UNIT I

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

1.1. Introduction
An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical
energy. The motors operating on a.c. supply are called a.c. motor. As a.c. supply is
commonly available, the a.c. motors are very popularly used in practice. The a.c. motors
are classified as three phase induction motors, single phase induction motor, universal
motors, synchronous motors etc. The three phase induction motors are widely used for
various industrial applications. The important features of three phase induction motors are
selfstarting, higher power factor, good speed regulation and robust construction. This
chapter explains the construction, working principle and characteristics of three phase
induction motors as well as universal motors. The working of three phase induction motors
is based on the principle of rotating magnetic field. Let us discuss, the production of
rotating magnetic field.

1.2. Rotating Magnetic field (R.M.F.)

The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant
amplitude but whose axis is continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed. So if the
arrangement is made to rotate a permanent magnet, then the resulting field is a rotating
magnetic field. But ion this method, it is necessary to rotate a magnet physically to produce
rotating magnetic field.
But in three phase induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by
supplying currents to a set of stationary windings, with the help of three phase a.c. supply.
The current carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction of
three phase fluxes produced due to three phase supply, resultant flux has a constant
magnitude and its axis rotating in space, without physically rotating the windings. This
type of field is nothing but rotating magnetic field. Let us study how it happens.

1.2.1 Production of R.M.F.

A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part
called stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The three phase
windings are displaced from each other by 120o. The windings are supplied by a balanced
three phase a.c. supply. This is shown in the Fig. 1.1 The three phase windings are denoted
as RR' , YY' and BB'.

Fig. 1.1 Star or delta connected 3 phase winding

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 The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displaced
o
from each other by 120 electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux
which is sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by
120 o. If the phase sequence of the windings is RYB, then mathematical equations for the
instantaneous values of the three fluxes R , Y and B can be written as,
R = m sin(t) = m sin ...........(1)

Y = sin (t 120o) = m sin ( 120o) ............(2)

B = m sin (t 240o) = m sin ( 240o) .............(3)

As winding are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is m.
Due to phase sequence RYB, flux lags behind R by 120o and B lags Y by 120o. So
B ultimately lags R by 240o. The flux R is taken as reference while writing the
equations.
The Fig. 1.2(a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig.1.2(b) shows the
phasor diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux. Assumed
positive direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be represented along the
direction shown and whenever the flux is negative it must be represented along the
opposite direction to the assumed positive direction.
Let R, Y and B be the instantaneous values of the three fluxes. The resultant
flux T is the phasor addition of R, Y and B.

Let us find T at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 2(a) which represents
the values of as 0o, 60o, 120o and 180o respectively. The phasor addition can be
performed by obtaining the values of R, Y and B by substituting values of in the
equation (1), (2) and (3).

Fig. 1.2
Case 1 : = 0o
Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,

R = m sin 0o = 0

Y = m sin(120o ) = 0.866 m
B = m sin (240o) = + 0.866 m
2
 Fig. 1. 3(a) Vector diagram of = 0o
The phasor addition is shown in the Fig. 1.3(a). The positive values are are shown in
assumed positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to the
assumed positive directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive directions
shown in the Fig 3(b).BD is drawn perpendicular from B on T. It bisects T.

... OD = DA = T/2
o
In triangle OBD = 30
. o
.. cos 30 = OD/OB = (T/2) / (0.866 m )

... T = 2 x 0.866 m x cos 30o

= 1.5 m

So magnitude of T is 1.5 m and its position is vertically upwards at = 0o.

o
Case 2 = 60
Equation (1),(2) and (3) give us,
R = m sin 60o = + 0.866 m
o
Y = m sin (60 ) = 0866 m

B = m sin (180o) = 0
So R is positive and Y is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions we get phasor diagram
as shown in the Fig. 3(b).

Fig 1.3(b) Vector diagram of = 60o

Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on at D we get the same result as,
T = 1.5 m
But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 m it has rotated through 60o in space, in
clockwise direction, from its previous position.
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Case 3 : = 120o
Equations (1),(2) and (3) give us,
R = m sin 120o = + 0.866 m
Y = m sin 0o = 0
B = m sin (120o ) = 0.866 m
So R is positive and B is negative. showing R and B in the appropriate
directions, we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig . 1.3(c).

Fig. 1. 3(c) Vector diagram of = 120o

After doing the construction same as before i.e. drawing perpendicular from B on T,
it can be provided again that, T = 1.5 m
But the position of T is such that it has rotated further through 60o from its previous
position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at = 0o, it has rotated through
o
120 in space, in clockwise direction.
Case 4 : = 180o
From equations (1),(2) and (3),
R = m sin (180o) = 0
Y = m sin (60o) = + 0.866 m
B = m sin (60o) = 0.866 m

Fig. 1.3(d) Vector diagram of = 180o

So R = 0 , Y is positive and B is negative. Drawing Y and B in the appropriate directions, we
get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.3(d).

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 From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that,
T = 1.5 m
Thus the magnitude of T once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has
o
further rotated through 60 from its previous position in clockwise direction.
So for an electrical half cycle of 180o, the resultant T has also rotated through . This
is applicable for the windings from the above discussion we have following conclusions :
(a). The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by , has
a constant amplitude of 1.5 m where m is maximum amplitude of an individual flux
due to any phase.
(b). The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.
Key point : This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by
balanced three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic
field. Though nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having
constant amplitude.

1.2.2 Speed of R.M.F.

There exists a fixed relation between frequency f of a.c. supply to the windings, the
number of poles P for which winding is wound and speed N r.p.m. of rotating magnetic
field. For a standard frequency whatever speed of R.M.F. results is called synchronous
speed, in case of induction motors.
It is denoted as.
Ns = (120 f) / P = speed of R.M.F.
Where f = Supply frequency in Hz
p = Number of poles for which winding is wound
This is the speed which R.M.F rotates in space. Let us see how to change direction of
rotation of R.M.F.

1.2.3 Direction of R.M.F.

Fig.1. 4

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 The direction of the R.M.F. is always from the axis of the leading phase of the
three phase winding towards the lagging phase of the winding. In a phase sequence of RY
B, phase R leads Y by 120o and Y leads B by120o. So R.M.F. rotates from axis of R to axis
of Y and then to axis of B and so on. So its direction is clockwise as shown in the Fig.
1.4(a). This direction can be reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the three phase
windings while connecting to the three phase supply. The terminals Y and B are shown
interchanged in the Fig. 4(b). In such case the direction of R.M.F. will be anticlockwise.
As Y and B of windings are connected to B and Y from winding point of view the phase
sequence becomes RYB. Thus R.M.F. axis follows the direction from R to B to Y which is
anticlockwise.
Key point : Thus by interchanging any two terminals of three phase winding while
connecting it to three phase a.c. supply, direction of rotation of R.M.F. gets reversed.

1.3 CONCEPTS OF SLIP RINGS AND BRUSH ASSEMBLY

Whenever there is a need of connecting the rotating member of the machine to the
stationary external circuit, then slip rings and brush assembly is used.
Consider a three phase rotating star connected winding as shown in the Fig. 1.5. It is
required to connect external three stationary star connected resistances to this windings.
The winding must keep on rotating and external resistance must remain stationary and
still there should be contact between the two. This is possible by slip rings and brushes.

Fig. 1.5 Concept of slip rings and brush

The three rings made up of conducting material called slip rings are mounted on the
same shaft with which winding is rotating. Each terminal of winding is connected to an
individual slip ring, permanently. Thus three ends R-Y-B of winding are available at the
three rotating slip rings. The three brushes are then used. Each brush is resting on the
corresponding slip ring, making contact with the slip ring but the brushes are stationary.
So rotating three ends R-Y-B are now available at the brushes which are stationary as
shown in the Fig.1.5 Now stationary external circuit can be connected to the brushes which
are nothing but the three ends of the winding.

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 Thus the external stationary circuit can be connected to the rotating internal part of
the machine with the help of slip rings and brush assembly. Not only the external circuit
can be connected but the voltage also can be injected to the rotating winding, by
connecting stationary supply to the brushes externally.
Key point: Such slip rings and brush assembly plays an important role in the working
of slip ring induction motor.

1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely
1. The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator.
2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor.
Hence rotor develops a driving torque and rotates.
Stator
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to
0.5 mm thick. The stampings are slotted in its periphery to carry the stator winding.
The stampings are insulated from each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the
iron losses to a minimum value. The number of stampings are stamped together to build
the stator core. The built up core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The
choice of material for the stampings is generally silicon steel, which minimizes the
hysteresis loss. The slots in the periphery of the stator core carries a three phase winding,
connected either in star or delta. This three phase winding is called stator winding. It
is wound for definite number of poles. This winding when excited by a three phase supply
produces a magnetic rotating field as discussed earlier. The choice of number of poles
depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field required. The radial ducts are provided
for the cooling purpose. In some cases, all the six terminals of three phase stator winding
are brought out which gives flexibility to the user to connect them either in star or delta.
The Fig.1.6 shows a stator lamination.

Fig. 1. 6 Stator lamination

Rotor
The rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotor core is also laminated in construction
and uses cast iron. It is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or
winding is placed in the rotor slots. The two typed of rotor constructions which are used for
induction motors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor and
2. Slip ring wound rotor
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1.4.1 Squirrel Cage Rotor
The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of
uninsulated copper or aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the
slots. These bars are permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting
copper ring called end ring. The bars are usually brazed to the end rings to provide good
mechanical strength. The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical
circuit. So the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. The construction is shown in the Fig.1.7

Fig. 1.7 Squirrel cage rotor

As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor
resistance is very very small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor
itself is short circuited, no external resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance.
Hence no external resistance can be introduced in the rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush
assembly is not required for this rotor. Hence the construction of this rotor is very simple.
Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air
through the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap between
stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.
In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but are skewed
as shown in the Fig. 1.8

Fig. 1.8 Skewing in rotor construction

The advantages of skewing are,
1. A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes the motor
operation quiter.
2. It makes the rotor operation smooth.
3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of magnetic locking
gets reduced due to skewing.
4. It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.

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 1.4.2. Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor
In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor
carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number
of poles as that of stator. The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain
the rotor winding. The three ends of three phase winding, available after connecting the
winding in star or delta, are permanently connected to the slip rings. The slip rings are
mounted on the same shaft. We have seen that slip rings are used to connect external
stationary circuit to the internal rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor, the external
resistances can be added with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series
with each phase of the rotor winding. This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.9

Fig. 1.9 Slip rings or wound rotor

Key point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase can be controlled. This helps us to
control some of the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc.
In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a
metal collar which gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At
the same time brushes are also lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the
brushes due to friction. The possibility of addition of an external resistance in series with
the rotor, with the help of slip sings is the main feature of this type of rotor.

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1.4.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor

1.5 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of
constant magnitude is produced as discussed earlier. The speed of this rotation magnetic field is
synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.

Where f = supply frequency.

p = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound.
This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of rotation of
this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1.10(a).

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 Fig. 1.10

Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious that there
exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the R.M.F. gets cut by rotor
conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductors cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets
induced in it. So e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-
magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current through rotor
called rotor current as shown in the Fig.1.10(b). Let direction of this current is going into the paper
denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 1.10(b).
Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor flux.
For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise as shown in the Fig.
1.10(c). This direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are two
fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as shown in the Fig.
1.10(d). On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As flux
lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low
flux density area. So rotor conductor experience a force from left to right in this case, as shown in the
Fig.1. 10(d), due to interaction of the two fluxes.
As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and starts
rotating. So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring action. As seen from the Fig.
10(d), the direction of force experienced is same as that of rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor starts
rotating in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field.

Fig 1.10 (d)

Alternatively this can be explained as : according to Lenz's law the direction of induced current in
the rotor is so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause of rotor current is the induced e.m.f.
which is induced because of relative motion present between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor
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 conductors. Hence to oppose the relative motion i.e. to reduce the relative speed, the
rotor experiences a torque in the same direction as that of R.M.F. and tries to catch up the
speed of the rotating magnetic field.
So, Ns = Speed of rotating magnetic field in r.p.m.
N = Speed of rotor i.e. motor in r.p.m.
Ns - N = Relative speed between the two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductors.
Thus rotor always rotates in same direction as that of R.M.F.
Can N = Ns?
When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch the speed of rotating magnetic field.
If it catches the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the relative motion between rotor
and the rotating magnetic field will vanish ( Ns - N = 0). In fact the relative motion is the
main cause for the induced e.m.f. in the rotor. So induced e.m.f. will vanish and hence
there cannot be rotor current and the rotor flux which is essential to produce the torque
on the rotor. Eventually motor will stop. But immediately there will exist a relative motion
between rotor and rotating magnetic field and it will start. But due to inertia of rotor, this
does not happen in practice and motor continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than
the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field in the steady state. The induction
motor never rotates at synchronous speed. The speed at which it rotates is hence
called subsynchronous speed and motor sometimes called synchronous motor.
... N < Ns
So it can be said that rotor slips behind the rotating magnetic field produced by stator.
The difference between the two is called slip speed of the motor.
Ns - N = Slip speed of the motor in r.p.m.
This speed decides the magnitude of the induction e.m.f. and the rotor current, which
in turn decides the torque produced. The torque produced is as per the requirements
of overcoming the friction and iron losses of the motor along with the torque demanded by
the load on the rotor.

