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Chapter 1: Introduction: Towards a Sustainable Future

Four troubling global trends – population growth and economic development, a


decline in vital life-support ecosystems, global atmospheric changes, and loss of
biodiversity
Millennium Development Goals – aimed at reducing extreme poverty and its
effects on human well-being
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment – gathered information on ecosystems all
over the world. The project focuses especially on the linkages between ecosystem
goods and services and human wellbeing, working on global, regional, and local
scales. Their prominent finding is the widespread abuse and overexploitation of
ecosystem resources. 60% of the ecosystem services assessed by the team are
being degraded or used unsustainably.
Kyoto Protocol – meeting in 1997 to negotiate a treaty to reduce emissions of CO2
and other greenhouse gases. At the meeting, most of the industrialized nations
agreed to reduce emissions to below 1990 levels by 2012. The US withdrew from
the agreement in 2001. Even if the treaty is adhered to by all parties, the levels of
greenhouse gases will continue to rise indefinitely. At issue for many countries are
the conflicting concerns between the short-term economic impacts of reducing the
use of fossil fuels and the long-term consequences of climate change.
Biodiversity – the variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes
of which they are part. Biodiversity is the mainstay of agricultural crops and of
many medicines. It is a critical factor in maintaining the stability of natural systems
and enabling them to recover after disturbances.
Sustainability – the goal that our interactions with the natural world should be
working toward
Stewardship – the ethical and moral framework that informs our public and private
actions. Stewards are those who care for something that is not theirs and they will
pass on to the next generation. Oftentimes, stewardship is a matter of everyday
people caring enough for each other and the natural world that they do things that
are compatible with that care.
Ecosystem capital – the natural and managed ecosystems that provide essential
goods and services to human enterprises. The world economy depends heavily on
many renewable resources as we exploit ecosystems for goods. These same
ecosystems also provide services that support human life and economic well-being,
such as the breakdown of wastes, moderations of climate, erosion control, pest
management, and maintenance of crucial nutrient cycles. Ecosystem capital is
exploited to support essential human activities
Globalization – the accelerating interconnectedness of human economies, ideas,
and cultures
Sustainable systems – a system that can be continued indefinitely, without
depleting any of the material or energy resources required to keep it running.
Sustainable yields – harvesting a certain percentage of natural resources every
year without depleting it. As long as the number harvested stays within the capacity
of the population to grow and replace itself, the practice can be continued
indefinitely.
Sustainable ecosystems – entire natural systems that persist and thrive over
time by recycling nutrients and maintaining a diversity of species in balance by
using the sun as a source of sustainable energy
Sustainable society – a society in balance with the natural world, neither
depleting its resource base by exceeding sustainable yields nor producing
pollutants in excess of nature’s capacity to absorb them. Becoming a sustainable
society requires achieving a stable human population, a resource transition to an
economy that relies on nature’s income and protects ecosystem capital from
depletion, a technology transition from pollution-intensive economic production to
environmentally benign processes, a political transition to societies that embrace a
stewardly and just approach to people’s needs, and a community transition from
urban sprawl to smart growth
Sustainable development – development or progress that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
Equity – the needs of the present are actually met and where future generations
are seen as equally deserving as those living now
Environmental racism – the placement of waste sites and other hazardous
industries in towns and neighborhoods in which most residents are nonwhite
Ecosystem capital

Chapter 2: Ecosystems: What they are


Biota / biotic community – the groupings of plants, animals, and microbes we
observe when we study a natural area. The particular kind of biotic community
found in a given area is, in large part, determined by abiotic factors. These abiotic
factors both support and limit the particular community.
Species – different kinds of plants, animals, and microbes in a community. A given
species includes all those individuals that are like one another and that are distinct
from other groups. A population that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Population – a certain number of individuals that make up the interbreeding,
reproducing group. Population refers only to those individuals of a certain species
that live within a given area, whereas species is all inclusive
Association – a plant community with a definite composition, uniform habitat
characteristics, and uniform plant growth. The plant community supports or limits
the animal community
Ecosystem – a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities
and the nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit within an explicit
space. They are functional units of sustainable life on earth. Many species will
occupy two or more ecosystems, and they are never totally isolated from one
another
Ecotone – a transitional region from one ecosystem to another that shares many of
the species and characteristics of both ecosystems. It may also include unique
conditions that support distinctive plant and animal species
Landscape – a group of interacting ecosystems
Biomes – similar or related landscapes
Lakes and ponds (freshwater) – bodies of standing water, low concentration of
dissolved solids, seasonal vertical stratification of water; rooted and floating plants,
phytoplankton; zooplankton, fish, insect larvae, turtles, ducks, geese, swans,
wading birds; physical depressions in the landscape where precipitation and
groundwater accumulate
Streams and rivers (freshwater) – flowing water, low level of dissolved solids,
high level of dissolved oxygen, often turbid from runoff; attached algae, rooted
plants; insect larvae, fish, amphibians, otters, raccoons, geese, wading birds, ducks;
landscapes where precipitation and groundwater flow by gravity towards oceans or
lakes
Inland wetlands (freshwater) – standing water, at times seasonally dry, thick
organic sediments, high nutrients; marches: grasses, reeds, cattails, swamps:
water-tolerant trees, bogs: sphagnum moss, low shrubs; amphibians, snakes,
invertebrates, wading birds, ducks, geese, alligators, turtles; shallow depressions,
poorly drained, often occupy sites of lakes and ponds that have filled in
Estuaries (mixed) – variable salinity, tides create two-way currents, often rich in
nutrients, turbid; phytoplankton in water column
Coastal ocean (saltwater) – tidal currents promote mixing, nutrients high;
phytoplankton, large benthic algae, turtle grass, symbiotic algae in corals;
zooplankton, rich bottom fauna of worms, shellfish, crustaceans, echniderms, coral
colonies, jellyfish, fish, turtles, gulls, terns, ducks, sea lions, seals, dolphins,
penguins, whales; from coastline outward over continental shelf, coral reefs
abundant in tropics
Open ocean (saltwater) – great depths, all but upper 200m dark and cold, poor in
nutrients except in upwelling regions; phytoplankton, sargassum weed; diverse
zooplankton and fish adapted to different depths, seabirds, whales, tuna, sharks,
squid, flying fish; covering 70% of Earth, from edge of continental shelf outward
Biosphere – a giant ecosystem that connects all species on Earth. Although the
separate local ecosystems are the individual functional units, they are all
interconnected to form the biosphere
Biotic structure – the way different categories of organisms fit together
Trophic structure – the major feeding relationships between organisms
Producers – capture energy from the sun or from chemical reactions to convert
carbon dioxide to organic matter.
Green plants – use light energy to CO2 and water to organic compounds such as
the sugar glucose and then release oxygen as a by-product. Plants are able to
manufacture all the complex organic molecules that make up their bodies via
photosynthesis, using essential mineral nutrients which they absorb from the soil or
water. Essential to all ecosystems.
Chlorophyll – a green pigment that capture light energy in photosynthesis.
Absorbs kinetic energy of light and uses it to remove the hydrogen atoms from
water
Organic –those materials that make up the bodies of living organisms or products
of living organisms. They are constructed in large part from bonded carbon and
hydrogen atoms, a structure that is not found among inorganic materials. This
carbon-hydrogen structure has its origins in photosynthesis. Contain carbon-based
molecules
Inorganic - materials and chemicals in air, water, rocks, and minerals, which exist
apart from the activity of living organisms. Contain neither carbon-carbon nor
carbon-hydrogen bonds
Chemosynthesis – the process in which bacteria use the energy in some inorganic
chemicals to form organic matter from CO2 and water.
Production – the photosynthesis and growth of green plants, sustains all other
organisms in the ecosystem
Autotrophs – green plants and chemosynthetic bacteria that produce their own
organic material from inorganic constituents in their environment through the use
of an external energy source.
Heterotrophs – must consume organic material to obtain energy
Consumers – eat living prey
Primary consumers – feed directly on producers
Secondary consumers – animals that feed on primary consumers
Detritus feeders and decomposers – feed on dead organisms or their products.
they secrete digestive enzymes that break down detritus into simple sugars that the
fungi or bacteria then absorb for their nourishment. Use oxygen for cell respiration,
which breaks the detritus down into carbon dioxide, water, and mineral nutrients
Parasites – organisms that become intimately associated with their prey and feed
on it over an extended period of time, typically without killing it, but sometimes
weakening it so that it becomes more prone to being killed by predators or adverse
conditions. The organism that it feeds on is called the host
Pathogens – bacteria and viruses that cause disease. Can be considered highly
specialized parasites.
Food web – a complex web of feeding relationships. There is a fundamental
movement of the chemical nutrients and stored energy contained on one trophic
level to another. There are usually no more than 4-5 trophic levels in an ecosystem
Biomass – the total combined weight of all the organisms at each trophic level. It is
roughly 90% less at each higher trophic level. The biomass decreases so much at
each trophic level because much of the food that is consumed by a heterotroph is
not converted to the body tissues of the heterotroph but is broken down and used
as energy; much of the biomass—especially at the producer level—is never eaten
by herbivores and goes directly to decomposers; and carnivores that eat carnivores
as prey must be larger than their prey, and there are limits to the size and
distribution of ever-larger carnivores.
Mutualism – when relationships have a mutual benefit for both species. In some
cases, the mutualistic relationship becomes so close that the species involved are
no longer capable of living alone.
Symbiosis – when two organisms live together. May include parasitic and
mutualistic relationships.
Competitive relationships – fierce competition rarely occurs because each
species tends to be specialized and adapted to its own habitat and niche.
Competition is minimized because potential competitors use different resources
Habitat – the kind of place—defined by the plant community and physical
environment—where a species is biologically adapted to live
Ecological niche – what an animal feeds on, where it feeds, when it feeds, where it
finds shelter, how it responds to abiotic factors, and where it nests
Resource partitioning – different species adapting to each other’s presence over
time, thereby avoiding competition
Competitive exclusion principle – if two species compete directly in many
respects, one of the two generally perishes in the competition
Conditions – abiotic factors that vary in space and time but are not used up or
made unavailable to other species
Resources – any factors that are consumed by organisms. They can be the objects
of competition between individuals or species
Optimum – a certain level at which the organisms do best. It is common to speak
of an optimal range. Each species has an optimum range, zones of stress, and limits
of tolerance with respect to every abiotic factor.
Range of tolerance – the entire span that allows any growth at all. The range of
tolerance affects more than just the growth of individuals. Because the health and
vigor of individuals affect reproduction and the survival of the next generation, the
population is also influenced. Consequently, the population density is greatest
where all conditions are optimal, and it decreases as any one or more conditions
depart from the optimum.
Limits of tolerance – the points at the high and low ends of the range of tolerance
Zones of stress – between the optimal range and the high or low limits of
tolerance
Limiting factor – a factor that limits growth. Any one factor being outside the
optimal range will cause stress and limit the growth, reproduction, or even survival
of a population. the is exemplified by the law of limiting factors. The limiting factor
may be a problem of too much as well as too little. The limiting factor may also
change from one time to another. The organism’s genetic potential is the ultimate
limiting factor.
Synergistic effects – when pollutants act in way that causes organisms to become
more vulnerable to disease or drought. Two or more factors interact in a way that
causes an effect much greater than one would anticipate from the effects of each of
the two acting separately.
The role of climate – equatorial regions are continuously warm, with high rainfall
and no discernable seasons. Above and below the equator, temperatures become
increasingly seasonal; the farther toward the poles, the longer and colder the winter
becomes, until at the poles it is perpetually winterlike. Colder temperatures are
found at higher elevations. A given climate will support only those species that find
the temperature and precipitation levels within their ranges of tolerance. The effect
of temperature is largely superimposed on that of rainfall.
Deserts – very dry, hot days and cold nights, rainfall less than 10 in/yr, soils thin
and porous; widely scattered thorny bushes and shrubs, cacti; rodents, lizards,
snakes, insects, owls, hawks, small birds; north and south west Africa, part of the
Middle East and Asia, south west US, northern Mexico
Grasslands and prairies – seasonal rainfall, 10-60 in/yr, fires frequent, soils rich
and often deep; grass species, from tall grasses in areas with higher rainfall to short
grasses where drier, bushes and woodlands in some areas; large grazing mammals,
bison, goats, wild horses, kangaroos, antelopes, rhinos, warthogs, prairie dogs,
coyotes, jackals, lions, hyenas, termites; central North America, central Asia,
subequatorial Africa and South America, much of southern India, northern Australia
Tropical rain forests – nonseasonal, average annual temperature 28C, rainfall
frequent and heavy, average over 95 in/yr, soils thin and poor in nutrients; high
diversity of broad-leafed evergreen trees, dense canopy, abundant epiphytes and
vines, little understory; enormous biodiversity, exotic, colorful insects, amphibians,
birds, snakes, monkeys, small mammals, tigers, jaguars; northern South America,
Central America, western central Africa, islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
south east Asia
Temperate forests – seasonal, temperature below freezing in winter, summers
warm, humid, rainfall from 30-80 in/yr, soil well developed; broad leafed deciduous
trees, some conifers, shrubby undergrowth, ferns, lichens, mosses; squirrels,
raccoons, opossums, skunks, deer, foxes, black bears, snakes, amphibians, rich soil
microbiota, birds; western and central Europe, eastern Asia, eastern North America
Coniferous forests – seasonal, winters long and cold, precipitation light in winter,
heavier in summer, soils acidic, much humus and litter; coniferous trees (spruce, fir,
pine, hemlock), some deciduous trees (birch, maple), poor understory; large
herbivores, lynx, bears, foxes, marten, important nesting region for neotropical
birds; northern portions of North America, Europe, Asia, extending southward at
high elevations
Tundra – bitter cold, except for an 8-10 week growing season with long days and
moderate temperatures, precipitation low, soils thin and underlain with permafrost;
low-growing sedges, dwarf shrubs, lichens, mosses, and grasses; year round:
lemmings, arctic hares, arctic foxes, lynx, caribou, musk ox, summers: insects,
shorebirds, geese, ducks; north of the coniferous forest in northern hemisphere,
extending southward at elevations above the coniferous forest
Permafrost – permanently frozen subsoil. It prevents the growth of trees because
roots cannot penetrate deeply enough to provide adequate support
Microclimate – the conditions found in a specific location. Different microclimates
result in variations of ecosystems within a biome
Physical barriers – species making up the communities on separate continents or
remote islands are usually quite different, despite living in similar conditions. When
physical barriers are overcome, the introduced species may make a successful
invasion.

