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tree oil (TTO). The species selected were randomly was significantly inhibited in
chosen except for E. globulus (Figure 2),3 which is lymphocytes by 16- and 36 Figure 1. Structure of 1,8-Cineole
listed twice to demonstrate the variability of percent, respectively, while in
constituents within the same species, likely due to monocytes, TNF-a and IL-1b were
location of tree growth or time of year harvested. inhibited by 77- and 61 percent, H3C CH3
One publication claimed 43 components in the oil respectively. Thus, 1,8-cineole at
of E. tereticornis from fresh leaves as analyzed by 10-6 M had a larger impact on
O
gas chromatography.4 Oil yield from leaves ranging TNF-a and IL-1b production in
from 3.57-10.6 mg/g volatile components was monocytes compared to lympho-
demonstrated when various species were steam- cytes, but similar effects at 10-5 M.
distilled. E. globulus produced 5.25 mg oil/g of fresh The authors characterized 1,8-cin-
leaf.5 Research interpretation of microbial action is eole as a strong inhibitor of TNF-a
H3C
complicated by the use of different EO species with and IL-1b, with smaller effects on
varying percentages of individual components. No chemotactic cytokines. These
formal correlation between the amount of major authors suggest that since
constituents and the antibacterial activity has been 1,8-cineole can control airway
determined.6 mucus hypersecretion, it might reduce exacerba-
tions in asthma, sinusitis, and chronic obstructive
Immunomodulatory/Anti-inflammatory Effects In pulmonary disease (COPD).8
vitro
E. globulus oil dose-dependently stimulated
phagocytosis (according to several parameters) by
Figure 2. Photo of Eucalyptus globulus
human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) in
vitro, without producing pro-inflammatory effects
(Table 2). Phagocytic activity was not increased
when the MDMs were exposed to TTO or lavender
oil. Eucalyptus oils phagocytic ability was halted
when EO-stimulated cells were treated with a
headache with or without bending, tenderness to naloxone, did not reverse the analgesic effect of
pressure points of the trigeminal nerve, impair- 1,8-cineole, implying that 1,8-cineole does not
ment of general condition, nasal obstruction, and work through the mu-opioid receptors in the
nasal secretions (rated by quantity and viscosity) body.19
were randomized in a double-blind, placebo-con- Using rats and mice in pain evaluation methods,
trolled trial. Subjects in the treatment group 1,8-cineole was found comparable to morphine in
(n=75) showed over 80-percent improvement after analgesic effect on the central and peripheral
seven days of oral 1,8-cineole (200 mg three times nervous system. A synergistic effect was observed
daily) compared to less than 50-percent improve- between cineole and morphine, with naloxone
ment in the placebo group. Improvement was failing to antagonize the effect of cineole. EO with
determined by symptoms-sum-score. Ultra- morphine can allow the same strength of analgesia
sonography at the end of the study showed that with lower morphine dose. b-pinene had an
sinus shadowing remained in 37 patients in the anti-nociceptive supraspinal effect in rats; but in
placebo group and four patients in the cineole contrast to cineole, showed opioid antagonist
group. All patients also inhaled 100 mcg of the activity on morphine comparable to naloxone.20
decongestant xylometazoline three times daily to Rat superior cervical ganglion was used to
relieve nasal congestion.16 measure the nerve excitability (via intracellular
recording) when exposed to 1,8-cineole at concen-
COPD trations of 0.1, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 mM injected
The efficacy of oral cineole (200 mg three times intracellularly. Inhibition of excitability was seen at
daily) was demonstrated in 242 COPD patients in a 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 mM. The 6.0 mM concentration
double-blind, placebo-controlled, six-month trial. showed a significant decrease in excitability,
Cineole demonstrated a significant decrease in the causing a complete action potential block in all the
exacerbation frequency compared to placebo tested neurons. The authors state that one mecha-
(occurrences in six months, 0.4 versus 0.9), sever- nism of action is indirectly due to depolarization of
ity (by subjective scoring), and duration (average the neuronal cytoplasmic membrane.21
4.0 versus 5.7 days). Patient medications at the
start of the study were not altered during the study. Efficacy of EO against Microorganisms
Lung function tests showed no significant differ- Antibacterial Action
ences between treatment and control. Other The antibacterial activity of several essential oils
symptoms of COPD, such as trouble breathing or was evaluated against S. aureus. The oil activity
dyspnea, showed improvement scoring in both order on growth inhibition was TTO (13 mm) >
groups, with no statistically significant differences chamomile (12.5 mm) > E. globulus (12 mm) using
between groups.17 4 mm discs. Injection of the essential oils into
nutrient broth inhibited cell growth. A 100-percent
Analgesic Effect inhibition resulted from 100 L of EO. Chamomile
Three species of EO (E. citriodora, E. tereticornis, oil suppressed growth above 50 L and TTO gave
and E. globulus) showed dose-dependent and significant inhibition at only 10 L. With the
time-dependent peripheral and central acting alginate-bead method, about three times the
analgesic properties in rodents compared to amount of EO as TTO was necessary for 100-per-
morphine, using standard experimental test cent inhibition. The affinity of cell binding was
models. E. tereticornis had the greatest anti-inflam- about double for TTO as the other oils, leading to
matory action in a model of rat paw edema. The speculation that TTOs superior antibacterial
anti-inflammatory action of EO compared to activity is due to its strong cell adhesion.22
dexamethasone showed an average of 75-percent An in vitro study tested antibacterial and
versus 97-percent inhibition, respectively, of anti-adhesion effects of five essential oils: manuka,
neutrophil migration into the rat peritoneal cavity. tea tree, Eucalyptus radiata, lavender, and rosemary.
