Structural strain can be
observed in a number of ways:
looking at changes in ellipticity,
objects in rock of known shape,
and in folds and foliations. Strain
can be analyzed through the Rf-
, Fry, and Wellman Methods.
15.1MeasuringStraininRocks
Ellipticity R describes the shape and
strain of an ellipse by determining the
ratiooftheprincipalaxes:
R= s1/s3 = (e1+1)/(e3+1) = (l1/L)/(l3/L) =
l1/l3
Note: Volumetric Strain can only be
determined for very specific
circumstances.
Onlythreeindependentmeasurementsare
neededintheprincipleplanetodefinethe
shape, size,andorientationofthestrain
ellipse: the lengths l1 and l3 and the
orientationanglealpha.(Seefig15.1)The
areaoftheundeformedcirclewillalsobe
the same as the area of the deformed
ellipse:
L= (l1l3), where L is the radius of the
circle. The ratio of the deformed to the
undeformed lengthsdetermine s1 and s3,
theprinciplestretches.
Thesimplestandeasiestwaytodetermine
strainistolookatinitiallycircularobjects
inarocksuchasooids,spherulites,and
radiolaria,andmeasuringhowmuchthey
have deformed. You can use a similar
method with linear objects like acicular
crystals, fossils, and veins,by measured
the amount of deformation compared to
their original shape. Shear strain can be
determined in many fossils with
perpendicular features by measuring the
change in angles of those deformed
features, however this method cannot
determinecompletevolumetricstrain. It
isimportanttonotethat,inreality,these
circular objects are not perfectly
circular and strain is never perfectly
homogeneous. So, in the field several
measurementsmustbetakenandusedto
computetheaverageellipticity.
15.2RelationshipofStraintoFoliations
andLineations
Slateismostcommonlyusedto
studytherelationshipbetweenstrainand
foliation/lineations.Theypreservefossils
and other strain markers. There is a
parallelism between the plane of
flattening on the strain ellipse and the
slatyfoliation.
15.3MeasurementofStraininFolds
Thefoldingprocessismorecomplexthan
isshowninkinematicmodels!Studying
ooidsalonecanleadtounderestimationof
totalstrainfromfolding.
Foliationpatternsinfoldedlayersreflects
diversestraindistributionandthereexists
a parallelism between foliation and the
flatteningplaneinfinitestrain.
Orthogonalflexure:(seefig.15.5)These
modelsshowstraindistributionarounda
foldhingezone.ModelEmostaccurately deformation models include shortening or
representstheorientationandmagnitude
of strains. The orthogonal model best
represents the model for the limbs of a loss or gain). One can often use an
fold.
In folds, theorientation of foliation and
variations in foliation patterns can the
strain distribution that the fold
experiencedwhileitwasbeingdeformed.
15.4StraininShearZones
The bulk principle instantaneous stretch
axes are the sum of the individually
accumulated instantaneous strains on the
shear zones. Equal conjugate sets on each
fault means that averaging over the
volume of the shear zone rock indicates
the principle axes of bulk instantaneous
1
stretch intersecting the angle between
conjugate shear zones, no matter the
angle. Unequal fault slips indicate that the
principle instantaneous stretch relies on
the relative shear accumulating on the
individual fractures. The bulk finite strain
for a rock cut by many shear zones equals
the sum of the average strain for each
shear zone.
Tangent Lineation Diagrams: Show
patterns of shear-plane/slip-direction data
for three instantaneous strain ellipsoids.
In massive crystalline rocks with low to
medium metamorphism, deformation
tends to accumulate along the defined
shear zones. Schistosity tend to form
aligned with these well-defined shear
zones, becoming increasingly foliated
over time. Thee Schistosity is more
developed towards the center of these
shear zones.
In an inhomogeneous progressive simple
shear in the shear zone, the magnitude is
zero at the shear boundaries and goes to
its maximum value at the center of the
zone. If the schistosity is parallel to the
flattening plane, it should exhibit the
characteristic sigmoidal trajectory of the
s1 axis of the resultant strain ellipse of the
deformation.
Models using progressive simple shear are
useful for ductile shear, but can yield
inaccurate results. More complex
lengthening normal to the shear zone
boundary (often heterogeneous volume
assumption of constant volume, where
lengthening or shortening parallel to the
shear zone boundary compensates the
shortening or lengthening perpendicular
to the boundary.
15.5 Deformation History
In order to determine the deformation
path, one must know information about
the rocks deformation history.
Determining the finite strain ellipsoid is
not sufficient, as this is the result of the
rocks deformation history and does not
define a certain deformation path. The
knowledge of this history is necessary to
Brooke Rumley &Michelle Myers, 2011
Edited by Weihan Liu and Billy
determine many properties, or
distinguishing between coaxial and
noncoaxial deformation. Features, such as
veins, dikes, metamorphic segregation, or
fibers growing in deformed areas, can be
incredibly useful in determining the
history of deformation in the rock.

15A.1
The Rf Method: Uses objects not
initially spherical (like deformed
conglomerates) to measure deformation
by looking at original ellipticity and
deformedellipticity.
Rf(max)=RiRs
Rf(min)=Ri/RsifRsRi
=Rs/RiifRsRi
15A.2
The Fry Method: Uses the distances
betweenthecentersofobjects(ieooids)
that were initially constantly and
isotropically distributed to provide a
measure of deformation and strain (see
Lab9).

15A.3
The Wellman Method: a graphical
construction method for determining
strain.(seefig15A.5)

References & Resources

RobertJ.Twiss,EldridgeM.Moores,
Structural Geology 2nd edition, (W. H.
Freeman),p.423455,2006

Brooke Rumley &Michelle Myers, 2011

Edited by Weihan Liu and Billy
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