This article was downloaded by: [University of Sydney]

On: 23 May 2013, At: 11:32

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Welding International
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/twld20

Welding of the ASTM A106 Gr. B steel pipes for high-

temperature service part 2 microstructure and
hardness
a a a
Cleiton Carvalho Silva , Arlindo Braga de Souza Neto , Francisco Diego Araruna da Silva ,
a a
Francisco Edval Sampaio de Freitas Jnior & Jesualdo Pereira Farias
a
Laboratory of Welding Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Federal University of Cear, Fortaleza, Cear, Brazil
Published online: 09 Feb 2010.

To cite this article: Cleiton Carvalho Silva , Arlindo Braga de Souza Neto , Francisco Diego Araruna da Silva , Francisco Edval
Sampaio de Freitas Jnior & Jesualdo Pereira Farias (2010): Welding of the ASTM A106 Gr. B steel pipes for high-temperature
service part 2 microstructure and hardness, Welding International, 24:3, 231-240

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09507110902843958

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Welding International
Vol. 24, No. 3, March 2010, 231240
Selected from Soldagem & Inspecao 2008 13(3) 199 209

Welding of the ASTM A106 Gr. B steel pipes for high-temperature

service part 2 microstructure and hardness
Cleiton Carvalho Silva*, Arlindo Braga de Souza Neto, Francisco Diego Araruna da Silva,
Francisco Edval Sampaio de Freitas Junior and Jesualdo Pereira Farias1
Laboratory of Welding Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Ceara,
Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil
(Received 24 September 2007; final version received 6 May 2008)

The first part of this work presented the results of the experimental determination of residual stresses along top joints in
pipes. The purpose of the second part will be to present a critical evaluation of the microstructure and hardness of the welded
joints for pipes with small diameter used in oil refineries, aiming to correlate the results with the residual stresses. The
methodology consists of welding pipes with a diameter of 2 in., using a manual TIG process. AWS ER70-S3 addition metal
with a 2.5 mm diameter was used. An electronic welding source and a data acquisition system for control were used to
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

control the welding parameters. Metallographic samples were conventionally prepared and electropolished using chloride
acid solution. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the microstructure.
Microhardness tests were made along the weld. The results show that the combination of heat cycles between the root and
the finish with low heat support caused significant reining of grains in the welded area and in the heat affected zone, as well
as promoting a reduction in the hardness values. The same behaviour was not reached for the samples welded with higher
welding heat input. None of the welded samples presented hardness values above the maximum established in the standards
(248 VH).
Keywords: residual stresses; welding; pipes; X-ray diffraction

1. Introduction chemical, petrochemical, and nuclear industries. This type

Cracks constitute a principal source of welding faults,
with their propagation being the mechanism responsible
for causing the collapse of structures or components
(Figure 1)1. Therefore, for cracks to form and propagate,
it is fundamentally important to have a high level of stress
tensions, around the splatter limit, frequently associated
with the presence of a hard and fragile microstructure2. If
the worked material is submitted to effort of this nature, it
becomes necessary to minimize the residual stresses to
avoid, during the operation, combined action of the
residual stresses and the movement of cracks. In some
cases, it is possible that the material will tear under the
effect of the residual stresses, without any action from
external forces2 5.
Other factors may, along with the residual stresses,
influence the formation of cracks. Discontinuities in the
welded joints such as inclusions of scrap, lack of fusion,
porosity, and even the geometry of the weld beat itself may
act as stress concentrators, amplifying their values to a
level high enough to cause fracturing6 8.
Another type of fault that may occur in welded joints is
stress corrosion, which is one of the main concerns in the
of corrosion is associated with the combined action of
stress tensions and corrosive mediums9,10. One of the main
problems with this type of fault is that in some cases it can
be completely unexpected, since the fault mechanism does
not show an appreciable loss of mass but rather nucleation
and growth of cracks. The damage caused by stress
corrosion in equipment and pipes is sufficiently serious, in
some cases, that as well as the fault can cause fire and
explosion11. Leis and Eiber set out to describe the word
incidents involved as a phenomenon of the stress
corrosion. For this reason, it is essential to combat the
agents causing this type of corrosion to prevent faults in
industrial equipment and pipes.
The corrosive methods that may cause stress corrosion
can be very diverse, depending on the material. Ferritic
steels in a medium containing carbonates, aluminium alloys
in contact with chlorate ions, and duplex stainless steels
in contact with solutions containing high levels of chlorates,
for example, are susceptible to stress corrosion9,13. In the oil
industry, various agents may be responsible for causing
stress corrosion. Both in offshore platforms and refineries,
the presence of mineral salts principally containing

