QUESTION NO.

1
Define and explain these terms:
a. Lockstep and Group work
b. Open and Closed Pair
c. Transmission and Interpretation role
d. Teacher centered and Student Centered Teaching Style
e. Terra Syllabus

ANSWER:

a. LOCKSTEP AND GROUP WORK

The traditional system of class management where the teacher is in control of
every interaction and where only one interaction takes place at a time [Hubbard et al:).
It is interesting to note immediately that the term traditional co-occurs again with
lockstep in the definition. It means that both terms must inevitably carry a wholly
negative meaning. We must immediately make a distinction between the lockstep lesson
and lockstep as a strategy or teaching technique within the less.
When lockstep is used throughout the teaching period, we can say the teacher is
conducting a class lesson. Such a lesson will often have the following setting and
characteristics;
SETTING
a. Teacher in front of class and often on a raised platform
b. Student sit in rows in front of him
c. Little movement within the classroom since teacher and students have their
allotted places.
d. Although students often seem to be quite busy, they do not appear to be
involved.
CHARACTERISTICS
a. Teacher does most taking and often adopts a lecturing style.
b. Teacher nominates all students to reply to class-directed question.
c. Students are not encouraged to ask questions or talk to each other somewhat.
We must not give the impression that all of this is very reprehensible and futile. A
well-prepared teacher, surrounded by interesting teaching aids, can hold students
attention for quiet lengthy periods of time; such a teacher may well be very friendly and
sympathetic in his manner; he may his students well enough to ensure that the right is
nominated for the right question; his subsequent marking and assessment may be
sensitive and constructive. Above all, students, especially the brighter ones, may make
very satisfactory progress.
The teacher who uses only lockstep is rather like the drive who uses only a single
gear. It is possible to move off in second gear, build up a certain speed and eventually get
to ones destination, but the ill-advised driver who does so is under-utilizing the cars
potential. It is capable of so much more; different surfaces and driving conditions require
different speeds which in turn necessitate different gears, In a similar way, different
learning activities benefit from different patterns of class management- in this case, from
different learning groups.
The teacher who depends entirely on the class lesson is denying his students a
great deal. He is denying them the opportunity of talking to each other, of helping each
other and so building up their L2 confidence through being allowed to initiate classroom
interaction. He is denying them the opportunity of being a small language-learning
community, taking decisions of themselves from time to time and negotiating their own
learning with teacher. Perhaps the chief criticism of lockstep is that it just does not
recognize that learners are individuals. As we know only too well as teachers students
have varying degrees of ability and motivation; some are very outgoing and other rather
she; some can complete task quickly with the minimum of help while others need much
more time and guidance.
We shall have much more to say about initiating interaction and negotiating
learning when we examine forms of classroom management that are not tied to lockstep.
Lockstep may be illustrated as follows:
S T
t e
u a
d c
e h
t e
n r
s
[plus further rows- often far too many]
Notice that all communication is through the teacher. There is not direct
communication between students.
So far we have been commenting on lockstep as the basis of a class lesson. What
about its use as a technique within the lesson? Obliviously there must be times when it is
quite essential for the whole class to listen to the teacher. It would (for instance) be odd
for the teacher to enter the room and start his lesson by giving his whole attention to a
single group of students or to a single individual. What would all the other students do?

