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Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics

Chapter 9: Venus
Additional Venus Notes
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/chapter-9-venus/additional-
venus-notes/)
General Properties
Image collection of Venus (U. Texas) (http://www.tsgc.utexas.edu/images/planets/venus/)
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mru
lison/files/2016/07/compvenus-
262b7gg.jpg)

Computer-generated image of
Venus surface

Although very like Earth in size and mass (often referred to as Earths twin), conditions on Venus are
very different from those on Earth. Although Venus comes closer to Earth than any other planet, it was
the last terrestrial planet to be explored in detail by spacecraft.

Basic Information
At closest approach Venus is only 40 million km from the Earth. Being an inferior planet, like Mercury,
Venus is always found near the Sun in the sky. At greatest elongation it is 47o from the Sun. Venus
alternates between being an evening star (Hesperus) and a morning star (Phosphorus).

Venus average distance from the Sun is 108 million km, and its orbit is the most nearly circular of all
the planets (e=0.007). Venus mass is 82% of Earths, and its radius is oly about 300 km less than
Earths. The uncompressed density of Venus is 4.3 gm/cm3. Being nearly the same as Earths, this
suggests a similar composition and internal structure. This is borne out by other observations.

Property Venus Earth

Semimajor Axis (AU) 0.72 1.00

Revolution Period (yr) 0.61 1.00

Diameter (km) 12104 12756

Mass (Earth=1) 0.82 1.00

 Density (gm/cm3) 5.2 5.5

Uncompressed Density (gm/cm3) 4.3 4.5

Surface Gravity (Earth=1) 0.91 1.00

Escape Velocity (km/s) 10.4 11.4

Rotation Period (days) 243 1.00

Surface Area (Earth=1) 0.94 1.00

Reflectivity 0.7 0.5

Atmospheric Pressure (bars) 90 1.00

Atmospheric Composition

Appearance
Only the Sun and the Moon are brighter than Venus. It can even be seen during the day, if one knows
exactly where to look. Venus goes through all phases, like the Moon. Galileo used this observation to
argue for the correctness of the Copernican model of the cosmos. At full phase Venus is not observable,
since it is then at superior conjunction, and nearly in line with the Sun. Even if it could be seen, it is
then farthest from the Earth and has an angular diameter of only 10. Venus largest angular size (64)
occurs when it is at inferior conjunction and new phase. Of course, it is also unobservable at this
point. Venus has its greatest brightness when in a crescent phase at 39o elongation. At this point, 36
days before and after inferior conjunction, its angular size is 50.

Venus surface is not observable due to the dense cloud cover. The albedo of 0.7 is a measure of the
efficiency with which these clouds reflect incident light.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/venus-

14n8mui.jpg)

Rotation
Venus rotation period, like Mercurys, was determined by Doppler radar. These measurements
showed that Venus rotates retrograde from east to west with a period of about 250 days. Later,
more precise observation of the rotation of topographic features on the surface showed the rotation
period to be 243.018 days. The period of revolution of Venus is 224.695 days. Thus one Venusian day
is 116.75 Earth days in length. (1/224.695 + 1/243.018 = 1/116.75) The Sun rises in the west and sets in
the east after 58.375 days of daylight.

Note that Venus rotation period is nearly 243.16 days, which would be a 3:2 resonance with Earths
orbital period. Thus inferior conjunctions occur every 583.92 days (1/224.695 1/365.25 = 1/583.92).
But, 583.92 = (5.001) X (116.75), so Venus presents almost exactly the same face toward the Earth at each
conjunction.

Exploration
More spacecraft have been sent to Venus than to any other planet. After the US sent Mariner 2 in 1962,
the Soviet Union dominated the early period of Venusian exploration. Several of the first Venera
probes were crushed by the high atmospheric pressure before reaching the surface, but in 1970 Venera
7 landed successfully and transmitted data for 23 minutes before failing due to high surface
temperatures. Additional Venera probes and landers took photographs and analyzed the soil and
atmosphere. In 1985 two balloons were dropped into Venus atmosphere by Soviet VEGA flyby
missions.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/venera-

quw7j3.jpg)

More recent missions have concentrated on study of the surface rather than the atmosphere. Due to
the presence of thick clouds radar must be used to image the surface topography. In the late 1970s the
Pioneer 12 orbiter produced a low-resolution global radar map. This was followed by the Venera 15
and 16 radar orbiters in the 1980s. In 1990 the Magellan orbiter began to study the surface at a
resolution of 100 m.