Chapter 3: Ecosystems: How They Work


Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass
Atoms – the basic building blocks of matter
Law of conversation of matter – the same number and kind of different atoms
exist before and after any reaction
Molecule – two or more atoms bonded together in a specific way. The properties of
material depend on the specific way in which atoms are bonded to form molecules,
as well as the atoms themselves.
Compound – two or more different kinds of atoms bonded together
Lithosphere – earth’s crust, made up of rocks and minerals
Hydrosphere – the water in all of its liquid and solid components
Six key elements for life – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous,
sulfur
Mineral – any hard, crystalline, inorganic material of a given chemical composition
Natural organic compounds – compounds making up living organisms
Synthetic organic compounds – human-made compounds
Energy – the ability to move matter. No matter can be moved without the
absorption or release of energy
Kinetic energy – energy in action or motion. Includes light, heat energy, physical
motion, and electrical current
Potential energy – energy in storage. A substance or system with potential energy
has the capacity to release one or more forms of kinetic energy. All organic
molecules contain high potential energy. Most inorganic compounds have low
potential energy.
Chemical energy – the potential energy contained in chemicals
Law of conservation of energy – there is no net gain or less in total energy.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to
another
Second law of thermodynamics – in any energy conversion, some of the usable
energy is always lost
Entropy – a measure of the degree of disorder in a system. Without energy inputs,
everything increases in entropy. The conversion of energy and the loss of usable
energy to heat are both aspects of increasing entropy.
Photosynthesis – the removal of hydrogen from water molecules to join carbon
atoms together to form the carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds of glucose.
These steps convert the low-potential energy bonds in water and carbon dioxide
molecules to the high-potential energy bonds of glucose.
Glucose – the raw material used for making all the other organic molecules that
make up the parts of plants. The synthesis of all these organic molecules requires
additional energy, as do the plant’s absorption of nutrients from the soil and certain
other functions. This energy is obtained when the plant breaks down a portion of
the glucose to release its stored energy through cell respiration. A portion of the
glucose produced may be stored for future use. For storage, it is generally
converted to starch
Enzyme – protein that promotes the synthesis or breaking of chemical bonds
Net primary production – the rate at which new organic matter is made available to
consumers in an ecosystem. It is calculated by subtracting the energy consumed by
plants from the gross primary production
Cell respiration – process through which organic molecules may be broken down
to release the energy required for the work done by that cell. It involves the
breakdown of glucose, and it is the reverse of photosynthesis. Its purpose is to
release the potential energy contained in organic molecules to perform the
activities of the organism. Oxygen is consumed to break down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water.
Cellulose – the material of plant cell walls. Large component of detritus
Pathways of organic material eaten by consumers – more than 60% of what is
digested and absorbed is oxidized to provide energy, and waste products are
released back to the environment. The remainder of what is digested and absorbed
goes into body growth, maintenance and repair, or storage. The portion that is not
digested or absorbed passes out as fecal waste. In an ecosystem, therefore, only
the portion of the food which becomes the body tissue of the consumer can become
food for the next organism of the food chain.
Fermentation – the partial breakdown of glucose that can occur in the absence of
oxygen. It creates ethyl alcohol, methane gas, and acetic acid
Primary production – captures only about 2% of incoming solar energy. Tropical
rainforests are highly productive and contribute a lot to global productivity. The rate
of production for oceans is low
Standing-crop biomass – the actual biomass of primary producers at a given time
Energy flow in ecosystems – can be characterized how the energy moves from
one trophic level to another. At each trophic level, some energy goes into growth,
some is converted to heat, and some is given off as waste or is not consumed. As
energy flows from one trophic level to the next, only a small fraction is actually
passed on. This is due to three things: 1) much of the preceding trophic level is
standing biomass and is not consumed, 2) much of what is consumed is used for
energy, 3) some of what is consumed is undigested and passes through the
organism. In most cases, the preponderance of the energy in an ecosystem flows
through the detritus food web. Because energy is lost when it is transferred to the
next higher trophic level, each successive trophic level captures only a fraction of
the energy that entered the previous trophic level and is usually represented by a
much smaller biomass. Energy flows in a one-way direction through ecosystems; it
is not recycled, so it must be continually resupplied by sunlight.
Matter recycling – prevents the accumulation of wastes that would cause
problems and guarantees that the ecosystem will not run out of essential elements.
It is the only possible way to maintain a dynamic system.
Carbon cycle – there is a reservoir of carbon dioxide molecules in the air. Through
photosynthesis and further metabolism, carbon atoms from CO2 become the carbon
atoms of the organic molecules making up a plant’s body. The carbon atoms then
move into food webs and become part of the tissues of all other organisms in the
ecosystem. About half is respired by plants and animals, and half is deposited to the
soil in the form of detritus. Respiration by soil decomposers returns carbon to the
atmosphere as CO2. The cycle is different in the oceans: photosynthesis by
phytoplankton and macroalgae removes CO2 from the huge pool of inorganic
carbonates in seawater, and feeding moves the organic carbon through marine food
webs. Respiration by the biota and decomposers returns the CO2 to the inorganic
carbonates in solution. Diffusion exchange occurs between the atmosphere and the
oceans. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon into the atmosphere. A carbon atom
cycles from the atmosphere through one or more living things and back to the
atmosphere every six years. Human intrusion into the carbon cycle is significant.
Deforestation and soil degradation release significant amounts of CO2 to the
atmosphere. No matter where CO2 is released, it will mix into and maintain the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. 68
Phosphorous cycle – originates in rock and soil minerals of the lithosphere such as
iron, calcium, and potassium. Its storage tends to be a limiting factor in a number of
ecosystems and its excess can seriously stimulate unwanted algal growth in
freshwater systems. It exists in various rock and soil minerals as the inorganic ion
phosphate. As rock gradually breaks down, phosphate and other ions are released.
This process is the normal means of replenishing phosphorous that is lost to runoff.
Plants absorb phosphate form the soil or water, and once the phosphate is
incorporated into organic compounds by the plant, it is referred to as organic
phosphate. Organic phosphate is transferred from producers to the rest of the
ecosystem. Phosphate (PO43-) forms insoluble chemical precipitates with a number
of cations. If these cations are in sufficiently high concentrations in soil or aquatic
systems, the phosphorous can be bound up in chemical precipitates and rendered
unavailable to plants. The precipitated phosphorous can slowly release phosphate
as plants withdraw naturally occurring phosphate from soil, water, or sediments.
Does not have a gas phase, so it is recycled only if the wastes containing it are
deposited in the ecosystem from which it came. The most serious human intrusion
into the phosphorous cycle comes from the use of phosphorous-containing
fertilizers. It can generally stimulate production in soils. There is no way to return
waterborne phosphorous to soil. This leads to water pollution problems. We are
accelerating the natural phosphorous cycle as we mine it from the earth and it
subsequently moves from the soil into aquatic systems, creating problems as it
makes its way into the oceans
Nitrogen cycle – nitrogen has a gas phase and acts as a limiting factor. Bacteria in
soils, water, and sediments perform many of the steps of the cycle. The main
reservoir of nitrogen is the air. This is nonreactive nitrogen; only a small number
of microbes can use it. Reactive nitrogen readily moves between organisms and
environmental systems and is responsible for many changes in those systems.
Plants in terrestrial ecosystems take up Nr as ammonium ions or nitrate ions. The
plants incorporate the nitrogen into essential organic compounds such as proteins
and nucleic acids, where it then moves through food webs. At various points,
nitrogen wastes are released, primarily as ammonium compounds. A group of soil
bacteria, the nitrifying bacteria, oxidizes the ammonium to nitrate in a
chemosynthetic process that yields energy for the bacteria. At this point, the
nitrogen is once again available for uptake by green plants.
A number of bacteria and cyanobacteria can use nonreactive N through a process
called nitrogen fixation. The most important of these nitrogen-fixing organisms are
bacteria that live in the roots of legumes. From the legumes, nitrogen enters the
food web. Legumes are generally the first plants to recolonize a burned-over area.
Many agricultural crops are legumes, so they draw nitrogen from the air, thus
increasing the rate of nitrogen fixation on land.
Three other important processes also fix nitrogen. One is the conversion of nitrogen
gas to the ammonium form by discharges of lightning in a process known as
atmospheric nitrogen fixation; the ammonium then comes down with rainfall. The
second is industrial fixation of nitrogen in the manufacture of fertilizer. The third is a
consequence of the combustion of fossil fuels, during which nitrogen from coal and
oil is oxidized. Some nitrogen is also oxidized during high-temperature combustion.
Both these processes lead to nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, which are soon
converted to nitric acid and then brought down to Earth as acid precipitation.
Denittrification is a microbial process that occurs in soils and sediments depleted
of oxygen. A number of microbes can take nitrate (which is highly oxidized) and use
it as a substitute for oxygen. In so doing, the nitrogen is reduced to nitrogen gas
and released back into the atmosphere. Farmers seek to avoid denitrification
because it reduces soil fertility.
Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere contribute to ozone pollution, global climate
change, and stratospheric ozone depletion. Nitrogen saturation has occurred in
many natural areas, whereby the nitrogen can no longer be incorporated into living
matter and is released into the soil. There, it leaches cations from the soil, which
leads to mineral deficiencies in plants. In bodies of water, nitrogen promotes algal
growth, some of which is toxic and can create dead zones. This complex of
ecological and human health effects is called the nitrogen cascade.
Ecosystem services – regulation of atmospheric chemical composition; regulation
of global temperature, precipitation, and other biologically mediated climate
processes at global or local levels; capacitance, damping, and integrity of
ecosystem response to environmental fluctuations; regulation of hydrological flows;
storage and retention of water; retention of soil within an ecosystem; soil-formation
processes; storage, internal cycling, processing, and acquisition of nutrients;
recovery of mobile nutrients and removal or breakdown of excess nutrients and
compounds; movement of floral gametes; trophic-dynamic regulations of
populations; habitat for resident and transient populations; raw materials; food;
biological materials and products; recreational activities; noncommercial uses