1.6 Slip of Induction Motor

When have seen that rotor rotates in the same direction as that of R.M.F. but in
steady state attains a speed less than the synchronous speed. The difference between
the two speeds i.e. synchronous speed of R.M.F. ( Ns ) and rotor speed (N) is called
slip speed. This slip speed is generally expressed as the percentage of the synchronous
speed.
So slip of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the synchronous
speed (Ns) and actual speed of rotor i.e. motor (N) expressed as a friction of the
synchronous speed (Ns). This is also called absolute slip or fractional slip and is denoted as
's'.Thus

The percentage slip is expressed as,

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 In terms of slip, the actual speed of motor (N) can be expressed as,

At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.

This is maximum value of slip s possible for induction motor which occurs at start.
While s = 0 given us N = Ns which is not possible for an induction motor. So slip of
induction motor cannot be zero under any circumstances.
Practically motor operates in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05 i.e. 1 % to 5 %. The slip
corresponding to full load speed of the motor is called full load slip.
1.7 EFFECT OF SLIP ON ROTOR PARAMETERS
In case of a transformer, frequency of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary is
same as the voltage applied to primary. Now in case of induction motor at start N = 0 and
slip s = 1. Under this condition as long as s = 1, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is
same as the voltage applied to the stator. But as motor gathers speed, induction motor has
some slip corresponding to speed N. In such case, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor
is no longer same as that of stator voltage. Slip affects the frequency of rotor induced
e.m.f. Due to this some other rotor parameters also get affected. Let us study the effect of
slip on the following rotor parameters.
1. Rotor frequency
2. Magnitude of rotor induced e.m.f.
3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor and
5. Rotor current

1.7.1 Effect on rotor frequency

In case of induction motor, the speed of rotating magnetic field is,
Ns = (120 f )/P ..........(1)
Where f = Frequency of supply in Hz
At start when N = 0, s = 1 and stationary rotor has maximum relative motion with respect to
R.M.F. Hence maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor at start. The frequency of this induced e.m.f.
at start is same as that of supply frequency.
As motor actually rotates with speed N, the relative speed of rotor with respect R.M.F. decreases
and becomes equal to slip speed of Ns - N. The induced e.m.f. in rotor depends on rate of cutting flux
i.e. relative speed Ns - N. Hence in running condition magnitude of induced e.m.f. decreases so as to
its frequency. The rotor is wound for same number of poles as that of stator i.e. P. If fr is the frequency
of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition at slip speed Ns - N then there exists a fixed relation
between (Ns - N), fr and P similar to equation (1). So we can write for rotor in running condition,

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 Thus frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition (fr) is slip times
the supply frequency (f).
At start we have s = 1 hence rotor frequency is same as supply frequency. As slip of the
induction motor is in the range 0.01 to 0.05, rotor frequency is very small in the running
condition.

1.7.2. Effect of Slip on Magnitude of Rotor Induced E.M.F

We have seen that when rotor is standstill, s = 1, relative speed is maximum and
maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be,
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill condition
As rotor gains speed, the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field
decreases and hence induced e.m.f. in rotor also decreases as it is proportional to the
relative speed Ns - N. Let this e.m.f. be,
E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in running condition
Now E2r Ns while E2r Ns - N
Dividing the two proportionality equations,

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f in the rotor also reduces by slip times the
magnitude of induced e.m.f. at standstill condition.
1.7.3. Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance
The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance. In case of squirrel cage rotor, the
rotor resistance is very very small and generally neglected but slip ring rotor has its own resistance
which can be controlled by adding external resistance through slip rings. In general let,
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase on standstill
X2 = Rotor reactance per phase on standstill
Now at standstill, fr = f hence if L2 is the inductance of rotor per phase,
X2 = 2fr L2 = 2f L2 /ph
While R2 = Rotor resistance in /ph
Now in running condition, fr = s f hence,
X2r = 2fr L2 = 2fs L2 = s .(2f L2)
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 X2r = s X2
where X2r = Rotor reactance in running condition
Thus resistance as independent of frequency remains same at standstill and in running
condition. While the rotor reactance decreases by slip times the rotor reactance at
standstill. Hence we can write rotor impedance per phase as :
Z2 = Rotor impedance on standstill (N = 0) condition
= R2 + j X2 /ph

While Z2r = Rotor impedance in running condition

= R2 + j X2r = R2 + j (s X2) /ph

1.7.4. Effect on Rotor Power Factor

From rotor impedance, we can write the expression for the power factor of rotor at
standstill and also in running condition.
The impedance triangle on standstill condition is shown in the Fig11. From it we can write,

cos 2 = Rotor power factor on standstill

The impedance in running condition becomes Z2r and the corresponding impedance triangle is
shown in the Fig.1.12. From Fig. 1.12 we can write,
cos 2r = Rotor power factor in running condition

Fig. 1.11 Fig.1. 12

Key point : As rotor winding is inductive, the rotor p.f. is always lagging in nature.

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1.7.5. Effect on Rotor Current

The equivalent rotor circuit on standstill is shown in the Fig.1.13. The 2 is the angle
between E2 and I2 which determines rotor p.f. on standstill.

Fig. 1.13 Fig. 1.14

In the running condition, Z2 changes to Z2r while the induced e.m.f. changes to
E2r. Hence the magnitude of current in the running condition is also different than
on standstill. The equivalent circuit on running condition is shown in the Fig. 1.14.
I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition

The value of slip depends on speed which in turn depends on load on motor hence X2r
is shown variable in the equivalent circuit. From the equivalent we can write,

2r is the angle between E2r and I2r which decides p.f. in running condition.
Key point : Putting s = 1 in the expression obtained in running condition, the values at
standstill can be obtained.

1.8 Induction Motor as a Transformer

We know that, transformer is a device in which two windings are magnetically
coupled and when one winding is excited by a.c. supply of certain frequency, the e.m.f. gets
induced in the second winding having same frequency as that of supply given to the first
winding. The winding to which supply is given is called primary winding while winding
in which e.m.f. gets induced is called secondary winding. The induction motor can be
regarded as the transformer.
The difference is that the normal transformer is an alternating flux transformer while
induction motor is rotating flux transformer. The normal transformer has no air gap as
against this an induction motor has distinct air gap between its stator and rotor.
In an alternating flux transformer the frequency of induced e.m.f. and current in
primary and secondary is always same. However in the induction motor frequency of
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 e.m.f. and current on the stator side remains same but frequency of rotor e.m.f. and
current depends on the slip and slip depends on load on the motor. So we have a variable
frequency on the rotor side. But it is important to remember that at start when N = 0 the
value of slip is unity (s = 1), then frequency of supply to the stator and of induced e.m.f. in
the rotor is same. The effect of slip on the rotor parameters is already discussed in the
previous section.
And last difference is that in case of the alternating flux transformer the entire energy
present in the secondary circuit, is in the electrical form. As against this, in an induction
motor part of its energy in the rotor circuit is in electrical form and the remaining part is
converted into mechanical form.

Fig. 1.15 Induction motor as a transformer

In general, an induction motor can be treated as a generalized transformer as shown in
the Fig. 1.15. In this, the slip ring induction motor with star connected stator and rotor is
shown.So if E1 = Stator e.m.f. per phase in volts.
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in volts at start when motor is at standstill.
Then according to general transformer there exists a fixed relation between E1 and E2 called
transformer ratio.
... At start when N =0 , s =1
and we get,

Key Point : So if stator supply voltage is known and ratio of stator to rotor turns per phase is known
then the rotor induced e.m.f. on standstill can be obtained.
1.9 TORQUE EQUATION
The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factors :
1. The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to produce induced
e.m.f. in rotor.
2. The magnitude of rotor current in running condition.
3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition.
Mathematically the relationship cab be expressed as,
T I2r cos 2r .........(1)
where = Flux responsible to produce induced e.m.f.
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 I2r = Rotor running condition
cos 2r = Running p.f. of motor
The flux produced by stator is proportional to i.e. stator voltage.
... E1 .........(2)
while E1 and E2 are related to each other through ratio of stator turns to rotor turns i.e. k.

Using (4), (5), (6) in equation (1),

where k = Constant of proportionality

So torque developed at any load condition can be obtained if slip at that load is known and all
standstill rotor parameters are known.

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1.9.1 Starting Torque
Starting torque is nothing but the torque produced by an induction motor as start. At
start, N= 0 and slip s = 1. So putting s = 1 in the torque equation we can write expression
for the starting torque Tst as,

Key Point : From the equation (10), it is clear that by changing the starting torque can be
controlled.
The change in R2 at start is possible in case of slip ring induction motor only. This is
the principle used in case of slip induction motor to control the starting torque Tst.
1.9.2 Condition of Maximum Torque
It is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is running. The supply
voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed ratio between E 1
and E2. Hence E2 is also constant. Similarly R2, X2 and ns are constants for the
induction motor. Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque, remember that
the only parameter which controls the torque is slip s.

It is the ratio of standstill per values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when the torque
produced by the induction motor is at its maximum.
19
1.9.3 Magnitude of Maximum Torque
This can be obtained by substituting sm = R2/X2 in the torque equation. It is denoted
by Tm.

From the expression of Tm, it can be observed that

(i). It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.
(ii).It is directly proportional to the square of the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill.
(iii). The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on
the rotor resistance R2. But the slip at which it occurs i.e. speed at which it occurs
depends on the value of rotor resistance R2.

Example 1.3 : A 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has star connected stator
winding. The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 and 1 respectively. The full load
speed is 1440 r.p.m. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor.
Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2 :1.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.1 , X2 = 1 , N = 1440 r.p.m.
Stator turns/Rotor turns = 2/1
... K = E2 /E1 = Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 = 0.5
Ns=120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
E1line = 400 V ..............Stator line voltage given
... E1ph = E1line /3 = 400/3 = 230.94 V
But E2ph /E1ph = 0.5 = K
.
.. E2ph = 0.5 x 230.94 = 115.47 V
Full load slip, s = (Ns-N)/Ns = (1500-1400)/1500 = 0.04
ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.

= 87.81 N-m
20
 Example 1.4 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected induction motor has a rotor
resistance and reactance per phase equal to 0.01 and 0.1 respectively. Determine i)
Starting torque ii) slip at which maximum torque will occur iii) speed at which
maximum torque will occur iv) maximum torque v) full load torque if full load slip is 4 %.
Assume ratio of stator to rotor turns as 4.
Solution : The given values
are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, stator turns/ rotor turns = 4, R2 = 0.01 , X2 = 0.1
E1line = stator line voltage = 400 V
E1ph = E1line/3 = 400/3 = 230.94 V ............star connection
K = E2ph/E1ph = Rotor turns/ Stator turns = 1/4
.
.. E2 = (1/4) x E1ph = 230.94/4 = 57.735 V
Ns = 120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
i) At start, s =1
... Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 +( X2)2) where k = 3/(2 ns)
ns = Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
... k = 3/(2 x 25) = 0.01909

... Tst = ( 0.01909 x 57.7352 x 0.01 )/( 0.012 + 0.12 ) = 63.031 N-m ii)
Slip at which maximum torque occurs is,
sm = R2/X2 = 0.01/0.1 = 0.1
%sm = 0.1 x 100 = 10%
iii) Speed at which maximum torque occurs is speed corresponding to,
N = Ns (1 - sm ) = 1500 (1 - 0.1) = 1350 r.p.m.
iv) The maximum torque is,
Tm = (k E22)/(2 X2) = (0.01909 x 57.7352)/(2 x 0.1) = 318.16 N-m
v) Full load slip, sf = 0.04 as % sf = 4 %
... Tf.l. = (k sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2 ) = (0.01909 x 0.04 x 57.7352 x 0.01)/( 0.012 + (0.04 x 0.1)2)
= 219.52 N-m

21
1.10 TORQUE-SLIP CHARACTERISTICS
As the induction motor is located from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence
slip increases. Due to the increased. load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load
demand. The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier. The behavior of motor
can be easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting torque produced against slip
of induction motor. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start)
to s = 0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction motor.
It is very interesting to study the nature of torque- slip characteristics.
We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So we can
write torque equations as,

Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s = 0
to s = 1) into two parts and analyse them independently.
i) Low slip region :
In low slip region, 's' is very very small. Due to this, the term (s X 2)2 is so small as compared to
R22 that it can be neglected.

Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load

increases, speed decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies
the load demand.
Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if
it tries to achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low
slip values.
ii) High slip region :
In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be assumed that the term
R2 is very very small as compared to (s X2)2. Hence neglecting from the denominator, we get
2

So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its
nature is like rectangular hyperbola.
Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed
decreases, slip increases. In high slip region as T 1/s, torque decreases as slip increases.
But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases, due to
extra loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque
decreases as T 1/s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque
produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The
motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is
called unstable region of operation.
So torque - slip characteristics has two parts,
1. Straight line called stable region of operation
2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.
22
 Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque - slip characteristics represents stable
operation?
In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly. Every motor
has its own limit to produce a torque. The maximum torque, the motor can produces as load increases
is Tm which occurs at s = sm. So linear behavior continues till s = sm.
If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high slip
region. Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a load. Hence i.e.
maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown torque or pull out torque. So
range s = 0 to s = sm is called low slip region, known as stable region of operation. Motor always
operates at a point in this region. And range s = sm to s = 1 is called high slip region which is
rectangular hyperbola, called unstable region of operation. Motor cannot continue to rotate at any
point in this region.
At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start, motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as Tst.
The entire torque - slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 1.16.
1.10.1 Full load torque

Fig. 1.16 Torque speed characteristics

When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases and
slip increases. The increases torque demand is satisfied by drawing motor current from the supply.
The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such
load, the current drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor.
When current increases, due to heat produced the temperature rise. The safe limit of
current is that which when drawn for continuous operation of motor, produces a
temperature rise well within the limits. Such a full load point is shown on the torque-slip
characteristics torque as TF.L.
The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till
maximum torque condition. But due to high current and hence high temperature
rise there is possibility of damage of winding insulation, if motor is operated for
longer time duration in this region i.e. from point C to B. But motor can be used to
drive loads more than full load, producing torque upto maximum torque for short
duration of time. Generally full load torque is less than the maximum torque.
So region OC upto full load condition allow motor operation continuously and safely from the
temperature point of view. While region CB is possible to achieve in practice but only for short duration
of time and not for continuous operation of motor. This is the difference between full load torque and the
maximum or breakdown torque. The breakdown torque is also called stalling torque.
TFull load < Tm
23
1.10.2 Generating and Braking Region
When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 s 1, the machine runs as a
motor which is the normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of rotating
field which is developed by stator currents. In this region it takes electrical power from
supply lines and supplies mechanical power output. The rotor speed and corresponding
torque are in same direction.

Fig. 1.17 Regions of torque - slip characteristics

When the slip is greater than 1, the machine works in the braking mode. The motor
is rotated in opposite direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator
terminals are interchanged which changes the phase sequence which in turn reverses the
direction of rotation of magnetic field.
The motor comes to quick stop under the influence of counter torque which produces
braking action. This method by which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging. Only
care is taken that the stator must be disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor to
rotate in other direction
To run the induction machine as a generator, its slip must be less than zero i.e.
negative. The negative slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed above the
synchronous speed. When running as a generator it takes mechanical energy and supplies
electrical energy from the stator.
Thus the negative slip, generation action takes place and nature of torque - slip
characteristics reverses in this generating region.
The Fig.1.17 shows the complete torque - slip characteristics showing motoring,
generating and the braking region.

1.11 Speed Torque Characteristics

Up till now, we have seen torque - slip characteristics of an induction motor. To compare the
performance of induction motor with d.c. shunt and series motors, it is possible to plot speed-torque
curve of an induction motor.
At N = Ts, the motor stops as it cannot produce any torque, as induction motor cannot rotate at
synchronous motor.
At N = 0, the starting condition, motor produces a torque called starting torque.

24
 Fig.1.18 Speed Torque characteristics
For low slip region, i.e. speeds near the region are stable and the characteristic is
straight in nature. Fall in speed from no load to full load is about 4 to 6 %. The
characteristic is shown in the Fig.18. It can be seen from that the figure that for the stable
region of operation, the characteristics is similar to that of d.c. shunt motor. Due to this,
three phase induction motor is practically said to be 'constant speed' motor as drop in
speed from no load to full load is not significant. The unstable region of operation is
shown dotted in the Fig.1.18.

1.11.1 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque

It is shown that in slip ring induction motor, externally resistance can be added in the rotor. Let
us see the effect of change in rotor resistance on the torque produced.
Let R2 = Rotor resistance per phase

Key
Point : It can be observed that Tm is independent of R2 hence whatever may be the rotor resistance,
maximum torque produced never change but the slip and speed at which it occurs depends on R2.

25
 As R2' > R2, the slip sm' > sm. Due to this, we get a new torque-slip characteristics
for rotor resistance . This new characteristics is parallel to the characteristics for with same
but Tm occurring at sm'. The effect of change in rotor resistance on torque-slip
characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.19.
It can be seen that the starting torque T'st for R2' is more than Tst for R2. Thus by
changing rotor
resistance the starting torque can be controlled.
If now resistance is further added to rotor to get resistance as R2' and so on, it can be
seen that Tm remains same but slip at which it occurs increases to sm' and so on.
Similarly starting torque also increases to T'st and so on.

Fig.1.19 Effect of rotor resistance on torque-slip curves

If maximum torque Tm is required at start then sm = 1 as at start slip is always unity, so

R2 = X2 Condition for getting Tst = Tm

Key Point : Thus by adding external resistance to rotor till it becomes equal to X2, the
maximum torque can be achieved at start.
It is represented by point A in the Fig. 1.19
If such high resistance is kept permanently in the circuit, there will be large copper
losses (I2R) and hence efficiency of the motor will be very poor. Hence such added
resistance is cut-off gradually and finally removed from the rotor circuit, in the normal
running condition of the motor. So this method is used in practice to achieve higher
starting torque hence resistance in rotor is added only at start.
Thus good performance at start and in the running condition is ensured.
Key Point : This is possible only in case of slip type of induction motor as in squirrel cage
due to short circuited rotor, extra rotor resistance cannot be added.

26
1.11.2 Effect of Change of Supply Voltage on Torque

Fig.1.20
Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the value of supply
voltage. For example, a drop of 10% in supply voltage will decrease the starting torque by
about 20%. This could mean the motor failing to start if it cannot produce a torque greater
than the load torque plus friction torque.
1.12 Losses in Induction Motor
The various power losses in an induction motor can be
classified as, i) Constant losses
ii) Variable losses
i) Constant losses :
These can be further classified as core losses and mechanical losses.
Core losses occur in stator core and rotor core. These are also called iron losses. These
losses include eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The eddy current losses are
minimized by using laminated construction while hysteresis losses are minimized by
selecting high grade silicon steel as the material for stator and rotor.
The iron losses depends on the frequency. The stator frequency is always supply
frequency hence stator iron losses are dominate. As against this in rotor circuit, the
frequency is very small which is slip times the supply frequency. Hence rotor iron losses
are very small and hence generally neglected, in the running condition.
The mechanical losses include frictional losses at the bearings and windings losses. The
friction changes with speed but practically the drop in speed is very small hence these
losses are assumed to be the part of constant losses.
ii) Variable losses :
This include the copper losses in stator and rotor winding due to current flowing in the winding.
As current changes as load changes as load changes, these losses are said to be variable losses.
Generally stator iron losses are combined with stator copper losses at a particular load to specify
total stator losses at particular load condition.
Rotor copper loss = 3 I2r2 R2 ......Analysed separately
where I2r = Rotor current per phase at a particular load
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
27
 1.13 Power Flow in an Induction Motor
Induction motor converts an electrical power supplies to it into mechanical power. The various
stages in this conversion is called power flow in an inductor motor.
The three phase supply given to the stator is the net electrical input to the motor. If motor power
factor is cos and VL, IL are line values of supply voltage and current drawn, then net electrical
supplied to the motor can be calculated as,
Pin 3VL I L cos
Where ,Pin Net electrical input power

This is nothing but the stator input.

The part of this power is utilised to supply the losses in the stator which are stator core as well as
copper losses.
The remaining power is delivered to the rotor magnetically through the air gap with the help of
rotating magnetic field. This is called rotor input denoted as P2.
So, P2 = Pin Stator losses (Core + Copper)

28
 The rotor is not able to convert its entire input to the mechanical as it has to supply rotor losses.
The rotor losses are dominantly copper losses as rotor iron losses are very small and hence generally
neglected. So rotor losses are rotor copper losses denoted as Pc.
So, PC 3I 2r R2
2

where I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition

R2 = Rotor resistance per phase.
After supplying these losses, the remaining part of P2 is converted into mechanical which is called
gross mechanical power developed by the motor denoted as Pm.
Pm P2 Pc
Now this power, motor tries to deliver to the load connected to the shaft. But during this
mechanical transmission, part of Pm is utilised to provide mechanical losses like friction and windage.
And finally the power is available to the load at the shaft. This is called net output of the motor
denoted as Pout. This is also called shaft power.
Pout = Pm Mechanical losses
The rating of the motor is specified in terms of value of Pout when load condition is full load
condition.
The above stages can be shown diagrammatically called power flow diagram of an induction
motor.
This is shown in the Fig.1.21.

Fig. 1.21 Power flow diagram

From the power flow diagram we can define,

Rotor Efficiency = Rotor output / Rotor Input = Gross mechanical power developed / Rotor Input
= Pm / P2
Net Motor efficiency = Net output at shaft / Net electrical input to motor = Pout / Pin
29
1.13.1 Relation between P2 ,Pc , and Pm
The rotor input P2, rotor copper loss Pc and gross mechanical power developed Pm are related
through the slip s. Let us derive this relationship.
Let T = Gross torque developed by motor in N-m.
We know that the torque and power are related by the relation,
P=Tx
where P = Power and = angular speed

Now input to the rotor P2 is from stator side through rotating magnetic field which is rotating at
synchronous speed Ns.
So torque developed by the rotor can be expressed interms of power input and angular speed at
which power is inputted i.e. s as,

The rotor tries to deliver this torque to the load. So rotor output is gross mechanical power
developed Pm and torque T. But rotor gives output at speed N and not Ns. So from output side Pm and
T can be related through angular speed and not s.

30
 The relationship can be expressed in the ratio from as,
P2 : Pc : Pm is 1:s:1s
The ratio of any two quantities on left hand side is same as the ratio of corresponding two sides on
the right hand side.

1.13.2 Efficiency of an Induction Motor

The ratio of net power available at the shaft (Pout) and the net electrical power input (Pin) to the
motor is called as overall efficiency of an induction motor.

% Efficiency =
P0
100
Pin

Fig.1.22 Efficiency curve for an induction motor

The maximum efficiency occurs when variable losses become equal to constant losses. When
motor is on no load, current drawn by the motor is small. Hence efficiency is low. As load increases,
current increases so copper losses also increases. When such variable losses achieve the same value as
that of constant losses, efficiency attains its maximum value. If load is increased further, variable
losses becomes greater than constant losses hence deviating from condition for maximum, efficiency
starts decreasing.

1.14 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor:

We have already seen that the induction motor can be treated as generalized transformer.
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The induction motor works on the
same principle of electromagnetic induction similar to the Transformer. The energy transfer from
stator to rotor of the induction motor takes place entirely with the help of a flux mutually linking the
two. Thus stator acts as a primary while the rotor acts as a rotating secondary when induction motor is
treated as a transformer.
If E1 = Induced voltage in stator per phase
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill
k = Rotor turns / Stator turns
then k = E2/ E1

31
 Thus if V1 is the supply voltage per phase to stator, it produces the flux which links with both
stator and rotor. Due to self-induction E1, is the induced e.m.f. in stator per phase while E2 is the
induced e.m.f. in rotor due to mutual induction, at standstill. In running condition the induced e.m.f. in
rotor becomes E2r which is s E2.
Now E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition per phase
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
X2r = Rotor reactance per phase in running condition
R1 = Stator resistance per phase
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
So induction motor can be represented as a transformer as shown in the Fig. 1.23.

Fig. 1.23 Induction motor as a transformer

When induction motor is on no load, it draws a current from the supply to produce the flux in air
gap and to supply iron losses.
1. Ic = Active component which supplies no load losses
2. Im = Magnetizing component which sets up flux in core and air gap
These two currents give us the elements of an exciting branch as,
Ro = Representing no load losses = V1 /Ic
and Xo = Representing flux set up = V1/Im
Thus, o = c + m
The equivalent circuit of induction motor thus can be represented as shown in the Fig. 1.24.

