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Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics

Chapter 10: Mars

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/marsattack-smbseh.jpg)

Although quite different in size, Mars has surface conditions that most nearly resemble Earths. Its
geologic history is also very similar to Earths. Water is abundant on Mars, although it is all frozen
beneath the surface or in polar ice caps. While life may have existed there at one time, the large
changes in the Martian environment would have extinguished any extant life. Mars could probably
support a self-sufficient human colony.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/erosion-xktdgd.jpg)

General Properties
Basic Facts
Mars is an average distance of 227 million kilometers from the Sun. With a slightly eccentric orbit
(e=0.093) its distance from the Sun varies by 42 million kilometers. The sidereal revolution period of
Mars is 687 days, while its synodic period is 780 days. Thus Mars is at opposition every 26 months, and
at this point being full phase and closest to Earth it is favorable for observation.

Mars is visibly red due to the presence of iron oxides in the surface soil. Its reflectivity is more than
double that of the Moon. At closest approach Mars angular diameter is 25, and with good telescopes
the best resolution is about 100 km, roughly the same as viewing the Moon with the unaided eye. At
this level of resolution the polar caps can be seen as well as surace markings which change with the
seasons. However, no topographical features (mountains, valleys, craters, etc.) can be seen. Mars is the
only planet whose surface can be seen from Earth, and changes visible on the surface indicate a
dynamic atmosphere.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/vkgmars-

rleyfn.jpg)
Permanent surface features have enabled a precise determination of Mars rotation period
24h37m23s, nearly the same as that of the Earth. Mars rotation axis is tilted (or oblique) by 25o,
similar to Earth. This causes Mars to experience seasons like those of Earth, but nearly twice as long
due to the longer Martian year. Bright polar caps of water ice or CO2 ice form during the winter, and
disappear in spring and summer.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/marsearth-1hhph31.jpg)

Mars has only 11% the mass of the Earth, but this is sufficient to retain an atmosphere. Consisting
almost exclusively of CO2, this atmosphere exerts only 1% of the pressure of Earths atmosphere. Mars
is also massive enough to support endogenic activity, some continuing until today.

Mars Earth

Semimajor Axis (AU) 1.52 1.00

Revolution Period (yr) 1.88 1.00

Diameter (km) 6794 12756

Mass (Earth=1) 0.11 1.00

Density (gm/cm3) 3.9 5.5

Uncompressed Density (gm/cm3) 3.8 4.5

Surface Gravity (Earth=1) 0.38 1.00

Escape Velocity (km/s) 5 11

Rotation Period (hr) 24.6 23.9

Surface Area (Earth=1) 0.28 1.00

Surface Reflectivity 0.2 0.5

Atmospheric Pressure (bar) 0.006 1.00

Atmospheric Composition CO2 (95%) N2 (78%)

http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour/mars.html
http://www.windows.umich.edu/cgi-bin/tour.cgi?
link=/mars/mars.html&sw=false&sn=610533&d=/mars&edu=mid&br=graphic&cd=false&fr=f&tour=

http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/nineplanets/mars.html

http://www.hawastsoc.org/solar/eng/mars.htm

Observation of Canals

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/schiap-

17fxdy2.jpg)

Schiaparellis Maps

In 1877 Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli announced his discovery of long, faint, straight lines
on the surface of Mars. He called these canale, or channels. This was translated into English as
canals, which implied they were of artificial origin. This led to the speculation that these were
artificial waterways constructed by intelligent Martians. [1898 H.G.Wells War of the Worlds]

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/warworld-

17ehaxe.jpg)
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/
mrulison/files/2016/07/lowel
l-s7n0hs.jpg)

Percival Lowell

Inspired by the discovery of the canals, Percival Lowell constructed (1894) Lowell Observatory in
Flagstaff, AZ. Lowell believed he saw hundreds of Martian canals (see map below), and also found
similar markings on Venus and the moons of Jupiter. Lowell was an effective speaker and author, and
made a convincing case for intelligent Martians . When larger telescopes were constructed at Mt.
Wilson (for example), the canals failed to be confirmed. While astronomers abandoned the canal idea,
it persisted in public consciousness until spacecraft photos clearly showed no canals.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/canals-16un4bk.jpg)

Lowells Map

History of Mars Exploration

Modern investigation of Mars began in 1965 when Mariner 4 flew by Mars and sent 22 close-up images
back to Earth. These showed an apparently bleak planet with abundant impact craters. The craters
were, at that time, somewhat unexpected. Mariners 6 and 7 followed in 1969, returning much more
data, and confirming the cratering and an apparent lack of endogenic activity.

