Non Destructive Testing

Nondestructive testing (NDT) are noninvasive techniques to

determine the integrity of a material, component or
structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an
object.
In contrast to destructive testing, NDT is an assessment
without doing harm, stress or destroying the test object. The
destruction of the test object usually makes destructive
testing more costly and it is also inappropriate in many
circumstances. NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring cost
effective operation, safety and reliability of plant, with
resultant benefit to the community. NDT is used in a wide
range of industrial areas and is used at almost any
stage in the production or life cycle of many components.
The mainstream applications are in aerospace and civil
structures, power generation, automotive, railway,
petrochemical and pipeline markets. NDT of welds is one of
the most used applications.
It is very difficult to weld or mold a solid object that has no
risk of breaking in service, so testing at manufacture and
during use is often essential.
While originally NDT was applied only for safety reasons it is
today widely accepted as cost saving technique in the quality
assurance process. Unfortunately NDT is still not used in
many areas where human life or ecology is in danger. Some
may prefer to pay the lower costs of claims after an accident
than applying of NDT.

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That is a form of unacceptable risk management
For implementation of NDT it is important to describe what
shall be found and what to reject.
A completely flawless production is almost never possible.
For this reason testing specifications are indispensable.
Nowadays there exists a great number of standards and
acceptance regulations. They describe the limit between
good and bad conditions, but also often which specific NDT
method has to be used. The reliability of an NDT Method
is an essential issue. But a comparison of methods is only
significant if it is referring to the same task. Each NDT
method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages
therefore, some are better suited than others for a ,and
particular application. By use of artificial flaws, the threshold
of the sensitivity of a testing system has to be determined. If
the sensitivity is to low defective test objects are not always
recognized. If the sensitivity is too high parts with smaller
flaws are rejected which would have been of no consequence
to the serviceability of the component. With statistical
methods it is possible to look closer into the field of
uncertainly. Methods such as Probability of Detection (POD)
Relative Operating Characteristics are or the ROC-method
examples of the statistical analysis methods. Also the aspect
of human errors has to be taken into account when
determining the overall reliability. Personnel Qualification is
an important aspect of non-destructive evaluation.

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 NDT techniques rely heavily on human skill and knowledge
for the correct assessment and interpretation of test results.
Proper and adequate training and certification of NDT
personnel is therefore a must to ensure that the capabilities
of the techniques are fully exploited. There are a number of
published international and regional standards covering the
certification of competence of personnel.
The most common NDT Methods
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Radiographic Testing (RT).
Liquid penetrant Testing.
Magnetic particle Testing.
Testing (ECT) is well know and Acoustic Emission (AE or AET).
Besides the main NDT methods a lot of other NDT techniques
,are available, such as Shearography Holography
Microwave and many more and new methods are being
constantly researched and developed.
Ultrasonic testing
In ultrasonic testing, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with
MHz and occasionally 01-1.0 center frequencies ranging from
up to 50 MHz are launched into materials to detect internal
flaws or to characterize materials. The technique is also
commonly used to determine the thickness of the test object,
for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

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 Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other
,metals and alloys, though it can also be used on concrete
wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is a form
of non destructive testing used in many industries including
aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.
How it works

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a

diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected.
The transducer is typically separated from the test object
by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion
testing.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound
waveform, reflection and attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-
echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and
the receiving of the pulsed waves as the sound is reflected
back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an
interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an
imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine
displays these results in the form of a signal with an
amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the

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distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter
sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate
receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another
surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or
other conditions in the space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus
revealing their presence.
Advantages
1-High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely
small flaw.
2-Only one surface need be accessible.
3-Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in
determining the depth of internal flaws and the thickness of
parts with parallel surfaces.
4-Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape
and nature of defects.
5-Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and
has no effect on equipment and materials in the vicinity.
6-Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
7-metals, nonmetals and composites
8-surface and slightly subsurface flaws can be detected.
9-can be applied to welds, tubing, joints, castings, billets,
forgings, shafts, structural components, concrete, pressure
vessels, aircraft and engine components.

