WelcometothecountryofRwanda!

YouareatamarketandalocalhasgivenyouabriefhistorylessononthecountryofRwanda.

YoulearnthatRwandaiscomposedofthreemainethnicgroups:Hutu,TutsiandTwa.Nearly85%ofthepopulation
identifiedasHutu,makingitthemajoritygroupinRwanda.Tutsicomprised14%ofthepopulationandTwamadeup1%.
Thecolonialpower,Belgium,believedthattheTutsiweresuperiortotheHutuandtheTwaandputtheTutsisinchargeof
Rwanda.Attheendofcolonialrule,however,BelgiumbegangivingmorepowertotheHutus.AstheHutusgainedmore
leverage,theybegantodrivetheTutsisoutofRwandaandsignificantlyloweredthepopulationofTutsisinthecountry.

EthnictensionsexistedinRwandaforcenturies,growingevenmoreextremeafterRwandagainedindependencefrom
Belgiumin1962.ManyHutusresentedtheTutsi,astheyweretypicallyconsideredtheeliteandhadruledthecountryfor
decades.Asaresult,theyalsofearedtheTutsiandweredeterminedtoholdontotheirownpower.In1959,theHutus
overthrewtheTutsimonarchyandtensofthousandsofTutsisfledtoneighboringcountries,includingUganda.Agroupof
Tutsiexilesformedarebelgroup,theRwandanPatrioticFront(RPF),whichinvadedRwandain1990andfighting
continueduntila1993peacedealwasagreed.

OnthenightofApril6,1994,aplanecarryingthenPresidentJuvenalHabyarimanawasshotdown,killingeveryoneon
board.HutuextremistsblamedtheRPFandimmediatelystartedawellorganizedcampaignofslaughter.TheRPFsaidthe
planehadbeenshotdownbyHutustoprovideanexcuseforthegenocide.Hutuextremistslaunchedtheirplanstodestroy
theentireTutsicivilianpopulationonceandforall.Politicalleaderswhomighthavebeenabletotakechargeofthe
situationandotherhighprofileopponentsoftheHutuextremistplanswerekilledimmediately.Tutsiandpeoplesuspected
ofbeingTutsiwerekilledintheirhomes.Entirefamilieswerekilledatatime.

TheHutuextremistssetupradiostationsandnewspaperswhichbroadcasthatepropaganda,urgingpeopleto"weedoutthe
cockroaches"meaningkilltheTutsis.Thenamesofthosetobekilledwerereadoutonradio.Evenpriestsandnunshave
beenconvictedofkillingpeople,includingsomewhosoughtshelterinchurches.In100daysafterApril6,1994,800,000
men,women,andchildrenperishedintheRwandangenocide,perhapsasmanyasthreequartersoftheTutsipopulation.
Atthesametime,thousandsofHutuweremurderedbecausetheyopposedthekillingcampaignandtheforcesdirectingit.

AUNpeacekeepingoperation(UNAMIR)wassenttoRwandainApril.Themission,however,failedtobesufficientand
wasextremelyillequipped.Therewasalackoffunctioningvehiclesandtheonesthatwereavailablewerehandme
downs.Medicalquicklysuppliesranoutwithnomoneytorestockandothersuppliescouldrarelybereplaced.

TheUnitedStateswasthemainproponentinbackingtheUNAMIRsexitofRwanda.U.S.officialsfeltthatasmall
peacekeepingmissionwouldresultinalargeandcostlywarforAmericans.BelgiumjoinedtheUnitedStatesincallingfor
afullUNexitinAprilof1994.TheSecurityCouncillatervotedinmidMaytosend5,000troopsbacktoRwandaafter
reportsthatthegenocidespread.However,bythetimetheforcereturned,thegenocidehadlongbeenover.

