GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 71, NO. 6 NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2006; P. S241S250, 13 FIGS.
10.1190/1.2358415
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Imaging reflection-blind areas using transmitted PS-waves
Yi Luo1, Qinglin Liu2, Yuchun E. Wang1, and Mohammed N. AlFaraj1
ABSTRACT
We illustrate the use of mode-converted transmitted e.g.,
PS- or SP- waves in vertical seismic profiling VSP data
for imaging areas above receivers where reflected waves can-
not illuminate. Three depth-domain imaging techniques
move-out correction, common-depth-point CDP mapping,
and prestack migration are described and used for imag-
ing the transmitted waves. Moveout correction converts an
offset VSP trace into a zero-offset trace. CDP mapping
maps each sample on an input trace to the location where
the mode conversion occurs. For complex media, prestack
migration e.g., reverse-time migration is used. By using
both synthetic and field VSP data, we demonstrate that
images derived from transmissions complement those from
reflections. As an important application, we show that
transmitted waves can illuminate zones above highly de-
viated or horizontal wells, a region not imaged by reflection
data. Because all of these benefits are obtained without
extra data acquisition cost, we believe transmission imag-
ing techniques will become widely adopted by the oil in-
dustry.
INTRODUCTION
In offset vertical seismic profiling VSP data, four types of waves
are often observed: transmitted P-waves, transmitted PS-waves, re-
flected P-waves, and reflected PS-waves. All but mode-converted
transmitted PS-waves have been used to derive velocity models and
to construct images.
The VSP common-depth-point transformation VSPCDP trans-
form and migration approaches have been published for construct-
ing images from VSP reflections. The transform Hardage, 2000
moves each sample in the input data to the location where it was re-
flected. Data falling in the same bin are then stacked Wyatt and
Manuscript received by the Editor November 28, 2005; revised manuscript received June 20, 2006; published online October 20, 2006.
1
Saudi Aramco, Geophysics Technology Team, E&PE Department, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: yi.luo@aramco.com; yuchun.wang@aramco.com;
mohammad.alfaraj@aramco.com.
2
WesternGeco, Petroleum Center, Tower B, 3rd Floor, P. O. Box 31791, Al-Khobar 31952, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: qing.liu@aramco.com.
2006 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
S241
Wyatt, 1981; Gaiser et al., 1983. This technique has been extended
to imaging crosswell seismic data Lazaratos et al., 1995. Migration
is applicable for imaging complex structures. Various migration
algorithms Keho, 1984; Chang and McMechan, 1986; Sun and
McMechan, 2001 developed and used for VSP reflection imaging
are essentially the same as those for surface seismic reflections.
Khler and Koenig 1986 compare the VSPCDP transform and mi-
gration results using both synthetic and field walkaway VSP data.
Unlike for reflection imaging techniques, publications on trans-
mission imaging are quite limited. To the best of our knowledge, the
novel approach of imaging with transmitted PS-waves was first in-
troduced by Keho 1986. He used Kirchhoff migration to image a
Michigan reef with transmitted PS-waves generated from an offset
surface source and recorded by geophones below the reef in a verti-
cal borehole. Sheley and Schuster 2003 reintroduced the concept
with applications to both VSP and crosshole seismic geometries.
They also presented a new imaging approach for transmitted PS-
waves based on interferometric theory, which they termed reduced-
time migration, to increase migration accuracy. They focused on
imaging for steeply dipping geologic interfaces, such as reef bound-
aries and salt flanks often encountered in the Gulf of Mexico.
Although the concept and theory of imaging the subsurface with
mode-converted transmissions are established, applying them to the
petroleum industry has received little attention. With emphasis on
practical applications, we show three applications of imaging with
mode-converted transmitted waves, illustrated with both synthetic
and field data. The three approaches are moveout correction, CDP
mapping, and depth migration. The term C-wave commonly refers
to reflected converted waves, so we use the term T-wave to refer to
transmitted converted waves.
We also demonstrate that T-waves can illuminate regions where
conventional reflection data cannot, and vice versa. Consequently, a
combination of the images from conventional reflected P- or C-
waves and T-waves provides a more comprehensive image of the
subsurface. With horizontal wells becoming common, we demon-
strate that the T-wave can illuminate areas above horizontal wells
a region not imaged by reflection data.
 S242 Luo et al.