Chapter 4: Ecosystems: How They Change


Equilibrium – when births and deaths are more or less equal
Exponential increase – takes place under ideal circumstances, results in a
population explosion. Natural mechanisms may cause the population to level off
and continue in a dynamic equilibrium, producing an s-curve. In the absence of
natural enemies, the population keeps growing until it exhausts essential resources
and dies off, producing a reverse j-curve. J-curves come about when there are
unusual disturbances. The increases represented by j-curves are only temporary in
animal populations, because the animals inevitably die off as resources are
exhausted.
Biotic potential – the ability of populations to increase. It is the number of
offspring that a species may produce under ideal conditions. Usually remains fairly
constant because that ability is part of the genetic endowment of the species.
Recruitment – survival through the early growth stages to become part of the
breeding population.
Reproductive strategies – two main types. The first (r) is to produce massive
numbers of young, but then leave survival to the whims of nature. This strategy
often results in very low recruitment. However, this strategy is successful if a
species is adapted to an environment that can suddenly change and become very
favorable. Organisms with this strategy are usually small, with rapid reproductive
rates and short life spans. The second strategy is to have a much lower
reproductive rate, but then protect young until they can compete for resources with
adult members of the population (k). this strategy works best where the
environment is stable and already well populated by the species. Organisms with
this strategy are larger, longer lived, and well adapted to normal environmental
fluctuations.
Life history – includes the ability of organisms to disperse, to adapt to and invade
new habitats, defense mechanisms, and resistance to adverse conditions and
disease. These represent a particular strategy for reproduction and survival that
enables the species to be successful in a unique ecological niche.
Environmental resistance – biotic and abiotic factors that limit a population’s
increase
Replacement level – when just enough young replace adults in a population. causes
a population to remain at equilibrium.
Carrying capacity – the maximum population of a species that a given habitat can
support without the habitat being degraded over the long term. If a population
greatly exceeds the habitat’s carrying capacity it will undergo a j-curve crash.
Population density – the number of individuals per unit area. As it increases,
environmental resistance becomes more intense and causes such an increase in
mortality that population growth ceases or declines. As population density
decreases, environmental resistance lessens, allowing the population to recover.
Population density can be thought of as a consequence of the relationships the
species has with its food sources and all of its natural enemies. Relationships
between a prey population and several natural enemies are generally much more
stable and less prone to wild fluctuations that when only a single predator or
parasite is involved, because different predators or parasites come into play at
different population densities.
Critical number – the minimum population base needed for a population to
survive. If a population is depleted below the critical number needed to provide
supporting interactions, the surviving members become more vulnerable, and
extinction is almost inevitable.
Threatened species – species whose populations are declining rapidly
Endangered species –species whose populations are near the critical number
Top-down regulation – control of a population by predation
Bottom-up regulation – populations are controlled by the scarcity of some
resource
Predation – herbivores are often regulated by their predators. A decline in
herbivore population is followed by a decline in predator population. A predator-
prey relationship involves both top-down (on the prey) and bottom-up (on the
predator) population regulation. Density-independent factors (weather) can also
play a role in causing mortality. When the preferred prey is at a low density, the
population of the predator may be supported by switching to something else.
Predators are rarely able to eliminate their prey species, largely because the prey
have various defenses against their predators.

Parasites – parasitic organisms affect the populations of their host organisms in


much the same way that predators do their prey—in a density-dependent manner.
As the population density of the host increases, parasites and their vectors have
little trouble finding new hosts, and infection rates increase, causing higher
mortality. When the population density of the host is low, the transfer of infection is
less efficient, so the levels of infection are greatly reduced, thus allowing the host
population to recover. A parasite can work in conjunction with a predator to control
a given herbivore population.
Keystone species – species that have a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem biotic
structure
Interspecific competition – when species compete for some scarce resource and
their ecological niches overlap. Interspecific competition between animals may be a
strong factor influencing the distribution and abundance of species. In the short run,
it can reduce the success of species and even eliminate them from an environment;
thus, it can help regulate a population. in the long run, it helps drive natural
selection, bringing about greater specialization of ecological niches and allowing
resources to be divided up among species. This specialization can lead to resource
portioning that allows many potential competitors to share a basic resource.
Intraspecific competition – competition within a single species, more intense
because ecological niches overlap completely. Has two distinct kinds of impact on
the population of a species. In the short term, it can lead to the density-dependent
regulation of a species population, through such factors as territoriality and self-
thinning. It can also lead to long-term improvements, in that species adapt to their
environment because those better able to compete are the ones who survive and
reproduce, and their superior traits are passed on to successive generations.
Territoriality – individuals or groups defending a territory against the
encroachment of others of the same species. It is intraspecific competition. As a
consequence of territoriality, some members of the population are able to nest,
mate, or gain access to sufficient food resources to rear the next generation. In this
way, a healthy population of the species survives. Through territoriality, breeding is
restricted to only those individuals capable of claiming and defending territory;
thus, population growth is curtailed in a density-dependent manner. Individuals
unable to claim a territory are usually the young of the previous generation.
Self-thinning – when plants produce a large number of seedlings in a limited area,
some plants thrive and others die. The number that survive and their growth rate
are directly influenced by the density of the seedlings. Crowded conditions always
lead to competition for resources.
Competitive release – once the strong competitor is absent, the weaker one
thrives and exploits resources it is normally unable to acquire because of the
presence of its competitor.
Introduced species – most of the important insect pests in croplands and forests
are species introduced from other continents. The problem of introduced species is
increasing due to expanding world trade and travel. When one species is
transported over a physical barrier from one ecosystem to another, it is unlikely to
fit into the framework of relationships in the new biotic community. In most cases, it
finds the environmental resistance of the new system too severe and dies out. In
some instances, the species becomes naturalized. In the worst cases, the
transported species becomes invasive. It finds physical conditions and a food supply
that are hospitable, together with an insufficient number of natural enemies to stop
its population growth. Then its population explodes, and it drives out native species.
One solution to the takeover by an invasive species may be to introduce a natural
enemy. A lot of research should be done before a natural enemy is introduced. Most
invasive species are not problems in their native lands. Their impact is so different
in a new setting because ecosystems on different continents have been isolated by
physical barriers. Consequently, the species within each ecosystem have developed
adaptations to other species within their own ecosystem, and these are
independent of adaptations that have developed in other ecosystems.
Selective pressure – factors that can affect whether individuals survive and
reproduce and which are eliminated. Predators may be seen as a selective force
favoring the survival of traits that enhance the prey’s ability to escape or protect
itself by causing the elimination of any traits handicapping those functions. Every
factor of environmental resistance is a selective pressure resulting in the survival
and reproduction of those individuals with a genetic endowment that enables them
to cope with their surroundings.
Natural selection – the constant selection and modification of a species’ gene pool
toward features that enhance survival and reproduction within the existing biotic
community and environment.
Biological evolution – the modification of the gene pool of a species by natural
selection over the course of many generations
Adaptations to the environment – include adaptations for coping with the
climate and other abiotic factors; adaptations for obtaining food and water or for
obtaining nutrients, energy, and water; adaptations for escaping from or protecting
against predation and for resistance to disease-causing or parasitic organisms;
adaptations for finding or attracting mates or for pollinating and setting seed; and
adaptations for migrating or for dispersing seeds
Reactions to change – adaptation: the population of survivors may gradually
adapt to the new condition through natural selection; migration: surviving
populations may migrate and find an area where conditions are suitable for them;
extinction: failing the first two possibilities, extinction is inevitable. For adaptation to
occur, there must be some individuals with traits that enable them to survive and
reproduce under the new conditions. There must also be enough survivors to
maintain a viable breeding population.
Four key variables for survival – geographic distribution, specialization to a
given habitat or food supply; genetic variation within the gene pool of the species,
and the reproductive rate relative to the rate of environmental change
Reproductive isolation – when an original population separates into smaller
populations that do not interbreed with one another. In order for new species to
form, separated subpopulations must be exposed to different selective pressures.
Plate tectonics – within Earth’s semimolten interior, hot material rises toward the
surface and spreads out at some locations, while cooler material sinks towards the
interior at other locations. Riding atop these convection currents, tectonic plates
move slowly. The spreading process of the last 225 million years has brought the
continents to their present positions and accounts for the other interactions
between tectonic plates. Adjacent tectonic plates move with respect to each other,
by separating, sliding past each other, or colliding. The sliding and colliding
processes produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Plate collisions produce
volcanic mountain chains and uplift regions into mountain ranges. Volcanoes and
earthquakes mark the boundaries between the plates. Tectonic movement may
gradually lead to major shifts in climate. As continents gradually move to different
positions on the globe, their climates change accordingly. The movement of
continents alters the direction and flow of ocean currents, which in turn have an
effect on climate. The uplifting of mountains alters the movement of air currents,
which also affect climate.
Ecological succession – transition from one biotic community to another.
Succession occurs because the physical environment may be gradually modified by
the growth of the biotic community itself, such that the area becomes more
favorable to another group of species and less favorable to the current occupants.
In order for it to occur, the spores and seeds of the various invading plants and the
breeding populations of the various invading animals must already be present in the
vicinity. In any given landscape, all stages of succession are likely to be represented
in the ecosystems. Late-stage species are recruited from ecosystems in later stages
of succession. When a variety of successional stages is present in a landscape, a
greater diversity of species can be expected.
Pioneer species – begin the process of succession. As they grow, they create
conditions that are favorable to more longer-lived colonizers
Facilitation – changing conditions that pave the way for other species
Climax ecosystem – when a stage of development is reached in which there
appears to be a balance between all of the species and the physical environment.
The assemblage of species continues on in space and time. All balances are relative
to the current biotic community and the existing climatic conditions. Even climax
ecosystems are subject to change if climatic conditions change or if a new species
is introduced or an old one removed.
Primary succession – the initial invasion and then progression from one biotic
community to the next
Secondary succession – when an area has been cleared and then left alone,
plants and animals from the surrounding ecosystem may gradually reinvade the
area through a series of distinct stages. Secondary succession starts with
preexisting soil
Aquatic succession – occurs because soil particles erode from the land and settle
out in ponds or lakes, gradually filling them. Aquatic vegetation produces detritus
that also contributes to the filling process. As the buildup occurs, terrestrial species
from the surrounding ecosystem can advance in the ecotone, and aquatic species
move farther out into the lake
Fire – a major form of disturbance in terrestrial ecosystems. It helps release
nutrients from dead organic matter. Some plant species depend on fire.
Fire climax ecosystems – ecosystems that depend on the recurrence of fire to
maintain their existence
Crown fires – entire living trees are ignited and destroyed, occurs when fire has
not occurred for many decades or when a forest is very dry. Periodic crown fires
create a patchwork of meadows and forests at different stages of succession that
lead to a more varied, healthier habitat which supports a greater diversity of wildlife
Resilient – an ecosystem that maintains its normal functioning even through a
disturbance. Resilience helps maintain the stability of ecosystems. Adaptations to
biotic and abiotic factors are the primary source of ecosystem resilience.
Resilience mechanisms – the process of replenishment of nutrients, dispersion of
surrounding plants and animals, rapid regrowth of plant cover, and succession to a
forest
Ecosystem management – takes an integrated view of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems, integrates ecological concepts at a variety of special scales,
incorporates the perspectives of landscape ecology so that the range of possible
landscapes in an ecosystem is recognized and preserved, is an evolving paradigm,
incorporates the human element, incorporates the objective of ecological
sustainability

