a highly saturated choke (induction) to the flow of primary
winding current. Thus a peaky and relatively high value of voltage appears at the secondary
output of terminals, endangering life, not to mention the possible resulting breakdown of
secondary circuit insulation.
In those cases where current transformers are associated with the "high impedance type" earth
fault relay the secondary circuit burden may have ohmic values up to several thousands of ohms.
Page 9
EQLIIVALENT CIRCUIT
The errors of a current transformer may be considered as due to the whole of the primary current :&
not being transformed, a component thereof being required to excite the core. Alternatively, we .. '2 .I!"
may consider that the whole of the primary current is transformed without loss, but that the
.-..~
,,,,;(:
.?..
secondary current is shunted by a parallel circuit the impedance of which is such that the ...
..2...
equivalent of the exciting current flows there in. The circuit shown is the equivalent circuit of the ':1
current transformer.. The primary current is assumed to be transformed perfectly, with no ratio or
phase single error, to a current Ip/N which is often called 'the primary current referred to the
secondary'. A part of the curre'nt may be considered consumed in exciting the core and .this
current leis called the secondary excitation current. The remainder Is is atrue secondary
current. It will be evident that the excitation current is a function of the secondary excitatbn
voltage Es and the secondary excitation impedance Ze. It will also be evident that the secondary
current is a function of Es and the total impedance in the secondary circuit. This total impedance
consists of the effective resistance (and any leakage reactance) of the secondary winding and
the impedance of the burden.
SATW RATION
Beyond the knee-point the current transformer is said to enter saturation. In this region the major
part of the primary current is utilised to maintain the core flux and since the shunt admittance is
not linear, both the exciting and secondary currents depart from a sine wave. For example, in
the case of a wholly resistive burden, correct transformation takes place until saturation flux
density is reached. The secondary volts and current then collapse instantly to zero, where they
-
Page 10
Notes Additional Analysis
TRODUCTION
Analysis of load and fault conditions also provides useful information for :-
. OPERATORS
a2 = 1 L240 a2 + a + 1= 0
I
CONVENTION USED FOR VOLTAGE DIRECTION
-
Current I flowing in direction shown produces a voltage drop in Z such that A is positive with
respect to B.
!
\, Page 1
. - ..
BASE QUANTITIES AND PER UNIT SYSTEM
3
This is particularly useful when analysing large systems with several voltage levels. Before any j?s
system calculations can take place the system parameters must all be referred to common Q4+
base quantities. The base quantities are fixed on one part of the system and base quantities .-$
on other parts at different voltages will depend
- on the ratio of intervening power transformers. -1
Base impedance = Zb -
- (kVb)' in ohms.
-
MVAb
- . .
Per unlt ~mpedanceZp.u
- - Actual im~edance Z, - MVA
Base impedance
-
-
- la
-
Per unit current I P u
11,
..
- ,
Percentage values are commonly used for transformer impedances and where per unit values
are very small. Percentage values are 100 times the equivalent per unit values. .r;y$
:%.
.:.:
L+
Page 2
EXAMPLE 1 -
Find t h e fault current in e a c h section f o r a three p h a s e fault a t F.
Base MVA = 50
b
?, = kv; = 2.42~
MVA b
50
Z2.u 3 n 0.3 x - = 0.75,, 0.1 p u
common base 20
FROM ONE SET OF BASE VALUES
p..
g.;
g.
- MVAb2
k:ti. .*. Zp.u.2 - zp.u,lx i 2
p MVAbl (kvb2)*
$ : -
Page 3
The base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the same ratio as the voltage ratio
of the transformer.
OVERHEAD C)!STR!BCITIS:4
LINE SYSTEM
mrrect Selection of kVb 11.8 kV 132 kV I 1 kV
EXAMPLE 3
...
..
'.; The per [,]nitimpedance of a transformer is the same on each side of the transforni e r
I 0 MVA
0
1:
i
I
Actual impedance of the transformer viewed from side 1 = Zal
- z a ~ MVA
zp.u 1 - -- = Zal X
Zbl kv12
Zp.u.2 -
- za2 - Za2 X MVA
-
zb2 kv2
kv2
but Za2 = Zal x
kv1
- MVA
:. Zp,u,2 - Za1 x = Z L: I
kV12
Page 5
CIRCUIT LAWS
i) Ohms Law
'r
'
At any junction (or node) CI = 0:
i.e. 1, + I2 + l3 = 0 . .