*Corresponding author. Email: cleitonufc@yahoo.com.br

ISSN 0950-7116 print/ISSN 1754-2138 online
q 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09507110902843958
http://www.informaworld.com
 232 C.C. Silva et al.

top joints in small diameter pipes. The objective of this

second part will be to present a critical evaluation of the
microstructure and hardness of the welded joints of the
pipes used in oil refineries, with the aim of correlating
them with the residual stresses.

2. Materials and methods

The materials studied in this work were low-carbon steel
pipes for service in high temperature. Currently, the
materials meet the specifications of ASTM standards A106
Gr. B, ASTM A53, and API 5L. The nominal diameter of
the pipes used in this work was 2 in., with SCHEDULE 40,
whose chemical composition is shown in Table 1. The
addition metal used in the manual welding was AWS
ER70-S3 with a 2.5 mm diameter, whose chemical
Figure 1. Cold fissuring in steel-low alloy-high resistance AISI composition is shown in Table 1. The mechanical
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

4340 welded with coated electrode. Source: Ref. 1. properties of the pipes are shown in Table 2, along with
the limits established by ASTM standard A106 Gr. B27.
chlorates may potentially increase the risk of stress
The welds were made using the TIG process, produced
corrosion. Cooling et al.13 and Coudreuse et al.14 show in
manually by a qualified welder loaned from Petrobras. The
their work that the presence of chlorates, in moderate and
joints were produced by turning, using the geometry
high concentrations in formation and treatment water,
recommended in RQPS E-AC-260-012 (Figure 2), whose
increases the susceptibility to corrosion by pitting, which is
dimensions are shown in Table 2. Four test pieces were
the precursor to the formation of cracks in stress corrosion.
produced, all under the same conditions. The welding
Bagdasarian and Truax15 state that the combination of
parameters are shown in Table 3.
residual welding stresses, from the manufacture of the
The microstructural characterization of the welded
equipment, associated with stresses in service, and the
joints was extracted from metallographic exams. Samples
presence of an aqueous means containing chlorates, makes
were taken from the pipes, covering the region of the base
an extremely favourable condition for cracks to occur.
metal, heat-affected zone (HAZ), and weld metal. The
Corrosive methods containing hydrogen sulphate
analysis was carried out in the transverse section.
(H2S) are considered critical for stress corrosion or
Preparation consisted of bleaching, pre-polishing with a
weakening. This can be particularly associated with two
of 3 mm diameter diamond pasts, followed by an
types: hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) and sulphide
electrolyte polish with chloride acid, using a current
stress cracking. The first type occurs when the hydrogen
density of 3.75 A/cm2 and for a time of 10 s.
generated by the corrosive process is absorbed into the
Characterization of the microstructure was carried out
material, causing cracks along the direction of lamination,
using an optical microscope (OM) using a Jenaplan/Karl
regardless of the presence of stresses. The second type is a
Zeiss microscope with a coupled digital camera and
variant of HIC, and therefore necessitates the presence of
electron scan image acquisition system (Figure 3(a)).
applied or residual stresses. The second is more common
in welded joint and in steels with high resistance16,17.
The importance of this topic to the oil and gas sector Table 1. Chemical composition of the base metal and of the
can be evaluated by quantity of works on the subject in addition metal (% by mass).
recent years18 24. However, these works mostly cover Material C Mn Si P S
the theme by looking at the corrosive medium, which is
one of the factors in crack formation. Therefore, an Steel, ASTM A106 Gr.
analysis from the point of view of the residual stresses and B (pipe) 0.19 0.96 0.20 0.016 0.006
Addition metal
mechanical properties may provide important information AWS ER 70 S3 0.18 0.45 0.18 0.09 0.04
to minimize the occurrence of faults in welded joints,
where the residual stresses constitute a critical factor,
especially because the acceptance criteria for these joints Table 2. Dimensions of the test pieces and the joint geometry.
take into account not the level of the residual stresses, but
rather the hardness values25,26. D (mm) d (mm) e (mm) L (mm) r (mm)
The first part of this work presents the results of the 60.3 52.5 3.9 410.4 4
experimental determination of the residual stresses along
 Welding International 233