Chapter 5: The Human Population


Total fertility rate – the average number of babies born per woman over her
lifetime. This should usually be 2.1 for developed countries, but has recently
declined to 1.6. the average rate in developing countries is 2.9
Growth rate – the rate of growth of a population, as a percentage. Multiplied by
the existing population, this rate gives the net yearly increase for the population
Replacement-level fertility – a fertility rate that will replace a woman and her
partner
Infant mortality – infant deaths per 1000 births
Population profile – a bar graph plotting the number of males and females for
successive ages in the population, starting with youngest at the bottom. Provides
governments and businesses with a means of realistic planning for future demand
for various goods and services.
Population momentum – the effect of current age structure on future population
growth. Young populations will continue growing even after replacement-level
fertility has been reached, due to reproduction by already existing age groups.
Momentum is positive when a small portion of the population is in the upper age
groups and many children are entering their reproductive years. Only a population
at or below replacement-level fertility for many decades will achieve a stable
population. The earlier fertility rates are reduced, the greater is the likelihood of
achieving a steady-state population and a sustainable society is the near future.
Negative population momentum is the consequence of low fertility
Crude birthrate – the number of live births per thousand in a population in a given
year
Crude death rate – the number of deaths per thousand in a population in a given
year
Doubling time – the time it takes for a population increasing at a given growth
rate to double in size. It is calculated by dividing the percentage rate of growth into
70.
Epidemiologic transition – the shift from high death rates to low death rates in a
population as a result of modern medical and sanitary developments
Fertility transition – the decline in birthrates from high levels to low levels in a
population
Demographic transition – the tendency of a population to shift from high birth
and death rates as a result of the epidemiologic and fertility transitions. The result
is a population that grows very slowly or not at all. A decline in fertility occurs as
people choose to limit the size of their families. As economic development occurs,
human societies move from a primitive population stability, in which high birth rates
are offset by high infant and childhood mortality, to a modern population stability,
in which low infant and childhood mortality are balanced by low birthrates. The
basic premise of the demographic transition is that there is a casual link between
modernization and a decline in birth and death rates. Developed countries have
generally completed the demographic transition.
Phase I – the primitive stability resulting from a high CBR being offset by an equally
high CDR
Phase II – marked by a declining CDR—the epidemiologic transition. Population
growth accelerates
Phase III – CBR declines due to a declining fertility rate, but population growth is
still significant
Phase IV – modern stability is achieved by a continuing low CDR, but an equally
low CBR
Developed countries – high-income nations such as the US, Canada, Japan, Korea,
Australia, NZ, western Europe, Scandinavia, Taiwan, Israel, and several Arab states.
Make up 15% of the world’s population, but control 80% of its wealth
Developing countries – middle- and low-income countries such as Latin America,
southern Africa, China, Indonesia, eastern Europe, India, and central Africa and Asia.
More than 98% of world population is occurring in the developing countries
Human pressure on the environment – the consequence of population,
affluence, and technology. Given the high level of technology in the industrialized
countries and the affluent lifestyle that accompanies it, a fairly small population can
have a very large impact on the environment. The environmental impacts of
affluent lifestyles may be moderated to a large extent by practicing environmental
stewardship.
Land reform – rising population growth in rural developing countries has put
increasing pressure on the need to reform the system of land ownership.
Collectivization and ownership by the wealthy few are two patterns of agricultural
land ownership that have historically kept rural peoples in poverty. The introduction
of more highly productive varieties of basic food grains has had a dramatic
beneficial effect in supporting the growing population. With pressures to increase
productivity, plots have been put into continuous production with no time off. The
results have been a deterioration of the soil, decreased productivity, and erosion.
The increasing intensity of grazing is damaging the land, causing desertification.
Opening new lands for agriculture – most good agricultural land is already in
production. Opening up new land always means converting natural ecosystems to
agricultural production, which means losing the goods and services those
ecosystems were contributing. Converted land is often not well-suited for
agriculture, unless it is irrigated.
Illicit activities – anyone who doesn’t have a way to grow sufficient food must gain
enough income to buy it, and sometimes people break the law to do this. A
shortage of adequate employment exacerbates this problem
Emigration and immigration – each year, many millions migrate to the US and
Europe in search of a better life, a shift that has been called replacement migration.
More millions migrate to neighboring countries to escape civil war and ethnic
prosecution. Prejudice against foreigners is common, especially in countries with
strong ethnic and cultural homogeneity. Refugee immigration leads to refugee
camps, where diseases and hunger take a terrible toll on human life.
Migration to cities – most of the net growth of the next 50 years in the developing
countries will be absorbed in urban areas. The most rapidly expanding cities have
fallen behind in providing basic services and often do not provide the jobs that
people are looking for.
Affluence – increased consumption contribute to high negative environmental
impacts. Increasing the average wealth of a population can affect the
environmental positively as well. Many forms of pollution are held in check. Affluent
countries can afford conservation and management, better agricultural practices,
and pollution control, thereby improving the environment. Affluent countries also
produce more pollution. The world’s wealthiest 20% is responsible for 86% of all
private consumption and 80% of world trade. Affluence allows the wealthy to clean
up their immediate environment by transferring their wastes to more distant
locations. It also allows them to obtain resources from more distant locations, so
they neither see nor feel the impacts of getting those resources. The affluent isolate
themselves and may become totally unaware of the environmental stresses they
cause with their consumption-oriented lifestyles. Still, affluence also provides
people with opportunities to exercise lifestyle choices that are consistent with the
concerns for stewardship and sustainability.
Age structure – the proportion of people in each age group at a given date
Graying – when the proportion of elderly people in a population is increasing. This
is a problem in developed countries

Chapter 6: Population and Development


Ways to help developing countries get through the demographic transition
– speed up economic development in the high-growth countries and population
growth will slow automatically; or concentrate on population policies and family
planning to bring down birthrates.
Dependency ratio – as birthrates decline, the working-age population increases
relative to the younger and older members of the population. the ratio is defined as
the ratio of the nonworking population to the working-age population
Demographic dividend – when a society can spend less on new schools and old-
age medical expenses and more on factors that well alleviate poverty and generate
economic growth.
Reasons for large families in developing countries – security in one’s old age,
infant and child mortality, helping hands, lack of education, low status of women,
lack of availability of contraceptives. Poverty, environmental degradation, and high
fertility drive each other in a vicious cycle. Increasing population density leads to a
greater depletion of rural community resources, which encourages couples to have
more children to help gather resources.
Reasons for small families in developed countries – high cost of raising
children, social security and pensions, opportunities for women to join the
workforce, inexpensive contraceptives, adequate health care, wider educational
opportunities, older age of marriage. Fertility rates decline insofar as development
provides security in one’s old age apart from the help of children, lower infant and
child mortality, universal education for children, opportunities for higher education
and careers for women, and unrestricted access to contraceptives and reproductive
health services.
World Bank – part of the UN, owned by the countries that provide the funds. Lends
money to governments of developing nations for projects at interest rates
somewhat below the market going rates. It is the major agency providing aid to
developing countries. Some of its projects are destructive to the environment and
the poorer segments of a society.
Ways developing countries alleviate debt – focus agriculture on growing cash
crops for export, affecting the country’s ability to feed its people; adopt austerity
measures, government expenditures are reduced so that income can go to pay
interest; invite the rapid exploitation of natural resources for quick cash, this is a
disaster for the environment. These measures are all examples of liquidating
ecosystem capital to raise cash for short-term needs. They do not represent
sustainability.
Improving education – illiteracy rates among poor women in developing countries
are commonly between 50-70%, in part because the education of women is not
considered important and in part because expanding populations have
overwhelmed school systems and transportation systems. An educated populace is
an important component of the wealth of a nation.
Improving health – the most needed kinds of health care are the basics of good
nutrition and hygiene. Health care in the developing world must emphasize pre-and
postnatal care of the mother, as well as that of their children. Reproductive health
includes prenatal care, safe childbirth and postnatal care, information and services
pertaining to contraception, prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted
diseases, abortion services and care afterwards, prevention and treatment of
infertility, and elimination of violence against women.
AIDS – most severe in many of the poorest developing countries. Many people do
not know that they are infected, guaranteeing that the virus will continue to spread.
In many places, it is tearing apart the structure of society. A policy of prevention
and treatment is desperately needed for the developing world. The best immediate
hope is to convince people to change their sexual behavior
Family planning – the poor must depend on family-planning agencies. Family
planning services include counseling and education regarding human reproduction,
the hazards of sexually transmitted diseases, and benefits and risks of various
contraceptive techniques; counseling and education on achieving the best possible
pre- and postnatal health for mother and child; counseling and education to avoid
high-risk pregnancies; and providing contraceptive materials and treatments. Those
countries that have implemented effective family-planning programs have
experienced the most rapid decline in fertility. Both the spacing of children and the
size of the family are involved.
Employment and income – the introduction of a cash economy facilitates the
exchange of a wider variety of goods and services. In a poor community, everyone
may have the potential to provide certain goods or services and may want other
things in return, but there may be no money to start the system. In a growing
economy, people who wish to start new business generally begin by obtaining a
bank loan. The poor, however, are considered high credit risks. They may want a
smaller loan than what a commercial bank wants to deal with, and many of the poor
are women, who may be denied credit because of gender discrimination.
Microloans – small short term loans that allow poor people to start businesses.
They have the greatest benefit when focuses on women
Credit associations – groups of several people who agree to be responsible for
each other’s loans
Resource management – the world’s poor depend on local ecosystem capital
resources. Many lack access to enough land to provide an income and depend on
foraging. If not managed in some way, common pool resources are liable to
overuse, especially when populations are increasing. Effective strategies for
managing natural resources often can be found in traditional knowledge.