GROUP WORK
Students work simultaneously in a groups of three or more, whole the teacher
circulates, provides assistance or encouragement where necessary, and checks that the
tasks is carried out satisfactorily.
Lockstep denies students the opportunity to work in small language-learning
communities. We later promised elaborate a little on this statement. Working in groups
allows students a much better change to develop their language potential. Although
usually working with a designated group leader, the members of that group have a great
deal of autonomy. They can initiate dialogue, agree and disagree with colleagues and
generally negotiate matters without undue fear of criticism and correction. Of course, the
more able students dose most of the talking, but the less able are learning and doing so
at a more realistic pace for them. Within the group there is the sort of help and support
that one expects to find in any community. In a class lesson, less able students will
volunteer to say nothing; in a group situation, they will be encouraged to say something.
Although we have said that in group work the teachers role is that of monitor and
facilitators, some of this can be just a little clandestine,. Instead of checking up one the
weaker students when hovering near their groups, watch them from a distance and you
may be surprised at the amount of talking they do. [Clandestine? What then does it
mean?]
By referring to students of differing ability, we have already presented ourselves
with a problem. How should the groups be formed? There are at least four possibilities:
Groups are simply formed from students already sitting close together
 The students themselves decide
Groups are formed so that the different ability levels of the class are also
reflected in the groups themselves.
Separate groups are arranged for different ability levels.
Let us examine them in turn and assume that the groups are being formed for the
first time. Groups made up of students already sitting together or in the same part of the
class.
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

Each to set up. Students only have to turn to
their left or right, or join the students behind
them.
In the part they will be self-formed groups
since friends tend to sit together.
There is no pattern to this formation. It
is haphazard and without any purpose
or plan
If good friends are in the same groups,
they may feel it is unnatural to speak
English.

Group formation is left to the students them selves

ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

It should be easy to select group leader, and
members of the group should get on well
together
The teacher should get good cooperation
Students who are less popular may find
that they have no group to join.
Other disadvantages are as for the
previous group formation

Group formation is based on mixed ability the teacher ensuring that each group
has bright, weak and average students.
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

It seems to be natural structure reflecting Although it may assist the weaker

the class as a whole students, it may also hold back the
brighter ones.
The more able students can help the less The weaker ones may not welcome
able such help

Group formation is based on ability.

ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

Each group can work on tasks suited to its ability
The more-able group(s) can really be stretched
and encouraged to use their full potential.
The less able group(s) can be given remedial
attention.
The less-able students are clearly
classified as such
Some students just need additional
encouragement and help; they are not
necessarily less able.
This is essentially and elitist approach.
The better groups might get more
attention.
Perhaps not all students need to English to the
same extent.

Where do your own sympathies lie? We are not prepared to say that one kind of
group composition is intrinsically better than any other. An efficient and well-prepared
teacher can probably achieve a great deal no matter what the basis of group formation is.
In many language classes, individual students do not get enough time to talk. The
traditional class lesson forces them into a rather passive role, with the result that weaker
students are content to lose themselves or hid from the teacher as much as possible.
Group work foster confidence.
So much for a justification of group work and a comparison of different group
types. But what, in fact, does group work entail for both teacher and students? Our
definition informs us that it meant a supervisory and supporting role for the teacher and a
simultaneous task-based activity for the latter. Let us try to analyze exactly what is
involved on both sides.
For the teacher, careful planning is essential. Group work that is embarked on in
a casual unprepared way is doomed to failure. Students will not know what to do since
the teacher has not thought it out properly. Group work must be something more than
just a good idea. When groups are not certain what to do, and start to share their
bewilderment with other groups, the result is inevitably. Confusion, Next in important to
planning, at least initial; is patience and perseverance. Students who are just not used to
anything other than lockstep will at first find group work both strange and a little
threatening. Once group work is underway, the teacher should not be too concerned
about noise; if groups are discussing their task, then any nose is a working noise and
there is nothing wrong with that. In any case, this working noise always seems worse to
the teacher than to group members since they are immersed in their own task while he
tends to pick up noises from the whole class.
As for as the students are concerned, it is essential that they know exactly what
they are being asked to do. Another important factor is their willingness to accept a
group leader someone who will represent than in any report-back session and who will
function as informal chairperson.