In 1971 Mariner 9 became the first craft to orbit another planet. Also in 1971 the Soviet Union landed
two craft on the surface, but both failed before returning any useful data. Mariner 9 mapped the entire
planet to a resolution of about 1 km, and in the process found a number of surface features missed by
earlier flybys. These included volcanoes, canyons, layering of the polar caps, and apparent erosion
channels.

The Viking missions undertaken in 1976 consisted of two landers and two orbiters. The orbiters
produced higher resolution maps than Mariner 9, and relayed information from the landers to Earth.
The Viking 1 lander finally set down on the Chryse Planitia, while Viking 2 landed two months later on
the Utopia Planitia.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/lander-

2m55euz.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/chryse-1r7mcq2.jpg)

Most of our knowledge of Mars, prior to the recent Pathfinder and Global Surveyor missions, is the
result of the four Viking craft. In addition to analyzing the atmosphere and the surface material, and
monitoring the Martian climate, the Viking landers also tested the landing sites for evidence of
microorganisms.
The orbiters eventually mapped the surface to a resolution of a few meters, and made close flybys of
the two Martian moons Phobos and Deimos. Viking 1 ended its mission in late 1982.

Mars rovers have recently increased our knowledge of Martian topography and conditions immensely.
NASA/JPL movie (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UmRx4dEdRI).

Global Properties
Mars diameter, at 6787 km, is just over half that of the Earth. Is surface area is approximately equal to
the continental surface area on Earth. With an uncompressed density of 3.8 gm/cm3, its composition
must be intermediate between that of the Earth and the Moon primarily silicate rock, with possibly a
substantial metallic core. Precise tracking of spacecraft in orbit around Mars confirm the existence of a
core, which is hypothesized to be iron sulfide (FeS) with a diameter of about 2400 km. Since Mars has
no detectable magnetic field, the core is probably not liquid.

While no seismic studies exist from which to determine Mars internal structure, its size clearly
suggests that it is a differentiated body. The Martian surface exhibits two main types of terrain, at least
superficially like the Earths surface 200 million years ago before Pangea split apart.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/geomap-

2gc3cdu.jpg)

http://maps.jpl.nasa.gov/textures/mar0kuu2.jpg

Roughly half the surface, primarily in the southern hemisphere, consists of ancient cratered terrain.
The other half, mostly in the northern hemisphere, has younger volcanic plains. Like terrestrial ocean
basins and lunar maria, the elevation of these plains is typically several kilometers lower than the
southern highlands. In many places the transition between these two types of terrain is fairly abrupt,
with a 4-5 km elevation change over a horizontal distance of a few hundred km. The lowland plains
are not the result of large impacts, but rather of some as yet unknown process which destroyed the
ancient crust and lowered elevation by 5 km over half of the planet.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/argyre-

1a13wp9.jpg)

Mars doe have large impact basins, but they lie in the older southern highlands. The largest of these
basins, Hellas, has a diameter of 1800 km and a depth of 6 km. This is larger than the largest lunar
basins. Like the smaller Argyre basin, all these imapct basins are surrounded by mountains formed in
the impact.

There also exists an east-west asymmetry. On one side, at the boundary between the highlands and the
plains, there is a very large bulge rising nearly 10 km above the surrounding area. This Tharsis bulge is
a volcanically active region with four large volcanoes rising an additional 15 km above the bulge.

While the elevation difference between Mt. Everest and the deepest ocean trench is about 17 km, on
Mars there is a 30 km difference between the bottom of the Hellas basin and the tops of the highest
volcanoes.