Chapter 7: Water: Hydrologic Cycle and Human Use


Fresh water – water with a salt content of less than .1%. this is the water upon
which most terrestrial biota, ecosystems, and humans depend. 2/3 is bound in the
polar ice caps and glaciers. It is a continually renewable resource. It is a vital
resource for all land ecosystems, modulating the climate through evaporation and
essential global warming. It is a limiting resource in many parts of the world.
Hydrologic cycle – consists of water rising to the atmosphere through evaporation
and transpiration and returning to the land and oceans through condensation and
precipitation. At temperatures above freezing but below boiling, the kinetic energy
of the molecules is such that hydrogen bonds keep breaking and re-forming with
different molecules. The result is liquid water. As the water molecules absorb
energy from sunlight, the kinetic energy they gain may be enough to allow them to
break away from other water molecules entirely and enter the atmosphere. This
process is known as evaporation, and the result is water vapor, a powerful
greenhouse gas that provides about 2/3 of the total warming from all greenhouse
gases. Condensation occurs when water molecules rejoin by hydrogen bonding to
form liquid water. If the droplets form in the atmosphere, the result is fog and
clouds. Condensation is greatly facilitated by the presence of aerosols in the
atmosphere. The processes of evaporation and condensation purify water naturally.
When water evaporates, only the water molecules leave the surface; the dissolved
salts and other solids remain behind in solution. The water atmosphere turns over
every 10 days, so water is constantly being purified. Thus, evaporation and
condensation are the source of all natural fresh water on Earth. The hydrologic cycle
consists of four physical processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and
gravitational flow. There are three principal loops in the cycle: 1) in the
evapotranspiration loop (consisting of green water), the water evaporates and is
returned by precipitation. On land, this water is held as capillary water and then
returns to the atmosphere by way of evapotransipiration. 2) in the surface runoff
loop (consisting of blue water), the water runs across the ground surface and
becomes part of the surface water system. 3) in the groundwater loop (containing
blue water), the water infiltrates, percolates down to join the groundwater, and then
moves through aquifers, finally exiting through seeps, springs, or wells, where it
rejoins the surface water.
Humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air
Relative humidity – the amount of water vapor as a percentage of what the air
can hold at a particular temperature
Aerosols – microscopic liquid or solid particles originating from land and water
surfaces. They provide sites that attract water vapor and promote the formation of
droplets of moisture.
Green water – water vapor
Blue water – liquid water
Precipitation – warm air rises from the Earth’s surface because it is less dense
than the cooler air above. As it encounters the lower atmospheric pressure at
increasing altitudes, the warm air gradually cools as it expands—adiabatic cooling.
When the relative humidity reaches 100% and cooling continues, condensation
occurs and clouds form. As condensation intensifies, water droplets become large
enough to fall as precipitation. Adiabatic warming occurs as the air descends and is
compressed by the higher air pressure in the lower atmosphere. As air rises, it
cools, condensation occurs, and precipitation occurs. As air descends, it tends to
become warmer, causing evaporation to increase and dryness to result.
Cold front – as a cold front moves into an area, the warm, moist air already there
is forced upward because the cold air of the advancing front is denser. The rising
warm air cools, causing condensation and precipitation along the leading edge of
the cold front.
Convection currents – occur because the sun heats the Earth most intensely over
and near the equator, where rays of sunlight are almost perpendicular to earth’s
surface. As the air at the equator is heated, it expands, rises, and cools;
condensation and precipitation occur. The constant intense heat in these equatorial
areas ensures that this process is repeated often, thus causing high amounts of
rainfall, which supports tropical rainforests. The dry air is pushed from beneath by
more rising air and spills over to the north and south of the equator and descends
over subtropical regions, resulting in subtropical deserts.
Hadley cell – the two halves of the system composed of rising and falling air.
Because of earth’s rotation, winds are deflected from the strictly vertical and
horizontal paths indicated by a Hadley cell and tend to flow easterly and westerly
directions, forming trade winds that flow almost continuously from the same
direction.
Rain shadow – occurs when moisture-laden trade winds encounter mountain
ranges. The air is deflected upward, causing cooling and high precipitation on the
windward side of the range. As the air crosses the range and descends on the other
side, it becomes warmer and increases its capacity to pick up moisture. Hence,
deserts occur on the leeward sides of mountain ranges. The dry region downwind of
a mountain of a mountain range is referred to as a rain shadow
Infiltration-runoff ratio – the amount of rainwater that soaks in compared with
the amount that runs off. Runoff flows over the surface of the ground into streams
and rivers, which make their way to the ocean or to inland seas. Water than
infiltrates may be held in the soil, in an amount that depends on the water-holding
capacity of the soil. It can also percolate down.
Percolation – as water percolates through the soil, debris and bacteria from the
surface are generally filtered out. However, water may dissolve and leach out
certain minerals.
Watershed – all the land area that contributes water to a particular stream or river
Surface waters – all ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and other waters on the surface
of Earth
Capillary water – water that is stored in soil. It returns to the atmosphere either by
way of evaporation from the soil or by transpiration through plants.
Gravitational water – water that percolates down through pores or cracks under
the pull of gravity. It eventually encounters an impervious layer of rock or dense
clay. It accumulates there, completely filling all the spaces above the impervious
layer. It becomes groundwater when it reaches the water table
Groundwater – gravitational water than accumulates above an impervious layer in
the ground. Its upper surface is the water table. Groundwater will seep laterally as it
seeks its lowest level. Groundwater may move through aquifers until it finds
openings at the surface.
Aquifers – porous layers through which groundwater moves. Hold 99% of all liquid
fresh water
Recharge area – the area where water enters an aquifer, may be miles away from
where the water leaves the aquifer.
Seep – water flows out over a relatively wide area
Spring – water exits the ground as a significant flow from a relatively small
opening. A spring will flow only if it is lower than the water table.
Human impacts on the hydrologic cycle – in most natural ecosystems,
precipitation is intercepted by vegetation and infiltrates into porous topsoil. The
evapotranspiration that takes place in these ecosystems not only sustains the
ecosystems, but also recycles the water into local rainfall. Some of the water that
infiltrates percolates down to recharge the groundwater reservoir. Then its gradual
release through springs and seeps maintains the flow of streams and rivers at a
relatively uniform rate. As forests are cleared or land is overgrazed, the pathway of
the water cycle is shifted from infiltration and groundwater recharge to runoff, so
that water runs into streams and rivers almost immediately. This sudden influx of
water may cause floods and bring along sediments and other pollutants via surface
erosion. Increased runoff necessarily means less infiltration and therefore less
evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge. Lowered evapotransipiration means
less moisture for local rainfall. groundwater may be insufficient to keep springs
flowing during dry periods.
A warmer climate means more evaporation from land surfaces, plants, and water
bodies because evaporation increases exponentially with temperature. A wetter
atmosphere means heavier precipitation and more floods. A warmer climate will
likely generate more hurricanes and more droughts.
Aerosol particles form nuclei for condensation. The more such particles there are,
the greater is the tendency for clouds to form. They suppress rainfall where they
occur in abundance, even though they encourage cloud formation. The atmospheric
cleansing that would normally clear the aerosols is suppressed, and they remain the
atmosphere longer than usual. With suppressed rainfall comes drier conditions, so
more dust and smoke are the result. The aerosol impact is more local, whereas the
impact of greenhouse gases on climate and the hydrologic cycle is more global.
Nonconsumptive uses – washing and flashing away unwanted materials and
taking away waste heat. The water remains available to humans for the same or
other uses if its quality is adequate or if it can be treated to remove undesirable
materials
Consumptive uses – applied water does not return to the water resource. It can
only percolate into the ground or return to the atmosphere
Estuaries – bays in which fresh water from a river mixes with seawater. They are
among the most productive ecosystems on earth.
Ogallala aquifer – supplies irrigation water to 1/5 of the irrigated land in the
nation, probably the largest aquifer in the world. Water tables have dropped 100-
200 feet and are lowering at 6 feet/year.
Nonrenewable groundwater – has a recharge rate of centuries or more
Renewable groundwater – replenished by the percolation of precipitation water,
so is vulnerable to variations in precipitation
Groundwater depletion – the water table falls, lowering crop production.
Wetlands, springs, and seeps dry up, diminishing streams and rivers. There is a
gradual settling of the land known as land subsidence. This causes building
foundations, roadways, and water and sewer lines to crack. In coastal areas it
causes flooding. A sinkhole may also develop suddenly when an underground
cavern, drained of its supporting water, suddenly collapses. In coastal regions,
springs of outflowing groundwater may lie under the ocean. As long as a high water
table maintains a sufficient head of pressure in the aquifer, fresh water will flow into
the ocean. Lowering the water table or removing groundwater at a rapid pace may
reduce the pressure in the aquifer, permitting salt water to flow back into the
aquifer. This is salt water intrusion.
Dams – prevent flooding and can generate hydroelectric power. Displace homes
and farms. They disrupt the integrity of river systems, breaking them up into
fragments of river interrupted by standing water.
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 – keeps rivers designated as “wild and
scenic” from being dammed or affected by other harmful operations
Desalination – desalted seawater for domestic use. Uses microfiltration and
distillation
Surge flow – computers control the periodic release of water, can cut water use by
half
Drip irrigation – a network of plastic pipes with pinholes that drip water at the
base of each plant, use less water and retard salinization. Increase crop yields.
Xeriscaping – landscaping with desert species that require no additional watering
1992 National Energy Act – made it illegal to sell 6-gallon toilets
Gray water – slightly dirtied water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, and laundry
tubs, can be collected in a holding tank and used for flushing toilets, watering
lawns, and washing cars

Chapter 8: Soil: Foundation for Land Ecosystems


Parent material – the mineral material of soil, has its origin in the geological
history of an area
Weathering – gradual physical and chemical breakdown that breaks down parent
material.
Sand – made up of particles from 2.0 to .02 mm in size
Silt – particles range from .02 - .002 mm
Clay – anything finer than .002 mm
Soil texture – the relative proportions of each type of particle in a given soil
Loam – 40% sand 40% silt and 20% clay
Soil properties – larger particles have larger spaces separating them than smaller
particles have. Smaller particles have more surface are relative to their volume than
larger particles have. Nutrient ions and water molecules tend to cling to surfaces.
Soil properties correspond to particle size.
Workability – the ease with which a soil can be cultivated. It has an impact on
agriculture. Clayey soils are very difficult to work. Sandy soils are very easy to work
because they are neither muddy when wet nor hard and bricklike when dry.
Horizons – horizontal layers of soil that are often quite distinct
O horizon – the topmost layer of soil, consists of dead organic matter deposited by
plants. It is high in organic content and is the primary source of energy for the soil
community. Toward the bottom of the O horizon, the processes of decomposition
are well advanced, and the original materials may be unrecognizable. At this point,
the material is dark and is called humus
A horizon – a mixture of mineral soil from below and humus from above. It is also
called topsoil. Fine roots from the overlying vegetation cover permeate this layer. It
is usually dark because of the humus
E horizon – zone of leaching, less humus, paler in color
B horizon – characterized by the deposition of minerals that have leached from the
A and E horizons. Often high in iron, aluminum, calcium, and other minerals.
Referred to as subsoil. Often high in clay and is reddish or yellow
C horizon – parent material originally occupying the site, representing weathered
rock, glacial deposits, or volcanic ash. It is affected little by the biological and
chemical processes that go on in the overlying layers
Mollisols – fertile, dark soils found in temperate grassland biomes, the best
agricultural soils. They have a deep A horizon and are rich in humus and minerals;
precipitation is insufficient to leach the minerals downward
Oxisols – soils of tropical and subtropical rain forests. They have a layer of iron and
aluminum oxides in the B horizon and have little O horizon, due to the rapid
decomposition of plant matter. Most of the minerals are living plant matter, so
oxisols are of limited fertility for agriculture. A few years of growth can be obtained,
but in time the intense rainfall leaches the minerals downward, forming a hardpan
than resists further cultivation
Alfisols – widespread, moderately weathered forest soils. Not deep, but have well-
developed O, A, E and B horizons. They are typical of the moist, temperate forest
biome and are suitable for agriculture if they are supplemented with organic matter
or mineral fertilizers
Aridisols – widespread soils of drylands and deserts. Relatively unstructured
vertically. They are thin and light colored. Irrigation used on these soils usually
leads to salinzation, as high evaporation rates draw salts to surface horizons, where
they accumulate at toxic levels.
Soil fertility – the soil’s ability to support plant growth, often refers specifically to
the presence of proper amounts of nutrients
Tilth – a given soil’s ability to support plant growth
Leaching – when nutrients are washed from the soil as water moves through it. it
lessens soil fertility and contributes to pollution when minerals removed from the
soil enter waterways.
Organic fertilizer – includes plant or animal wastes or both, leguminous fallow
crops, or food crops which fix atmospheric nitrogen
Inorganic fertilizer – chemical formulations of required nutrients, without any
organic matter included. They are much more prone to leaching than organic
fertilizers
Stomata – pores in plants through which waters transpires. They permit the entry
of carbon dioxide and the exit of oxygen in photosynthesis
Water-holding capacity – soil’s ability to hold water as it infiltrates. Poor water-
holding capacity implies that most of the infiltrating water percolates on down
below the reach of the roots. If the soil does not have a high water-holding capacity,
the plants will have to depend on frequent rains or irrigation. Sandy soils have very
low water-holding capacity
Evaporative water loss – depletes the soil’s water reservoir without serving the
needs of plants. The O horizon reduces evaporative water loss by covering the soil
Soil aeration – land plants depend on the soil being loose and porous enough to
allow the diffusion of oxygen into, and carbon dioxide out of, the soil. Overwatering
fills the air spaces in the soil, preventing aeration
Compaction – packing of soil which reduces infiltration and increases runoff
Soil structure – the arrangement of soil particles
Mycorrhizae – penetrate detritus, absorb nutrients, and transfer them directly to
plants. There is no loss of nutrients to leaching
Green plants and soil – green plants create detritus, protect the soil from erosion,
and reduce evaporative water loss
Mineralization – the loss of humus and the consequent collapse of topsoil. If
additions of detritus are not sufficient, there will be a gradual deterioration of the
soil.
Soil degradation – occurs when key soil attributes required for plant growth or
other ecosystem services deteriorate over time
Erosion – the process of soil and humus particles being picked up and carried away
by water or wind. It follows anytime soil is bared and exposed to the elements. In
natural terrestrial ecosystems, a vegetative cover protects against erosion. The
energy of falling raindrops is intercepted by the vegetation, and the water infiltrates
gently into the loose topsoil without disturbing its structure. With good infiltration,
runoff is minimal. Eroded soil is less able to support the regrowth of vegetation and
is exposed to further erosion. The lighter particles of humus and clay are the first to
be carried away. Thus, as erosion removes the finer materials, the remaining soil
becomes progressively coarser. Water that is unable to infiltrate flows over the
surface immediately into streams and rivers, overfilling them and causing flooding.
Sediments are carried into streams and rivers, clogging channels and intensifying
flooding, filling reservoirs, killing fish, and damaging ecosystems
Splash erosion – the impact of falling raindrops breaks up the clumpy structure of
the topsoil. The dislodged particles wash into spaces between other aggregates,
clogging the pores and thereby decreasing infiltration and aeration.
Sheet erosion – when water runs off and carries away particles from the surface.
As further runoff occurs, the water converges, which have greater volume, velocity,
and energy and hence greater capacity to pick up and remove soil.
Desert pavement – a surface layer of stones and gravel which protects the
underlying soil against further erosion
Desertification – the formation and expansion of degraded areas of soil and
vegetation cover in arid, semiarid, and seasonally dry areas
Drylands – defined by precipitation, not temperature. There is a minimum amount
to support rangeland or nonirrigated cropland. Droughts are common
Overcultivation – plowing exposes soil to wind and water erosion. Splash erosion
destroys the soil’s aggregate structure and seals the surface, so that aeration and
infiltration are decreased. The weight of tractors used in plowing may add to the
compaction of the soil. Plowing accelerates the oxidation of humus and evaporative
water loss. Crop rotations are sustainable. Under intensive cultivation, nutrient
content may be kept high with inorganic fertilizer, but mineralization, and thus soil
degradation, proceeds in any case. Then, with the soil’s loss of nutrient-holding
capacity, applied inorganic fertilizer is prone to simply leach into waterways,
causing pollution.
No-till agriculture – a technique that permits continuous cropping, yet minimizes
soil erosion. The field is first sprayed with herbicide to kill weeds, and then a
planting apparatus is pulled behind a tractor to accomplish several operations at
once. At harvest, the waste from the previous crop becomes the detritus and mulch
cover for the next. Thus, the soil is never left exposed, erosion and evaporative
water loss are reduced, and there is enough detritus to maintain topsoil.
Overgrazing – as grass production fails to keep up with consumption, the land
becomes degraded. It leads to erosion and encroachment by hardy desert plants. It
upsets the dynamics of many range ecosystems, reducing biodiversity and altering
the feeding and breeding patterns of birds, small mammals, reptiles, and insects.
Deforestation – forest ecosystems are extremely efficient systems for both
holding and recycling nutrients and for absorbing and holding water, because they
maintain and protect a very porous, humus-rich topsoil. When forests are cut, runoff
and leaching of nutrients increase, topsoil becomes saturated with water and slides
off slopes into waterways, and topsoil erodes. The problem is particularly acute
when tropical rain forests are cut because their soils contain so little nutrients.
Irrigation – supplying water to croplands by artificial means, has dramatically
increased crop production in regions that receive low rainfall
Flood irrigation – water is diverted from rivers through canals and flooded through
furrows in fields
Center-pivot irrigation – water is pumped from a central well through a big
sprinkler that slowly pivots itself around the well
Salinization – the accumulation of salts in and on the soil to the point where plant
growth is suppressed. As applied waters leave by evaporation, the salts in the soil
remain behind and gradually accumulate. It can be avoided if sufficient water is
applied to leach the salts down through the soil. Unless there is suitable drainage,
however, the soil will become a waterlogged quagmire in addition to be salinized.
Goals of sustainable agriculture – to maintain a productive topsoil, to keep food
safe and wholesome, reduce the chemical use of fertilizers and pesticides, and keep
farms economically viable
Flood Security Act of 1985 – farmers are required to develop and implement soil-
conservation programs in order to remain eligible for price supports and other
benefits provided by the government
Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 – attempted to
bring needed reforms. Subsidies and controls over many farm commodities were
reduced or eliminated, giving farmers greater flexibility in deciding what to plant
but also forcing them to rely more heavily on the market to guide their decisions
2002 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act – continues to subsidize a host
of farm products, maintaining price supports and farm income for American
farmers, increased conservation funding.