13
' -
- ,
Page 6
CIRCUIT THEOREMS
These are derived from the circuit laws. The three most commonly used for system analysis
are Thevenins, Star/Delta Transform and Superposition Theorems.
i) Thevenins Theorem
Example :
Where E' = -
L3
--- E, and Z' = -L3.4
-
z3 + z1 z3 + z1
Page 7
z10.z20
212 = z10 + 220 +
z30
- z12.z31
-
ZI2+ + Z31
Example :
z1
I 1
l3 = 131 + 13?
..,: ...-:
..,..
Page 8
INTRODUCTION
. In a balanced three-phase system, each of the three phases of any part of the system will have
currents and voltages which are equal and 120 displaced with respect to each other. To
maintain balanced operation, each Item of system plant must be symmetrical: i.e. have identical
impedances In each line, equal mutual impedances between phases and ground, and equal
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
Where Val , Vbl , etc. are phasors of the first set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are single spaced. .
Va2 , Vb2 , etc. are phasors of the second set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are double spaced.
Page 9
And so on.
.
Van , Vbn etc. are phasors of the uni-directional phasor system.
.
Now consider an unbalanced three phase system. Va Vb , V.,
A
vc1 v,. .
v t>
I
fi vc2
Positive Negative Zero . .,
. ..:$7 1
Choose 'a' phase as the reference phase and replace Vas by Vao.
2
Multiply equation 2 by u amd equation 3 by u and add the resulting equations to
equation 1.
Multiply equation 2 by u2 and equation 3 by a and add the resulting equations to equation
1
[VP = [A] PSI .................... 9
Vs = sequence components
Example
Resolve the following 3-phase unbalanced voltages into their symmetrical components.
Fig. 1
Symmetrical
Components
t;:
,
/ . Fig. 2
.. ?
Take a set of symmetrical three phase impedances (equally spaced, fully transposed, etc.)
\
. Page 15
I
= [:
I 2:a I; [i i; [i ;*I
a ;2
where Z1 = Z, - Z,
Therefore, if the system is. symmetrical in its normal state the symmetrical co~~?poiaent
impedance becomes diagonal (equation 11) and, therefore, isolated sequence networks are .
obtained with impedances Z1, Z2 and Zo. These three networks will become interconnected
when an unbalance such as a fault or unbalanced loading is introduced. The manner of
interconnection will depend on the new constraints: i.e. the additional system connect~or~s.
Page 16
r
F
$
Zero sequence impedance of overhead line and cable circuits is determined by the return path
of the zero sequence currents through earth, earth wires or cable sheaths. The zero sequence
impedance is generally' greater than the positive and negative sequence impedance, being
usually of the order of two to three times the positive sequence value in the case of overhead
lines.
For transformers, if zero sequence currents have an available path and can flow, they will again
see the leakage reactance in each phase. If no path exists, an open circuit must be shown for
the particular windings in the zero sequence network. The flow of zero sequence current in any
winding is possible only if other windings provide a path for the flow of balancing zero sequence
currents. -
,-
Consider the transformer equivalent circuit in F~gure3 overleaf. The magnet~singimpedance Z ,
is of the order of 2000/~, compared to the leakage impedance ZIP + Z1, of about 10%.
Therefore, magnetising impedance can be ignored and the transformer can be represented in
the positive and negat~vesequence networks by a series impedance (=ZIP+ Z,,).
1
1.
-.
ZL*
J .
. .
.....
.. -
....-
0 I O
zLp= primary winding leakage
> .
...
impedance
Z1, = secondary winding leakage
Zm
impedance
Zm = rnagnetising impedance
In the zero sequence network, although the leakage impedance is identical to the positive
sequence value (when zero sequence path is available) the zero sequence rnagnetising
impedance is dependent upon the transformer core construction and can be much lower. In
three-phase banks of single phase transformers and in three-phase shell cored transformers,
the zero sequence magnetising impedance is ,large and can be ,ignored as in the positive and
negative sequence networks. In three-limb core type transformers, however, the zero sequence
flux must be completed through the oil or tank. Owing to the high reluctance of the flux path,
zero sequence magnetising impedance is of the order of only 100% to 400%. However, this is
still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies, particularly when a delta winding Is
present.
- Page 17
I
Therefore, consider zero sequence circuit of transformer as a series impedance Zt. The mode
of connection of Z, to the external circuit is determined by taking account of each winding
arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground.