Venusian Surface
Venus has volcanic and tectonic processes, as would be expected from the similarity of its composition
and size when compared with Earth. However, there are important differences due to a lack of erosion
and significant plate tectonics.

http://www2.ucar.edu/ (http://www2.ucar.edu/)

http://maps.jpl.nasa.gov/venus.html (http://maps.jpl.nasa.gov/venus.html)

http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour.html (http://www.physics.purdue.edu/academic-
programs/courses/course_detail.php?c=astr263)

Seeing Through the Clouds

Radar maps show a surface which looks like the Earths surface might look if it were not constantly be
modified by erosion and deposition of sediments. The lack of surface water and ice, and the low wind
speeds at the surface results in little or no modification of the geological features produced by
volcanism and crustal forces. Thus hundreds of millions of years of geological activity are preserved
on Venus surface.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/aphrodite-

1psr2hp.jpg)

Magellan radar images show bright regions which are highly reflective rough areas, and darker regions
which are generally smoother. Craters and volcanoes are easily identified in the radar images.

Roughly 80% of the surface is lowland lava plains like the basaltic ocean basins of the Earth or the
lunar maria. The origin of these lowland regions are different, however. There is no evidence of large
impact basins like those on the Moon (lunar maria), nor of plate tectonics like those which formed
terrestrial ocean basins. While large stresses have cracked the crust of Venus, the forces have not led to
plate motion.

At a higher elevation are (1) individual mountains, (2) mountain ranges, and (3) two full-scale
continents. Aphrodite, the larger continent, is about the size of Africa, stretching along the equator for
nearly one third of its length. It is the highest part of an equatorial zone of cracked and stressed crust
which circles the planet. The smaller continent, Ishtar, is a northern hemisphere highland about the
size of Australia. Ishtar contains the planets highest region, the Maxwell Mountains.

Craters and Surface Age

The high-resolution Magellan images allow a determination of the surface age. A young surface age
implies an active geology. The largest crater on Venus is Mead, having a diameter of 275 km. Slightly
larger than the largest terrestrial craters, Mead is much smaller than the lunar impact basins.

At first thought it might seem that the extensive atmosphere would prevent surface impacts. This is
actually only the case for smaller projectiles (< 2 km diameter), which are responsible for craters of less
than 30 km diameter. In fact very few craters less than 10 km in diameter are found on Venus. Those
between 10 km and 30 km are often distorted, probably due to the explosion of the incoming projectile
in the atmosphere, before impact. Multiple craters produced by fragmentation of the projectile are
also seen. Above 30 km the crater count can be employed to date the surface.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/impactcrat-wlk494.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/3impact-

1wr0xzc.jpg)

The number of craters on the plains are about 15% of the lunar mare values, implying a surface age
about 15% as great around 500 million years. This suggests a level of geologic activity between that of
the Earths ocean basins (younger, very active) and that of its continents (older, less active).

The craters appear fresh, with little degradation or filling in by lava or dust. Crater destruction
occurs only due to large-scale resurfacing by volcanic activity. Volcanism appears to be ongoing on
Venus.

Volcanism on Venus
In lowland plains large flows of very liquid lava destroy old craters and generate a fresh surface every
few hundred million years. Also, volcanic mountains and other surface features are associated with
hot spots where convections in the mantle brings interior heat to the surface.

For example, one of the largest volcanoes, Sif Mons, is 500 km in diameter and 3 km high. This is lower,
but broader than Mauna Loa in Hawaii. At its top is a 40 km diameter caldera. Thousands of smaller
volcanoes populate the surface down to the limit of Magellan resolution. These are similar to
terrestrial volcanoes.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/volc1-

28mrsvh.jpg)

There are also circular, flat-topped volcanoes known as pancake domes. The larger of these are 25
km in diameter and 2 km in height, with steep slopes at their edges. These seem to be the result of the
eruption of thick, highly viscous lava.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/pnckdome-1r9tvtx.jpg)

Magellan also found (unexpectedly) extremely long (several thousand kilometers) lava channels or
rivers. These imply the existence of extremely fluid, fast-flowing lavas. Wide range of lava viscosities.