Chapter 9: The Production and Distribution of Food


Subsistence farmers – live on small parcels of land that provide them with the
food for their households and a small cash crop. Subsistence farming is labor
intensive and lacks almost all the inputs of industrialized agriculture. It is practiced
on marginally productive land. The system is often quite sustainable because crop
residues are fed to livestock, livestock manure is used as fertilizer, and the family’s
nutrition is adequate. Practiced in regions experiencing the most rapid population
growth, even though it is best suited for low population densities.
Factory farms – can damage the environment and human health. Rangelands are
susceptible to overgrazing, either because of mismanagement of prime grazing land
or because the land on which the animals graze in marginal dry grasslands. In
developed countries, animal manure is wasted and leaks into surface waters and
contributes to die-offs of fish, contamination with pathogens, and a proliferation of
algae. Crowded factory farms are perfect conditions for diseases to incubate and
spread among the animals and from animals to humans.
Objectives of genomics – to incorporate resistance to diseases and pests that
attack important tropical plants, to increase tolerance to environmental conditions
which may stress plants, to improve the nutritional value of commonly eaten crops,
and to produce pharmaceutical products in ordinary crop plants
Marker-assisted breeding – identifies desirable traits in crop plants or their wild
ancestors and locates the genes with DNA sequencing. Plants with the desired gene
are cross-bred with a modern crop breeding line. This method doesn’t require
special testing and permits needed with transgenic crops
Benefits of bioengineered crops – reductions in the use of pesticides, less
erosion, and less environmental damage associated with brining more land into
production
Drawbacks of bioengineered crops – with such a broad exposure to a toxin or
some other resistance incorporated into plants, it is possible that pests will develop
resistance to the toxin and thus render it ineffective as an independent pesticide.
Beneficial insects may also be killed by toxins. Genes for herbicide resistance or for
tolerance to environmental conditions can also spread by pollen to ordinary crop
plants or weeds. Food safety issues arise because transgenic crops contain proteins
from different organisms and might trigger an unexpected allergic response in
people. plants could also produce new toxic or allergenic substances in their tissues
in response to the presence of foreign genes. Developing countries sometimes lack
access to new technology.
Precautionary principle – where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for failing to take
measures to prevent potential damage
Charity, Aid, Recovery, and Empowerment Act of 2003 – allows family farmers,
ranchers, and restaurant owners to deduct the costs of food donated to agencies as
a charitable contribution
Hunger – lack of basic food required for energy and for meeting nutritional needs
Malnutrition – the lack of essential nutrients
Undernourishment – lack of adequate food energy

Chapter 10: Wild Species and Biodiversity


Biological wealth – the biota found in each country represents a major component
of the country’s wealth
Instrumental value – a species or organism has instrumental value if its existence
or use benefits some other entity. The beneficiaries are usually humans.
Instrumental valuation works fairly well for the provisioning services provided by
ecosystems. However, the regulating and supporting services provided by natural
ecosystems are more difficult to put prices on.
Intrinsic value – when something has value for its own sake. Environmental
ethicists argue that long-established existence of living things carries with it a right
to continued existence.
Agriculture – to maintain vigor in cultivars and to adapt them to different climatic
conditions, plant breeders comb wild populations of related species for the desired
traits. When found, these traits are introduced into the cultivar through
crossbreeding or biotechnology. If natural biota with wild populations is lost, the
options for continued improvements in food plants will be greatly reduced. Also, the
potential for developing new agricultural cultivars will be lost. Another area in which
wild species have instrumental value to humans is pest control. Natural enemies
and genes for increasing resistance can come only from natural biota.
Genetic bank – natural biota can be thought of as a bank in which the gene pools
of all the species involved are deposited. As long as natural biota are preserved,
there is a rich endowment of genes in the bank that can be drawn upon as needed.
Sources of medicine – the search for drugs in the tropics has led to the creation of
parks and reserves to promote the preservation of natural ecosystems
Aesthetic value – recreational and aesthetic values constitute a very important
source of support for maintaining wild species. Ecotourism represents the largest
foreign-exchange-generating enterprise in many developing countries. Degradation
of the environment affects commercial interests.
Public trust doctrine – the government holds wildlife resources in trust for all
people, and is obliged to provide protection for those resources
Positive aspects of hunting – many hunters belong to organizations dedicated to
the game they hunt, which raise funds that are used for the restoration and
maintenance of natural ecosystems vital to that species. Defenders of hunting and
trapping argue that their prey are often animals that lack natural predators and
would increase to the point of destroying their own habitat.
Lacey Act – forbids interstate commerce in illegally killed wildlife, created to
protect egrets
Endangered Species Act – protects endangered and threatened species by
imposing fines for killing, trapping, uprooting, modifying significant habitat of, or
engaging in the commerce of an identified species. There are three elements in the
process of designating a species as either threatened or endangered: listing
(economic factors cannot be considered), designation of the critical habitat
(including privately held lands), and the development of a recovery plan.
Biodiversity – the variety of life on Earth. The dimensions of biodiversity include
the genetic diversity within species, as well as the diversity of habitats, ecosystems,
and biomes. Current threats to biodiversity result primarily from habitat change,
introduced alien species, and exploitation. Disease, pollution, and climate change
play lesser roles but could become more important in the future, as all of these
factors are expected to intensify with time. The losses will be greatest in the
developing world, where biodiversity is the greatest and human population growth
is highest. One key to holding down the loss in biodiversity lies in bringing human
population growth down.
Habitat change – the greatest source of loss is the physical alteration of habitats
through the processes of conversion, fragmentation, and simplification. Habitats like
croplands that replace natural habitats such as grasslands are inhospitable to all
but a few species that tend to be well adapted to the new managed landscapes.
Human-dominated landscapes consist of a mosaic of different land uses, resulting in
small, often geometrically configured, patches that frequently contrast highly with
neighboring patches. Small fragments of habitat can only support small numbers
and populations of species, which are vulnerable to extermination. Reducing the
size of a habitat creates a greater proportion of edges, a situation that favors some
species but may be detrimental to others. human use of habitats often simplifies
them.
Exotic species – occasionally an alien species finds the new environment to its
liking and can become an invasive species, thriving, spreading out, and perhaps
eliminating native species by predation or competition for space or food. Exotic
species are major agents in driving native species to extinction. Foreign plants may
crowd out native ones. New animals species are often successful predators that
eliminate native species not adapted to their presence. Introduced exotic species
may also drive out native species by competing with them for resources.
Overexploitation – poor management often leads to a loss of biodiversity. Greed
also plays a role, even when a species is protected.
Pollution – can directly kill many kinds of plants and animals. Pollution destroys or
alters habitats, with consequences just as severe as those caused by deliberate
conversions.
Climate change – the pace of climate change is likely to accelerate in the next 50
years, and this will coincide with accelerating habitat destruction and change, with
increased exchange of alien species as a result of expanded global trade, and with
increased spread of pollutants. By the end of the century, climate change and its
impacts may be the dominant direct drivers of biodiversity loss and the change in
ecosystem services globally.
Consequences of losing biodiversity – biodiversity is essential for the
ecosystem services and goods that human societies derive from the natural world.
The well-being of millions of rural poor in the developing world is tied to the
provision of products of natural ecosystems, especially during economic hard times.
It is the dominant plants and animals that determine major ecosystem processes
such as energy flow and nutrient cycling. Thus, simplifying ecosystems by driving
rarer species to extinction will not necessarily lead to ecosystem decline. It is also
possible to introduce species that can become new dominants in ecosystems. They
have an impact on both biodiversity and functionality as they crowd out existing
species.
Keystone species – species whose role is absolutely vital to the survival of many
other species in an ecosystem