-
Imaginary links 'a' and 'b' (see Figure 4) are used to derive the connections. If zero sequence
currents can flow into and out of a winding, for example a solidly earthed star winding, the
winding terminal is connected to the external circuit, that is link 'a' is closed.
'a' 'a'
Fig. 4
,!: If zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, for
k
..ti:.
d'
example a delta winding, the winding terminal is directly connected to the zero bus, that is link
'b' is closed.
' ..
!i .
il: -
b
Example 1
..:
'a' 'a'
.*.
...
..iL
Page 18 -.;
m
i h e zero sequence impedance of a neutral earthing impedance Zn is 32.. The reason for this
can be readily understood from Figure 5 below.
I
At the neutral point the zero sequence currents I0 in the three phases combine to give 310 in the
neutral earthing impedance. The zero sequence voltage at the neutral point is given by
. vo = 3I0Zn . . . .. . . .
. . .. . . . .
. . .. . .
. zo = vo = -
32" . . -.
. .
lo
Example 2
- 'a' 'a'
Transformer Connections
3R
. .
Page 19
. . : . . . .
. . .
The positive sequence impedance of synchronous machines is the normal machine reactan
There are three defined values of positive sequence impedances, namely the synchron
transient and subtransient impedances and they are used according to whether steady st
transient or initial short-circuit values of current are required.
L
Unlike the non-rotating networks, the negative sequence impedance of the rotating plants is
equal to the positive sequence impedance. It relates to mmf at synchronous speed travelli
the opposite direction to the rotor. Its value is usually less than that of the positive sequ
& impedance. , <.,.,~<
.~..
. .....
.,
.. ..
In the zero sequence network, the winding connection and earthing arrangement must be ,'.;!&
considered as for transformers. Any earthing impedance will be seen by each phase and '$$$
therefore the correct voltages will be obtained if three times the impedance value is included in . .;$@
the zero sequence network. . .,?.
.,;:
Y%
. %.
, :,.;3j?
. s.
..
.,/?;.,T?.
",:,e"'
;,
G.
.
.<.
. ..
>.+<;-, .%:.
.+...-
CONNECTION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS TO REPRESENT UNBALANCED FAULTS . . . .:. .,&xS!
d
. . . :;T.><.>.
Z&,
. .
" '>.c:~
.. <. 6.
. ~ . >. -
:
,*-
(a) For anygiven fault there a% six quantities'to be mnsidered at the.fault point; Vat Vb, V,,
,
- . y!j$ ~
.:,:.:<:.
. 4
I,, It,, lc. If any three are known(provided they are not all voltagesor all currents) or.if . . .:.:$&$
..,:-,
":r
.,. ..
any two are known and two others known to have a specific relationship, then a ~.!j~$v.,,
i
:2-%
relationship between V1,Vp and Vo and 11, 12 and 10 can be established. ...-. .;:!
..,?
. . ,.
t
.
'f-
.
.. .'...:.
:
.. -
These relationships are-called the circuit constraints.
- ...- ?
From the circuit constraints we can determine the manner in which the isolated sequence ,: . .. ,...
.%.
networks can be interconnected.
.
,. . .
...
(b) The relationships are derived with phase 'a' as the reference phase and the faults are :.,?"
selected to be balanced relative to the reference phase. This yields the simplest .$$:
*
interconnection of the sequence networks. If this is not done the interconnections of the ;:,
sequence networks require additional transformations which are achieved by the ...$
introduction of phase shifting transformers. This will be apparent in the case of ,.:(,
simultaneous faults where it is not possible for both the faults to be symmetrical about the ..:?
reference phase. .. :.
..:;yfi
I .:$
Page 20 :: :)
..?
i t Faults
F;ine-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, line-to-line to ground faults and three phase faul'ts all
,fall into the category of shunt faults.