Figure 2. Schematic design of the test piece.

Table 3. Welding parameters.

Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

Test piece Pass Effective current (A) Effective voltage (V) Weld speed (cm/min) Weld energy (kj/cm)
C1 Root 136 12.4 7.8 8.5
Finish 137 12.3 7.8 8.4
C2 Root 136 11.6 7.3 8.5
Finish 136 11.9 8.1 7.8
C3 Root 133 12.1 7.1 8.9
Finish 135 11.5 7.8 7.8
C4 Root 133 11.3 8.1 7.3
Finish 133 11.3 7.8 7.5
D1 Root 104 11.4 4.6 10.1
Finish 104 12.0 4.8 10.2
D2 Root 103 11.1 4.9 9.0
Finish 103 11.7 4.5 10.4
D3 Root 102 11.1 4.7 9.4
Finish 102 11.2 4.6 9.6
D4 Root 104 11.0 4.6 9.7
Finish 104 11.2 4.5 10.0

A Phillips XL electron scan microscope was also used
coupled with an analysis system of dispersive X-ray
energy (Figure 3(b)).
Vickers microhardness profiles were taken of the
welded joints in the external and internal surfaces of the
pipe. The analysis covered the region of the fused zone
(FZ), HAZ, and base metal, with the aim of verifying the
effect of the heat cycle on hardness and whether the levels
are within acceptable limits, established by ASME
standard VIII25 and by API standard 51026 as 248 VH.
The microhardness test was carried out using a Shimadzu
microhardness meter (Figure 3(c)).
3. Results and discussion
The results for the microstructure presented below refer to
samples C4 and D4, since samples 1 3 of the two groups
(C and D) were intended for hydrostatic tests to obtain
other results, giving continuity to the studies about
residual stresses in small diameter pipes. It is important to
highlight that the choice of sample D4 was based on the
maximum residual stress found in this test piece, which
constitutes a critical condition, as in the result presented in
the first part of this work28. For the samples in group C, in
terms of the residual stresses, there was no significant
variation between the four test pieces evaluated.
Figure 4(a) presents the macrography of the welded
joint from sample C4. The HAZ regions for the internal
and external surface are shown in Figure 4(b),(c),
respectively. For the internal region of the pipe, more
refined grains were seen, both in the FZ and HAZ.
The microstructure of the weld metal in sample C4 is
shown in Figure 5(a). Note the great predominance of
primary ferrite of the grain boundary PF(G), which follows
the direction of equiaxial columnar growth of the weld
metal due to solidification, formed by grains of primary
ferrite. Among the columns formed by primary ferrite
grains, note that more refined regions of acicular ferrite
AF and intragranular polygonal ferrite PF(I). Also note
that between the grains of ferrite PF(G) in the columnar
 234 C.C. Silva et al.
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

Figure 3. (a) OM with image acquisition system. (b) Electron

scan microscope. (c) Vickers microhardness meter.

zone there are small grains of ferrite carbonate, identified

as perlite FC(P).
The HAX-GG region shows a large amount of a similar
phase to ferrite with second phase aligned, which is called
martensite/austenite/carbate (MAC) ferrite, aligned in the
boundaries of the previous austenite grain, showing
the high size of grain in this region (Figure 5(b)). In the Figure 4. Extension of the HAZ in sample C4. (a) External
centre of the austenite grain, fine perlite and acicular ferrite surface. (b) Internal surface. Attack: Nital 2%. Magnification: 27X.
 Welding International 235
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

Figure 6. Microstructure of the internal surface of sample C4.

