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Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics
Time Scales
There are also a wide range of time scales to be considered. Many sub-atomic processes take place over
time scales of 10-20 seconds or less, while the age of the universe is about 1018 seconds. Note also that
the appearance of human beings is a fairly recent phenomenon, as depicted in the cosmic calendar
below.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/ccalendr-
z6bcgd.gif)
-2 1 3 6
In fact the designation of certain groupings of stars as constellations of the zodiac originated because
the apparent motion of the sun during the course of the year carries it through the band aroound the
sky in which these groupings of stars are located the zodiac or more properly the plane of the ecliptic.
Similarly, the planets as they move also are found to be constrained within this same swath of the sky.
Of course other constellations in addition to the twelve of the zodiac were established as well.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/At01fg12-
1m85he3.jpg)
Note that in the above diagram as the earth orbits the sun, the sun appears to be located in successive
constellations of the zodiac. The other planets, which also orbit the sun in planes nearly parallel to the
earths orbital plane, will, from the point of view of an observer on the earth, appear to be located in
the various constellations of the zodiac.
Angular Measurements
In most situations angles are measured in degrees and sub-units of degrees. A full circle is 360
arcdegrees (360o). An arcdegree is subdivided into 60 arcminutes (60), and each arcminute is further
subdivided into 60 arcseconds (60). Note that in connection with angular measurements of Right
Ascension different angular units are employed (hours, minutes, and seconds here referring to time).
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/lunar_eclipse-2fhrg7w.gif)
To specify the apparent location of an object in the sky a number of different coordinate systems are
used.
Historically, the first such system involved using the constellations. As described above the sun and
planets can be crudely located by giving the constellation of the zodiac in which the object is located,
and in fact the entire sky has been subdivided into several dozen constellations. The several thousand
stars which can be seen with the naked eye are designated by giving the constellation in which the star
is located and a Greek letter designation which ranks the stars in a constellation by brightness.
A more precise system is needed for modern astronomy. Two systems are in common use for
observational astronomy. Both these systems use angular measures along a pair of great circles. The
first is the horizon system. While very practical, this system suffers from the fact that the coordinates
of a given object are different for every observer, since the coordinates are determined by the
observers local horizon.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/hori-
1ymlo0z.jpg)
In this system the two great circles are the observers local horizon and the vertical circle on which the
object in question is located. The object is located by giving its azimuth, which is the number of
degrees measured from north to the vertical circle on which the object is located, and then giving the
number of degrees above or below the horizon on the vertical circle the altitude. The azimuth is
equivalent to the longitude of a point on the earth, and the altitude is equivalent to the latitude. Note
that the observers meridian is the vertical circle running from north to south.
A second useful coordinate system is the equatorial coordinate system. This system has the advantage
that it is absolute, in the sense that all observers will obtain the same coordinates for a given object
regardless of the observers locations. The great circles used for this system are the celestial equator
(the projection of the earths equator onto the celestial sphere), and a great circle passing through the
north and south celestial poles and the object in question.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/equa-z8ctfb.jpg)
The object is located by giving the angular distance from the vernal equinox to the great circle on
which the object is located. The vernal equinox is the point of intersection of the celestial equator and
the ecliptic (orbital plane of the earth). In this case the angle is measured not in degrees and fractions
thereof, but in time units. Since the earth rotates 360o in 24 hours, it rotates through 15o in 1 hour.
Thus angles along the celestial equator are measured in time units, and are known as the right
ascension. The angular distance above or below the celestial equator is measured in degrees and is the
declination.
Although the earths axis remains basically pointed in the same direction as the earth orbits the sun,
like a spinning top the axis slowly (~26,000 yrs) precesses. This results in the slow shifting of the
position of the vernal equinox. Thus equatorial coordinates are generally specified for a particular
epoch (e.g. epoch 1950 or eopch 2000).
Two other coordinate systems are also used, but less commonly than the horizon and equatorial
systems. These are the ecliptic and galactic coordinate systems shown in the diagrams below.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial- web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial-
phenomena/eclip/) phenomena/gala/)
Timekeeping
The time required for a given distant star (or more generally a point in space) to cross an observers
meridian and return to the meridian is known as a sidereal day.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/at01fg09-
2e6038y.jpg)
The time required for the sun to cross an observers meridian and return to the meridian is known as a
solar day. The solar day is longer than a sidereal day by approximately 4 minutes, corresponding to the
(approximately) 1o that the earth moves in its orbit each day.
Seasons
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/at01fg10-v5kjf1.jpg)
During the course of the year the sun appears to move along the
ecliptic. Of course this is only apparent motion due to the actual
orbital motion of the earth around the sun. Due to the 23.5o tilt of the
earths axis, the celestial equator and the ecliptic are inclined to each
other at this same angle. The summer and winter solstices are the
points when the sun is respectively at the northernmost and
southernmost points above and below the celestial equator. As the
year progresses the length of the day changes, being longest on the
summer solstice and shortest on the winter solstice (in the northern
hemisphere). This, combined with the angle of incidence of the suns
rays on the earths surface, causes the phenomena of the seasons.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial- web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial-
phenomena/sum/) phenomena/win/)
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial- web-lecture-notes/chapter-1-celestial-
phenomena/inc/) phenomena/inc-1/)
The vernal and autumnal equinoxes are the days of the year when the length of day and night are
equal. The time which elapses between two successive vernal equinoxes in known as a tropical year
(365.242 solar days). The time required for the constellations to complete one full cycle, returning to
the same position in the sky is known as a sidereal year (365.256 solar days). The difference is due to
the precession of the earths rotational axis with a ~26,000 year period.
1whsnmm.gif)
The time required for the moon to complete one revolution measured relative to the stars is a sidereal
month (27.3 days), while the time required for a complete cycle of phases is a synodic month (29.5
days). The difference is again due to the earths orbital motion around the sun.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/aaakkfco-
1bmmiix.gif)
Eclipses
Umbra
Penumbra
Line of Nodes (Eclipse Seasons)
Nutation
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/eclips-
2jki57h.jpg)
Determining Distances
Triangulation
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/Aaakkflo-
24v339g.gif)
Parallax
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/At01fg25-1a7c421.jpg)
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