b. OPEN AND CLOSED PAIR

Whilst pair work and group work are the staple of the communicative
classroom, and are the fundamental way in which teachers can give learners the
opportunity to practice what they have been exposed to meaningfully, not all pair work
has that function. Open Pairs
The term open pairs is used to indicate a very common form of classroom
interaction, where two people are speaking and everyone else is listening. There are two
ways in which this happens:
a) Teacher Student Pairs
There are many situations in which the teacher talks to an individual student.
These are some frequently used examples:
Informal chat, for example, as the class begins
(T: Did you win your football match last night, Mario?
S: No, unfortunately we lost 2-1.)
Talking about and checking understanding of language
 (T: So what does that tell us about the regular past simple? Suzanna?
T: That you write it one way and say it three different ways.)
Talking about work done, checking comprehension (T: Who can tell me what
Stephen did next? Yes, Giovanni? S: He went back to his house.) Eliciting newly
presented language (T: So thats how it works. OK, now ask me. Maria? S: Where did
you go last night?) Modelling newly presented language before closed pairwork (T:
So thats what you have to do. Michele, lets try. Have you ever been to London? S:
Yes, I have. T: When did you go? S: I went there last year.) Talking about and checking
understanding of task (T: So who can tell me what you have to do? Anita? S: We have
to tell our partner about the person in the picture.) Student questions (S: Excuse me,
what does supine mean? T: Can anyone help him? No? OK, well here it means lying
down on your back, lying flat, perhaps on the ground.)
For reasons of space, in most cases the example exchanges have been truncated to
teacher question/student answer (which is, in fact, the commonest form of classroom
interaction!), although in many cases at least one teacher response perhaps of praise
would be likely, and more would be probable.
b) Student Student Pairs
This is the situation where two students talk to each other in front of the rest of
the class.
Teacher-instigated, for accuracy/modelling puposes
(T: Suzanna, ask Anita what she did last night.
S1: What did you do last night?
S2: I watched TV with my mother.)
Spontaneous student exchanges
S1: And thats why the banks are so bad in our country.
S2: I dont agree. I think that the problem is not the banks themselves,
but the laws which control the banks.
S1: Well, maybe the laws need changing, too.)
An interesting variation on the open pair, is the so-called melee or mingle
activity, where the whole class operates on an open pair basis with everyone else in the
class. At the most basic level, this can consist of the learners walking randomly round the
room, and when the teacher claps their hands, they turn to the nearest person and say
Good morning. How are you?/Im fine thanks. How are you?. At a more complicated
level, all the students might have information which will lead them to find a partner; they
must ask questions of many others until they find the right person.

Closed Pairs:
The closed pair is fundamental in current ELT practice. Every modern course book
regularly instructs the student to Work with a partner or says things like In pairs. Write
down your ideas. This is because we recognise the advantages that closed pairwork
brings to teaching, and these have been well rehearsed in the literature (e.g.
Nolasco/Arthur (1988: 42-49); Haines (1995: 55-58); Harmer (2001: 116-7); Rixon
(2000: 252-3):
increasing student talking time
encouraging learner independence
allowing for individual differences in learning style
encouraging co-operation (not competition)
allowing the teacher time to work with individuals
 decreasing stress by allowing students to interact in the most usual human
format
Pairwork is also relatively quick and easy for the teacher to set up, however there
is an important caveat here. Because of the physical difficulties found in many teaching
situations, teachers frequently set up closed pairwork in ways which do not encourage
the kind of interaction they are seeking. The information gap activity (where students
have different secret information which they need to exchange to complete a task)
requires that students are unable to see each others information. If pairs are left to sit
side-by-side in the standard classroom arrangement, then the point of the task will be
nullified. It is crucial that the students sit either face-to-face, or back-to-back to ensure
the task is truly purposeful. Successful classroom management is fundamental to a
successful communicative classroom. There are, of course, many other kinds of closed
pair tasks which require the students to work together whilst looking at the same
materials, so the side-by-side arrangement is best.
Closed pair work does have disadvantages, particularly for teachers working with
large classes: the noise factor, pairs use the mother tongue, pairs talk about other things,
partners dont like each other, individuals dont like working in pairs in general, teachers
fail to think about what happens with early and late finishers. Some of these problems
can be reduced through learner training and the discussion (often in the mother tongue)
about the reasons behind closed pair work.
Group work is, in some ways, an extension of pair work and much of what has
been said about pair work applies to it.