Moons of Mars
Kepler predicted the existence of two moons for Mars, based on numerology. Since Earth had one
moon and Galileo had recently discovered that Jupiter had four, Mars being between the two should
have two moons, he reasoned. Jonathan Swift described two moons in Gullivers Travels in 1726, and
150 years later Asaph Hall (USNO) discovered Mars two satellites Phobos and Deimos.

Phobos is 9380 km from Mars center and completes a revolution in 7h39m. Deimos is at a distance of
23,500 km, with a period of 30h18m. Since Phobos revolution period is less than Mars rotation period,
it would appear to rise in the west and set in the east.

The Viking orbiters studied Phobos and Deimos at close range in 1976, and a Soviet mission targeted
Phobos in 1989. Both moons are irregular in shape and heavily cratered. Both are thought to be
captured asteroids.

Volcanoes and Other Geological Surface Features

Martian Shield Volcanoes
Roughly a dozen very large volcanoes have been found on Mars. Most are in the Tharsis bulge region
of the planet. There are also smaller volcanoes distributed primarily throughout the younger northern
half of the planet. Three of the largest volcanoes lie on the crest of the Tharsis bulge, each having a
diameter of 400 km. The largest, Olympus Mons, on the northwest slope of the Tharsis region has a
diameter of 500 km and a height of 25 km. Its volume is nearly 100 times that of the largest terrestrial
volcano (Mauna Loa).

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/olympus-1oyvu9o.jpg)

Olympus Mons (25 km height; note cloud

layers)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/caldera-2156rt8.jpg)

Summit Caldera
(80 km diameter; note flat-floored
collapse craters)

These large volcanoes are shield volcanoes, similar to those in Hawaii and the Galapagos Islands. They
consist of a number of overlapping flows of relatively fluid basaltic lava. The summits are
characterized by calderas, which are broad flat-floored collapse craters. The caldera of Olympus Mons
is 80 km in diameter.
Detailed Viking images allow astronomers to search for impact craters. These can be used to determine
the surface age. While many volcanoes show a significant number of craters, indicating these
volcanoes became inactive as much as a billion years ago, the larger ones like Olympus Mons have very
few indicating that its surface cannot be more than about 100 million years old. These largest
volcanoes are most likely active today.

Canyons and Tectonic Features

In the Tharsis bulge region, the planet surface has bulged upward, presumably due to the great
internal pressure. So, the bulge itself is tectonic in origin even though the volcanoes are (obviously)
volcanic in origin. Other tectonic features include extensive cracks in the crust crossing the Tharsis
area.

There appears to be no plate tectonics on Mars. The Tharsis region is one of the few tectonic features,
as if it were the beginning of crustal activity which subsided before full-blown plate tectonics could
initiate.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/tharsis-

2kxzkvl.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/marineris-2l25rzz.jpg)

Valles Marineris (width of image = 5000

km)

The Valles Marineris is probably the most spectacular tectonic feature. This great canyon system
extends nearly 5000 km (1/4 the way around the planet) along the slopes of the Tharsis region. The
main canyon is 7 km deep and 100 km wide. While the term canyon is suggestive of the shape of this
feature, it is not the result of running water. The Marineris canyons have no outlets. They are large
cracks in the crust due to tectonic forces.

While water did not have a role in the formation of the canyons, it probably did play a role in later
shaping of the canyons. Cliffs were undercut by seepage from deep springs, resulting in landslides
which gradually widened the original cracks into the canyon system observed today. Material from
recent landslides can clearly be seen on valley floors.
The Valles Marineris is probably similar in origin to the Great African Rift Valley a splitting of the
crust due to forces exerted by the mantle convection currents below. These same forces are thought to
have been at work 2-3 billion years ago when the Tharsis and Valles Marineris formed.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/landslide-skwxo7.jpg)

Oblique views of Cliffs and Landslides in

Valles Marineris

Cratered Uplands
In the southern highlands the craters observed are clearly impact type, although probably modified
more than lunar craters due to the effects of erosion. There appear to be no crater rays nor ejecta
blankets, and some of the oldest craters appear to have been partially filled in.