Fig. 1.24 Basic equivalent circuit

The stator and rotor sides are shown separated by an air gap.
I2r = Rotor current in running condition

It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the motor speed changes. Thus slip
changes. As slip changes the reactance X2r changes. Hence X2r = sX2 is shown variable.

32
1.14.1Representing of rotor impedance
It is shown that,

So it can be assumed that equivalent rotor circuit in the running condition has fixed reactance X2,
fixed voltage E2 but a variable resistance R2/s, as indicated in the above equation.

Now,

So the variable rotor resistance R2/s has two parts.

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents copper loss.
2. R2(1 - s)/s which represents load resistance R L. So it is electrical equivalent of mechanical load on
the motor.
Key Point: Thus the mechanical load on the motor is represented by the pure resistance of value
R2(1 -s)/s. So rotor equivalent circuit can be shown as,

Fig. 1.25 Rotor equivalent

circuit Now let us obtain equivalent circuit referred to stator
side. Equivalent circuit referred to stator :
Transfer all the rotor parameters to stator,
k = E2/E1 = Transformation ratio
E2' = E2/ k
The rotor current has its reflected component on the stator side which is I2r'.

X2' = X2/K2 = Reflected rotor reactance

R2' = R2/K2 = Reflected rotor resistance

33
 Thus RL' is reflected mechanical load on stator.
So equivalent circuit referred to stator can be shown as in the Fig. 1.26

Fig. 1.26 Equivalent circuit referred to stator

The resistance R2' (1 -s)/ s = RL' is fictitious resistance representing the mechanical load on the
motor.

1.14.2 Approximate Equivalent Circuit

Similar to the transformer the equivalent circuit can be modified by shifting the exciting current
(Ro and Xo) purely across the supply, to the left of R1 and X1. Due to this, we are neglecting the drop
across R1 and X1 due to Io, which is very small. Hence the circuit is called approximate equivalent
circuit. The circuit is shown in the Fig.1.27.

Fig. 1.27 Approximate equivalent circuit

Now the resistance R1 and R2' while reactance X1 and X2' can be combined. So we get,
R1e = Equivalent resistance referred to stator = R1 + R2'
X1e = Equivalent reactance referred to stator = X1 + X2'
R1e = R1 + (R2/K2)
and X1e = X1 + (X2/K2)
While 1 = o + 2r' .........phasor diagram
and o = c + m
Thus the equivalent circuit can be shown in the Fig.1.28

Fig. 1.28

34
1.14.3 Power Equations from Equivalent Circuit
With reference to approximate equivalent circuit shown in the Fig. 1.28, we can write various
power equations as,
Pin = input power = 3 V1 I1 cos
where V1 = Stator voltage per phase
I1 = Current drawn by stator per phase
cos = Power factor of stator
Stator core loss = Im2 Ro
Stator copper loss = 3 I12 Ro

Key Point : Remember that in all the above formula all the values per phase values.

35
1.15 CIRCLE DIAGRAM

1.15.1 Introduction
In a particular circuit, if one of the circuit elements is variable, then depending upon its value, the
circuit characteristics varies. As the value of the variable element is changed, the circuit parameters
like current, power factor, power losses etc. also change. The locus of the extremity of the current
phasor, obtained for various values of a variable element is called a locus diagram.
From the equivalent circuit of an induction motor, the motor can be treated as series R-L circuit
where the element resistance of the circuit is variable which varies as slip s. Thus for variable load
conditions, the resistance changes and hence the current drawn by the motor also changes. The locus
diagram of such a current phasor is circular in nature and hence called circle diagram of a three phase
induction motor. Using this diagram, all the performance characteristics of an induction motor like
power factor, efficiency, stator losses, rotor losses, maximum output, maximum torque etc. can be
predicted. Thus, a circle diagram is a graphical approach of predetermining the operation
characteristics of an induction motor.

1.15.2 Obtaining Data to Plot Circle Diagram

The data required to draw the circle diagram is obtained by conducting two testes which are,
1. No load test or open circuit test
2. Blocked rotor test or short circuit test

(i). No Load Test

In this test, the motor is made to run without any load i.e. no load condition. The speed of the
motor is very close to the synchronous speed but less than the synchronous speed. The rated voltage is
applied to the stator. The input line current and total in put power is measured. The two wattmeter
method is used to measure the total input power. The circuit diagram for the test is shown in the Fig.
1.29

Fig. 1.29 No load test

As the motor is on no load, the power factor is very low which is less than 0.5 and one of the two
wattmeters reads negative. It is necessary to reverse the current coil or pressure coil connections of
such a wattmeter to get the positive reading. This reading must be taken negative for the further
calculations.
The total power input Wo is the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings.
The calculations are,
Wo = 3Vo Io coso
W0
cos 0
3V0 I 0
This is no load power factor.

36
 Thus we are now in a position to obtain magnitude and phase angle of no load current Io, which is
required for the circle diagram.
From the knowledge of Io and o, the parameters of the equivalent circuit can be obtained as,
Ic = Io coso = Active component of no load current
Im = Io sino = Magnetising component of no load current
Ro = Vo (per phase) / Ic (per phase) = No load branch resistance
Xo = Vo (per phase)/ Im (per phase) = No load branch resistance
The power input Wo consists of following losses,
1. Stator copper loss i.e. 3 Io2 R12where Io is no load per phase current and R1 is stator resistance per
phase.
2. Stator core loss i.e. iron loss.
3. Friction and windage loss.
The no load rotor current is very small and hence rotor copper loss is negligibly small. The rotor
frequency is s times supply frequency and on no load it is very small. Rotor iron losses are
proportional to this frequency and hence are negligibly small.
Key Point : Under no load condition, Io is also very small and in many practical cases it is also
neglected.
Thus Wo consists of stator iron loss and friction and windage loss which are consists for all load
condictions. Hence Wo is said to give fixed losses of the motor.
... Fixed loss, Wo = No load power input
(ii). Blocked Rotor Test
In this test, the rotor is locked and it is not allowed to rotate. Thus the slip s = 1 and R L' = R2' (1-
s)/s is zero. If the motor is slip ring induction motor then the windings are short circuited at the slip
rings.
The situation is exactly similar to the short circuit test on transformer. If under short circuit
condition, if primary is excited with rated voltage, a large shot circuit current can flow which is
dangerous from the windings point of view. So similar to the transformer short circuit test, the reduced
voltage (about 10 to 15 % of rated voltage) just enough such that stator carries rated current is applied.
Now the applied voltage Vsc, the input power Wsc and a short circuit current Isc are measured.
As RL' = 0, the equivalent circuit is exactly similar to that of a transformer and hence the
calculations are similar to that of short circuit test on a transformer.
Vsc = Short circuit reduced voltage (line value)
Isc = Short circuit current (line value)
Wsc = Short circuit input power
Now Wsc = 3Vsc Isc cossc .............Line values
WSC
cos SC
3VSC I SC
This gives us short circuit power factor of a motor.

37
 Fig.1.30

Now the equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.30

WSC 3(I SC ) 2 Ro1
Where Isc = Per phase value
WSC
R01
3I SC 2
This is equivalent resistance referred to stator.
Z01 = Vsc (per phase)/ Isc (per phase) = Equivalent impedance referred to stator.
Equivalent reactance referred to stator.

X 01 Z 012 R012
During this test, the stator carries rated current hence the stator copper loss is also dominant.
Similarly the rotor also carries short circuit current to produce dominant rotor copper loss. As the
voltage is reduced, the iron loss which is proportional to voltage is negligibly small. The motor is at
standstill hence mechanical loss i.e. friction and windage loss is absent. Hence we can write,
Wsc = Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss
But it is necessary to obtain short circuit current when normal voltage is applied to the motor. This
is practically not possible. But the reduced voltage test results can be used to find current ISN which is
short circuit current if normal voltage is applied.
If VL = Normal rated voltage (line value)
Vsc = Reduced short circuit voltage (line voltage)
V
I SN L I SC
VSC
Where Isc = Short circuit current at reduced voltage
Thus, ISN = Short circuit current at normal voltage
Now power input is proportional to square of the current.
So WSN = Short circuit input power at normal voltage
This can be obtained as,
I
2
WSN SN WSC
I SC

But at normal voltage core loss cannot be negligible hence,

WSN = Core loss + Stator and rotor copper loss

38
1.15.3 Construction of Circle Diagram
By using the data obtained from the no load test and the blocked rotor test, the circle diagram can
be drawn using the following steps:
Step 1 : Take reference phasor V as vertical (Y-axis).
Step 2 : Select suitable current scale such that diameter of circle is about 20 to 30 cm.
Step3 : From no load test, Io and are o obtained. Draw vector Io, lagging V by angle o. This is the
line OO' as shown in the Fig. 1.31
Step 4 : Draw horizontal line through extremity of Io i.e. O', parallel to horizontal axis.
Step 5 : Draw the current ISN calculated from Isc with the same scale, lagging V by angle sc, from the
origin O. This is phasor OA as shown in the Fig. 1.31
Step 6 : Join O'A is called output line.
Step 7 : Draw a perpendicular bisector of O'A. Extend it to meet line O'B at point C. This is the centre
of the circle.
Step 8 : Draw the circle, with C as a center and radius equal to O'C. This meets the horizontal line
drawn from O' at B as shown in the Fig. 1.31
Step 9 : Draw the perpendicular from point A on the horizontal axis, to meet O'B line at F and meet
horizontal axis at D.
Step 10 : Torque line.
The torque line separates stator and rotor copper losses.
Note that as voltage axis is vertical, all the vertical distances are proportional to active components
of currents or power inputs, if measured at appropriate scale.
Thus the vertical distance AD represents power input at short circuit i.e. WSN, now which consists
of core loss and stator, rotor copper losses.
Now FD = O'G
= Fixed loss
Where O'G is drawn perpendicular from O' on horizontal axis. This represents power input on no
load i.e. fixed loss.
Hence AF Sum of stator and rotor copper losses
Then point E can be located as,
AE/EF = Rotor copper loss / Stator copper loss
The line O'E under this condition is called torque line.

Power scale: As AD represents WSN i.e. power input on short circuit at normal voltage, the power
scale can be obtained as,
Power scale = WSN / l (AD) W/cm
where l(AD) = Distance AD in cm

39
 Fig. 1.31

Location of Point E: In a slip ring induction motor, the stator resistance per phase R 1 and rotor
resistance per phase R2 can be easily measured. Similarly by introducing ammeters in stator and rotor
circuit, the currents I1 and I2 also can be measured.
... K = I1/I2 = Transformation ratio
40
Now AF/EF = Rotor copper loss / Stator copper loss
= (I22R2)/(I12R1)
= (R2/R2)(I22/I12)
= (R2/R2).(1/K2)
But R2'= R2/K2 = Rotor resistance referred to stator
... AE/EF = R2'/R1
Thus point E can be obtained by dividing line AF in the ratio R2' to R1.
In a squirrel cage motor, the stator resistance can be measured by conducting resistance tset.
... Stator copper loss = 3ISN2 R1 where ISN is phase value.
Neglecting core loss, WSN = Stator Cu loss + Rotor Cu loss
... Rotor copper loss = WSN - 3ISN2 R1
... AE/EF = (WSN - 3ISN2 R1)/(3ISN2 R1)
Dividing line AF in this ratio, the point E can be obtained and hence O'E represents torque line.

1.15.4 Predicting Performance Form Circle Diagram

Let motor is running by taking a current OP as shown in the Fig. 1.31 The various
performance parameters can be obtained from the circle diagram at that load condition.
Draw perpendicular from point P to meet output line at Q, torque line at R, the base line at S and
horizontal axis at T.
We know the power scale as obtained earlier.
Using the power scale and various distances, the values of the performance parameters can be
obtained as,
Total motor input = PT x Power scale
Fixed loss = ST x power scale
Stator copper loss = SR x power scale
Rotor copper loss = QR x power scale
Total loss = QT x power scale
Rotor output = PQ x power scale
Rotor input = PQ + QR = PR x power scale
Slip s = Rotor Cu loss = QR/PR
Power factor cos = PT/OP
Motor efficiency = Output / Input = PQ/PT
Rotor efficiency = Rotor output / Rotor input = PQ/PR
Rotor output / Rotor input = 1 - s = N/Ns = PQ/PR
The torque is the rotor input in synchronous watts.