A test for vascular permeability effect showed On periodontopathic bacterial strains, manuka, tea
reduction, but widely varied by species and tree, and eucalyptus oils showed the lowest
permeability agent.18 concentration needed for bacteriostatic, bacterio-
When rats or mice were injected with pro-inflam- cidal, and bacterial adhesion inhibition.
matory substances, 1,8-cineole was shown to Porphyromonas gingivalis, Actinobacillus actinomy-
prevent pain sensation. The opioid antagonist, cetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum,
Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus sobrinus In a trial of 21 plant essential oils at several
were completely killed by exposure to manuka, tea dilutions against six bacterial species (E. coli, K.
tree, or eucalyptus for 30 seconds at concentra- pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, P. vulgaris, B. subtilis, and
tions between 0.03-1.0 percent.23 S. aureus), 19 oils showed antibacterial activity
An in vitro study examined dental biofilm against at least one species. E. globulus oil showed
production of Streptococcus mutans, the primary the least activity against the bacteria.26
cause of dental caries, with 1-, 2-, and 4-mg/mL
concentrations of Mentha spicata oil, Eucalyptus Antibacterial Action of Vapor
camaldulensis oil, and chlorhexidine. At 1 mg/mL, An in vitro study examined the effect of vapor-
chlorhexidine showed the greatest potency. ized E. radiata and other essential oils against six
Regarding specific biofilm formation, E. camaldulen- strains of bacteria (H. influenza, S. pyogenes,
sis versus chlorhexidine scored 6.3 (at 2 mg/mL) penicillin-susceptible S. pneumoniae, penicillin-
and 1.9 (at 4 mg/mL) versus 13.0 (at 2 mg/mL) and resistant S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, and E. coli). The
4.0 (at 4 mg/mL), respectively, demonstrating a oils were from cinnamon bark, lemongrass, perilla,
superior ability of the EO.24 thyme, peppermint, tea tree, coriander, lavender,
An in vivo, four-week study of 100 volunteers rosemary, eucalyptus, and citron. E. coli showed
was conducted on plaque formation, with different least susceptibility. For most of the essential oils, H.
concentrations of M. spicata oil, E. camaldulensis oil, influenza was most susceptible, followed by S.
and chlorhexidine added to standard toothpaste. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes, then S. aureus. While
EO at all concentrations had significantly more all oils had a degree of effectiveness, EO was one of
inhibition compared to M. spicata and the least. Individual oil constituents were also
chlorhexidine.24 examined.27
The oils from different plant parts (leaf, stem,
and flower) of two Eucalyptus species (E. sideroxy- Tuberculosis (TB)
lon and E. torquata) were tested for antimicrobial In a striking case, a 28-year-old female (diag-
activity against nine bacterial species. All four nosed with TB by sputum culture and chest x-ray),
gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, who had refused conventional treatment,
Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, and employed E. globulus oil inhalation (3 mL EO to
Bacillus subtilis) showed high sensitivity to EO; 500 mL boiling water) three times daily for three
whereas, only two of the five gram-negative weeks. After 10 days the malaise reduced, appetite
bacteria (Klebsiella pneumonia and Proteus mirabilis) improved, cough subsided, and weight was gained.