In addition to lava flows onto the surface, hot magma from deep in the interior can collect under the
surface, producing bulges in the crust. Many of the granite mountain ranges on the Earth are produced
in this way (Sierra Nevada). On Venus, due to lack of plate tectonics and erosion, this type of feature is
more visible. The typical expression of this phenomenon is a large circular or oval feature known as a
corona. These may be several hundred kilometers in diameter, with slightly raised interiors
surrounded by a depressed ring or moat. These are unique to Venus.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/corona-

1ylpgfn.jpg)

Tectonic Activity
Mantle convection currents exert tectonic forces on the crust. Although full-scale plate motion has not
occured, the crust is subjected to pushing and stretching which produces a variety of tectonic features.
Venus geology is dominated by mantle convection forces blob tectonics.
On lowland plains the lava surface has been broken by tectonic forces to produce patterns of ridges
and cracks, and in some places the surface has been torn apart resulting in great rift valleys. The
coronae and most mountains are the result of tectonic forces.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/ridges-2fn0xkb.jpg)

Cracks & Ridges (Lakshmi Plains)

The Ishtar continent and Maxwell Mountains are also the result of tectonic processes. Like the Tibetan
Plateau and Himalayan Mountains on Earth they are the result of compression of the crust due to
mantle convection.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/file
s/2016/07/foldmtn-23gqgmq.jpg)

Folded Mountains (~2 km height on

Ishtar)

Surface Conditions
When the Venera landers of the 1970s recorded surface conditions, they found a surface pressure of 90
bars and a temperature of 730 K (hot enough to melt lead and zinc). Chemical analysis of surface rocks
showed that in the Venera landing area the surface rock is igneous, mainly basaltic. Photographs
showed a desolate, flat landscape with a variety of rocks, some of which might be ejecta from impacts.
Other areas show flat, layered lava flows.

While the sun cannot shine directly on the surface due to the cloud cover, the surface is well
illuminated by diffused sunlight. The blue light having been scattered out, the surface light is strongly
tinted red. The surface weather is relatively unchanging hot, dry, mild winds. Due to the massive
atmosphere, the weather is basically the same at all points on the surface.

Venusian Atmosphere
The atmosphere is, in many ways, Venus most dominant feature.

Composition and Structure

In 1932 telescopic observations revealed the presence of carbon dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere.
The Venera and Pioneer probes confirm that 96% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. Nitrogen
accounts for most of the rest of the atmosphere. (This composition is very similar to Mars, but in most
other respects these two atmospheres are very different.)

Gas Venus Mars Earth

CO2 96% 95% 0.03%

N2 3.5 2.7 78

Ar 0.006 1.6 0.93

O2 0.003 0.15 21

Ne 0.001 0.0003 0.002

Measurements indicate the presence of SO2 in the middle atmosphere (see discussion of clouds below).
There are conflicting observations of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, but in any case
the dryness of the atmosphere is notable. The absence of water distinguishes Venus from Earth.

Venus atmosphere has a huge troposphere extending up to 50 km from the surface. Within the
troposphere the gases are heated from below and circulate, rising near the equator and sinking near
the poles. With no rapid rotation to break up this flow (compare Coriolis force on Earth), the
atmospheric circulation is very stable. The shear size of the atmosphere also lends stability. Thus, at
the surface the temperature is quite stable.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/atmos-

2ak9vi2.jpg)

In spite of a long record of spectroscopic observations of the light reflected from the clouds, the nature
of those clouds was unclear for a long time. There were no identifiable features in the visible part of
the spectrum. In the 1970s analysis of the infrared portion of the spectrum showed that the clouds
were composed of sulfuric acid droplets, formed by the combination of SO2 and H2O.

In addition, probes have confirmed the presence of other particulate materials in the clouds, probably
grains of sulfur. On the Earth SO2 is emitted by volcanoes, but quickly diluted and washed out of the
atmosphere by rainfall. This is consistent with the absence of water, and the presence of ongoing
volcanism, on Venus. The cloud layer is in the upper troposphere (30-60 km), with the layer below 30
km clear. At the top of the cloud layers the wind speed is very high, blowing from east to west at 360
km/hr. In this venerian jet stream cloud patterns are carried around the planet in a four-day super-
rotation.

Greenhouse Eect and Surface Temperature

High surface temperature first found in 1950s by radio astronomy (~700 K). Confirmed by Venera and
Mariner 2 probes. This was puzzling, since cannot be understood based on simple solar heating.
While Venus surface is hot, it is not emitting more energy thatn it receives from the Sun. At the cloud
tops it is 250 K as expected for a planet with Venus albedo and distance from the Sun. So, the
question is not an internal energy source, but how the surface is so well-insulated. Greenhouse effect
of Venus substantial, and permanently cloudy atmosphere. Sagan, and later Pollack, constructed a
model for Venus greenhouse effect.