THREE METHODS OF T-WAVE IMAGING
As mentioned, four types of waves are often observed in a typical
VSP survey: transmitted P-waves, reflected P-waves, mode-con-
verted reflected waves C-waves, and mode-converted transmitted
waves T-waves. Of these four wave types, transmitted P-waves
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trajectory consisting of all possible x,z points satisfying equation 2
forms the migration impulse response, or migration operator, of the
T-wave.
There are two main differences between the familiar 2D reflection
migration operator which is an ellipse in a constant-velocity model
and the 2D T-wave migration operator shown in Figure 2. First, the

e.g., the first arrivals are often used to derive interval velocities.
The reflected P- and C-waves have been adopted broadly to image
subsurface areas beneath the downhole geophones. In contrast, the
T-wave is mostly ignored in practice, although its signal-to-noise
S/N ratio is often higher than the reflected P- and C-waves. In this
section, we explain the T-wave imaging principle and describe appli-
cations for moveout correction, CDP mapping, and migration.
The essential concept for T-wave imaging is to focus the recorded
T-wave energy to places where conversions occur. The concept is
similar to reflection imaging, where we map the reflected energy
back to where it reflects. We can derive the migration formula for
T-wave imaging as shown in Figure 1. The total traveltime of the
T-wave from source S to receiver G can be expressed by
T-wave migration operator is asymmetric about source and receiver:
The small end of the operator is toward the P-wave side, and the big
end is toward the S-wave side. In the 3D case, the T-waves migra-
tion impulse response is shaped like an egg; hence, we use the term
ovoid to describe this deformed, oblate ellipsoid Sheley and
Schuster, 2003 and to distinguish it from the well-known migration
ellipsoid for reflected P-waves. To avoid introducing more new
terms, we refer to both the 2D and 3D migration impulse responses
for T-waves as ovoids. Second, unlike the reflection case where both
source and receiver reside at the two foci within the ellipse, the
source location could be outside, on, or inside the ovoid, depending
on the value of TSG:

TSG = TDP + TDS , 1 TSG = T P ,
where TDP is the time for the downgoing P-wave traveling from ovoid reduced to one point
source S to conversion point C and TDS is the time of the converted located at receiver location G, 3a
downgoing S-wave traveling from C to receiver G. We focus on the
theory and applications of converted transmitted PS-waves. Our T P TSG TS
methodology can be extended to other types of converted transmit- source outside of ovoid, 3b
ted waves, such as SP, PSP, and SPS.
Making traveltime TSG fixed, the possible conversion points x,z TSG = TS ,
in a 2D case must satisfy equation 1, which can be expanded as fol-
source S on the ovoid, 3c
lows Sheley and Schuster, 2003:
TSG TS ,
TSG = constant =
1
xs x2 + zs z2 both source and receiver within the
Vp
ovoid;no T-wave exists. 3d
+
1
xr x2 + zr z2 , 2 Here, T P and TS are the P-wave and S-wave traveltimes from S to G,
Vs
respectively.
where V p and Vs are the velocities of P- and S-waves, respectively,
and xs,zs and xr,zr are the source and receiver coordinates. The