showed mild susceptibility; Escherichia coli, Objectively, the temperature normalized and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi sputum cultures were negative, although erythro-
showed little-to-no susceptibility.25 cyte sedimentation rate (ESR) remained high at
The antimicrobial effect of E. globulus oil was 110 (normal range 0-15 mm/hr for males and 0-20
studied on bacteria from human specimen samples. mm/hr for females) and there was no change in the
Included were 120 isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes, chest x-ray. After three weeks, the patient was
20 isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae, 40 isolates given conventional treatment anyway.28 The
of Streptococcus agalactiae, 20 isolates of present authors were unable to locate any report
Staphylococcus aureus, 40 isolates of Haemophilus on the in vitro effect of EO on Mycobacterium
influenza, 30 isolates of Haemophilus parainfluenzae, tuberculosis. (Note: In a private communication to
10 isolates of Klebsiella pneumonia, and 10 isolates the authors, a radiographics expert stated the chest
of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. The most sensitive x-ray would not be expected to change significantly
bacteria were H. influenza, H. parainfluenza, and S. in 10 days for a patient with a positive film for
maltophilia. Some sensitivity was shown against S. tuberculosis.)
pneumoniae and S. agalactiae, while there was little
antibacterial effect against S. pyogenes or S. aureus. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
EO showed no effectiveness against K. pneu- An in vitro comparison of E. globulus oil and
moniae.26 (Note: some results disagree with this thyme oil was conducted on 14 isolates of MRSA
report, which may be due to the difference in and other gram-positive and -negative bacteria.
species of EO.) Although EO was effective against MRSA, it was
hydrocarbons were slightly superior to monoterpene The oils of three eucalyptus species (E. polyan-
alcohols in antiviral activity, with a-pinene and themos, E. globulus, and E. perriniana) were assessed
a-terpineol demonstrating the greatest effect. The for antioxidant ability. E. polyanthemos showed an
Selectivity Index (Total Cytotoxicity50/Inhibitory antioxidant effect comparable to a-tocopherol, as it
Concentration50), the best indicator of effectiveness, inhibited hexanal from oxidizing to hexanoic acid
was 5.3 for EO, 60.0 for TTO, and 6.4 for thyme oil.33 for at least 30 days. At 500 g/mL, E. polyanthemos,
E. globulus, and E. perriniana inhibited hexanal
Antifungal oxidation by 99-, 55-, and 16 percent, respectively.
Two Eucalyptus species (E. sideroxylon and E. In comparison, 50 g/mL a-tocopherol inhibited
torquata) and their different plant parts (leaf, stem, hexanal oxidation by 98 percent.5
and flower) were tested for antifungal activity. The Additional research demonstrates the antioxi-
EO showed (in order) strong antifungal activity dant ability of EO by the same experimental
against Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus, and A. method, although the species was not given.36
niger, compared to a fluconazole control (with no However, when E. globulus was compared with 10
action from oil of E. sideroxylon flower).25 other essential oils for free radical scavenging
E. globulus oil and 29 other essential oils (includ- ability, it performed poorly, and the authors of the
ing TTO) were evaluated against biofilm-forming C. study attributed it to the high amount of monoter-
albicans strains, both sensitive and resistant to penes. In regard to lipid oxidation, E. globulus
fluconazole. Eighteen oils showed anti-Candida demonstrated moderate inhibition (48.6%).37
activities with the strongest being EO, peppermint,
ginger grass, and clove, with respective percentage Nasal Ciliary Beat Frequency (CBF)
inhibitions of 81-, 74-, 40-, and 29 percent. EO can affect the cilia in the respiratory tract.
Fluconazole showed 78-percent inhibition, which Ciliated nasal cells from healthy volunteers were
was less than EO. Note that TTO was not among treated with EO, pine needle oil, or a combination
the highest inhibitors.34 of menthol, EO, and pine needle oil at concentra-
An herbal preparation with the active principal tions from 0.2 to 11 g/m3. Nasal cells experienced a
one-percent oil of E. pauciflora was applied twice dose-dependent decrease in the CBF starting with
daily for three weeks to 50 patients with a skin the smallest concentration of the oils tested.
infection by any of three species of Tinea. After For EO, at 0.2 g/m3 the relative decrease was
two weeks, all patients were KOH-negative and 14.6 percent compared to the control cells. At 7.5 g/
after three weeks, 60 percent of patients com- m3, the relative decrease in CBF was 32.5 percent.