Chapter 11: Ecosystem Capital: Use and Restoration


Natural resources – natural ecosystems and the biota in them. As resources, they
are expected to produce something of value, and the most commonly understood
value is economic value. Markets do poorly at placing monetary values on
ecosystem services.
Renewable resource – an ecosystem has the capacity to replenish itself despite
certain quantities of organisms being taken from it, and this renewal can go on
indefinitely. Trouble occurs when users take more than the excess and deplete the
breeding population.
Conservation – aims to manage or regulate use so that it does not exceed the
capacity of the species or system to renew itself. Conservation is capable of being
carried out sustainably, and when sustainability is adopted as a principle,
conservation has a well-defined goal.
Preservation – aims to ensure that a species continues, regardless of its potential
utility. Effective preservation often precludes making use of the species or
ecosystem in question.
Consumptive use – when people harvest resources in order to provide for their
needs for food, shelter, tools, fuel, and clothing. This kind of exploitation usually
does not appear in the calculations of the market economy of a country.
Dependence on consumptive use is most commonly associated with the developing
world, but also exists in more rural areas of the developed world.
Productive use – the exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain. It is
an important source of revenue and employment for people in every country.
Maximum sustainable yield – the highest possible rate of use that the system
can match with its own rate of replacement and maintenance. Natural systems can
withstand a certain amount of use and still remain viable. However, a point exists at
which increasing use begins to destroy the system’s regenerative capacity. Just
short of that point is the MSY
Carrying capacity – the maximum population the ecosystem can support on a
sustainable basis. As the population approaches the carrying capacity, new
individuals must compete with older ones for food and living space. As a result,
recruitment may fall dramatically. The MSY cannot be obtained with a population
that is at the carrying capacity.
Optimal population – half the population at the carrying capacity
Common pool resource – when a resource is owned by many people in common
or by no one. The exploitation of such common pool resources presents some
serious problems and can lead to the eventual tragedy of the commons.
Sustainability requires that common pool resources be maintained so as to continue
to yield benefits. The tragedy can only be avoided by limiting freedom of access.
Private ownership – access is restricted, and in theory will be exploited in a
manner that guarantees a continuing harvest for its owners. This theory does not
hold when an owner maximizes immediate profit and then moves on.
Regulation of commons – allows for protection, so that the benefits derived from
the commons can be sustained; fairness in access rights; and mutual consent of the
regulated. The most sustainable approach to maintaining the commons may be
local community control, wherein the power to manage the commons resides with
those who directly benefit most from their use
Ecosystem restoration – aims to repair the damage to specific lands and waters
so that normal ecosystem integrity, resilience, and productivity returns. The
ecological problems that can be ameliorated by restoration include those resulting
from soil erosion, surface strip mining, draining wetlands, costal damage,
agricultural use, deforestation, overgrazing, desertification, and the eutrophication
of lakes.
Forest biomes – the normal ecosystems in regions with year-round rainfall that is
adequate to sustain tree growth. Forests are the most productive systems the land
can support, and they are self-sustaining. They conserve biodiversity, moderate
regional climates, prevent erosion, store carbon and nutrients, and provide
recreational opportunities. They provide lumber, fodder for domestic animals, fibers,
gums, latex, fruit, berries, nuts, and fuel.
Deforestation – the removal of forest and replacement by another land use,
occurs primarily in developing countries. Most is due to conversion into pastures
and agricultural land. When forests are cleared, the overall productivity of the area
is reduced, the standing stock of nutrients and biomass is enormously reduced,
biodiversity is greatly reduced, the soil is more prone to erosion and drying, the
hydrologic cycle is changed as water drains off the land instead of being released
by transpiration through the leaves of trees or percolating into groundwater, a
major carbon dioxide sink is lost, the land no longer yields forest products, people
who depend on harvesting forest products lose their livelihood, and there will
generally be more profit for the owners as the land becomes more productive.
Unless forests are converted to other uses, they can yield a harvest of wood for fuel,
paper, and building materials.
Silviculture – the practice of forest management, usually with the objective of
producing a specific crop
Even-aged management – trees of fairly uniform age are managed until the point of
harvest, cut down, and then replanted, with the objective of continuing the cycle in
a dependable sequence
Clear-cutting – removing an entire stand at one time. Creates a fragmented
landscape with serious impacts on biodiversity and adjacent ecosystems.
Uneven-aged management – can result in a more diverse forest and lends itself
to different harvesting strategies.
Selective cutting – some mature trees are removed in small groups, leaving
behind a forest that continues to maintain a diversity of biota and normal
ecosystem functions. Replanting is usually unnecessary
Shelter-wood cutting – cutting the mature trees in groups over a period of 10-20
years, such that at any time there are enough trees both to provide seeds and to
give shelter to growing seedlings. This method takes active management and skill,
but leaves a functional ecosystem standing.
Sustainable yield – production of wood is the primary goal and the forest is
managed to harvest wood continuously with being destroyed
Sustainable forest management – forests are to be managed as ecosystems,
with the objectives of maintaining the biodiversity and integrity of the ecosystem,
but also to meet the social, economic, cultural, and spiritual needs of present and
future generations
Goals of sustainable forestry – forest resources: to maintain adequate forest cover
to support the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of forestry. In
particular to reduce deforestation, restore degraded forest landscapes, maintain
forests for carbon storage, and support conservation efforts. Biological diversity: to
conserve and manage biodiversity at all its levels, species, genetic, and landscape,
and especially to protect fragile ecosystems. This conservation is aimed at
maintaining the diversity of life, and allowing the possibility of developing new
products in the future. Forest health and vitality: to protect forests from wildfire,
pests, diseases, pollution, and other damaging agents in order to maintain and
improve long-term forest health and productivity in support of the range of forest
functions. Productive functions of forest resources: to manage forests so as to
produce a wide range of wood and nonwood forest products, ensuring that
harvesting and production are sustainable. Protective functions of forest resources:
to promote the role of forests in providing a host of valuable services such as
maintaining soil and aquatic systems, reducing the risks of floods, avalanches, and
drought, and maintaining clean water. Socioeconomic functions: to address the
important economic contributions of forest resources for employment and the many
values that come from processing and marketing forest products. Also, to protect
the forests as they provide cultural, spiritual, or recreational value, and to enhance
opportunities for indigenous and community management systems. Legal, policy,
and institutional framework: to provide the framework necessary to support the 6
themes already listed, including participatory decision making, fair and just use of
forest resources, and proper law enforcement.
Tropical forests – crucial in maintaining earth’s climate, serving as a major sink
for carbon dioxide. It occurs mainly because the countries involved are in need of
greater economic development and have rapid population growth. The current
major cause of deforestation is conversion to agriculture and pastures. Many
governments are encouraging deforestation by promoting the colonization of
forested lands.
Trends in forest management – sustainable forest management: a growing
number of developing countries are joining the developed countries in promoting
sustainable forest management. An estimated 6% of the tropical forests are now
under a formal forest management plan. Plantations of trees for wood or other
products: more than a third of industrial harvest originate in plantations. Although
biodiversity is lower than in natural forests, plantations can continue to recycle
nutrients, hold soil, and recycle water. Plantations also take the pressure off existing
natural forests, allowing them to be maintained for biodiversity conservation.
Extractive reserves that yield nontimber goods: among these goods are latex, nuts,
fibers, and fruits. Recent calculations show that some forests are worth much more
as extractive reserves than as sources of timber. Preserving forests as part of a
national heritage and putting them to use as tourist attractions: this practice can
often generate much more income than logging can. Putting forests under the
control of indigenous villagers: the villagers can then collectively use the forest
products in traditional ways. Given tenure over the land, the villagers tend to
exercise stewardship over their forests in a way that is sustainable. Where this
practice has been implemented, the forests have fared better than where they have
been placed under state control.
Magnuson Act of 1976 – extended the US’s jurisdiction to 200 miles offshore.
Established 8 regional management councils made up of government officials and
industry representatives. The councils are responsible for setting management
plans for their regions
Sustainable Fisheries Act – depleted fish stocks must be rebuilt and maintained
at biologically sustainable levels, using IQs, buying out fishing vessels, and requiring
that scientific information be employed in setting yields. Also requires that steps be
taken to minimize the by-catch
Coral reefs – among the most diverse and biologically productive ecosystems in
the world. Corals build and protect the land shoreward of the reefs and attract
tourists. Because they attract a great variety of fish and shellfish, they are
important sources of food and trade for local people
Coral bleaching – coral animals lose their symbiotic algae. Some coral bleaching is
an annual phenomenon related to high temperatures and light intensities of
summer. Increased sea surface temperatures can bring on 100% bleaching. High
summer temperatures and repeated occurrences of El Nino could permanently wipe
out coral reefs over vast areas of shallow tropical oceans
Mangroves – protect the coasts from damage due to storms and erosion and from
a rich refuge and nursery for fish. Although logging and coastal land development
are believed to be responsible for most of the mangrove deforestation, the
development of ponds for raising shrimp is proving destructive. The massive
removal of mangroves has caused erosion, siltation of sea grasses and coastal
reefs, and the ruin of local fisheries.
Wilderness – land given the greatest protection, authorized by the Wilderness Act
of 1964. The act provides for the permanent protection of these undeveloped and
unexploited areas so that natural ecological processes can operate freely.
Permanent structures, roads, motor vehicles, and other mechanized transport are
prohibited. Timber harvesting is excluded.
National parks – administered by the National Park Service
National wildlife refuges – administered by the FWS. The intent is to protect
important wildlife species and areas of great scenic or unique ecological
significance and provide public access for recreation.
Multiple use – a combination of extracting resources, using the forest for
recreation, and protecting watersheds and wildlife. Tends to emphasize extractive
uses
New Forestry – directed more toward protecting the ecological health and
diversity of forests than toward producing a maximum harvest of logs. In involves
cutting trees less frequently, leaving wider buffer zones along streams, leaving
dead logs and debris in forests, and protecting broad landscapes
Private land trust – a nonprofit organization that will accept either outright gifts of
land or easements, arrangements in which the landowner gives up development
rights into the future but retains ownership of the parcel. The land trust may also
purchase land to protect it from development.

Chapter 12: Energy from Fossil Fuels


Electrical power – the amount of work done by an electric current over a given
time. The electricity itself is an energy carrier, it transfers energy from a primary
energy source to its point of use.
Demand cycle – as demand rises during the day, the utility draws on additional
plants that can be turned on and off, the intermediate and peak-load power sources
that represent the utility’s reserve capacity. These are the utility’s gas turbines and
diesel plants, or else the utility uses pumped-storage hydroelectric power.
Occasionally, a deficiency in available power will prompt a brownout or blackout.
Such events occur most likely during times of peak power demand and may be
precipitated by a sudden loss of power accompanying the shutdown of a base-load
plant
Conversion losses – energy is lost as it is converted from one form to another.
They are the consequence of the need to maintain a high heat differential between
the incoming steam and the receiving turbine so as to maximize efficiency. Heat
energy will only go toward a cooler place, so it cannot be recycled into the turbine.
The most common practice is to dissipate it into the environment by means of a
condenser
Thermal pollution – water can be passed over condensing systems to cool them.
The waste heat is transferred to the body of water, with the result that all the small
planktonic organisms drawn through the condensing system with the water are
cooked and the warm water added back to the waterway may have a deleterious
effect on aquatic ecosystems
How fossil fuels are formed – derived from the remains of living organisms.
Anaerobic conditions in the lowest layers of bodies of water impeded the breakdown
of detritus by decomposers. As a result, massive quantities of dead organic matter
accumulated. This matter was gradually buried under layers of sediment and
converted by pressure and heat to coal, crude oil, and natural gas. They cannot be
considered renewable resources because we are using them far faster than they are
formed.
Estimated reserves – educated guesses about where oil or natural gas may be
located. They may be inaccurate because there is no way to determine whether
they actually exist
Proven reserves – a fairly accurate estimate of how much oil can be economically
obtained from the field. They hinge on the economics of extraction. Thus, such
reserves may actually increase or decrease with the price of oil because higher
prices justify exploiting resources that would not be worth extracting at lower
prices.
Production – the withdrawal of oil or gas from the field. It cannot proceed at a
constant rate because crude oil is a vicious fluid held in pore spaces in sedimentary
rock
Primary recovery – conventional pumping, can remove only 25% of the oil in an
oil field
Secondary recovery – involves manipulating pressure in the oil reservoir by
injecting brine or steam that forces the oil into the wells
Enhanced recovery – obtained by injecting carbon dioxide, which breaks up oil
droplets and enables them to flow again
Hubbert peak – oil exploitation in a region follows a bell-shaped curve
Ways domestic production of crude oil was increased –exploratory drilling was sped
up, the Alaska pipeline was constructed, fields that had been closed down as
uneconomical were reopened
Ways consumption of crude oil was decreased – standards were set for automobile
fuel efficiency, conservation goals were promoted for such things as insulation in
buildings and efficiency in appliances, and the development of alternative energy
sources began
Natural gas – continually emitted from oil and gas-bearing geological deposits. It
must either be pumped through a pipeline or subjected to high pressures so that it
remains a liquid at room temperature. It is a clean-burning fuel, producing carbon
dioxide and water but virtually no hydrocarbons or sulfur oxides. Applying natural
gas to the transportation sector may extend the oil phase of our economy, but it will
not be a sustainable solution, because the natural-gas reserves are also limited
Fisher-Tropsch process – natural gas can be converted to a hydrocarbon that is
liquid at room temperature and pressure
Coal – much less expensive than natural gas or oil. Can be obtained by surface
mining or underground mining, both methods have substantial environmental
impacts. Most is used to generate electricity
Underground mining – at least 50% of the coal must be left in place to support
the roof of the mine. Land subsidence and underground fires often occur in
conjunction with underground mines
Strip mining – power shovels turn aside the rock and soil above the coal seam and
then remove the coal. This method destroys the ecology of the region. It takes
many decades before an ecosystem resembling the original one to develop. Erosion
and acid leaching may occur.
Synfuels – synthetic fuels made from coal
Oil shale – fine sedimentary rock containing a mixture of solid, waxlike
hydrocarbons called kerogen. When shale is heated, the kerogen releases
hydrocarbon vapors that can be recondensed to form a black, viscous substance
similar to crude oil, which can then be refined into gasoline and other petroleum
products. requires large amounts of water
Oil sands – sedimentary material containing bitumen, an extremely viscous, tarlike
hydrocarbon. When oil sands are heated, the bitumen can be melted out and
refined in the same way crude oil can
Energy Policy Act of 2005 – establishes energy policies for the US for years to come