Attack: Nital 2%; Magnification: 75X.

can be seen. The HAZ-GF (Figure 5(c)) showed a more

refined microstructure, made up of polygonal ferrite and
fine perlite. The HAZ-IC microstructure has the main
characteristic of cement spheroids, causing a change to the
morphology of the perlite (Figure 5(d)).
The microstructures of the FZ and of the HAZ of the
region of the root of the joint (internal surface of the pipe)
are presented in Figure 6(a),(b). The FZ and a HAZ
suffered a process of grain refinements caused by the weld
heat cycle of the finishing pass. It was confirmed that the
rough structure of the fusion in the weld metal, formed by
columnar zones, was replaced by equiaxial grains, formed
basically of polygonal ferrite and a small amount of fine
perlites (Figure 6(a)). The HAZ also appeared to show a
smaller size of grain. The microstructure was made up of
ferrite with lateral plates, polygonal ferrite and fine perlite.
Analyses were made of the weld metal and in the
HAZ-GG of sample C4, via an electron scan microscope,

Figure 5. Microstructure of the external surface of sample C4.

(a) Weld metal. (b) HAZ-GG. (c) HAZ-GF. (d) HAZ inter-
critical. Attack: Nital 2%; Magnification: 75X.
 236 C.C. Silva et al.
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

Figure 7. Electron scan microscopy result of the constituents. (a) and (b) Weld metal. (c) and (d) HAZ-GG. (e) and (f) HAZ-GF.

allowing better characterization of its micro-constituents.
In the weld metal, there were carbonates finely dispersed
in the ferritic matrix, as shown in Figure 7(a),(b).
Figure 7(c) shows a scan of the HAZ-GG, in which it is
possible to see ferrite with lateral plates (indication 1),
illustrating that in between the boards there was a
formation of a ferrite carbonate aggregate, probably fine
perlite. In Figure 7(c),(d), note the ferritic phase with
second phase aligned (indication 2), which is very similar
to upper bainite and granular bainite.
Figure 7(e) shows the microstructure of the HAZ-GF,
illustrating the presence of polygonal grains of ferrite and
perlite, as well as lateral plates of ferrite intermixed with
perlite. Figure 7(f) shows an expanded detail from the
previous figure, which shows the distribution of carbonates
inside the perlite that intermixes with the ferrite boards.
 Welding International 237

A microhardness profile was taken of the external and

internal surfaces along the whole joint, which is shown in
Figure 8. Evaluating the profile of the external surface,
note the high hardness level in the central portion, which
covers the weld metal, includes the HAZ-GG.
It is important to highlight the accentuated fall in
hardness suffered by the weld metal and HAZ in the
internal surface of the pipe. There was even a small
portion observed with greater hardness in the HAZ inside
the pipe, the theoretical value of which is not considered
critical. The arrows indicate the position of the
connection zone between the weld metal and the HAZ.
It can also be restated that in all the points evaluated the
hardness was lower than the maximum limit established
by the standard.
The same hardness behaviour has been observed in
welded joints of ASTM A106 Gr. C pipes. Although the
type of consumable used was not specified, the composition
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