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10-used to determine thickness and mechanical properties.
11-monitoring service wear and deterioration.

Disadvantages:
1-Manual operation requires careful attention by
experienced technicians.
2-Extensive technical knowledge is required for the
development of inspection procedures.
3-Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin,
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
4-Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose
scale, paint, etc. although paint that is properly bonded to a
surface usually need not be removed.
5-Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of
ultrasonic wave energy between transducers and parts being
inspected unless a non-contact technique is used Noncontact
techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic
Transducers (EMAT).
6-Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water
based couplants that do not contain rust inhibitors.
7-usually contacting, either direct or with intervening
medium required (e.g. immersion testing)
special probes are required for applications

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Liquid Penetration Test
Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant
inspection (LPI), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection
method used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-
porous materials (Can be applied to welds, tubing, castings,
forgings, aluminum parts, turbine blades and disks, gears,
metals, plastics). The penetrant may be applied to all non-
ferrous materials, but for inspection of ferrous components
magnetic-particle inspection is preferred for its subsurface
detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting and forging
cracks, and leaks in new products, and fatigue ,defects
cracks on in-service components.
The merits of this technique are, Limited training is required
for the operator - (although experience is quite valuable),
Low testing costs
Principle
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension
fluid penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking
discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test
component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate
penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to
draw penetrant out of the flaw where a visible indication
becomes visible to the inspector.
Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light,
depending upon the type of dye used - fluorescent
or no fluorescent (visible).
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Materials
Penetrants are classified into sensitivity levels
and represent , Visible penetrants are typically red in color
the lowest sensitivity. Fluorescent penetrants contain two or
more dyes that fluoresce when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A)
radiation (also known as black light).
Since Fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed in a
darkened environment, and the excited dyes emit brilliant
yellow-green light that contrasts strongly against the dark
this material is more sensitive to small defects. ,background
When selecting a sensitivity level one must consider many
factors, including the environment under which the test will
the surface finish of the specimen, and the ,be performed
size of defects sought.
One must also assure that the test chemicals are compatible
with the sample so that the examination will not cause
permanent staining, or degradation. This technique can be
quite portable, because in its simplest form the inspection
requires only 3 aerosol spray cans, some paper towels, and
adequate visible light. Stationary systems with dedicated
application, wash, and development stations, are more costly
and complicated, but result in better sensitivity and higher
sample through-put