Source Deleted Decrease in Temperature (K)

CO2 463

H2O 218

Clouds 113

SO2 52

Runaway Greenhouse
Venus atmosphere was probably Earth-like at an earlier stage. A small rise in the temperature due to a
fluctuation in solar output, or an increase of atmospheric CO2, leads to a further increase of CO2 and
H2O as a result of evaporation and release from surface rocks. This leads to a further temperature
increase since both are Greenhouse gases. Once enhanced this runaway greenhouse effect is difficult
(imposssible) to reverse. Water vapor is dissoiated by UV radiation from Sun, with the result that the
hydrogen escapes and the oxygen combines with surface rock. Thus once evaporated, the water cannot
be restored.

Isotopic analysis of sulfuric acid cloud particles shows that Venus once had enough water to account
for modest-sized oceans. [If large amounts of hydrogen escaped Venus atmosphere, the remaining
hydrogen should be enriched in deuterium, since it escapes somewhat more slowly.]

Evolution of Venus
Venus evolutionary processes are probably very similar to Earths with a few significant differences.

Internal Structure and Composition

Venus composition is very similar to Earths, as revealed by the very similar uncompressed densities.
Thus it contains significant amount of both metal and rock. Both planets are differentiated. The
differences in magnetic fields are probably due to the very different rotation rates of Earth and Venus.

Geological Activity
Venus has a substantial molten metallic core, a plastic mantle, and a crust which is tectonically active.
Venus experiences blob tectonics as opposed to plate tectonics. The slow rotation rate probably
accounts for the absence of a significant magnetic field.

Geologic activity as seen on Earth and Venus requires heat energy either left over from the formation
of the planet itself, or generated by radioactive decay within the planet. In either case the larger the
planet the more likely it is to retain its internal heat. Doubling the mass (volume) of a planet doubles
the energy which must eventually be released as the planet cools. But a doubling of the planet volume
only increases the surface area of the planet by a factor of 1.6, thus causing larger objects to cool more
slowly than smaller objects.

BODY MOST RECENT ACTIVITY

Moon 3.3 BYA

Mercury ~3.3 BYA

Mars 4 BYA (So. Hemis.), ~3.3 BYA (No. Hemis.), Tharsis <3 BYA, Volcanism Ongoing

Venus Ongoing Blob Tectonics (~500 MY avg. surface age)

Earth Ongoing Plate Tectonics (~200 MY avg. surface age in oceans)

Elevation Dierences
Mountains are produced in different ways on the each of the terrestrial planets. On the Moon and
Mercury, any mountains are ejecta from large impacts long ago. On Mars the large mountains are
shield volcanoes. Shield volcanoes are also found on Earth and Venus, but the largest mountains on
these planets are tectonic in origin.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/olympmons-1rzbf6v.jpg)

Volcanic mountains on the Earth are limited in size due to the motion of crustal plates over the mantle
hot spots. On Mars, the lack of plate motion allows a single hot spot to generate a large mountain over
time. Also, the lower gravity on Mars allows mountains there to have a greater size supported by the
inherent strength of the volcanic rock. On Venus the high temperature causes volcanic rock to have an
even lower inherent strength than on Earth, thus imposing a lower limit on mountain height there.

The limiting size of an object which can have an irregular shape is dependent on the inherent strength
of the material. For example, silicate rocks limit irregular shaped objects to a diameter of about 400
km. Objects larger than this will be approximately spherical, while smaller objects can be irregularly
shaped. This conclusion is supported by observation of satellites and asteroids.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/compvolc-

1mw462a.jpg)

Atmospheres
Terrestrial planet atmospheres are the result of outgassing and impacts of volatile-rich debris from the
outer solar system. Each of the planets must have had a similar atmosphere initially. Mercury could
not retain its atmosphere due to its low mass. The Moon most likely did not have an initial atmosphere,
since the material from which it was formed seems to have been depleted of volatiles.

The predominant atmospheric gas today is CO2. Earlier there must have also been hydrogen-
containing gases. In such a reduced environment there would have been CO, traces of ammonia (NH3),
methane (CH4). UV light from the sun would have dissociated these gases, and after the escape of the
hydrogen the oxidized atmospheres found today were the result.

Water in the environments of the terrestrial planets evolved differently in each case. Mars initially had
a thick atmosphere with abundant water. The CO2 needed for a substantial greenhouse effect was not
present (or lost), so the temperature dropped and the wtaer froze. On Venus the runaway greenhouse
effect resulted in the complete loss of all water. On Earth a balance between these two extremes has
been maintained, permitting the continued existence of liquid water.

On Venus and Mars, the removal of liquid water resulted in an atmosphere of ~96% CO2, with a little
N2. On Earth the presence of water, and later life, produced a very different atmosphere. First the
CO2 was removed by water into the ocean sediments. Evolution of photosynthetic life led to an
abundance of free oxygen.

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