41
1.15.5 Maximum Quantities
The maximum values of various parameters can also be obtained by using circle diagram.
1. Maximum Output : Draw a line parallel to O'A and is also tangent to the circle at point M. The
point M can also be obtained by extending the perpendicular drawn from C on O'A to meet the circle
at M. Then the maximum output is given by l(MN) at the power scale. This is shown in the Fig. 1.31
2. Maximum Input : It occurs at the highest point on the circle i.e. at point L. At this point, tangent to
the circle is horizontal. The maximum input given l(LL') at the power scale.
3. Maximum Torque : Draw a line parallel to the torque line and is also tangent to the circle at point
J. The point J can also be obtained by drawing perpendicular from C on torque line and extending it to
meet circle at point J. The l(JK) represents maximum torque in synchronous watts at the power scale.
This torque is also called stalling torque or pull out torque.
4. Maximum Power Factor : Draw a line tangent to the circle from the origin O, meeting circle at
point H. Draw a perpendicular from H on horizontal axis till it meets it at point I. Then angle OHI
gives angle corresponding to maximum power factor angle.
... Maximum p.f. = cos {OHI}
= HI/OH
5. Starting Torque : The torque is proportional to the rotor input. At s = 1, rotor input is equal to rotor
copper loss i.e. l (AE).
... Tstart = l(AE) x Power scale ...................in synchronous watts

1.15.6 Full load Condition

The full load motor output is given on the name plates in watts or h.p. Calculates the distance
corresponding to the full load output using the power scale.
Then extend AD upwards from A onwards, equal to the distance corresponding to full load output,
say A'. Draw parallel to the output line O'A from A' to meet the circle at point P'. This is the point
corresponding to the full load condition, as shown in the Fig.1.32

Fig. 1.32 Locating full load point

Once point P' is known, the other performance parameters can be obtained easily as discussed
above.

42
 UNIT II

STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The three phase induction motors are self starting due to rotating magnetic field.
But the motor show tendency to draw very high current at the time of starting . such a
current can be five times the rated current and can damage the motor winding. Hence
there should be certain device which can limit such high stating current. Such a device
which limits high starting current is called a starter. In this chapter, the various types
of starters and various methods of starting an induction motor are discussed. in
practice , it is necessary for certain application , to control the speed of an induction
motor. Though basically an induction motor is constant speed motor, some methods of
controlling the speed of an induction motor are also discussed in this chapter.

2.2 Necessity of Starter

In a three phase induction motor, the magnitude of an induced e.m.f. in the
rotor circuit depends on the slip of the induction motor. This induced e.m.f. effectively
decides the magnitude of the rotor current. The rotor current in the running condition
is given by,

But at start, the speed of the motor is zero and slip is at its maximum i.e.
unity. So magnitude of rotor induced e.m.f. is very large at start. As rotor
conductors are short circuited, the large induced e.m.f. circulates very high current
through rotor at start.
The condition is exactly similar to a transformer with short circuited secondary.
Such a transformer when excited by a rated voltage, circulates very high current
through short circuited secondary. As secondary current is large, the primary also
draws very high current from the supply.
Similarly in a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high,
consequently the stator draws a very high current from the supply.
Similarly in a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high,
consequently the stator draws a very high current from the supply. This current can
be of the order of 5 to 8 times the full load current, at start.
Due to such heavy inrush current at start there is possibility of damage of the
motor winding. Similarly such sudden inrush of current causes large line voltage
drop. Thus other appliances connected to the same line may be subjected to voltage
spikes which may affect their working. To avoid such effects, it is necessary to limit
the current drawn by the motor at start. The starter is a device which is basically
used to limit high starting current by supplying reduced voltage to the motor at the
time of starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only for short period and once
rotor gets accelerated, full normal rated voltage is applied.

43
 Not only the starter limits the starting current but also provides the protection to
the induction motor against overloading loading and low voltage situations. The
protection against single phasing is also provided by the starter. The induction motor
having rating below 5 h.p. can withstand starting currents hence such motors can
be started directly on line. But such motors also need overload, single phasing and
low voltage protection which is provided by a starter.
Thus all the three phase induction motors need some or the other type of starter.
2.3Types of Starters
From the expression of rotor current it can be seen that the current at start can be
controlled by reducing E2 which is possible by supplying reduced voltage at start or
by increasing the rotor resistance R2 at start. The second method is possible only on
case of slip ring induction motors. The various types of starters based on the above
two methods of reducing the starting current are,
1. Stator resistance starter
2. Autotransformer starter
3. Star-delta starter
4. Rotor resistance starter
5. Direct on line starter

2.3.1. Stator Resistance Starter

In order to apply the reduced voltage to the stator of the induction motor, three
resistances are are added in series with each phase of the stator winding. Initially the
resistances are kept maximum in the circuit. Due to its large voltage gets dropped
across the resistances. Hence a reduced voltage gets applied to the stator which
reduces the high starting current. The schematic diagram showing stator resistances
is shown in the Fig.2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Stator Resistance starter

When the motor starts running, the resistances are gradually cut-off from the
stator circuit. When the resistances are entirely removed from the stator circuit i.e.
rheostats in RUN position then rated voltage gets applied to the stator. Motor runs
with normal speed.
The starter is simple in construction and cheap. It can be used for both star and
delta connected stator. But there are large power losses due to resistances. Also the
starting torque of the motor reduces due to reduced voltage applied to the stator.
44
2.3.2.Autotransformer Starter
A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage
applied to the stator. Such a starter is called an autotransformer starter. The
schematic diagram of autotransformer starter. The schematic diagram of
autotransformer starter is shown in the Fig.2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Autotransformer starter

It consists of a suitable change over switch.

When the switch is in the start position, the stator winding is supplied with
reduced voltage. This can be controlled by tappings provided with autotransformer.
The reduction in applied voltage by the fractional percentage tappings x,
used for an autotransformer is shown in the Fig. 2.3.

Fig.2.3 Use of autotransformer to reduce voltage at start

When motor gathers 80% of the normal speed, the change over switch is
thrown into run position.
Due to this, rated voltage gets applied to stator winding. The motor starts rotating
with normal speed. Changing of switch is done automatically by using relays. The
power loss is much less in this type of starting. It can be used for both star and
delta connected motors. But it is expensive than stator resistance starter.

45
2.3.3. Star - Delta Starter
This is the cheapest starter of all and hence used very commonly for the induction
motors. It uses triple pole double throw (TPDT) switch. The switch connects the stator
winding in star at start. Hence per phase voltage gets reduced by the factor 1/3. Due
to this reduced voltage, the starting current is limited.
When the switch is thrown on other side, the winding gets connected in delta,
across the supply. So it gets normal rated voltage. The windings are connected in delta
when motor gathers sufficient speed.
The arrangement of star-delta starter is shown in the Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Star-delta starter

The operation of the switch can be automatic by using relays which ensures that
motor will not start with the switch in Run position. The cheapest of all and
maintenance free operation are the two important advantages of this starter. While its
limitations are, it is suitable for normal delta connected motors and the factor by
which voltage changes is 1/3 which can not be changed.

46
2.3.4. Rotor Resistance Starter
To limit the rotor current which consequently reduces the current drawn by the motor
from the supply, the resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit at start. This
addition of the resistance in
rotor in the form of 3 phase star connected rheostat. The arrangement is shown in
the Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Rotor resistance starter

The external resistance is inserted in each phase of the rotor winding through slip
ring and brush assembly. Initially maximum resistance is in the circuit. As motor
gather speed, the resistance is gradually cut-off. The operation may be manual or
automatic.
We have seen that the starting torque is proportional to the rotor resistance.
Hence important advantage of this method is not only the starting current is
limited but starting torque of the motor also gets improved.
Note : The only limitation of the starter that it can be used only for slip ring
induction motors as in squirrel cage motors, the rotor is permanently short circuited.

2.3.5. Direct on Load Line Starter (D.O.L.)

In case of small capacity motors having rating less than 5 h.p., the starting current
is not very high and such motors can withstand such starting current without any
starter. Thus there is no need to reduce applied voltage, to control the starting
current. Such motors use a type of starter which is used to connect stator directly
to the supply lines without any reduction in voltage. Hence the starter is known as
direct on line starter.
Though this starter does not reduce the applied voltage, it is used because it
protects the motor from various severe abnormal conditions like over loading, low
voltage, single phasing.
The Fig. 2.6 shows the arrangement of various components in direct on line starter.

47
 Fig.2.6 D.O.L. starter
The NO contact is normally open and NC is normally closed. At start, NO is
pushed for fraction of second due to which coil gets energized and attracts the
contactor. So stator directly gets supply. The additional contact provided, ensures that
as long as supply is ON, the coil gets supply and keeps contactor in ON position.
When NC is pressed, the coil circuit gets opened due to which coil gets de-energized
and motor gets switched OFF from the supply.
Under over load condition, current drawn by the motor increases due to
which is an excessive heat produced, which increases temperature beyond limit.
Thermal relays get opened
due to high temperature, protecting the motor from overload conditions.

2.4 Electrical Braking of an Induction Motor

The mechanical brakes or electric brakes can be used to bring an electric motor
to rest, quickly. But with the mechanical brakes, smooth stop is not possible. Similarly
the linings, levers and other mechanical arrangements are necessary to apply
mechanical brakes. Mechanical brakes also depends on the skill of the operator. As
against this, an electric braking is easy and reliable hence it is used to stop the
induction motors very quickly. Though the motor is brought to rest electrically, to
maintain its state of rest a mechanical brake is must.

2.4.1. Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking

In rheostatic braking, one supply line out of R, Y or B is disconnected from the
supply. Depending upon the condition of this disconnected line, two types of
rheostatic braking can be achieved.

48
 Fig.2.7 Dynamic braking of induction motor

(i). Two lead connections : In this method, the disconnected line is kept open. This
is shown in the Fig. 2.7(a) and is called two lead connections.
(ii). Three lead connections : In this method, the disconnected line is connected
directly to the
other line of the machine. This is shown in the Fig. 2.7(b).
In both cases, a high resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit, with the help
of rheostat.
Note : Thus this method is effective only for slip ring or wound rotor induction motors.
As one of the motor terminal is not connected to the supply, the motor continues
to run as single phase motor. In this case the breakdown torque i.e. maximum toque
decreases to 40% of its original value and motor develops no starting torque at all.
And due to high rotor resistance, the net torque produced becomes negative and the
braking operation is obtained.
In two lead connections, the braking torque is small while in three lead
connections, The braking torque is high at high speeds. But in three lead connections
there is possibility of inequality between the contact resistances in connections of two
paralleled lines. This might reduce the braking torque and even may produce the
motoring torque again. Hence inspite of low braking torque, two lead connections is
preferred over three lead connections.
The torque-slip characteristics for motoring and braking operation is shown in
the Fig. 2.8

49
 Fig. 2.8 Torque-slip characteristics
Note : Such a dynamic or rheostat braking is used mainly in crane hoist.

2.4.2. D.C. Dynamic Braking

A quick stopping of an induction motor and its high inertia load can be achieved
by connecting stator terminals to a d.c. supply. Any two stator terminals can be
connected to a d.c. supply and third terminal may be kept open or may be connected
directly to other stator terminal. This is called d.c. dynamic braking. If third
terminal is kept open it is called two lead connections while if it is shorted
directly with other stator terminal it is called three lead connections. A diode
bridge can be used to get d.c. supply. The Fig. 2.9 shows two lead connections with a
diode bridge for a d.c. dynamic breaking of an induction motor.

Fig. 2.9 D.C. dynamic braking

When d.c. is supplied to the stator, stationary poles N, S are produced in stator.
The number of stationary poles is P for which stator winding is wound. As rotor is
rotating, rotor cuts the flux produced by the stationary poles. Thus the a.c. voltage
gets induced in the rotor. This voltage produces an a.c. current in the rotor. The
motor works as a generator and the R losses are dissipated at the expenditure of
kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts. Thus dynamic braking is achieved. When
all the kinetic energy gets dissipated as heat in the rotor, the induction motor comes
to rest.
50
 The advantages of d.c. dynamic braking are,
1. The heat produced is less compared to the plugging.
2. The energy dissipated in the rotor is not dependent on the magnitude of the d.c.
current.
3. The braking torque is proportional to the square of the d.c. current.
4. Quick stopping of the motor is possible.
5. The method can be used for wound rotor or squirrel cage rotor induction motors.

2.4.3. Plugging
The reversal of direction of rotation of motor is the main principle in plugging of
motor. In case of an induction motor, it can be quickly stopped by interchanging any
two stator leads. Due to this, the direction of rotating magnetic field gets reversed
suddenly. This produces a torque in the reverse direction and the motor tries to rotate
in opposite direction. Effectively the brakes are applied to the motor. Thus during the
plugging, the motor acts as a brake.
Note : The method can be applied to both squirrel cage as well as wound rotor
induction motors.
One important aspect about plugging is production of very high heat in the rotor.
While plugging, the load keeps on revolving and rotor absorbs kinetic energy from the
revolving load, causing speed to reduce. The corresponding gross mechanical power is
entirely dissipated as heat in the rotor. Similarly as stator is connected to supply,
rotor continues to receive power from stator which also gets dissipated as heat in the
rotor. This is shown in the Fig. 3(a)

Fig. 3(a) High rotor losses in plugging

Note : The plugging produces very high I2R losses in the rotor which are more
than those produced when rotor is locked.
The plugging should not be done frequently as due to high heat produced rotor
may attain high temperature which can melt the rotor bars and even may over heat
the stator as well.
Note : In some industrial applications where quick stop of motor and its load is
necessary, the plugging method is used.