Figure 1. Concept of T-wave imaging: DP = direct P-wave Figure 2. Two-dimensional migration impulse response of a T-wave
raypath, DS = raypath of a converted downgoing S-wave, and C and a C-wave in a constant-velocity medium. In the 3D case, the
= conversion point on interface L. The purpose of T-wave imaging migration impulse forms an ovoid deformed or flattened ellipsoid
is to move the transmitted arrival recorded in geophone G back to C. for a constant-velocity medium.
 Transmitted PS-wave imaging
Interestingly, the ovoid also includes the converted reflection
points. In Figure 2, lines SA and SB are tangent to the ovoid. Points A
and B, the tangent points between these two lines and the ovoid, sep-
arate the mode-converted transmitted and reflected points on the op-
erator. There will be no T-wave when TSG TS. In this case, the mi-
gration operator becomes the impulse response for the C-waves
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only. In Appendix A, we prove that rays from S to C and C to G satis-
fy Snells law.
The conversion points for T-waves are above the geophone loca-
tions and the reflection points are below, so the areas illuminated by
them are different and complement each other. For a typical VSP sur-
vey geometry with downhole receivers deployed along a deviated or
horizontal borehole, Figure 3 illustrates that areas illuminated by re-
flections can be expanded significantly by T-wave transmissions.
For typical VSP surveys, data redundancy may not be sufficient to
cancel nonspecular waves required by migration approaches. To ad-
dress this issue, moveout correction and CDP mapping are intro-
duced. Unlike migration, which spreads a sample on the ovoid, both
CDP mapping and moveout methods move a sample to a single loca-
tion computed by ray tracing. For any given depth z in a known
velocity model, we trace a ray from the source to the receiver, with
PS-wave conversion occurring at z. By doing so, we can obtain the
total traveltime T and x-coordinate of the conversion point at z. For
the CDP mapping method, the sample at time t of the input VSP trace
at xr,zr is mapped to conversion point x,z in the output depth sec-
tion. This process moves the sample in both the lateral and vertical
directions. For moveout correction, the input sample is only mapped
to z within the same trace, and no lateral movement is performed
i.e., the lateral coordinate x of the computed conversion point is ig-
nored. After moveout correction, the sample at time t in the input
trace at xr,zr is settled at xr,z. For moveout correction, the sample
is only moved inside the same trace; therefore, it is a trace-to-trace
one trace in, one trace out process.
Moveout correction has two advantages. First, it can be applied to
both reflections and transmissions and can produce a seamlessly
combined image see Figures 7a and 10a. Second, it does not in-
Figure 3. By using both T-waves and reflected waves, the total
imaged area is expanded to cover above and below the receivers for a
deviated or horizontal-well offset VSP with source point S. T-wave
imaging is especially beneficial for deviated or horizontal wells
because of the reflection blind zone.
S243
volve lateral mixing; the resulting images are singlefold. When the
input waves have a high S/N ratio as is often the case for T-waves,
stacking may be unnecessary. The traces after moveout correction
may be more suitable for tracking lithological changes away from
the wellbore than CDP mapping or migration.
In our algorithms, the traveltime T is shifted by a small t, which
is the difference between the picked and calculated direct P-wave
first arrivals for this trace. Such a shift t is introduced by Sheley and
Schuster 2003 in their reduced-time migration theory to decrease
the imaging/mapping inaccuracy caused by velocity errors.
Reverse time migration Chang and McMechan, 1986 is adopted
for T-wave imaging. The migration process includes three steps: 1
compute the imaging time from source to each grid point in the out-
put image by ray tracing or solving the eikonal equation over a
P-wave velocity model, 2 reverse-time extrapolate the recorded
T-wavefield by a finite-difference solution of the acoustic-wave
equation over an S-wave velocity model, and 3 apply the imaging
condition, i.e., assign the sample at the imaging time of the extrapo-
lated wavefield as the output value.
Separating various wave modes in VSP data is an essential step for
obtaining clean reflection and transmission images. The process in-
cludes two operations by taking advantage of orthogonal particle
motion and moveout differences for P- and S-waves DiSiena et al.,
1984; Hardage, 2000. First, we rotate the horizontal radial and ver-
tical components along the polarization direction of the P-wave first
arrival. The rotation results in two components. One is the direct
component, containing transmitted downgoing P-waves and reflect-
ed upgoing S-waves. The other is the perpendicular component, con-
taining reflected upgoing P-waves and T-waves. A median filter can
be applied to the perpendicular component to obtain the T-waves.
The reflected upgoing P-waves can be obtained by subtracting the
extracted T-waves from the perpendicular component.
SYNTHETIC DATA EXAMPLE
To validate the basic idea of T-wave imaging, a synthetic offset
VSP data set was generated using a 2D elastic-wave-equation mod-
eling algorithm developed by Fei and Larner 1995. The V p and Vs
velocity models are shown in Figure 4. It is a 10-layer model for V p
and a seven-layer model for Vs. The model size extends 6200 m deep
and 1660 m laterally. A total of 620 downhole geophones at 10-m
depth intervals are simulated on the left side of the model from sur-
face to bottom. The source is located at the upper-right corner, with
an offset of 1660 m from the wellhead. There is a 20-m-thick thin
layer 540560 m depth in the P-wave model and two layers with
slight velocity gradients in both the vertical and horizontal direc-
tions: layer six 22003300 m and layer eight 39504550 m.
Neither thin layers nor velocity gradients are included in the S-wave
velocity model. The horizontal x- and vertical z-components of the
synthetic data are shown in Figure 5. The wavefield is first separated
into the direct and perpendicular components. Applying a median
filter on the perpendicular component produces the desired upgoing
P- and T-waves Figure 6.
Moveout correction can be applied separately to the reflected up-
going P- and T-waves. The results after applying moveout correction
on both waves can be displayed in a combined picture Figure 7a.
The well trajectories, or the receiver positions, are marked by the
solid diagonal line. Clearly, the reflected upgoing P-waves are
mapped to the area below the receivers, or the solid line, and the
T-waves are mapped to the area above the receivers. This example
 S244 Luo et al.