pletely recovered and 40 percent showed improve- This appears to imply that, in the case of vapor
ment; none of the recovered patients had relapsed inhalation of oils for respiratory health, multiple
at two months. A five-percent EO concentration exposures at lower concentration could be more
produced no adverse skin effects during three beneficial than fewer exposures at higher
weeks of application.35 concentration.38
In another CBF study, the ciliated epithelial
Antioxidant Activity of Eucalyptus Oil brushings of the inferior nasal turbinate were
EO can react biologically as an antioxidant. The examined with oils of sesame, soy, peanut, thyme,
free radical scavenging capability of E. tereticornis lavender, eucalyptus, and menthol (all diluted with
oil from fresh or decaying leaves and separate oil Miglyol 840, a neutral, low-viscosity carrier oil).
constituents was studied against superoxide anion Brushings were placed on slides and exposed to test
and hydroxyl radical. Both oils showed strong solutions for 2, 5, 10, and 20 minutes. Most of the
antioxidant ability either comparable or exceeding oils (less for thyme oil and none for Miglyol 840)
the standard antioxidants ascorbic acid and produced an increase in the CBF. The beat fre-
t-butylhydroxytoluene, respectively. Interestingly, quency increased by 20 percent at 10 minutes with
the sum of the major individual constituents of the EO (0.2%) and remained elevated at 20 minutes.
oil did not match the exceptional results of the EO (2%) increased the ciliary beat frequency 11.8
whole oil, suggesting a synergistic effect when in percent at five minutes, with a continual decrease
combination.4 seen at 10 minutes and longer.39
Required Materials:
Eucalyptus oil
Coffee mug with base larger than heater, so doesnt touch heater
Electric cup heater
Eucalyptus oil is known to have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral actions. However, it does much
more than that. Research shows eucalyptus oil has smooth-muscle relaxing effects, antioxidant activ-
ity, mucus thinning, immune stimulating, and anti-inflammatory actions. These actions work in unity to
improve respiratory ailments ranging from bronchitis to asthma to sinusitis, etc.
The old-fashioned, but effective, method of administration was to breathe the vapor over a bowl of hot
water containing a few drops of eucalyptus oil, with a towel over the head to make a tent. Be careful
not to burn your face.
More modern equipment is available at your local drug store. There is a personal steam inhaler for
about $40.00. The single-use pads are rather pricey and contain little eucalyptus oil. Applying a few
drops of eucalyptus oil allows reuse of a pad.
A smaller dry device for about $20.00 may be more useful for children as it warms a pad containing
eucalyptus and menthol to provide vapor while sleeping. Oil can be added to the pad as mentioned.
Instructions:
Obtain cup heater, mug with a base wider than the heater plate, and eucalyptus oil
Warm heater and mug for approximately 8 minutes
Add 2-4 drops of eucalyptus oil to the warmed mug
Close eyes when inhaling and do not wear glasses
Inhale through the mouth and nose for a few minutes
The amount of vapor inhaled can be varied by the distance from the mug
The authors authorize use of this handout, as long as author attribution remains.
Required Materials:
Eucalyptus oil
Screw cap glass vial, 2 dram, 17 x 60 mm (about 5/8 x 2.5)
Stockinet or loose fabric to prevent oil spillage
Eucalyptus oil is known to have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral actions. How-
ever, it does much more than that. Research shows eucalyptus oil has smooth-
muscle relaxing effects, antioxidant activity, mucus thinning, immune stimulating,
and anti-inflammatory actions. These actions work in unity to improve respiratory
ailments ranging from bronchitis to asthma, to sinusitis, to COPD.
Carrying the vial inhaler in a pocket close to the body furnishes the heat for satisfac-
tory vaporization. Hold the vial close to the lips or nostrils during inhalation. The
amount of vapor intake is regulated by the distance from the vial and the speed of
breathing, the slower the more vapor. Best results are obtained by alternating mouth
and nasal inhalation during sessions of about 3-5 minutes several times daily.
The authors authorize use of this handout, as long as author attribution remains.
shorter application was not investi- In 2007, elucidation of the mecha- Acknowledgements
gated.53,54 This appears similar to the nism for the strong anti-inflammatory The authors thank Richard and Jileen
action of sub-lethal doses of standard effect of inhaled TTO on the stimulated Russell and the Smiling Dog Foundation
antibiotics. Many other studies on the immune system was obtained in mice. It for a grant supporting this project and
action of TTO on MRSA have been was demonstrated that the hypotha- Thorne Research, Inc. for funding the
published since the TTO review; the lamic-pituitary-adrenal axis mediated Thorne Post-Doctoral Fellowship for
reader is referred to PubMed citations the effect.57 A.E.S., and the Tahoma Clinic
for this information. Foundation for grant administration.
Clinical efficacy studies of TTO have Conclusion
been demonstrated topically for skin, Eucalyptus oil and its major compo- References
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