Whenthekillingstopped,theRPFestablishedacoalitiongovernmentwithaHutuaspresidentandaTutsiasvice
presidentanddefenseminister.TheUNalsoreinstatedandrevampedtheUNAMIRoperationinRwanda,whichremained
thereuntilMarch1996.UNAMIRprovidedhumanitarianreliefintheaftermathofthegenocide.Theeffectthatthe
genocideposedonthepeopleofRwandaisimmeasurable.Thepeopleweretorturedandterrorizedastheysawthosethey
lovedieandfearedthelossoftheirownlife.Itisestimatedthatnearly100,000childrenwereorphaned,abductedor
abandoned.26%oftheRwandanpopulationstillsuffersfromposttraumaticstressdisordertoday.In1994,theUnited
NationscreatedtheInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda(ICTR),dedicatedtobringingthoseresponsibleforthe
genocidetojustice.Althoughslowmoving,theICTRbegantryingandindictingperpetratorsin1995.TheUnitedNations
conductedmorethan70tribunalcasesandRwandancourtshavetriedupto20,000individuals.However,trying
individualsincourtsprovedtobeachallengingprocessasthelocationofmanyperpetratorswasunknown.
WelcometothecountryofCanada!

YourevisitingtheFrenchprovinceofQuebecduringa1995voteastowhetherQuebecshouldseparatefromtherestofCanada.

Severaldiversepoliticalgroupscoalescedinthelate1960sintheformationofthePartiQubcois,aprovincialpoliticalparty.Since
1968,thepartyhasappealedforconstitutionalnegotiationsonthematterofprovincialsovereignty.FrontdeLiberationduQubec
(FLQ),afactionofthePartiQubcois,formedin1963advocatingthecreationofanindependentstateofQuebec.Bombingsof
mailboxesbytheFLQwerecommonthroughoutQuebecfrom1963to1970,butothertargetsincludedtheMontrealStockExchange,
MontrealCityHall,policeoffices,railways,andbanks.

OnOctober5,1970,twomembersoftheFLQkidnappedBritishTradeCommissionerJamesCrossoutsidehishome.TheFLQ
demandedthereleaseofdetainedFLQmembersandthepublicbroadcastoftheFLQManifesto,whichcriticizedbusiness,religionand
thepoliticalleadersofQuebecandCanada.ThenonOctober10,PierreLaporte,theQuebecMinisterofLabourwasabductedwhile
playingfootballwithhisfamily.ThusbegantheOctoberCrisis.

CommercialareaswereclosedoffandthearmywasbroughtintopatrolMontrealandgovernmentbuildings.Withincreaseddifficulty
inmaintainingcivilorder,theQuebecGovernmentaskedtheCanadianarmytoformallyintervene.PrimeMinisterPierreTrudeau
invokedtheWarMeasuresAct,theonlytimeitwasusedinpeacetimeinCanadianhistory,whichallowedthegovernmenttosuspend
civilliberties;whichledtothearrestsof250suspectedFLQmembersandsympathizerswithina12hourperiod.Thesituationtooka
turnfortheworsewhenonOctober17,theFLQannouncedthatithadmurderedPierreLaporte.OnNovember6,policeraidedthe
hideout.Crosswasrescuedandreleasedafter62daysincaptivity.Onlyeightindividualswereconvictedofcrimesassociatedwiththe
OctoberCrisis.FederaltroopsinQuebecwerewithdrawnonDecember24.

CanadawasoriginallycolonizedbytheFrenchforfurtrappingandtrading.However,theBritishwontheFrenchandIndianWar
(17541763),whicheffectivelydividedupCanadaintoupperandlowerCanada:UpperCanadawouldbeBritishandlowerCanada
wouldbeFrench.Quebec,beingFrenchterritory,wouldbeapartoflowerCanada.Lateron,Canadawasunitedin1867underthe
BritishNorthAmericanAct.

Bytheearly1900s,mostFrenchCanadianslivedinQuebecforhundredsofyears,spokeFrench,andhadadifferentculturethan
EnglishspeakingCanadians.MostFrenchCanadianslivedonfarmsandrarelylefttheirvillages.ThemajorityofFrenchCanadians
wereCatholic,whileBritishCanadianswereProtestant.Thus,mostFrenchCanadiansthinkofthemselvesasFrench,notBritishand
didntliketheclosetiesCanadiansnowhadwiththeBritish.