/(a) Figure 6 shows a system with a fault at F. The positive, negative and zero sequence
networks of the system are shown in Figure 7. The fault terminals for the positive
sequence network are F1 and N1, and the corresponding fault terminels for the negative
and zero sequence networks are F2, N2 and Fo, No respectively. It is at these terminals
\: ,
that the interconnection of the networks will occur. In the denvation of sequence network
interconnections, it is convenient to show the sequence networks as blocks with fault
i, terminals F and N for external connections (F~gure8)
I
, (b) To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals, it IS convenient to imagine three
short conductors of zero impedance connected to the three line conductors at the point of
fault (F~gure9). The terminal conditions imposed by the different types of faults will be
applied to these imaginary leads, t h e potential to ground of which will be V, Vb and V,
and the currents ,I I b and I,. .,
B I
Fig. 9
-- --
Fis. 6 Single Line Diagram of Two Machine System
PF
. 6 ~ ,
Pos~tiveSequence Network of System
Sequence Sequence
Network Network
etwork Blocks
Page 22
Line to Ground on Phase 'A'
At fault point :
v, = v, + v* + vo
But Va = 0
.'. v, + v 2 + v o = o--------------------- 3
10 = 1/3(la+ l b + 1,) .-
But lb = Ic= 0
:. 10 = 113 ,1
L
Also, l1 = 113 (Ia + ulb + a I,) = 113 1,
2
12 = 113 (I, + u lb + ul,) '= 113 ,I
Equations 3 & 4 are the CIRCUIT CONSTRAINTS. They suggest that the sequence netwo
are connected in series. -
Sequence
Network
Network
Network
Page 23
Line to Ground Fault through Fault Impedance ZF
At fault point :
:. I0 = 113 ,I since lb = 1, = 0
Similarly,
:. 11 = 12 = 10 = 113 1, 3
We know
+ve - 11 F1
A
Sequence
Network
-
N1
-ve - 12
-
F2
Network
F4
lo
Zero
- Fo
Sequence
Network -
No
Page 24
Line to Line Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C'
At fault point :
Similarly,
2 2
11= 1/3(Ia + a l b + u I,) = 1/3(a-a) Ib
2 2
12 = 113 (I, + a I b + uI,) = -113 ( a - a ) Ib
:. I1 + 12 = 0 ..................... 6
2
Similarly V2 = 113 (V, + a Vb + a ~ i =
) 113 (V, - Vb)
From equations 5, 6 & 8, the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel but the
zero sequence network is unconnected.
Line to Line Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C' through Fault Impedance ZF
-
Page 25
At point of fault,
I, = 0
Ib + lc = 0
Vb - Vc = IbZf
:. I0 = 0 ..................... 4
I1 + I2 = 0
2
We know Ib = 10 + a I l + u12 ) - --------------------- 5
Substituting equation 4 in 5
Vb = VO + aLvl + aV2
2
V,= Vo + rxVl + cr V2
Sequence
+
Equations 4 8 8 suggest the following interconnections.
Sequence
Network Network Network
N
I I
Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C'
Page 26
At fault point :,
vb = vc = 0
I, = 0
2
V2 = 113 (V, + a Vb + UV,) = 113 V,
From equation 3 & 4, it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected in parallel.
+ve - 11
-C-OFl -ve -
w
12
F 2
Zero
-FO
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Network
O N 1 -
Network
- ON Network
QNO
Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C' through Fault Impedance Z,
At fault point :,
Page 27
2. . 2
V1 = 113 (V, + aVb + a vc) = 113 [V, + (a + a)Vb] = 113 (Va- Vb)
2
v2 = 113(~, + a2vb+ aVc) = II~[V, + (a + a)Vbl = II~(v,- vb)
.'. v1 = v2 ..................... 5
-
- (Ib + )1, Zf ..................... 6
Substitute equation 4 in 6
vo - v1 = 31ozf
+ve - 11
-FI -ve -L
-
I2
~2
Zero -- l o Fo 3Zf
Network
Sequence
Network t ~2
ON
sequence
Network L.
N1 / N
Page 28
-
1. SERIES FAULTS (or Open Circuit Faults)
(a) Figure 1 shows a system with an open circuit PQ. The positive, negative and zero
sequence networks of the open-circuited system are shown in Figure 2. Unlike the
case of shunt faults, the fault terminals for interconnection are P and Q, therefore
not I nvolving the neutral. The sequence equivalent network blocks (Figure 3) will
have terminals P and Q for interconnection. Terminal N is also indicated in the
blocks although it is not used for interconnections.
(b) The terminal conditions imposed by different open circuit faults will be applied
across points P and Q on the three line conductors (see Figure 4). Therefore the
fault terminal currents will be IA, IB and Ic flowing from P to Q on the three
conductors, and the terminal potentials will be the potential across P and Q, i.e. V,
- V,',Vb - Vbl, Vc - V; They will be represented by v, vb and vc respectively.
Figure 4
Page 29