c. TRANSMISSION AND INTERPRETATION ROLE

What are the beliefs and attitudes of two teachers? So far we have simply called
one of them teacher-centred and the other student-centred. Do they, in fact have
fundamental differences of belief, or is each of the simply caught up in a particular
undercurrent of teacher-behaviour? Possible, the teacher who sees himself as very much
at the centre of things does so only because this that entire he has ever experienced. If
teacher training is defective, and in-service training inadequate, why should we blame
teacher training is defective and in-service training inadequate, why should we blame
him? It is unlikely that the has ever made a deliberate choice between the two
approaches.
There is a sharp difference of opinion on the basic role of the teacher in society.
The perfect teacher does not exist any more than the perfect doctor, journalist or
parent. All we can say is that the effective teacher will fulfill both occupational and
interpersonal roles. That is, such a teacher will have a good grasp of his subject and an
ability to handle people with teacher and sensitivity.
Instead of dwelling on these deeper issues of role, let us rather focus on the
teacher in the classroom and on the sort of practical role that he adopts by means of his
behavior. We shall examine two fundamentally different approaches, one teachers
centered and the other student centered.
TRANSMISSON: The teacher-centred style can be called transmission teaching. The
teacher has knowledge or information which he feels is his responsibility to transmit
directly to his students. Their duty is to listen, do as they are told and learn. In a content
subject, such as history possibly, transmission teaching may have certain advantages in
as much as there is a body of knowledge to be transmitted; in a skill subject such as
language, on the other hand, this is not the case. The language teacher should not be
teaching about language but practicing language, and this involves interaction between
speakers.
The teacher centred role sees the teacher as the pivot in the classroom, very much
in charge of all activities and ensuring that all classroom communication goes through
him. Such a teacher can be said to orchestrate all class room behavior, and can usually be
seen to do so by means of lockstep. It is inevitable that most of the talking in the
classroom will be done by the teacher. This is not to say that the teacher just lectures;
there may be quite a lot, of question and answer during the lesson, but teacher and
students will have their fixed roles. The teacher asks the question and the students
respond as nominated. The teacher may on occasion ask one student to comment on
another students response, but this will again be an exchange via the teacher and not
direct student-to-student communication. Here is an example of what we mean:
Teacher: What did the king want to know? Yes, Tariq?
Tariq: He waned to know where his soldiers were?
Teacher: Is that correct, Ali?
Ali: No, it isnt, sir. He wanted to know how they were.
Teacher: Good, did you hear that, Tariq?

INTERPRETATION: A student-centred role for the teacher means that the

students themselves are much more involved in their own learning. Although a certain
amount of lockstep teaching will still be seen, pair work and group work will be
common practice. Students will be activity encouraged to question both the teacher and
each other. There will be very much more student-talk and the teacher himself will be
much less prominent. Where, in the teacher-centred role, the teacher tends to stay on his
platform and claim his own territory, in the student-centred role hi is much less of a static
and authoritarian figure. Since we shall be dealing with the organization of group
work in the next Unit We shall not pursue it any further at the moment. However, let us
go back to Tariq, All and their teacher and see how the same situation could be handled
differently with the teacher taking a less central role:
Teacher: Who can tell me what the king wanted to know? Yes, Tariq?
Tariq: He wanted to know where his soldiers were.
Teacher: Ask Ali if he agree with you.
Tariq: Do you agree with me?
Ali No, I dont. He asked how his soldiers were.