is very similar to that used in this work. Barbosa et al.29

evaluated the microstructure and hardness of the ASTM
A106 Gr. B steel pipes used in the hydrodesulphurization
system of an oil refinery unit that failed in service owing to
problems related to stress corrosion by H2S and weakening
by hydrogen. The results for hardness also indicate greater
hardness in the weld metal and HAZ-GG, in relation to the
base metal, where the hardness of the HAZ was lower than
that of the FZ in many cases.
The internal surface suffered a reduction in hardness,
probably caused by transformations in phases produced by
the heat cycles in previous passes. It was confirmed that
both the weld metal and the HAZ were encouraged by the
heat effect, with a weld root region with hardness values in
the order of 140 VH and achieved a maximum of 180 VH,
values which are much lower than the permitted maximum
of 248 VH. It was also confirmed that at no point of the
analysis did the hardness reach values close to the limit
established by the standard. This is a very positive result,
since it shows that the procedure itself is able to promote a

Figure 9. Extension of the HAZ in sample D4. (a) External

Figure 8. Microhardness profile for sample C4. surface. (b) Internal surface. Attack: Nital 2%; Magnification: 27X.
 238 C.C. Silva et al.

reduction in hardness, which would make post-welding

heat treatment unnecessary.
However, this evaluation only looks at hardness and
is somewhat equivocal, since analysis of stresses carried
out in the first part of this work28 confirmed high levels
of residual stresses in the HAZ and in the weld metal.
Another factor that reinforced this consideration was the
results presented by Barbosa et al.29. In this case, the
pipes evaluated failed owing to stress corrosion caused
by H2S; however, in many of the welds evaluated the
hardness was lower than the limit of 248 VH and in
some cases in which the hardness achieved values of this
order, the cracks did not arise in the weld, but in the
base metal.
The macrograph of sample D4, welded with high heat
support, is shown in Figure 9(a). Alongside it are
enlargements of the regions indicated in the graph, which
correspond to a scan along the weld metal HAZ base
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

metal for the external and internal surfaces (Figure

9(b),(c)). In these figures, it is possible to see the region of
grain growth in the HAZ and refinement (HAZ-GF), on
both the internal and external surfaces. It was also
confirmed that, unlike with sample C4, the heat cycle
produced by the finishing pass was not able to produce a
satisfactory degree of HAZ-GG refinement in the region of
the root.
The microstructure of the weld metal (Figure 10(a))
was similar to that of sample C4, being principally made
up of acicular ferrite AF and primary ferrite from the
grain boundary PF(G), and even by ferrite with an
aligned second phase (ferrite with lateral plates)
FS(SP).
Figure 10(b) shows the microstructure of the HAZ-GG
adjacent to the weld bead. Among the main microcon-
stituents identified, we can highlight the proeutectoid
ferrite in the boundaries of the grain of the previous
austenite, ferrite with unaligned MAC, ferrite with aligned
MAC and fine perlite. The microstructure of HAZ-GF and
the HAZ-IC was within standards, with polygonal ferrite
and perlite (Figure 10(c),(d)).
Unlike the position with the weld metal of sample C4
in the region of the root, the microstructure of sample D4
did not suffer any alteration, keeping an appearance
similar to the rough fused state. In Figure 11, it is possible
to see the microstructure, made up of the most parts of
acicular ferrite AF; primary ferrite from the grain
boundary PF(G); and ferrite with the second phase
aligned (lateral plates) FS(SP). This fact can be
attributed to the high heat support in this sample, which
caused the formation of a large weld pool, which
penetrated excessively into the weld metal of the root,
causing its rejection. In addition, the remaining weld metal
was subjected to temperatures in the region of 12008C,
which with the subsequent re-cooling produced the
microstructure seen.
 Welding International 239

Figure 11. Microstructure of the internal surface of sample D4. (a) Weld metal and (b) HAZ-GG, refined by a later pass. Attack: Nital
2%; Magnification: 75X.
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013