demonstrates three key points. First, the T-waves can image the areas
above the geophone locations, and reflected upgoing waves can cov-
er the areas below. Second, the result after moveout correction is a
singlefold image, suitable for lateral lithological studies. Third, the
upgoing P-wave image is contaminated by multiples that are barely
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Figure 5. A synthetic offset VSP example from the 2D velocity mod-

Figure 4. Synthetic 2D velocity model for an offset VSP. a P-wave
velocity model. b S-wave velocity model. Source and downhole
geophones are included.
el in Figure 4. a Raw horizontal x-component. b Raw vertical
z-component. Here, 620 traces of the model were simulated at a
10- m depth increment only one-fifth are shown for display purpos-
es. Direct downgoing P-wave. Reflected upgoing P-wave.
T-wave. Converted upgoing S-wave. Direct downgoing
S-wave. Reflected upgoing S-wave. Downgoing P-wave multi-
ple. Reflected upgoing P-wave multiple.
 Transmitted PS-wave imaging S245
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Figure 7. a Image after moveout correction of both upgoing P- and

T-waves shown in Figure 6a and b simultaneously. Well trajectory is
projected as the solid diagonal line. The T-waves image the area
Figure 6. A synthetic offset VSP example for the 2D velocity model above the downhole geophones, and reflected upgoing P-waves
shown in Figure 4. a Reflected upgoing P-wave from the model image the area below; thus, they complement each other. b Image
data shown in Figure 5. b T-wave from the model data shown in derived from reflected upgoing P-wave shown in Figure 6a after
Figure 5. Reflected upgoing P-wave. T-wave. Residual CDP mapping. c Image derived from the T-wave shown in Figure
downgoing S-wave. Downgoing P-wave multiple. Reflected 6b after CDP mapping. Well is located on the left side, and source is
upgoing P-wave multiple. at the top-right corner.
 S246 Luo et al.

presented in the T-wave image. The T-wave is less contaminated by

multiples because it arrives earlier than most multiples.
The events generated from T-waves are thicker than those from
the reflected P-waves. This implies that the image resolution from
T-waves is slightly lower than that from P-waves in the depth do-
main, although frequency content for both waves is comparable in
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the time domain. The degradation of resolution in the depth domain

is the result of T-waves traveling only one way from sources to re-
ceivers. Assuming the time duration of the wavelet is T, the T will
be mapped to a depth interval with a thickness half that of T be-
cause it is considered as two-way traveltime multiplied by the
P-wave velocity for reflected P-waves. On the other hand, the depth
interval for T-waves will be T because it is considered one-way
traveltime multiplied by the T-wave velocity. The T-wave velocity
is the weighted sum of the S- and P-wave velocities; the weighting
factors can be determined by the ratio of the length of S- or P- wave
raypath to the total length of the raypath. The shear velocity is about
half of the P-wave velocity, so it can compensate for most of the res-
olution loss caused by one-way T-wave traveltime, especially in
shallow areas where most of the raypath is S-waves for the PS-wave
mode.
Figure 7b and 7c is the image after CDP mapping the data in Fig-
ure 6 to their reflection and conversion locations. Well trajectory and
source are displayed in Figure 7b and c. The advantage of mapping
and moveout correction is that one sample can be moved to one loca-
tion, avoiding migration artifacts. The dipping interfaces in the mod-
el Figure 4 are imaged properly, even though a layered velocity
model is used in our ray tracing. The dip angle of the events in the im-
age would be more accurate if the correct velocity model were used.
The dips exhibited by reflections and transmissions Figure 7a seem
to conflict with each other. Indeed, they are consistent if we notice
both images cover the same side of the well but are plotted on oppo-
site sides of the well for display purpose.