In the equatorial plains regions there are great numbers of small, twisting channels that have the
appearance of having been cut by running water. A typical runoff channelis a few meters deep, several
tens of meters wide, and 10-20 km long. These channels probably carried the surface runoff from
ancient rainstorms. No rain occurs today on Mars, indicating a significant climate change. But when?
Crater counting reveals that the Martian highlands are more cratered than the lunar maria, but less so
that the lunar highlands. Thus the highlands are thought to be about 3.9-4.0 billion years old. Ther are
no runoff channels in the northern volcanic plains.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/runoff-

xqe2rk.jpg)

Volcanic Plains
The volcanic plains which dominate the northern hemisphere are very similar in appearance to the
lunar maria, and have about the same numbers of impact craters. Thus, they probably formed about 3-
4 billion years ago. Evidently Mars experienced extensive volcanism about the same time the Moon
did, producing volcanic flood basalts. What is still not understood is what forces could have removed
the old crust material and lowered the elevation level.

While volcanic in origin, the Martian plains have been modified by erosion and sedimentation. Some
are basins into which huge river channels from the uplands empty. These may at one time have
contained shallow seas. Other plains, closer to the north pole, are covered by extensive sand dunes.

Surface Conditions
Both Viking landers set down in volcanic plains regions. Viking 1 landed in Chryse (latitude 22oN) near
the lowest point of a broad basin. Here the surface was covered with numerous angular rocks, some
large (>1 m), and dune-like fine-grained soil deposits. On the horizon the profiles of impact craters can
be seen.

Viking 2 landed in Utopia (latitude 48oN), a similar site but with more rocks probably ejecta from a
90-km crater 200 km away. In both cases the surface was probably stripped of loose material to expose
the larger rocks.

The landers photographed the surroundings with stereo color cameras, sampled the atmosphere with
analytical instruments, and collected soil samples which were brought onboard the landers for
analysis. The soil was found to consist of clays and iron oxides.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/vkgland-

1fddtga.jpg)

Each lander also carried meteorological instruments to measure temperature, pressure and wind
speeds. The pressure at the surface was found to vary considerably, since the primary atmospheric gas,
CO2, is also the primary component of the polar ice caps. Thus the pressure varies seasonally.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/pressvar-

tqw7zx.jpg)

The temperature on Mars is also more highly variable than on Earth, since the moderating effects of
oceans and extensive atmosphere are not present. The summer maximum recorded was 240 K, while
the temperature dropped to 190 K just before dawn. During the winter, Viking 2 observed frost
deposits on the surface.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrul
ison/files/2016/07/frost-
xtpoay.jpg)

Surface Frost at Viking 2 Site

(late winter)

The winds measured at the Viking sites were typically between 2 m/s at night, up to 7 m/s during the
daylight hours. Occasionally there can be great windstorms which cover the entire planet in airborne
dust.

Martian Surface Samples(?)

Much of our knowledge of the Moon derives from the study of samples returned to Earth by the
various lunar missions. Although no such samples have been returned from Mars, it is believed that
there do exist on Earth Martian samples. These are in the form of so-called SNC meteorites. [SNC
stands for the recovery sites: Shergotty (India), Nakhla (Egypt), and Chassigny (France).] Four such
meteorites have been in collections on Earth for some time, and several new fragments have recently
been found in Antarctica, excellently preserved.

For a list of all known Martian meteorites see: http://www.meteorlab.com/snclist.htm

These meteorites are basaltic and have solidification ages of about 1.3 billion years, so they are fairly
young. Typical meteorits are about 4.5 billion years old. The meteorites are clearly not from the
Moon, as it had no volcanic activity that recently. The composition also rules out Earth as their source.
By elimination their origin therefore seems to be Mars, where the Tharsis region volcanoes were
certainly active at that time. This conclusion is supported by the analysis of gases trapped in the
meteorites, which matches perfectly the atmospheric analysis carried out by the Viking landers.
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/marsmeteor-165n7do.jpg)

SNC Meteorite

These fragments were apparently ejected as the result of some large impact, probably on one of the
Tharsis volcanoes. Analysis of these meteorites along with conclusions drawn from density
measurements, etc. have given the best estimates of the composition of Mars.