The HAZ microstructure also saw no significant

microstructural alteration in the root area (Figure 11(b)).
Note a predominance of ferrite with aligned MAC and
proeutectoid ferrite in the boundaries of the prior
austenite grain, and fine perlite on the interior. Since
the heat cycle was able to cause almost complete rejection
of the welded zone in the root pass, this would then also
encourage the continuity of the HAZ-GG adjacent to the
weld root.
The microhardness profile in sample D$, shown in
Figure 12, indicates that the hardness behaviour on the
internal and external surfaces of the pipe was practically
the same, confirming that the heat cycle in the finishing
pass did not cause any beneficial effect inside the pipe.
This result was expected since no significant changes
were seen in the microstructure in the region of the Figure 12. Microhardness profile of sample D4.
joint root.
Even though there was no reduction in hardness, necessarily lead to a favourable condition from the point
Figure 12 shows that no point analysed on the internal of view of the residual stresses28.
surface had hardness values above the maximum limit
permitted to avoid problems of stress corrosion.
Finally, we can highlight that in principle there are no 4. Conclusions
consistent relationships between residual stresses, hard- Based on the experimental results presented in this work
ness, and microstructure, which ensures that a low level of about the microstructure and hardness in top joints of ASTM
hardness in a welded joint does not necessarily correspond A106 Gr. B steel pipes, for service in high temperature,
to obtaining a low level of residual stresses. This welded manually, it was possible to conclude that:
information is fundamental for the project and mainten- The combination of heat cycles between the root and
ance sectors, since setting out welding procedures and the finish was satisfactory for a weld with low heat
specification for post-welding heat treatment is often support, causing a significant refinement in the grain in the
based solely on hardness criteria, which will not welded areas and the HAZ, as well as causing a reduction
in hardness values.
The same behaviour was not followed by a sample
R
welded with higher heat input, which kept a structure
Figure 10. Microstructure of the external surface of sample D4. typical of rapid re-cooling speed and with large grains and
(a) Weld metal, (b) HAZ-GG, (c) HAZ-GF, and (d) HAZ with similar hardness values between the internal and
intercritical. Attack: Nital 2%; Magnification: 75X. external surfaces.
 240 C.C. Silva et al.
Neither of the two welding conditions analysed was
able to promote microstructural alterations that would
raise the hardness values above the maximum established
by the standard, which is 248 VH, showing that the fact
that a joint has low hardness does not necessarily indicate a
condition of low level of residual stresses.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank professor Joaquim Teixeira de
Assis and professor Vladimir Monin of IPRJ-UERJ (Nova
Friburgo) for their laboratory support to ANP-PRH31 for
awarding the grant, the staff of PETROBRAS/LUBNOR/MI,
especially Engineer Danudio I.S. de Souza; Engineer Gerardo
J.A. Perez, and maintenance technician Joao Cesar Matias da
Silva, and to the technical teams of the research Centre of
PETROBRAS/CENPES, and the development bodies of FINEP
and CNPq for their financial support.
Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 11:32 23 May 2013
Note
1. Email: jpf@secrel.com.br
References
1. Silva CC, Aguiar WM, Farias JP. Crack in the HAZ of steel
ABNT 4340 used for determination of tempered and not
coated. Weld Insp. Cover 2006;11(2).
2. Bailey N. Weldability of ferritic steels. Cambridge:
Abington Publishing and ASM International; 1994.
3. Bailey N, Coe FR, Gooch TG, Hart RHM, Jenkins N,
Pargeter RJ. Welding steels without hydrogen cracking.
Cambridge: Abington Publishing for TWI; 1973.
4. Easterling K. Introduction to the physical metallurgy of
welding. London: Butterworths; 1983.
5. Rajad D. Heat effects of welding-temperature field, residual