Chapter 13: Energy from Nuclear Power


Fission – a large atom of one element is split to produce two smaller atoms of
different elements. All current nuclear power plants employ fission of uranium-235.
Fusion – two small atoms combine to form a larger atom of a different element
Isotope – the same element that contains different numbers of neutrons but the
same number of protons and electrons
Mass number – the sum of the number of neutrons and the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom
Enrichement – involves separating 235U from 238U to produce a material a higher
concentration of 235U. based on the slight difference in their masses. The technical
difficulty of enrichment is the major hurdle that prevents less developed countries
from advancing their own nuclear capabilities
Nuclear reactor – designated to sustain a continuous chain reaction but not allow
it to amplify into a nuclear explosion. Control is achieved by enriching the uranium
to only 4% 235U. in the process of fission, some of the faster neutrons are absorbed
by 238U atoms, converting them into 239Pu, which also then undergoes fission
when hit by another neutron. At least 1/3 of the energy of a nuclear reactor comes
from plutonium fission
Moderator – slows down the neutrons that produce fission, so that they are
traveling at the right speed to trigger another fission. In slowing down the neutrons,
the moderator gains heat.
Fuel rods – tubes filled with uranium dioxide pellets. They are placed close
together to form a reactor core inside a strong reactor vessel that holds the water,
which serves as both moderator and heat-exchange fluid. Over time, daughter
products that also absorb neutrons accumulate in the fuel rods and slow down the
rate of fission and heat production
Control rods – rods filled with neutron-absorbing material to control the chain
reaction. The chain reaction is started and controlled by withdrawing and inserting
the control rods as necessary.
Nuclear power plants – heat from the reactor is used to boil water to provide
steam for driving conventional turbochargers. The superheated water is circulated
through a heat exchanger, boiling other, unpressurized water that flows past the
heat exchanger tubes. The action produces the steam used to drive the
turbogenerator. The double-loop design of the primary and secondary systems
isolates hazardous materials in the reactor from the rest of the power plant.
However, if the reactor vessel should break, the sudden loss of water from around
the reactor could result in the core’s overheating. The sudden loss of the
moderator-coolant water would cause fission to cease, since the moderator would
no longer be present. Because nuclear plants are base-loaded plants that provide
the foundation for meeting the daily and weekly electrical demand cycle, they must
be replaced with other base load plants.
Meltdown – when uncontrolled decay releases enough energy to melt the material
in the core. The molten material falling into the remaining water could cause a
steam explosion.
Comparing nuclear and coal – coal plants consume 2-3 million tons of coal. If this
amount is obtained by strip mining, some environmental destruction and acid
leaching will result. If the coal comes from deep mines, there will be human costs in
the form of accidental deaths and impaired health. The nuclear power plant requires
about 30 tons of enriched uranium, which is obtained with much less harm to
humans and the environment. The coal plant emits more than 7 million tons of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The nuclear power plant emits none while it is
producing energy, but fossil fuel energy is used in the mining and enriching of
uranium, the construction of nuclear power plants, the decommissioning of the
plant after it is shut down, and the transportation and storage of nuclear waste.
Coal plants emit more than 300,000 tons of sulfur dioxide, particulates, and other
pollutants, leading to acid rain and air pollution. Nuclear power plants produce no
acid-forming pollutants or particulates. A coal plant releases 100x more
radioactivity than a nuclear power plant because of the natural presence of
radioactive compounds in the coal. The nuclear plant releases low levels of
radioactive waste gases. Coal plants produce 600,000 tons of ash requiring land
disposal. The nuclear plant produces about 250 tons of highly radioactive wastes
requiring safe storage and disposal.
Radioisotopes – unstable isotopes that become stable by spontaneously ejecting
subatomic particles, high-energy radiation, or both. Any materials in and around the
reactor may be converted to unstable isotopes and become radioactive by
absorbing neutrons from the fission process
Radioactive emissions – particles and radiation
Radioactive wastes – the indirect products of fission, along with direct products
Radioactive effects – radioactive emissions can penetrate biological tissue,
resulting in radiation exposure. It then displaces electrons from molecules, leaving
behind charged particles, or ions. The process of ionization may involve breaking
chemical bonds or changing the structure of molecules in ways that impair their
normal functions. In high doses, radiation my cause enough damage to prevent cell
division. In lower doses, radiation may damage DNA. Cells with mutated DNA may
then begin dividing and growing out of control
Radioactive decay – the process in which, as unstable isotopes eject particles and
radiation, they become stable and cease to be radioactive. The rate of radioactive
decay is such that half of the starting amount of a given isotope will decay within a
certain period.
Short-term containment – allows the radioactive decay of short-lived isotopes.
Spent fuel is first stored in deep swimming pool-like tanks on the sites of nuclear
power plants. The water in these tanks dissipates waste heat and acts as a shield
against the escape of radiation. After a few years of decay, the spent fuel may be
placed in air-cooled dry casks for interim storage until long-term storage becomes
available
Long-term containment – there is a 20 half-lives minimum on the containment of
long-lived isotopes. Most countries that use nuclear power have decided on geologic
burial for the ultimate consignment of nuclear wastes, but no nation has developed
plans to the point of actually carrying out the burial. The basic problem is that no
rock formation can be guaranteed to remain stable and dry for tens of thousands of
years.
Active safety – relies on operator-controlled actions, external power, electrical
signals, etc.
Passive safety – involves engineering devices and structures that make it virtually
impossible for the reactor to go beyond acceptable levels of power, temperature,
and radioactive emissions; their operation depends only on standard physical
phenomena
Embrittlement – occurs as neutrons from fission bombard the reactor vessel and
other hardware. Gradually, this neutron bombardment causes the metals to become
brittle enough that they may crack under thermal stress. When the reactor vessel
becomes too brittle to be considered safe, the plant must either be shut down or be
repaired at great cost.
Corrosion – a consequence of steam generation. Cracks develop in pipes. If the
main line conveying steam from the generator to the turbine were to rupture, the
sudden increase in pressure in the generator could cause several cracked pipes to
break at once. In that case, radioactive moderator-coolant water would be released
and would overload safety systems, forcing the plant to vent radioactive gas to the
outside.
Breeder reactors – designed so that nonfissionable 238U absorbs extra neutrons,
which are allowed to maintain their high speed. When this occurs, 238U is
converted to 239Pu, which can then be purified and used as a nuclear fuel
Opposition to nuclear power – people have a general distrust of technology they
do not understand, especially when that technology carries with it the potential for
catastrophic accidents or the capacity to induce cancer. Many observers are critical
of the way nuclear technology is being managed. They are aware that the same
agency that (the Nuclear Regulatory Commission) responsible for licensing and
safety regulations is also a strong supporter of the commercial nuclear industry.
Problems involving lax safety, operator failures, and cover-ups by nuclear plants
and their regulatory agencies have occurred in the US, Canada, and Japan. The
problems of high costs of construction and unexpectedly short operational lifetimes.
The nuclear industry has repeatedly presented nuclear energy as extremely safe,
arguing that the probabilities of accidents occurring are very low. Nuclear power
plants are viewed as prime targets for terrorist attacks, which could bring about a
potentially devastating release of activity. There is the problem of disposing of
nuclear waste. There is a basic mismatch between nuclear power and the energy
problem. The main energy problem in the US is an eventual shortage of crude oil for
transportation purposes, yet nuclear power produces electricity, which is not used
for transportation. Consequently, nuclear power simply competes with coal-fired
power in meeting the demands for base-load electrical power.

Chapter 14: Renewable Energy


Solar energy – originates with thermonuclear fusion in the Sun. about half of its
energy makes it to earth’s surface. Solar energy absorbed by water or land
surfaces is converted to heat energy and eventually lost to outer space. The main
problem associated with using solar energy is one of taking a diffuse and
intermittent source and concentrating it into an amount and form that can be used
as heat.
Flat-plate collectors – consists of a thin, broad box with a glass or clear plastic
top and a black bottom with water tubes embedded within. The black bottom gets
hot as it absorbs sunlight and the clear cover prevents heat from escaping. Water
circulating through the tubes is thus heated and is conveyed to a tank where it is
stored
Active system – the heated water is moved by means of a pump
Passive system – natural convection currents are used. The system must be
mounted so that the collector is lower than the tank. Thus, heated water from the
collector rises by natural convection into the tank, while cooler water from the tank
descends into the collector
Earth-sheltered housing – the earth is used as a form of insulation and the
building is oriented for passive solar energy. Earth can be built up against the
building’s walls, or the building can be covered by earth, exposing the interior to the
outside with windows facing southward.
Photovoltaic cells – collect light and convert it to electrical power in one step.
Each cell consists of 2 thin layers of semiconductor material separated by a junction
layer. The lower layer has atoms with single electrons in the outer orbital that are
easily lost. The upper layer has atoms lacking electrons in their outer orbital; these
atoms readily gain electrons. The kinetic energy of light photons striking the two-
layer sandwich dislodges electrons from the lower layer, creating an electric
potential between the layers. The potential provides the energy for an electrical
current to flow through the rest of the circuit. Electrons from the lower side flow
through a motor back to the upper side. Because they have no moving parts, solar
cells do not wear out. The major material used in PV cells is silicon. The cost of
these cells lies mainly in their sophisticated design and construction.
Inverter – acts as an interface between the solar PV modules and the electric grid
or batteries.
Solar-trough – long, trough-shaped reflectors titled toward the Sun. the curvature
of the trough is such that all of the sunlight hitting the collector is reflected onto a
pipe running down the center of the system. Oil or some other heat-absorbing fluid
circulating through the pipe is thus heated to very high temperatures. The heated
fluid is passed through a heat exchanger to boil water and produce steam for
driving a turbogenerator
Power tower – an array of sun-tracking mirrors that focuses the sunlight falling on
several acres of land onto a receiver mounted on a tower in the center of the area.
The receiver transfers the heat energy collected to a molten-salt liquid, which then
flows either to heat exchanger to a drive a conventional turbocharger or to a tank at
the bottom of the tower to store heat for later use.
Hydropower – hydroelectric dams where water under high pressure flows through
channels, driving turbogenerators. The power generated is proportional to both the
height of the water behind the dam and the volume of water that flows through. It
eliminates the cost and environmental effects of fossil fuels and nuclear power.
Dams provide flood control for many rivers and irrigation water for agriculture. The
reservoir created behind a dam inevitably drowns farmland or wildlife habitats and
displace rural populations. They prevent or impede the migration of fish and wreak
havoc downstream.
Wind power – a propeller shaft is geared directly to a generator. Wind farms are
now producing pollution-free, sustainable power. The amount of wind that can be
tapped is immense. It is an intermittent source. Windmills are a hazard to birds.
Biomass energy

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