Mineral Percent

SiO2 46

Fe2O3 19

Al2O3 8

SO3 7

MgO 6

CaO 6

Na2O 1

H2O 1

There is also recent speculation that there is evidence of primitive lifeforms preserved as fossils in
some of the Martian meteorites.

For a NASA release on the possible fossil life in Mars meteorites see:
http://www.meteorlab.com/nasamars.htm

For evidence pro & con related to these claims see: http://meteor.co.nz/mars.html

For a comprehensive Mars meteorite page see NASA/JPLs: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/

Polar Caps, Atmosphere, and Martian Climate

Martian Atmosphere
Mars atmosphere is dominated by CO2, with smaller amounts of nitrogen and argon. Recall that
Earths atmosphere would have a similar composition if not for the CO2being locked in marine
sediments. Note that the temperatures are nearly always below the freezing point of water, so it is not
expected to be a major component of the Martian Atmosphere.

Element or Compound Percent

CO2 95.3 (var)

N2 2.7

Ar 1.6

O2 0.15

H2O 0.03

Ne 0.0003

Mars, like Earth, has a troposphere in which convection occurs. Above this is a more stable, cold
stratosphere. During the daylight hours the troposphere has a height of about 10 km and it is heated
from below by surface absorption of sunlight. At night and in the polar latitudes the surface
temperature is much lower and no troposphere exists.

Several types of clouds form in the atmosphere. (1) Dust clouds, raised by winds, which can cover a
large portion of the planet. (2) Water ice clouds similar to those found in Earths atmosphere. These
often form around mountains. Low-lying fog also forms just before dawn when surface temperatures
drop to ~170 K. (3) The CO2can condense at high altitudes to form hazy clouds of dry ice crystals.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/fog-1enenvn.jpg)

Usually the atmosphere is much clearer than Earths, with relatively few clouds. Exceptions are major
dust storms which form in the southern hemisphere in the summer. Once formed these grow, often
enveloping the entire planet. When this happens, sunlight is absorbed by the dust clouds rather than
the surface, and the atmosphere is heated from above instead of below. The troposphere disappears
and teamperatures tend to become relatively uniform across the entire planet. Atmopsheric
circulation changes.

Except for these dust storms the Martian climate is fairly predictable. Due to the thinness of the
atmosphere and its lack of water, the atmosphere responds very quickly to changes in surface
temperature. Wind patterns tend to repeat on a daily cycle. Local topography plays a large role in
conditions at a specific site.

While there is some water in the atmosphere, and water ice clouds can form, liquid water is not stable
in the present Martian atmosphere. Partly this is due to the low temperatures, but even on occasions
when the temperature rises above the freezing point liquid water cannot exist at most locations. Due
to the low atmospheric pressure (0.006 bar) only the solid and vapor forms of H2O are stable. That is,
under these conditions the boiling point is effectively lower than the freezing point (sublimation).
Thus Mars is truly dry, although water is most likely in ice form under the surface and in the polar
caps.

Polar Caps
The most prominent feature of Mars through a telescope is its white polar caps, which grow and recede
with the seasons. This situation is analogous to seasonal snow cover on Earth. The bulk of the Martian
polar caps is dry ice (CO2) which condenses directly out of the atmosphere when surface temperatures
drop below 150 K. During the Martian winters the caps extend down to about 55o latitude in the south
and about 45o latitude in the north. This difference (similar to Earth) is due to the relationship
between planet axis tilt and position of perihelion of the orbit.

In addition to the seasonal caps there are permanent caps that are always present near the poles. This
residual cap is brighter and thicker than the seasonal one. The southern permanent cap is dry ice with
a diameter of about 350 km. It is able to survive the southern summer heat intact. There may also be
water ice below the dry ice in this permanent cap, but it has not been directly observed.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/polarcaps-

2mgznsm.jpg)

The permanent northern cap is much larger (>1000 km), and composed of water ice. Northern summer
temperatures are too high for dry ice to remain frozen. Although the exact thickness of this cap is
unknown, it clearly is a huge reservoir of water, especially when compared with the trace amounts in
the atmosphere.