stress, distortion. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1992.
6. Nguyen TN, Wahab MA. The theoretical study of the effect
of weld geometry parameters on fatigue crack propagation
life. Eng Fract Mech. 1995a;51(1):1 18.
7. Nguyen TN, Wahab MA. The effect of undercut and residual
stresses on fatigue behaviour of misaligned butt joints. Eng
Fract Mech. 1996;55(3):453 469.
8. Nguyen TN, Wahab MA. The effect of weld geometry and
residual stress on the fatigue of welded joints under
combined loading. J Mater Process Technol.
1998;77:201 208.
9. Linnert GE. Welding metallurgy. Vol. 1. Miami (FL):
American Welding Society; 1994.
10. Leis BN, Eiber RJ. Stress corrosion cracking on gas
transmission pipelines: history, causes and mitigation.
Proceedings of the 1st International Business Conference
on Onshore Pipelines; Berlin, Germany; 1997.
11. Chaburkin VF, Baremboim II, Vasilev GG, Ivantsova SG.
Diagnostics and repair of corrosion damage to pipelines, CD.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Pipeline
Rehabilitation and Maintenance; Manama, Bahrain; 2005.
12. Delafosse D, Magnin T. Hydrogen induced plasticity in
stress corrosion cracking of engineering systems. Eng Fract
Mech. 2001;68(6):693 729.
13. Cooling PJ, Kennani MB, Martin JW, Nice PI. The
application limits of alloyed 13 Cr tubular steels for down
hole duties. Corrosion 98. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No.
94; 1998.
14. Coudreuse L, Verneau M, Dufrane JJ. Sulphide stress
cracking resistance of weldable super-martensitic stainless
steels. Super Martensitic Stainless Steels 99. Brussels,
Belgium; 1999. p. 299 306
15. Bagdasarian AJ, Truax DJ. Chloride stress corrosion
cracking of austenitic stainless steels in hydro processing
units. Corrosion 97. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No. 501;
1997.
16. Albarran JL, Martinez L, Lopez HF. Effect of heat treatment
on the stress corrosion resistance of a micro alloyed pipeline
steel. Corros Sci. 1999;41(6):1037 1049.
17. Bruno TV, Christensen C, Hill RT. History and development
of TM0284. Corrosion 99. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No.
422; 1999.
18. Elbro AC, Gooch TG, Pargeter RJ. Cracking in C Mn steel
weld metal. Corrosion 97. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No.
51; 1997.
19. Fessler RR, Krist K. Research challenges regarding stress
corrosion cracking of pipelines. Corrosion 2000. Houston
(TX): NACE. Paper No. 370; 2000.
20. Kane RD, Cayard MS. Roles of H2S in the behaviour of
engineering alloys: A review of literature and experience.
Corrosion 98. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No. 274; 1998.
21. Lee HI, Lee CH, Baek KK. Technical review on the welding
condition of steel pipes for sulphide stress cracking
resistance. Corrosion 03. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper No.
3531; 2003.
22. Masouri D, Zafari M. Sulphide stress cracking of tubular
product case histories. Corrosion 2005. Houston (TX):
NACE. Paper No. 5460; 2005.
23. Mendez C, Martinez I, Melian L, Vera J. Application of
hydrogen permeation for monitoring sulphide stress crashing
susceptibility. Corrosion 02. Houston (TX): NACE. Paper
No. 2342; 2002.
24. Morales CR, Perez TE, Fitzsimons GL. Test. Corrosion 97.
Houston (TX): NACE, Paper No. 52; 1997.
25. ASME Section VIII. Rules for construction of pressure
vessel, division 1. New York: ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Committee; 2001.
26. API 510. Pressure vessel inspection code: maintenance
inspection, rating, repair, and alteration. Houston (TX):
American Petroleum Institute; 1992.
27. ASTM A106. Standard specification for seamless carbon
steel pipe for high temperature service. Ann Arbor (MI):
ASTM International; 2006.
28. Silva CC, Souza Neto AB, Da Silva FDA, Freitas J, Hwang
IS, Kim DJ, Kim JT. Fracture behaviour of heat affected
zone in low alloy steels. J Nucl Mater. 2001;299:132 139.
33. Barbosa C, De Souza SMC, Centeno RO, Abud IC, Ferraz
OB. Failure analysis of pipes used in a hydro-desulphuration
system of a petrochemical plant. Eng Fail Anal.
2006;13:1076 1091.