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Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics

Chapter 15: Solar System Formation

Any model or theory for the formation of the Solar System must have a set of explanations for
large-scale and small-scale properties.

Large-Scale:

1. the planets are isolated in orderly intervals

2. orbits are nearly circular
3. orbits are in the same plane
4. all planets revolve prograde

Small-Scale:

1. Most planets rotate prograde

2. The systems of moons can be divided into regular objects (spherical) with direct orbits versus
irregular objects with eccentric orbits
3. terrestrial planets have
i.high densities
ii.thin or no atmospheres
iii.rotate slowly
iv.rocky, poor in ices and H/He
 4. Jovian worlds have
i.low densities
ii.thick atmospheres
iii.rotate rapidly
iv.many moons
v.fluid interiors, rich in ices, H/He
5. Most of outer SS objects (not just jovian worlds) are ice-rich

Also note that the overall architecture of our Solar System is orderly and the ages of its members
uniform. All indicators point to a single formation event about 4.6 billion years ago.

The above is not to ignore the fact that a great deal of evolution occurred in the Solar System after it
formed (see below). For example, the origin secondary atmospheres of the terrestrial worlds
underwent a large amount of chemical processing (Venus was baked, Mars was frozen, Earth
developed life). There was also orbital evolution as well, rings were formed, moons captured, tidal
locking between worlds (e.g. Pluto and Charon). So the Solar System is not a static system, it is dynamic.

Viewed another way there are a set of constraints placed on any model:

Constraints on models must explain or account for similarities and differences in the characteristics of
the planets. Some of these characteristics may be primordial (e.g. all the planets orbit the sun in the
same direction). Some may have been modified after the formation of the solar system (e.g. the
differences in rotational rates and axial inclinations of the planets).

Constraints that point to possible primordial similarities:

The age of the oldest meteorites is about 4.8 x 109 years.

The suns equator lies roughly in the ecliptic.
Planetary orbits are nearly coplanar.
All planetary orbits are prograde.
Planetary orbits are nearly circular.
Many Satellite orbits are prograde.
Most planets rotate prograde.
Overall abundance ratios of chemical elements in the Jovian planets are like those in stars.
Jovian planets are further from the sun than terrestrial planets.
Oldest planetary surfaces are heavily cratered.

Constraints that point to possible developmental differences (changes after formation):

Terrestrial planets have few volatile materials.

Some planets rotate much more slowly than others.
Planetary rotation axes seem to have no preferred orientation to the ecliptic.
Planetary atmospheres differ greatly from one to another, especially for the terrestrial planets.
Surface of planets and satellites show great variety.
Comets are present at large distances from the sun.
Most, but not all, asteroids are in the belt about 2.8 AU from the sun.
Planets have much more angular momentum than the sun, about 98% of that in the solar system.

How does one test a hypothesis?

To answer scientific questions requires the formulation of a hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested
against the facts to look for contradictions that rule out or require modification to the hypothesis.
Note that the process of hypothesis formulation and then theory building is a lengthy, career
dependent operation. So the sociology of science requires that a hypothesis be tested and
confirmed by many scientists since the creator of the hypothesis has a strong psychological
attachment to his work.
Encounter Hypothesis:

One of the earliest theories for the formation of the planets was called the encounter hypothesis. In this
scenario, a rogue star passes close to the Sun about 5 billion years ago. Material, in the form of hot gas,
is tidally stripped from the Sun and the rogue star. This material fragments into smaller lumps which
form the planets. This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining why the planets all revolve in the
same direction (from the encounter geometry) and also provides an explanation for why the inner
worlds are denser than the outer worlds.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/encounter_hypothesis-17nimqs.gif)

However, there are two major problems for a theory of this type. One is that hot gas expands, not
contracts. So lumps of hot gas would not form planets. The second is that encounters between stars are
extremely rare, so rare as to be improbable in the lifetime of the Universe (15 billion years).

Nebular Hypothesis:

Nebular hypothesis simulation

(http://astronomyonline.org/Animations/SAO/SolarSystemFormation.mov)

A second theory is called the nebular hypothesis. In this theory, the whole Solar System starts as a large
cloud of gas that contracts under self-gravity. Conservation of angular momentum requires that a
rotating disk form with a large concentration at the center (the proto-Sun). Within the disk, planets
form.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/nebular_hypothesis-1bzqwgp.gif)

While this theory incorporates more basic physics, there are several unsolved problems. For example, a
majority of the angular momentum in the Solar System is held by the outer planets. For comparison,
99% of the Solar Systems mass is in the Sun, but 99% of its angular momentum is in the planets.
Another flaw is the mechanism from which the disk turns into individual planets.

Protoplanet Hypothesis:

The current working model for the formation of the Solar System is called theprotoplanet hypothesis
(http://mw01.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~m_rulison/Astronomy/Chap%2015/Images/ss.avi). It incorporates
many of the components of the nebular hypothesis, but adds some new aspects from modern
knowledge of fluids and states of matter. (See http://www.arachnaut.org/meteor/chondrules.html
(http://www.arachnaut.org/meteor/chondrules.html).)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/protoplanet_1-t324tq.gif)

Meanwhile in the inner Solar System:

Note that as the

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/protoplanet_2-1ceiqut.gif) planets began to form

they grew in mass by accreting planetesimals. Since force of gravity is proportional to mass, the largest
planetesimals are accreted first. The early proto-planets are able to sweep the early Solar System clean
of large bodies.

Notice also that the lighter compounds are vaporized in the inner Solar System. So where did all the
outgassing material come from? The answer is comets that fall from the outer Solar System after the
planets form.

Meanwhile in the outer Solar System:

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/protoplanet_3-1i4j8tc.gif)

The Jovian worlds, having an early edge on gathering mass in the colder outer solar disk, were the most
efficient at capturing planetesimals, which only served to increase their already large masses.

As the planetesimals shrink in average size, collisions with proto-planets lead to fragmentation. So
quickly the Solar System divided into large proto-planets and smaller and smaller planetesimals which
eventually became the numerous meteors we see today.
Any leftover large bodies were captured as moons or ejected by gravity assist into the Oort cloud. The
start of thermonuclear fusion in the Suns core created enough luminosity so that the remaining
hydrogen and helium gas in the solar disk was removed by radiation pressure.

The only remaining problem is the distribution of angular momentum. The current explanation for the
fact that most of the angular momentum is in the outer planets is that, by some mechanism, the Sun
has lost angular momentum. The mechanism of choice is magnetic braking.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/mag_braking-1fxg8r7.gif)

The early Sun had a much heavier flow of solar winds particles. Many of the particles in the solar wind
are charged, and are effected by the laws of motion as well as electromagnetic forces. As the solar wind
leaves the solar surface, they are dragged by the magnetic field, which in turn slows down the Suns
rotation.

Other Solar Systems:

Support for the protoplanet hypothesis has been found by the detection of disk material around of
stars, such as Beta Pictoris and by Hubble images of the Orion Nebula.

There are now three verified solar type stars that have Jupiter size planets in orbit around them.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/jworlds-13z1fh0.jpg)

All these object have been detected using Doppler measurement of the velocity of the host star to look
for periodically variations that are the signature of orbital motion. Note that there doesnt appear to be
a correlation between the distance from the host star of the planet and its mass.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/otherplanets-2f30j8h.gif)

http://exoplanet.eu/ (http://exoplanet.eu/)

http://www.psi.edu/epo/planets/planets.html#INTRO
(http://www.psi.edu/epo/planets/planets.html#INTRO)

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