Although the southern summers are warmer than the northern ones, CO2 survives in the south but not
the north(!?). The explanation is probably connected with the dust storms which always occur during
northern winter. During these storms thenorthern cap becomes dusty and dark, so that it absorbs
more sunlight and heats more rapidly when spring arrives evaporating the CO2 and retaining the
H2O.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/southcap-

10ma6go.jpg)

The terrain around the permanent caps is very unusual. Above 80o latitude (N and S) the surface
consists of recent layered sedimentary deposits completely covering the cratered surface below.
Individual layers are tens of meters in thickness, and probably consist of dust carried by winds from
equatorial regions and deposited as the permanent caps grow and shrink. Calculations indicate that
about 1 mm of dust per year might be deposited in this way. Thus a 10-m layer would require 10,000
Martian years to accumulate. Thus we have evidence for a cyclic change in the climate of Mars. Note
that these intervals are similar to the periods between terrestrial ice ages. The causes are probably
similar as well: orbital variations and obliquity changes induced by gravitational perturbations of
other planets.

Catastrophic Flooding
Climate changes on the scale of tens of thousands of years are indicated by poar deposits. Runoff
channels suggest a different climate around 4 billion years ago. There also exist outflow channels
which drain from the uplands into the northern volcanic plains. The largest of these draining into the
Chryse region where Viking 1 landed, are 10 km in width and several hundred km long. The channels
are branched, separating and rejoining, and there are few tributaries. Thus these seem to represent a
flow which is full-force from its origin in the uplands.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/outflow-

pekfod.jpg)
Most geologists believe these to have been carved by huge volumes of running water. This could not be
produced by rainfall. On Earth a similar example is the Channeled Scablands in eastern Washington
state, formed when a large glacial lake in Montana burst its natural dam and emptied in a few hours
time.

On Mars there must have been similar releases of large volumes of water. It is speculated that the
regions from which the outflow took place contained water in the form of permafrost. Some localized
source of heat caused the sudden release of the water, with the resultant catastrophic flooding. This
heating may be associated with the formation of the northern volcanic plains, as both appear to have
happened at about the same time.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/flow-

1knnhdu.jpg)

Thus water seems to have been present on Mars in a liquid form during two periods. The first about 4
billion years ago, when rains fell and runoff channels formed. The second about 3 billion years ago,
when frozen groundwater was released by volcanic heating.

Climate Changes
The climate of Mars seems to have varied on (at least) two different time scales. Layering of polar
deposits suggests changes similar to our ice ages on the scale of tens of thousands of years. Over
longer scales a more substantial atmosphere earlier caused higher temperatures, rainfall, etc. Cooling
and atmospheric loss, both due to the planet size, lowered the temperature so that water froze out of
the atmosphere. This further lowered the greenhouse effect, leading to further cooling.

Life on Mars?
Early Speculations
Even after the rejection of the idea of Martian canals, many scientists thought Mars might harbor
simple forms of life. Prior to the 1965 Mariner mission the atmospheric pressure was thought to be
1/10th that of Earth rather than the actual 1/100th. Color changes on a seasonal timetable suggested the
possibility of plant life that grew and subsided with the seasons. These color changes were later
shown to be due to the deposition and removal of dust on the surface.

Viking Experiments
One of the primary objectives of the Viking missions was to search for signs of life. Three different
search techniques were used to look for microorganisms, each based on a different chemical indicator
of the presence of life. (1) Gas-Exchange Experiment (2) Labeled-Release Experiment (3) Pyrolitic-
Release Experiment
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/vkgsamp-

2c7qtvj.jpg)

Viking Results
Initially all three experiments seemed to show strong positive results. However, the activity was
initially high and declined with time, which would be unusual for a growing lifeform. Also, the
onboard gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer found no organic materials in the soil. The
explanation turned out to be that the soil was more chemically active than terrestrial soil due to its
exposure to UV radiation. The thin Martian atmosphere was unable to block UV radiation from the
surface. This radiation breaks down carbon-containing molecules, thus sterilizing the soil, and also
produces superoxides in the soil which are highly reactive with water, or even the testing container.

Future
For a starting point for past, current, and future Mars missions check:
http://www.exploringmars.com/missions/

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