The two small fragments that we have been looking at prove very little on their
own. It could be justifiably claimed that the teacher was jut as much in control of the
situation in the second example as he was in the first. The real difference between the
two approached is essentially one of attitude. Indeed, we have already seen that attitudes
and beliefs play a very important part in the teachers own perception of his role. In the
second fragment of classroom dialogue, the teacher demonstrates his belief that students
can learn from each other. His attitude to the whole situation is quite different. He
realizes that the sum total of understanding and knowledge within the class is very
considerable. At least one student in the class is likely to have the answer to any
reasonable question, so why not tap and use that resource?

d. TEACHER CENTERED AND STUDENT

CENTERED TEACHING STYLE
 TEACHER CENTERED TEACHING STYLE: The teacher centered role sees
the teacher as the pivot in the classroom, very much in charge of all activities and
ensuring that all classroom communication goes through him. Such a teacher can be said
to orchestrate all class room behavior, and can usually be seen to do so by means of
lockstep. It is inevitable that most of the talking in the classroom will be done by the
teacher. This is not to say that the teacher just lectures; there may be quite a lot, of
question and answer during the lesson, but teacher and students will have their fixed
roles. The teacher asks the question and the students respond as nominated. The teacher
may on occasion ask one student to comment on another students response, but this will
again be an exchange via the teacher and not direct student-to-student communication.
Here is an example of what we mean:
Teacher: What did the king want to know? Yes, Tariq?
Tariq: He waned to know where his soldiers were?
Teacher: Is that correct, Ali?
Ali: No, it isnt, sir. He wanted to know how they were.
Teacher: Good, did you hear that, Tariq?

STUDENT CENTERED TEACHING STYLE: A student-centred role for the teacher

means that the students themselves are much more involved in their own learning.
Although a certain amount of lockstep teaching will still be seen, pair work and group
work will be common practice. Students will be activity encouraged to question both the
teacher and each other. There will be very much more student-talk and the teacher
himself will be much less prominent. Where, in the teacher-centred role, the teacher
tends to stay on his platform and claim his own territory, in the student-centred role hi is
much less of a static and authoritarian figure. Since we shall be dealing with the
organization of group work in the next Unit We shall not pursue it any further at the
moment. However, let us go back to Tariq, All and their teacher and see how the same
situation could be handled differently with the teacher taking a less central role:

Teacher: Who can tell me what the king wanted to know? Yes, Tariq?
Tariq: He wanted to know where his soldiers were.
Teacher: Ask Ali if he agree with you.
Tariq: Do you agree with me?
Ali No, I dont. He asked how his soldiers were.

e. TERRA SYLLABUS

It is rather difficult to give the term syllabus a single concise definition that
covers all its aspects and is universally acceptable. The truth is that, over the
years, the terms have meant different things to different people. For the definition,
we shall turn to Stern (General English Syllabus Design)
(A syllabus is) . a statement of the subject matter, topics or areas to be
covered by the course leading to a particular examination.

This definition at least has the merit of being brief and to the point.
However , its very brevity can itself lead to problems. For instance, what does
statement mean? Does it mean a sketchy outline of main points, or does it entail a
comprehensive list?
 Whatever the imperfections of Sterns definition, we believe that it gives us
something valuable to build on. The use of three terns, subject matter, topics and
areas, gives the definition sufficient flexibility to cover different kinds of syllabus.
The terms syllabus and curriculum are often confused of used very loosely.
In fact, it is not unusual to find them used more or less as synonyms especially
in informal situations. To avoid possible confusion, we shall quote from Brumfit
as he makes a useful distinction between the two terms:
I would wish to restrict the term syllabus t what is the responsibility
of a language teacher, with curriculum implying the total provision within a
school.
Clearly, Brumfit sees the curriculum as having much wider implications than a
syllabus. The English curriculum in a school will reflect the basic rational behind
the teaching of English and will take account of general resources and constraints.
A syllabus for a particular class or year is a list of things the teacher has to deal
with in accordance with that curriculum.