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.
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 Procedure
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1. Pre-cleaning: The test surface is cleaned to remove any
dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could either
keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false
indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline
cleaning steps, vapor degreasing. The end goal of this step is
a clean surface where any defects present are open to the
surface, dry, and free of contamination.
2. Application of Penetrant: The penetrant is then applied to
the surface of the item being tested.
The penetrant is allowed time to soak into any flaws
(generally 5 to 30 minutes).
The dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being
used, material being testing and the size of flaws sought. As
expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time 3.
Excess Penetrant Removal: The excess penetrant is then
removed from the surface.
The removal method is controlled by the type of penetrant
used.
3-solvent-removable, lipophilic post-,Water-washable
emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the
common choices.
Emulsifiers represent the highest sensitivity level, and
chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it
removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover
and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on
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the test surface directly, because this can the remove the
penetrant from the flaws.
This process must be performed under controlled conditions
so that all penetrant on the surface is removed (background
noise), but penetrants trapped in real defects remains in
place.
4-Application of Developer: After excess penetrant has been
removed a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous
wet developer, dry powder, water suspend able, and water
soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant
compatibility (one cant use water-soluble or suspend able
developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet
developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample must be dried
prior to application, while soluble and suspend able
developers are applied with the part still wet from the
previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol
spray cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a
propellant that is a combination of the two. Developer
should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the
surface to form a visible indication, a process similar to the
action of blotting paper. Any colored stains indicate the
positions and types of defects on the surface under
inspection.
5- Inspection: The inspector will use visible light with
adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical)
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for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of
adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter
squared is common), along withlow ambient light levels (less
.than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations
Inspection of the test surface should take place after a 10
minute development time. This time delay allows the blotting
action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for
indication formation when using visible dye. Also of concern,
if one waits too long after development, the indications may
bleed out such that interpretation is hindered. 6. Post
Cleaning: The test surface is often cleaned after inspection
and recording of defects, especially if post-inspection coating
processes are scheduled. The flaws are more visible, because
The defect indication has a high visual contrast (e.g. red dye
against a white developer background, or a bright fluorescent
indication against a dark background). The developer draws
the penetrant out of the flaw over a wider area than the real
flaw, so it looks wider
Limitations
1-need access to test surface
2-efects must be surface breaking
3-decontamination and pre cleaning of test surface may be
needed
4-vapour hazard
5-very tight and shallow defects difficult to find depth of flaw
not indicated
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Precautions
Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface
contaminants have been removed and any defects present
are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown
to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so acid etching to
remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be
necessary. Penetrant dyes stain cloth, skin and other porous
surfaces brought into contact.
One should verify compatibility on the test material,
especially when considering the testing of plastic
components
Magnetic Particle inspection
Magnetic particle inspection processes are non-destructive
methods for the detection of surface and sub-surface defects
in ferrous materials. They make use of an externally applied
magnetic field through the material, and the principle that
the magnetic flux will leave the part at the area of the flaw.
The presence of a surface or near surface flaw (void) in the
material causes distortion in the magnetic flux through it,
which in turn causes leakage of the magnetic fields at the
flaw. This deformation of the magnetic field is not limited to
the immediate locality of the defect but extends for a
considerable distance; even through the surface and into the
air if the magnetism is intense enough. Thus the size of the
distortion is much larger than that of the defect and is made
visible at the surface of the part by means
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of the tiny particles that are attracted to the leakage fields.
The most common method of magnetic particle inspection
uses finely divided iron or magnetic iron oxide particles, held
in suspension in a suitable liquid (often kerosene). This fluid
is referred to as carrier. The particles are often colored and
usually coated with fluorescent dyes that are made visible
with a hand-held ultraviolet (UV) light (sometimes referred to
as black light).
The suspension is sprayed or painted over the magnetized
specimen during magnetization with a direct current or with
an electromagnet, to localize areas where the magnetic field
has protruded from the surface. The magnetic particles are
attracted by the surface field in the area of the defect and
hold on to the edges of the defect to reveal it as a build up of
particles.
This inspection can be applied to raw material in a steel mill
(billets or slabs), in the early stages of manufacturing
(forgings, castings), or most commonly to machined parts
before they are put into service.
It is also very commonly used for inspecting structural parts
(e.g. landing gear) that have been in-service for some time to
find fatigue cracks. Usually tested pieces needs to be
demagnetized before use Parts are demagnetized by applying
AC current through the part and reducing the current, which
scrambles the magnetic domains causing it to demagnetize. It
is a quite economic non-destructive test because it is easy to
do and much faster than ultrasonic testing and radiographic

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testing. Because of the left hand rule, there are two different
ways of magnetizing a part, Longitudinal and Circular
magnetization. Longitudinal Magnetization passes current
through a coil and the magnetic flux lines go through the
part. Circular magnetization passes current through the part
and establishes a magnetic field around the part. The two
different methods are used because cracks can only be seen
to 90 degrees to the magnetic flux lines. Magnetic Particle 51
Inspection cannot be used for non-ferrous materials and non-
magnetic ferrous materials such as austenitic stainless steels.
In such cases, other methods such as dye penetrant
inspection are used
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
It is a magnetic method of nondestructive testing that is used
to detect corrosion and pitting in steel structures, most
commonly pipelines and storage tanks. The basic principle is
that a powerful magnet is used to magnetize the steel. At
areas where there is corrosion or missing metal, the
magnetic field leaks from the steel. In an MFL tool, a
magnetic detector is placed between the poles of the magnet
to detect the leakage field. Analysts interpret the chart
recording of the leakage field to identify damaged areas and
hopefully to estimate the depth of metal loss. This method is
best suitable for pipeline examination and tank floors.