51
2.4.4. Regenerative Braking
The input power to a three phase induction motor is
given by, Pin = 3 Vph Iph cos
where = Angle between stator phase voltage and phase current

This is less than 90o for the motoring action.

If the rotor speed is increased greater than the synchronous speed with the help of
external device, it acts as an induction generator. It converts the input mechanical
energy which is given back to supply. It delivers active power to the 3 phase line. The
becomes greater than 90o. the power flow reverses hence rotor induced e.m.f. and
rotor current also reverse. So rotor produces torque in opposite direction to achieve
the braking. As the electrical energy is given back to the lines while braking, it is
called regenerative braking. The arrangement for regenerative braking is shown in the
Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Regenerative braking

Note : The active power delivered back is proportional to the slip above the
synchronous speed. The slip is negative for such operation.
The torque-slip characteristics for motoring and generating action is shown in
the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Torque-slip characteristics for regenerative braking

The main advantage is that the generated power can be used for useful purposes.
While the disadvantage is that for fixed frequency supply it can be used only for
speeds above synchronous speed.
52
2.5 SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A three phase induction motor is practically a constant speed motor like a d.c.
shunt motor. But the speed of d.c. shunt motor can be varied smoothly just by using
simple rheostats. This maintains the speed regulation and efficiency of d.c. shunt
motor. But in case of three phase induction motors it is very difficult to achieve
smooth speed control. And if the speed control is achieved by some means, the
performance of the induction motor in terms of its power factor, efficiency etc. gets
adversely affected.
For the induction motor we know that,
N = Ns (1 s)
From this expression it can be seen that the speed of induction motor can be
changed either by changing its synchronous speed or by changing the slip s.
Similarly torque produced in case of three phase induction motor is given by,

So as the parameters like R2, E2 are changed then to keep the torque constant
for constant load condition, motor reacts by change in its slip. Effectively its speed
changes.
Thus speed of the induction motor can be controlled by basically two methods :
1. From stator side and
2. From rotor side
From stator side, it includes following methods:
a. Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f
control. b. Supply voltage control.
c. Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.
d. Adding rheostats in stator circuit.
From rotor side, it includes following methods:
a. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
b. Cascade control.
c. Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.

2.5.1 STATOR SIDE CONTROL

2.5.1. (a) Supply Frequency Control or V / f Control
The synchronous speed is given by,
Ns = 120f / P
Thus by controlling the supply frequency smoothly, the synchronous speed can be
controlled over a wide range. This gives smooth speed control of an induction motor.
But the expression for the air gap flux is given by,

This is according to the e.m.f. equation of a transformer

53
 where, K1 = Stator winding constant
Tph1 = Stator turns per phase
V = Supply voltage
f = Supply frequency
It can be seen from this expression that if the supply frequency f is changed, the
value of air gap flux also gets affected. This may result into saturation of stator and
rotor cores. Such a saturation leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetisation) no
load current of the motor. Hence it is necessary to maintain air gap flux constant
when supply frequency f is changed.
To achieve this, it can be seen from the above expression that along with f, V also
must be changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant. This ensures constant air gap
flux giving speed control without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this
method is called V / f control.

Fig. 1 Electronic scheme for V/f control

Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is variable
voltage variable frequency supply and can be achieved by an electronic scheme using
converter and inverter circuitry. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.
The normal supply available is constant voltage constant frequency a.c. supply.
The converter converts this supply into a d.c. supply. This d.c. supply is then given
to the inverter. The inverter is a device which converts d.c. supply, to variable voltage
variable frequency a.c. supply which is required to keep V / f ratio constant. By
selecting the proper frequency and maintaining V / f constant, smooth speed control
of the induction motor is possible.
If f is the normal working frequency then the Fig. 2 shows the torque-slip
characteristics for the frequency f1> f and f2<f i.e. for frequencies above and below the
normal frequency.

Fig. 2 Torque-slip characteristics with variable f and constant (V/f)

54
 Another disadvantages of this method is that the supply obtained can not be used
to supply other devices which require constant voltage. Hence an individual scheme
for a separate motor is required which makes it costly.

2.5.1. (b) Supply (or) Stator Voltage Control

We know that,

Now E2, the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill depends on the supply voltage V.
.
.. E2 V
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (s X2)2
<<R2 and hence can be neglected.
2 R2/R22 S V2 for constant R22

Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as per above equation torque
produced also decreases. But to supply the same load it is necessary to develope
same torque hence value of slip increases so that torque produced remains same.
Slip increases means motor reacts by running at lower speed, to decrease in
supply voltage. So motor produces the required load torque at a lower speed.
The speed-torque characteristics for the motor using supply voltage control are
shown in the Fig. 4.1.

Fig.4.1 Speed-torque curves for motor with voltage control

But in this method, due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor
increases. Large change in voltage for small change in speed is required is the biggest
disadvantage. Due to increased current, the motor may get overheated. Additional
voltage changing equipment is necessary. Hence this method is rarely used in
practice. Motors driving fan type of loads use this method of speed control. Due to
reduced voltage, E2 decreases, decreasing the value of maximum torque too.

55
2.5.1. (c) Controlling Number of Poles
The method is called pole changing method of controlling the speed. In this
method, it is possible to have one, two or four speeds in steps, by the changing the
number of stator poles. A continuous smooth speed control is not possible by this
method.
The stator poles can be changed by following methods :

(i). Consequent poles method

(ii).Multiple stator winding method
(iii). Pole amplitude modulation method.
(i). Consequent Poles Method
In this method, connections of the stator winding are changes with the help of
simple switching. Due to this, the number of stator poles get changed in the ratio 2 : 1.
Hence either of the two synchronous speed can be selected.
Consider the pole formation due to single phase of a three phase winding, as
shown in the Fig.1. There are three tapping points to the stator winding. The supply
is given to two of them and third is kept open.
It can be seen that current in all the parts of stator coil is flowing in one direction
only. Due to this, 8 poles get formed as shown in the Fig. 1. So synchronous speed
possible with this arrangement with 50 Hz frequency is Ns = 750 r.p.m.

Fig.1 8 Pole winding

If the two terminals to which supply was given either are joined together and
supply is given between this common point and the open third terminal, the poles are
formed as in Fig. 2.

56
 Fig.2 4 pole winding
It can be seen that the direction of current through remaining two. Thus upward
direction is forming say S pole and downward say N. it can be observed that in this
case only 4 poles are formed. So the synchronous speed possible is 1500 r.p.m. for 50
Hz frequency.

Thus series/parallel arrangements of coils can produce the poles in the ratio 2 : 1.
But the speed change is in step and smooth speed control is not possible. Similarly
the method can be used only for the squirrel cage type motors as squirrel rotor
adjusts itself to same number of poles as stator which is not the case in slip ring
induction motor.

(ii). Multiple Stator Winding Method

In this method instead of one winding, two separate stator winding are placed in
the stator core. he windings are placed in the stator slots only but are electrically
isolated from each other. Each winding is divided into coils to which, pole changing
with consequent poles, facility is provided.
Thus giving supply to one of the two windings and using switching arrangement,
two speeds can be achieved. Same is true for other stator winding. So in all four
different speeds can be obtained.
The various limitations of this method are,
1. Can be applied to only squirrel cage motor.
2. Smooth speed control is not possible. Only step changes in speed are possible.
3. Two different stator windings are required to be wound which increases the cost of
the motor.
4. Complicated from the design point of view.

57
2.5.1. (d) Adding Rheostats in Stator Circuit

Fig. 1 Stator resistance control

We have seen that the reduced voltage can be applied to the stator by adding the
rheostats in the stator circuit. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1. The part of the
voltage gets dropped across the resistances and reduced voltage gets applied across
the stator.
The reduction in stator voltage causes reduction in the speed. The rheostats can be
varied as per the required change in speed. But the entire line current flows
through the rheostats and hence there are large power losses. The method is not
efficient from speed control point of view hence used as a starter rather than as a
speed control method.

2.5.2. ROTOR SIDE CONTROL

2.5.2.(a) Adding External Resistance in Rotor Circuit

Thus if the rotor resistance is increased, the torque produced decreases. But when
the load on the motor is same, motor has to supply same torque as load demands. So
motor reacts by increasing its slip to compensate decreases in T due to R2 and
maintains the load torque constant. So due to that additional rotor resistance R2, motor
slip increases i.e. the speed of the motor decreases. Thus by increasing the rotor
58
resistance R2, speeds below normal value can be achieved. Another advantage of
this method is that the starting torque of the motor increases proportional to rotor
resistance.

The Fig. 2 shows the torque-speed curves for rotor resistance control.
But this method has following disadvantages :
1. The large speed changes are not possible. This is because for large speed
change, large resistance is required to be introduced in rotor which causes large
rotor copper loss due to reduce the efficiency.
2. The method cannot be used for the squirrel cage induction motors.
3. The speeds above the normal values cannot be obtained.
4. Large power losses occur due to large loss.

5. Sufficient cooling arrangements are required which make the external

rheostats bulky be expensive.
6. Due to large power losses, efficiency is low.
Thus the method is rarely used in the practice.

2.5.2.(b) Cascade Control

This method is also called concatenation or tandom operation of the induction
motors. In this method, two induction motors are mounted on the same shaft. One of
the two motors must be of slip ring type which is called main motor. The second
motor is called auxiliary motor. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1. The auxiliary
motor can be slip ring or squirrel cage type.

Fig. 1 Cascade control of two induction motor

The stator of the main motor is connected to the three phase supply. While the
supply of the auxiliary motor is derived at a slip frequency from the slip rings of the
59
main motor. This is called cascading of the motors. If the torque produced by both act
in the same direction, cascading is called cumulative cascading. If torques produced
are in opposite direction, cascading is called differential cascading.
Now let, PA = Number of poles of main motor
PB = Number of poles of auxiliary
motor f = Supply frequency

60
If by interchanging any two terminals of motor B, the reversal of direction of rotating
magnetic field of B is achieved then the set runs as differentially cascaded set. And in
such a case effective number of poles are PA- PB.

Thus in cascade control, four different speeds are possible as,

120 f
a. With respect to synchronous speed of A Ns =
independently, PA
b. With respect to synchronous speed of B independently with
main motor is disconnected and B is directly connected to supply,

c. Running set as cumulatively cascaded with,

d. Running set as differentially cascaded with,

61
 This method is also rarely used due to following disadvantages :
1. It requires two motors which makes the set expensive.
2. Smooth speed control is not possible.
3. Operation is complicated.
4. The starting torque is not sufficient to start the set.
5. Set cannot be operated if PA = PB.
2.5.2.(c) Injecting Slip-Frequency E.M.F. into Rotor Circuit

In this method, a voltage is injected in the rotor circuit. The frequency of rotor
circuit is a slip frequency and hence the voltage to be injected must be at a slip
frequency.
It is possible that the injected voltage may oppose the rotor induced e.m.f. or
may assist the rotor induced e.m.f. If it is in the phase opposition, effective rotor
resistance increases. If it is in the phase of rotor induced e.m.f., effective rotor
resistance decreases. Thus by controlling the magnitude of the injected e.m.f., rotor
resistance and effectively speed can be controlled.
Practically two methods are available which use this principle. These methods are,
1. Kramer system 2. Scherbius system

1) KRAMER SYSTEM:

It consists of main induction motor M, speed of which is to be controlled.

A dc motor & rotary converter are used. The slip rings of main motor are
connected to ac side of rotary converter.
The d.c. side of rotary converter feeds a d.c. shunt motor commutator, which is
directly connected to the shaft of the main motor.
Rotary converter converts the low-slip frequency a.c. power into d.c. power
supplied from main line so that its speed derivates from a fixed value only to the
extent of the slip of auxiliary induction motor.
Both dc motor & rotary converter are excited from a separate dc supply.

62
 The variable resistance introduce the field circuit of a DC motor, which act as a
field regulator
The speed of the set is controlled by varying the field of DC motor with rheostat R
when the field rheostat is changed, the back E.M.F of motor change. thus D.C
voltage at the commutator changes.this changes d.c. voltage on the d.c. side of
rotary converter..
Now Rotary converter has a fixed ratio between its a.c & d.c side voltages. thus
Voltage on its a.c side also changes. This a.c. voltage is given to theslip ring of tht
main motor. So the voltage injected in the rotor of main motor which produces the
required speed control.
Very large motors (above 4000kw) such a steel rolling mills use this type.