IdeaofaseparateFrenchCanadabegantospreadslowlyaftertheendofWorldWarI.However,bythe1960smanyFrench
CanadianshadbecomeQuebecnationalistsandthoughtofthemselvesasQuebecois,notCanadians.However,bythistimebutof
Quebechadchanges.Growingpopulationspushedontofarmlandsandruralpeoplegrewpoorduetoloseofthoselands.Manydecided
toleavetheirfarmsandmoveintocities.TheCatholicChurchbegantolosetheirinfluencesomanystoppedgoingtochurchand
EnglishwasbeingspokeninmostFrenchcities.ManyFrenchCanadiansfeltthattheirlanguageandculturemightdisappearandfelt
likesecondclasscitizenswithintheirowncountry.TheseparatistmovementbegantoemergeinQuebec.Frenchinfluencebeganto
assertitselfagainstEnglishdomination,andmomentumforQuebecindependencegrew.

ThosewhosupportQuebecseparatismwant:toprotectFrenchlanguageandculture,tobetreatedasequalswithEnglishCanadians,
nonFrenchCanadiansrespectFrenchcultureandlanguage,andtopreserveFrenchCanadiancultureforfuturegenerations.Consfor
separatingarguethatseparatismwould:resultineconomicdisasterforQuebecandtherestofCanadaandruinnationalunityandpride.

Bothin1980and1995thepeopleofQuebecvotedastowhethertosucceedorremainapartofCanada.Bothvoteswereinfavorof
stayingapartofCanadawithrazortightmarginsinthe1995vote:49.4%votedtosecede,50.6%votedtoremainapartofCanada.The
closeresultsshowedthattherelationshipbetweenQuebecandtherestofCanadacontinuetobeacontroversialissue.

Sowhatnow?TheCanadiangovernmentdoesnotwantQuebectoseparatefromCanadabecausetheyareahugeeconomichelptothe
country,Quebecisrichinnaturalresources,andtheeasternprovinceallowswesternCanadatohaveaccesstomanywaterwaysfor
shippingandtrade.Therefore,thegovernmenthasmadeseveralreformsinanattempttokeeptheseparatisthappy
In1982theConstitutionActmadeCanadabilingualhelpingQuebecscitizenstopreservetheirlanguageandculture.Theactmade
twoofficiallanguagesofCanada(FrenchandEnglish)andmadeitsothatallgovernmentdocumentshadtobewritteninFrenchand
English.InQuebectoday,Frenchistheonlyofficiallanguage.TheOfficeQubcoisedelaLangueFranoise,QuebecFrench
languagepolice,enforcestheusageandplacementofFrenchthroughouttheprovince.Englishcanbeusedinadvertising,mustitmust
beplacedaftertheFrenchwordsandmustbehalfthesizeoftheFrench.TensionspersistbetweenCanadiansandthosefromQuebec
today.Forexample,thoselivinginQuebeccelebrateSaintJeanBaptisteday,thepatronsaintofFrenchspeakingCanadianseveryJune
24thwhiletherestofCanadacelebratesCanadadayonJuly1whenthenationwasofficiallybornduetotheConstitutionActof1867.
James Cross Pierre
LaPorte
WelcometothecountryofGermany!

YouarevisitingGermanywhileonbreakfromschoolanddecidetovisitsomemuseumsanddecidetogotoaHolocaustmuseum.
Whileatthemuseum,youlearnaboutthegenocideofJewsduringWorldWarII.

AfterGermanyslossinWWI,theTreatyofVersaillespunishedGermanybyplacingtoughrestrictionsonthecountry.Thetreaty
madeGermanytakefullresponsibilityforthewar,reducedtheextentofGermanterritory,severelylimitedthesizeandplacementof
theirarmedforces,andforcedGermanytopaythealliedpowersreparations.Theserestrictionsnotonlyincreasedsocialunrestbut,
combinedwiththestartoftheGreatDepression,collapsedtheGermaneconomyasinflationrosealongsideunemployment.
IntheGermanparliament,theNaziparty,ledbyAdolfHitler,gainedpopularity.HitlerwasmadetheChancellorofGermanyon
January30,1933.

Aftercomingtopowerin1933,GermanysNaziPartyimplementedahighlyorganizedstrategyofpersecution,murder,andgenocide
aimedatethnicallypurifyingGermany,aplanHitlercalledtheFinalSolution.HitlerandtheNazissaidtheJewswereresponsible
forhugeeventslikelosingWorldWarOneandtheeconomiccrisis.ThesolutiontoalltheseproblemswastobanishtheJewsfrom
society.WiththispoliticalmessageandthepromisetomakeGermanyalargeandeconomicallypowerfulcountryHitlerspartyroseto
thetop.HitlerbuiltonandusedantiSemiticideasthatalreadyexisted.HewasAustrianandgrewupinViennawherethemayorwas
extremelyantiSemiticandwherehatredofJewswaswidespread.