FIELD DATA EXAMPLES

Figure 8 shows a three-component offset VSP field data set; the
P-, T-, and C-waves are clearly visible. The distance between the
source and the wellhead is 762 m; the receiver depth ranges from
9194385 m with a 15.24-m 50-ft depth sampling interval. The
data have been gained with a 500-ms automatic gain control AGC
for display purposes. The raw vertical component is displayed in
Figure 8a. A rotation procedure is applied to the two raw horizontal
components to obtain horizontal radial Figure 8b and horizontal
transverse Figure 8c components to separate SV- and SH-waves. In
these three plots, we mark several wave types: direct downgoing
P-wave or first arrival, reflected upgoing P-wave, T-wave, and PS-
converted upgoing SV-wave C-wave. In addition, we interpret
wave nine as a T-wave converted at a near-surface interface. The
T-waves are bounded between events one and nine. Reflected upgo-
ing P- and downgoing T-waves are further separated from the raw
vertical and radial components Figure 9.
Figure 10a is the result after moveout processing both upgoing P-
and T-waves depicted in Figure 9 the solid diagonal line indicates
downhole receiver positions, or the well trajectories. The moveout-
corrected image Figure 10a is singlefold, which is suitable for ana-
lyzing lateral variation, and has a high S/N ratio. It is ideal for ana- Figure 8. Three components of a typical offset VSP record: a verti-
lyzing attribute variations. The amplitude changes on the T-wave cal, b radial, and c transverse. Direct downgoing P-wave.
image could be a good indicator of a gas reservoir because T-waves Reflected upgoing P-wave. Converted T-wave at a deep layer.
are sensitive to the presence of natural gas. Figure 10b and 10c is ob- Converted upgoing S-wave. Converted T-wave at a shallow layer.
 Transmitted PS-wave imaging S247

tained by CDP mapping the data in Figure 9 into the correct both lat-
eral and vertical reflection- and transmission-conversion locations.
Both the well and source locations are plotted. The T-wave image
complements the reflected upgoing P-wave image.
Figure 11 shows an offset VSP obtained from a highly deviated
well. Figure 11a is the perpendicular component after rotation to en-
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hance the T- and upgoing P-waves. Figure 11b and 11c shows the
downgoing T-wave and upgoing P-wave after separating downgoing

Figure 10. a Upgoing P- and T-waves depicted in Figure 9 after ap-

Figure 9. a Reflected upgoing P-wave and b T-wave from vertical
and radial components shown in Figure 8a and 8b.
plying moveout correction simultaneously. Well trajectory is pro-
jected as the solid diagonal line. T-waves image the area above the
downhole geophones, and reflected upgoing P-waves image the area
below. b Image of the reflected upgoing P-wave shown in Figure 9a
after CDP mapping to its reflection location. c Image of the T-wave
shown in Figure 9b after CDP mapping to its conversion location.
Well is located at the left side, and source is at the top-right corner.
 S248
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Figure 11. Example of deviated-well offset VSP data. a Raw data
after rotation to emphasize T- and reflected upgoing P-waves. b
T-wave. c Reflected upgoing P-wave.
Luo et al.
and upgoing waves in Figure 11a. The final image produced by the
reverse-time migration of the T-waves is shown in Figure 12. The
well trajectory is shown as a solid heavy curve. Downhole geophon-
es were deployed along the deviated part only. Well-log velocities V p
and Vs and major geological horizon tops indicated from A to H are
plotted on the right side of the figure. There is a reasonable correla-
tion between the T-wave mapped image and the geological tops at
the target zone. The T-wave image clearly provides good coverage
above the deviated well where reflected P- and C-waves cannot
illuminate.
ADVANTAGES OF T-WAVE IMAGING
As discussed, the areas illuminated by P-, C-, and T-waves com-
plement each other. The reflected P- and S-waves can image the area
below the borehole receivers, whereas the T-waves cover the area
above. T-waves are especially useful for horizontal or highly devi-
ated wells because they illuminate the region above the borehole.
In addition to T-waves, images in the areas above the geophones
can be produced from downgoing P-wave multiples based on the in-
terferometry theory Jiang et al., 2005. However, multiples used for
imaging may often be contaminated by noise and other unexpected
waves, such as near-surface resonance and interbed multiples. In
contrast, the converted downgoing T-waves arrive shortly after the
first breaks e.g., before event nine in Figure 8 where there is less
chance of contamination by other waves.
As shown in Figures 8 and 11, T-wave energy on VSP data is often
strong and has a high S/N ratio, so T-waves may provide more reli-
able singlefold images. As with conventional P-wave AVO analysis,
T-waves can also be used to identify lithological or fluid changes
away from the well.
These techniques can also be applied to reverse VSP data, cross-
well seismic data, and even passive seismic data. When the S/N ratio
of passive seismic data is reasonably high, the data can be used not
only for locating fractures or sources but also for providing images
of the media between the sources and the receivers.
Figure 12. T-wave migration image of an offset VSP data set in the
deviated well shown in Figure 11b. Log P- and S-wave velocity
curves are plotted on the right side for correlation. Major geologic
tops are marked from A to H, and well trajectory is plotted as the sol-
id curve at the bottom.
 Transmitted PS-wave imaging S249