Advantages:

Smooth speed control is possible.

Wide range of speed control is possible.
Design of rotary converter is independent of speed control required.
If rotary converter is excited, it draws leading current & hence power
factor can be improved.

2.6. Special Rotor Constructions and Applications

In case of slip ring induction motor an external resistance can be added in the
rotor circuit during starting which gives higher starting torque and lower starting
line current at an improved power factor. This resistance is then gradually cut from
the rotor circuit which would otherwise result in decrease of full load speed, poor
speed regulation, more rotor losses and hence reduced efficiency. With lower rotor
resistance it gives constant speed, low slip, less losses and high efficiency. This is
the major advantage of slip ring induction motor that it gives high rotor resistance at
starting and low rotor resistance at normal operating speed.

In case of squirrel cage induction motor there is no provision made for adding
external resistance. If the resistance is designed in such a way that it gives better
running performance then it has high starting current and consequently low
starting torque. This is major disadvantage of squirrel cage induction motor
although it is having the other qualities of low cost, ruggedness and maintenance
free operation. Thus the designer had found different ways of improving the starting
performance of the motor without affecting the running performance of the motor.

In squirrel cage induction motor high starting torque can be obtained by the
use of deep bar or double cafe rotors. Both these types of rotors make use of skin
effect in which distribution of current is not uniform but the alternating current has
the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. Due to this effect,
effective area of cross section of the conductor is reduced and hence resistance of
the conductor is increased when carrying alternating current.

The solid conductor can be considered to be made up of large number of strands

63
each carrying a small part of current. The inductance of each strand will vary
according to the position. The strands in proximity of the centre are surrounded
greater magnetic flux and has greater inductance than near the surface. Due to high
reactance at the centre, the alternating current flows near the surface of the
conductor. The skin effects depends upon nature of material, diameter of wire, shape
of wire and frequency.

Thus the current in the rotor during starting is having the frequency of supply.
While under running condition the frequency of rotor current reduces to slip
frequency. This variation in frequency changes the rotor resistance as it depends on
skin effect. During starting it gives high resistance whereas it gives low resistance
during running condition which is desirable. Thus the variation in rotor resistance
can be achieved by deep bar or double cage construction of rotor and induction
motor. Both these types of construction make use of skin effect phenomenon.

2.6.1 (i). Double Cage Rotor Construction

This is another way of obtaining improved starting performance without

affecting its running performance. Though it is more expensive it gives better
performance than deep bar rotor construction.

The stator of double cage rotor induction motor is same as that of ordinary
induction motor whereas its rotor consists of two cages or two layers of bars short
circuited by end rings since the
upper cage is having smaller cross-sectional area than the lower cage, the upper
cage is having higher resistance than that of lower cage. With equal cross sectional
areas of two cages the upper cage is made up of high resistance material like brass,
aluminium, bronze etc. and the lower cage is made up of low resistance material
like copper. The upper cage and lower cage are separated by a narrow slit or
constriction. This is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Double cage rotor construction

64
 The slot leakage flux pattern is also shown in the Fig. 4 for the double cage
rotor. Similar to deep bar rotor construction the rotor bars in the upper cage have
less leakage flux linkage and therefor has lower reactance. The dimension of air
construction controls the self leakage flux linking upper and lower bars. Hence it
can be seen that the upper cage has high resistance and low reactance whereas the
lower cage has low resistance and high reactance.

During starting the rotor frequency is same as stator frequency or supply

frequency. The division of rotor current in upper and lower cage is inversely
proportional to their leakage impedances. At the time of starting the leakage
reactance of lower cage is very high and consequently its leakage impedance is
several times greater than that of upper cage whose leakage reactance is small.
Hence most rotor current flows in upper cage having lower leakage impedance. The
upper cage having high resistance sharing the rotor current results in low
starting current at improved power factor giving high starting torque.

When rotor speeds up, the rotor frequency decreases which decreases the
leakage reactance of lower cage. At normal operating speed the reactance difference
between the two cages is negligibly small. Hence the division of rotor current in this
case is mainly decided by the resistances of the two cages. As resistance of upper
cage is very high most of the current flows through the lower cage giving excellent
operating characteristics under running condition. It can be noted that starting
current is confined mainly with upper cage so if there is frequent starting of
motor then it would cause overheating and buring of
upper cage.

The torque-slip characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in the
Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Torque slip characteristics of double cage induction motor

The approximate equivalent circuit of double cage rotor induction motor is shown
in the Fig.

65
6. Though the two cages are somewhat coupled magnetically, they can be treated as
independent for simplicity and it gives approximately same results. The two cages
are assumed to be parallel while drawing the equivalent circuit.

Fig. 6 Equivalent circuit of double cage induction motor

I2ru' and I2r' are the currents in the upper and lower cages respectively referred
to the stator R2u'and R2e' are the resistance of upper and lower cages referred to the
stator whereas and are leakage reactances of the two cages referred to the stator of
the motor.

2.6.2. Comparison of Single Cage and Double Cage Motors

66
Applications
i) Squirrel cage type of motors having moderate starting torque and constant
speed characteristics preferred for driving fans, blowers, water pumps,
grinders, lathe machines, printing machines, drilling machines.
ii) Slip ring induction motors can have high starting torque as high as maximum
torque. Hence they are preferred for lifts, hoists, elevators, cranes, compressor.

2.7. Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor

The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded
transformer. The only difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and
short circuited while transformer secondary is stationary and connected to load. The
load on induction motor is mechanical while load on transformer is electrical.
Still by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the motor, the phasor
diagram of induction motor can be developed.
Let = Magnetic flux links with both primary and secondary.
There is self-induced e.m.f. E1 in the stator while a mutually induced e.m.f.
E2r in the rotor. Let R1 = Stator resistance per phase.
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
The stator voltage per phase V1 has to counter balance self-induced e.m.f.
E1 and has to supply voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X1. So on stator side we can
write,

The rotor induced e.m.f. in the running condition has to supply the drop across
impedances as rotor short circuited.

The value of E2r depends on the ratio of rotor turns to stator turns.
The rotor current in the running condition is I2r which lags E2r by rotor
p.f. angle 2r. The reflected rotor current I2r' on stator side is the effect
of load and is given by,
I2r' = K I2r
The induction motor draws no load current Io which is phasor sum of Ic and
Im. The total stator current drawn from supply is,
1 = o + 2r'
The 1 is angle between V1 and I1 and cos 1 gives the power factor of the
induction motor. Thus using all above relations the phasor diagram of
induction motor on load can be
obtained.

67
 Fig. 1 On load phasor diagram of induction motor

The steps to draw phasor diagram are,

1. Takes as reference phasor.
2. The induced voltage E1 lags by 90o.
3. Show - E1 by reversing voltage phasor E1.
4. The phasor E2r is in phase with E1. So I2r show lagging E2r i.e. E1 direction by
2r.

5. Show I2r R2 in phase with I2r and I2r X2r leading the resistive drop by 90o, to
get exact location of E2r.
6. Reverse I2r to get I2r'.
7. Im is in phase with while Ic is at leading with . Add Im and Ic to get Io.
8. Add Io and I2r' to get I1.
9. From tip of - E1 phasor, add I1 R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 90o leading to I1
to V1 get
phasor.
10. Angle between V1 and I1 is 1.

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.

68
2.8. Induction Generator
The torque-slip or the torque-speed characteristics of the induction motor
are shown in the Fig. 1. The operating mode of induction machine as a generator or
motor or braking depends on value of slip s.

Fig. 1

When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 s 1, the machines runs as
a motor which is the normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of
rotating field which is developed by stator currents. In this region it takes
electrical power from supply lines and supplies mechanical power output. The
rotor speed and corresponding torque are in same direction.
When the slip is greater than 1, the machines works in braking mode. The motor
is rotated in opposite direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator
terminals are interchanged which changes the phase sequence which in turn
reverses the direction of rotation of magnetic field. The motor comes to quick stop
under the influence of counter torque which produces braking action. This method
by which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging. Only care is
taken that the stator must be disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor in
other direction.

To run the induction machines as a generator, its slip must be less than zero
i.e. negative. The negative slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed
above the synchronous speed. When running as a generator it takes mechanical
energy and supplies electrical energy from the stator. As the speed of induction
generator is not in synchronism with the line frequency, it is often called
asynchronous generator.
Thus when the slip of the induction motor is negative i.e. when the induction
motor runs faster than synchronous speed, the induction motor runs as a
generator called induction generator.
The stator of induction generator must be connected to a voltage source to

69
produce the necessary rotating magnetic field revolving at synchronous speed. When
rotor is rotated above synchronous speed and the stator is disconnected from the
supply, the generating action will not take place.
When rotor of induction machine is driven above synchronous speed, the rotor
conductors cut the flux of rotating field in opposite direction to that when it is
operating as a motor. The rotor currents are also reversed. Due to the transformer
action, currents are induced in the stator and the induction motor can be runs as a
generator.

Fig. 2

The construction of induction generator is same as that of motor with the

difference that the direction of rotation of the motor and a generator is opposite for
the same current direction.
The action of induction machine as a generator can be explained from the
phasor diagram. Consider the phasor diagram of the induction motor on load.
Let us consider the speed of the induction machine is less than synchronous
speed so that
machine takes current I1 from supply. This current I1 is phasor sum of no load

70
current Io and I2r' which is opposite of I2r and referred as reflected rotor current in
stator. The rotor current can be resolved into two components, one in phase with
rotor emf and the other one is quadrature component.

The phasor diagram of induction machine as generator is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
The current I2r leads the voltage - E2r which is opposite of E2r. The angle
between V1 and I1 is more than which shows that electrical power of the machine is
negative i.e. it is supplying the power. Thus when the rotor is rotated above
synchronous speed with the rotating field remaining in the same direction, then the
direction of cutting of rotor is in opposite direction which results in reversal of
rotor emf, current and torque. The machine is said to be operating in generating

If the bank of delta connected capacitors is operated in parallel with induction

generator then the reactive power requirement of induction generator is met by
capacitors. This arrangements is shown in Fig. 5.

71
 Fig. 5
The induction generator in this case is said to be isolated induction generator
supplying a load. The external voltage source is not required in this case.
Unlike in synchronous generators, induction generators are not rotating at a
definite speed at a given frequency. The speed varies with load as the load is
proportional to slip. The frequency of the induction generator is same as the
frequency of the line to which it is connected.
Advantages
The following are the advantages of induction generator. i)
Synchronization for induction generator is required.
ii) The construction is rugged for rotating parts.
iii) Unlike in synchronous machine, there is no danger of hunting or drop out of
synchronism for induction generators.
iv) When it short circuited, it delivers small power as the excitation quickly
reduces to zero. v) Induction generators are more suitable for high speeds.
vi) With the help of excitation supply and frequency, the voltage and frequency of
induction generator are controlled.
1.4 Disadvantages
Although induction generators are having above mentioned advantages, it
has following advanatges.
i) It must be run in parallel with the synchronous machine.
ii) The load is not deciding the power factor of induction generator but the power
factor depends on slip.
Applications
Because of distinct superiority of the synchronous generator, induction
generators are rarely used to supply commercial power.
One application of induction generator is in railway for braking purposes. When
the train is moving down a gradient, the induction generators runs above
synchronism. As the torque in this
region is negative, the braking action is achieved in the train. In addition to this
the energy generated by induction generator is given to the line so that the load on
main generating station is somewhat relieved. In this case no complicated control
apparatus is required.

72
 Comparison of Induction Generator and Synchronous Generator

The distinct features of induction generator compared to synchronous

generators are as follows :
i) It will not require d.c. excitation.
ii) It is not self excited but external a.c. supply of fixed frequency is required.
iii) The frequency of induction generator is decided by the frequency of the
excitation voltage which is supplying current to it.
iv) Synchronization of generator is not required as no emf is generated until it is
connected to the line.
2.9 Synchronous Induction Motor
In the application where high starting torque and constant speed are desired
then synchronous induction motors can be used. It has the advantage of both
synchronous and induction motors. The synchronous motor gives constant speed
whereas induction motors can be started against full load torque.
Consider a normal slip ring induction motor having three phase winding on the
rotor as shown in the Fig..1

Fig

The motor is connected to the exciter which gives d.c. supply to the rotor
through slip rings. One phase carries full d.c. current while the other two carries
half of the full load d.c. current as they are in parallel. Due to this d.c. excitation,
permanent poles (N and S) are formed on the rotor.
Initially it is run as slip ring induction motor with the help of starting resistance.
When the resistance is cut out the motor runs with a slip. Now the connections are
changed and the exciter is connected in series with the rotor windings which will
remain in the circuit permanently.
As the motor is running as induction motor initially high starting torque (upto
twice full load value) can be developed. When d.c. excitation is provided it is pulled
into synchronism and starts running at constant speed. Thus synchronous
induction motor provides constant speed, large starting torque, low starting current
and power factor correction.