ThroughoutthenightsofNovember910,1938,riotingacrossGermany,Austria,andpartofGermancontrolledCzechoslovakia
targetedJewishpeopleandtheirplacesofbusinessandworship.ThesenightshavecometobeknownasKristallnacht,orTheNight
oftheBrokenGlass.Overthosetwonights,hundredsofsynagogueswereburned;morethan7,000Jewishownedbusinesseswere
lootedanddestroyed,andalmost100Jewswerekilledduringtheviolence.Some30,000Jewishmenwerearrestedandtransportedto
concentrationcamps.TheriotingwastriggeredbytheassassinationofErnstvomRath,aGermandiplomatinParis,byaPolishJewish
teenageronNovember7th.AlthoughtheeventsofNovember9thand10thwerereportedtobeaspontaneousoutburstofviolence
amongtheGermanpeople,theywereactuallycloselyorganizedbytheNazis.

OnceGermanytookoverPolandin1939,itcreatedforcedlaborcamps.Thousandsofprisonersdiedfromworkingconditions,
exhaustion,andstarvation.AftertheoutbreakofWorldWarII,thenumberofconcentrationcampsincreasedexponentially.The
numberofprisonersofwarcampsalsorose,butafterthefirstyearsofthewarmostwereconvertedintoconcentrationcamps.Nazis
forciblyrelocatedJewsfromghettostoconcentrationcamps.

Treatmentinsidetheconcentrationcampswerehorrible.Prisonersweregiventinyrationsoffoodandforcedintophysicallabor.They
oftensleptmorethanthreetoabedwithoutpillowsorblankets,eveninthewintermonths.Inmanyconcentrationcamps,Nazidoctors
conductedmedicalexperimentsonprisonersagainsttheirwill,inmanycaseskillingtheprisonersintheprocess.In1942,fifteenNazi
leadersmetataconferenceinGermanytodiscusstheJewishQuestion.Theirjobwastodecidethemostefficientwaytoexterminate
theJews.ItwasnotuntilthispointinthewarthatsystemicexterminationoftheJewishpeoplewasconsidered.

Despite,widereportingofHolocaustatrocitiesincludinggaschambers,manyprominentanalystsdoubtedtheauthenticityofthese
reports.IntheUSafterWWIIhadended,photographsoftheHolocauststunnedthepublic.NewspapersintheUnitedStateshad
reportedontheoppressionoftheJewsinGermanyduringthewar.In1942,manynewspaperswerewritingdetailsoftheHolocaust,
butthesestorieswereshortandwerenotwidelyread.In1943,aftersourceshadconfirmedthekillingsofatleasttwomillionJewsin
concentrationcampsacrossEuropeaGalluppollfoundthatlessthanhalfofAmericansbelievedthesereportstobetrue;28%thought
theywerejustarumor.ThereportswereunconfirmedandsometimesdeniedbytheUnitedStatesgovernment.

DuringtheHolocaustitisestimatedthat6millionJewswereslaughteredalongwith,3millionSovietprisonersofwar,3millionPolish
Catholics,700,000Serbians,250,000Gypsies,Sinti,andLalleri,80,000Germans(forpoliticalreasons),70,000Germanhandicapped,
12,000homosexuals,and2,500JehovahsWitnesses.

ToprosecutetheleadersoftheHolocaust,theInternationalMilitaryTribunalinNurembergwasformedin1946.TheU.S.,theUK,the
SovietUnionandFranceeachsuppliedtwojudges(aprimaryandanalternate)andaprosecutionteamforthetrial.Twelveleading
Naziofficialsweresentencedtodeathforthecrimestheyhadcommitted,whilethreereceivedlifesentencesinprison,andfourhad
prisontermsforuptotwentyyears.Threedefendantswereacquitted.However,manyoftheNaziswhoperpetratedtheHolocaustwere
nevertriedorpunished,includingHitlerwhohadcommittedsuicide.