CONCLUSION trace of all possible conversion points for T- and C-waves, shaped
like an egg Figure A-1.
We have illustrated the use of transmitted converted waves The normal direction gradient vector at any conversion point is
T-waves for imaging regions above receivers in VSP experiments
that cannot be imaged by reflected waves. Three T-wave imaging
techniques depth-domain moveout correction, CDP mapping, Vnx,y = T T
,
x y
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and migration have been described. In particular, we have demon-
strated the use of T-waves for imaging areas above highly deviated x x1 x x2
= + ,
vsx x22 + y 2
or horizontal boreholes, a region not imaged by reflection data. With
v p x x1 + y 2 2

synthetic and field data examples, we have shown that more com-
plete images of the subsurface are obtained by combining the con-
ventional reflected wave image and the T-wave image. All of these y
v p x x1 + y 2 2
+
y
vsx x22 + y 2

benefits are obtained without extra cost in data acquisition, so we be-
lieve this method will become widely used in the oil industry.
=
x x1 x x2
v pr 1
+
v sr 2
,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Chris Liner for his technical insights and valu-
y
+
y
v p 1 v sr 2
r
, A-2
able discussions. Thanks are extended to Panos Kelamis and Timo-
thy Keho for many helpful discussions and to Tong Fei for generat- where r1 and r2 are distances from conversion point to source and re-
ing the synthetic model. The authors are also grateful to the Saudi ceiver, respectively. The two segments of the raypath are
Arabian Oil Company for permission to publish the work.
V1x,y = x x1,y,
APPENDIX A V2x,y = x2 x,y. A-3

MIGRATION OPERATOR OF CONVERTED WAVE 1 and V n is

The cross product of V

OBEYS SNELLS LAW
x x1 x x2
For simplicity, we show a 2D diagram and place the source and re- V1 Vn = x x1,y,0 + ,
v pr 1 v sr 2

ceiver on the x-axis. Figure A-1 depicts a raypath for the T-wave.
The P-wave starts from source location x1,0 to conversion point y y
x,y at a speed V p, converts to an S-wave, and travels to receiver + ,0
v pr 1 v sr 2

point x2,0 at a speed Vs. The total traveltime along the raypath is the
sum of two segments:

x x12 + y2 x x22 + y2
= 0,0,x x1 y
v pr 1
+
y
v sr 2

Tx,y =
vp
+
vs
. A-1
y x x1 x x2
v pr 1
+
v sr 2


When total traveltime T is constant, the migration operator is the
yx2 x1
= 0,0, . A-4
v sr 2

Similarly,

V2 Vn = 0,0,
yx2 x1
v pr 1
. A-5

Recall that for any two vectors, the length of a cross product is

V1 V2 = V1 V2 sin ,
1 and V 2. From equations A-4 andA-5,
where is the angle between V
we have

Figure A-1. The migration operator for T- and C-waves is a de- sin 1 V1 Vn yx2 x1
formed ellipse like an eggshell. The P-wave travels from source = = A-6
x1,0 to conversion point x,y at a speed V p, converts to an S-wave, vp v pV1 Vn v pvsr1r2Vn
and travels to receiver x2,0. The raypath obeys Snells law for
transmission and reflection waves. and
 S250 Luo et al.

V2 Vn
ference modeling and migration by flux corrected transport: Geophysics,
sin 2 yx2 x1 60, 18301842.
= = . A-7 Gaiser, J. E., J. P. DiSiena, and K. J. McCoole, 1983, Deviated borehole VSP:
vs vsV2 Vn v pvsr1r2Vn Offset reflection point mapping: 53rd Annual International Meeting, SEG,
Expanded Abstracts, 530533.
Obviously, equations A-6 and A-7 are equal, that is, Hardage, B. A., 2000, Vertical seismic profiling: Principles, 3rd ed.: Perga-
mon Press, Inc.
sin 1 sin 2 Jiang, Z., J. Yu, G. Schuster, and B. Hornby, 2005, Migration of multiples:
Downloaded 03/26/17 to 212.26.2.132. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/

= . A-8 The Leading Edge, 3, 315318.

vp vs
Equation A-8 is Snells law, valid for both reflection and transmis-
sion.
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