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Procedure
Typically, an MFL tool consists of two or more bodies. One
body is the magnetizer with the magnets and sensors and the
other bodies contain the electronics and batteries. The
magnetizer body houses the sensors that are located
between powerful rare-earth magnets.
The magnets are mounted between the brushes and tool
body to create a magnetic circuit along with the pipe wall. As
the tool travels along the pipe, the sensors detect
interruptions in the magnetic circuit. Interruptions are
typically caused by metal loss and which in most cases is
corrosion. Mechanical damage such as shovel gouges can
also be detected.
The metal loss in a magnetic circuit is analogous to a rock in a
stream. Magnetism needs metal to flow and in the absence
of it, the flow of magnetism will go around, over or under to
maintain its relative path from one magnet to another,
similar to the flow of water around a rock in a stream.
The sensors detect the changes in the magnetic field in the
three directions (axial, radial, or circumferential) to
characterize the anomaly. An MFL tool can take sensor
Readings based either on the distance the tool travels or on
increments of time. The second body is called an Electronics
Can. This section can be split into a number of bodies
depending on the size of the tool. This can, as the name
of the suggests, contains the electronics or "brains
instrument. The Electronics Can also contains the batteries

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and is some cases an IMU(Inertial Measurement Unit) to tie
location information to GPS coordinates.
Features
Although primarily used to detect corrosion, MFL tools can
also be used to detect features that they were not originally
designed to identify. When an MFL tool encounters a
geometric deformity such as a dent, wrinkle or buckle, a very
distinct signal is created due to the plastic deformation of the
pipe wall.
Corrosion
High-resolution MFL tools collect data approximately every 2
mm along the axis of a pipe and this superior resolution
allows for a comprehensive analysis of collected signals.
Pipeline Integrity Management programs have specific
intervals for inspecting pipeline segments. By employing
high-resolution MFL tools, an exceptional corrosion growth
analysis can be conducted. This type of analysis proves
extremely useful in forecasting the inspection intervals.

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crack detection
There are cases where large non-axial oriented cracks have
been found in a pipeline that was inspected by a magnetic
flux leakage tool. To an experienced MFL data analyst, a dent
Is easily recognizable by trademark horseshoe signal in the
radial component of the vector field. What is not easily
identifiable to an MFL tool is the signature that a crack leaves

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Radiographic Testing
Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a
nondestructive testing (NDT) method of inspecting materials
for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate
various materials. Since the amount of radiation emerging
from the opposite side of the material can be detected and
measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation
are used to determine thickness or composition of material.
Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less than about 10
nanometers. The extra feature of these methods is films of
the objects being tested can be produced.
X-ray Method
In this method x rays of high frequency are used for
inspection
Benefits
Metals, nonmetals, composites and mixed materials can be
tested. Used on all shapes and forms; castings, welds,
electronic assemblies, aerospace, marine and automotive
components.
Limitations
Access to both sides of test piece needed. Voltage, focal spot
size and exposure time critical radiation hazards. cracks must
be oriented parallel to beam for detection. sensitivity
decreases with increasing thickness
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Gamma Ray method
In this method Gamma rays emitted from radio active source
are used for inspection

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Benefits
Usually used on dense or thick material. Used on all shapes
electronic assemblies, aerospace, ,and forms; castings, welds
marine and automotive components. Used where thickness
or access limits X-ray generators.
Limitations
There some radiation chances of hazards. Cracks must be
oriented parallel to beam for detection. Sensitivity decreases
with increasing thickness. Access to both sides of test piece
needed. Not as sensitive as X-rays

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