73
 It may be possible that the a.c. winding is put on the rotor and the d.c. excitation is
provided on the stator. This simplifies control gear. It also gives better facilities for insulation
which permits higher voltages and lower d.c. excitations.
The d.c. winding must be designed in such a way as to give high m.m.f. with moderate
d.c. excitation power. The excitation loss must be distributed evenly over the winding. The
mmf distribution should be nearly sinusoidal. It should also provide damping against
hunting and it should be satisfactory started as an induction motor.
When the machine is running as an induction motor there are induced alternating
currents in the rotor and it runs below synchronous speed. When the rotor carries d.c.
currents the rotor field and hence the rotor must run at synchronous speed. This means that
slip must be reduced to zero. But if there is any departure from this speed during normal
operation then again induced currents are there in the rotor. The rotor is of low resistance so
its windings acts as damping winding. Hence no separate damping windings are required.
When direct current excitation is provided a synchronous torque is quickly set up. The
magnitude of this torque is Tm sin where is the angle between stator and rotor field.
Thus the motor can be pulled into the synchronism if excitation is applied at a position
that the rotor will be occupy when both stator and rotor fields are synchronized.

2.10 Performance Characteristics of synchronous Induction Motors

While studying the performance characteristics of synchronous induction
motor, three different types of torques are to be considered. These are viz. the
starting torque which indicates capacity of motor to start against load, pull in torque
which indicates the ability of the motor to maintain operation during change over
from induction motor to synchronous motor, pull out torque which represents the
running of motor synchronously at peak load.

Fig
The first two torques are closely related with each other and are the
characteristics of the machine running as induction motor. The pull out torque is
characteristics when it is running synchronously. The characteristics curves for
synchronous induction motor operating at full load unity p.f. and at 0.8 p.f. leading
is shown in Fig. 3.
When the load exceeds the synchronous pull out torque, the machine losses
synchronism and runs as an induction motor which fluctuation in torque and slip
due to d.c. excitation. With reduction in load torque the motor is automatically
resynchronized.

74
2.10.1 Advantages of Synchronous Induction Motor
Following are the advantages of synchronous induction motor over salient pole
synchronous motor.
i) The synchronous induction motor can start and synchronize against more than
full load torque
which is not possible with salient pole synchronous motor which must be started
against light load.
ii) The exciter required for synchronous induction motor is of a smaller capacity as
the gap is not long as compared to normal salient pole motor.
iii) The rotor winding in synchronous induction motor can function as providing
excitation and required damping. So no separate damper winding is required.
iv) No separate starting and control equipments are required.

2.10.2 Disadvantages of Synchronous Induction Motor

i) As the gap is small as compared to normal salient pole synchronous motor it will
not give large overload capacity.
ii) The variation of power factor is large as compared to normal synchronous motor.
iii) The speed variation is not possible for synchronous induction motor as it
runs at constant motor.

2.10.3 Application of Synchronous Induction Motor

The application where mechanical load is to be driven along with phase
advancing properties of synchronous motors are to be used then use of
synchronous induction motor is better option. Also the application where in load
torque is remaining nearly constant, this motor
can be used.
2.11 Crawling
As fifth harmonic field rotates opposite to the rotor rotation, the torque
produced by fifth harmonic opposes fundamental torque and it acts as braking
torque on motor. The seventh harmonic field rotates in the direction of rotor
rotation, the torque produced by seventh harmonic aids the fundamental torque.
The resultant torque is the addition of fundamental, fifth harmonic and seventh
harmonic torque. The fifth harmonic torque is zero at -ns/5 rps while seventh
harmonic torque is zero at +ns/7.
There are two dips which can be seen in the resultant torque, one is near the slip
1.2 and other near slip 6/7. The slip near s =6/7 is more important as torque here
decreases with increase in speed. The load torque is shown in figure. The rotor will
run at ns/7 with X as the operating point. Thus stable operation is obtained near sub-
synchronous speed ns/7. This is called crawling or synchronous crawling. Due to
crawling there is much higher stator current accompanied by noise and vibration. The
torque obtained from induction motor here is called synchronous called.
When two harmonic fluxes of same order one because of stator and the
rotor because of rotor interact with each other at one particular speed and

75
produces harmonic synchronous torque just like that produced in synchronous
motor. These torques are caused by tooth harmonics. The stable operation at
synchronous speed caused by slot harmonics is called synchronous crawling which
is associated with vibration and noise.

2.12 Cogging
A special behaviour is shown by squirrel cage induction motor during starting
for certain combinations of number of stator and rotor slots. If number of stator
slots S 1 are equal to number of rotor slots S2 or integral multiple of rotor slots S2
then variation of reluctance as a function of space will have pronounced effect
producing strong forces than the accelerating torque. Due to this motor fails to
start. This phenomenon is called cogging. Such combination of stator and rotor
slots should be avoided while designing the motor.
It can be seen that harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor speed.
The 11th and 13th harmonic fields produced by stator and rotor and stationary with
respect to each other. The harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor
speed and the motor will remain at rest. This is called cogging. The torque
speed characteristic with harmonic synchronous torque as ns/7 is shown in
theFig.3 Thus asynchronous torques cannot be avoided but can be reduced by proper
choice of coil span and by skewing the stator or rotor slots.

Key Point : The synchronous harmonics torques can be totally eliminated by

proper combination of stator and rotor slots.

76
 UNIT-III
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
3.1Introduction
It is known that the electric supply used, now a days for commercial as well as
domestic purposes, is of alternating type.
Similar to d.c. machines, the a.c. machines associated with alternating voltages, are also
classified as generators and motors.
The machines generating a.c. e.m.f. are called alternators or synchronous generators.
While the machine accepting input from a.c. supply to produce mechanical output are
called synchronous motors. Both these machines work at a specific constant speed called
synchronous speed and hence in general called synchronous machines.

3.2 Difference between D.C. Generator and Alternator

It is seen that in case of a d.c. generator, basically the nature of the induced e.m.f.
in the armature conductors is of alternating type. By using commutator and brush
assembly it is converted to d.c. and made available to the external circuit. If commutator is
dropped from a d.c. generator and induced e.m.f. is tapped from an armature directly
outside using slip ring and brush assembly, the nature of such e.m.f. will be alternating.
Such a machine without commutator, providing an a.c. e.m.f. to the external circuit is
called an alternator.

3.3 Advantages of Rotating Field over Rotating Armature

The various advantages of rotating field can be stated as,

1. As everywhere a.c. is used, the generation level of a.c. voltage may be higher as 11
KV to 33 KV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space
can be provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulations.
2. It is always better to protect high voltage winding from the centrifugal forces caused
due to the rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This
avoids the interaction of mechanical and electrical stresses.
3. It is easier to collect larger currents at very high voltage from a stationary member
than from the slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to
the field is very low (110 V to 220 V d.c.) and hence can be easily supplied with the
help of slip ring and brush assembly by keeping it rotating.

4. The problem of sparking at the slip rings can be avoided by keeping field rotating
which is low voltage circuit and high voltage armature as stationary.

5. Due to low voltage level on the field side, the insulation required is less and hence
field system has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than
high inertia, as efforts
required to rotate low inertia system are always less.

6. Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple, robust
mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So
greater output can be obtained from an alternator of given size.

77
 7. If field is rotating, to excite it be external d.c. supply two slip rings are enough.
Once each for positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase
rotating armature the minimum number of slip rings required are three and
cannot be easily insulated due to high voltage levels.
8. The ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can be improved if it is kept
stationary.
Due to all these reasons the most of the alternators in practice use rotating
field type of arrangement. For small voltage rating alternators rotating armature
arrangement may be used.

3.4 Construction of Synchronous Generator

Most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of the construction. In case of
alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c. generators. In
alternators the stationary winding is called 'Stator' while the rotating winding is called
'Rotor'.
Note : so most of alternator have stator as armature and rotor as field, in practice.
3.4.1 Stator

The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the
armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a
laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other
with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current
losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.

Fig. 3.1 Section of an alternator stator

The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its
periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves
as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the
frame. The section of an alternators stator is
shown in the Fig. 3.1

78
3.4.2 Rotor
There are two types of rotors used in alternators,
1) Salient pole type, and 2) Smooth cylindrical type.

3.4.2(a) Salient Pole Type

This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface
of the rotor.
The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as
shown in the Fig.3. 2. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameter and small axial length. The
limiting factor fore the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
member of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred
for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime movers used to
drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.

Fig.3.2 Salient pole type rotor

3.4.2(b) Smooth Cylindrical Type

This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor
construction. The Fig. 3.3 shows smooth cylindrical type of rotor.

Fig. 3.3 Smooth cylindrical rotor

79
 The rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate
the field coil. The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese
wedges. The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not
projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap
between stator and the rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths.
This is to keep peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that
these are mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high speed alternators ranging
between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high speed alternators are called 'turboalternators'. The
prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric
motors.
3.4.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor

3.5 Working Principle of Synchronous Generator

The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is
a relative motion between the conductors and the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the
conductors. The d.c. generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in
practical alternator and a d.c. generator is that in an alternator the conductors are
stationary and field is rotating. But for understanding purpose we can always consider
relative motion of conductors with respect to the flux produced by the field winding.

Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by
two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical,
shown dotted in the Fig.3.4.
Let conductor starts rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity
component is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the
conductor. So d/dt at this instant is zero and hence induced e.m.f. in the conductor is
also zero.

80
 Fig. 3.4 Two pole alternator
As the conductor moves from position 1 towards position 2, the part of the velocity
component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that, e.m.f. gets
induced in the conductor. The magnitude of such an induced e.m.f. increases as the
conductor moves from position 1 towards 2.
At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines. Hence
there exists maximum cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced e.m.f. in the
conductor is at its maximum.
As the position of conductor changes from 2 towards 3, the velocity component
perpendicular to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced e.m.f. magnitude also starts
decreasing. At position 3, again the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines
and hence at this instant induced e.m.f. in the conductor is zero.
As the conductor moves from 3 towards 4, the velocity component perpendicular to the
flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite to
the direction of velocity component existing during the movement of the conductor from
position 1 to 2. Hence an induced e.m.f. in the conductor increases but in the opposite
direction.
At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity
component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines.
Again from position 4 to 1, induced e.m.f. decreased and finally at position 1, again
becomes zero. This cycle continues as conductor rotates at a certain speed.

Fig. 3.5 Alternating nature of the induced e.m.f.

So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced e.m.f. against the time, we get an alternating
nature of the induced e.m.f. as shown in the Fig. 3.5. This is the working principle of an
alternator.
81
3.6 Mechanical and Electrical Angle

We have seen that for 2 pole alternator, one mechanical revolution corresponds to one
electrical cycle of an induced e.m.f. Now consider 4 pole alternator i.e. the field winding is
designed to produce 4 poles. Due to 4 poles, the magnetic axis exists diagonally shown
dotted in the Fig. 3.6

Fig. 3.6 4 Pole Alternator Fig. 3.7 Nature of the induced e.m.f

Now in position 1 of the conductor, the velocity component is parallel to the flux lines
while in position 2, there is gathering of flux lines and entire velocity component is
perpendicular to the flux lines. So at position 1, the induced e.m.f. in the conductors is zero
while at position 2, it is maximum. Similarly as conductor rotates, the induced e.m.f. will
be maximum at position 4, 6 and 8 and will be minimum at position 3, 5 and 7. So during
one complete revolution of the conductor, induced e.m.f. will experience four times maxima,
twice in either direction and four times zero. This is because of the distribution of flux lies
due to existence of four poles.

So if we plot the nature of the induced e.m.f; for one revolution of the conductor, we get
the two electrical cycles of the induced e.m.f., as shown in the Fig. 3.7.

Note : Thus the degrees electrical of the induced e.m.f. i.e. number of cycles of the
induced e.m.f. depends on the number of poles of an alternator.

So for a four pole alternator we can write,

o o
360 mechanical = 720 electrical
From this we can establish the general relation between degrees mechanical and degrees
as, electrical
360o mechanical = 360o x electrical
P
2
Where, P = Number of poles

82
 3.6.1 Frequency of induced E.M.F.

Let P = Number of poles

N = Speed of the rotor in r.p.m.
and f = Frequency of the induced e.m.f.
From this discussion above in section 1.1, we can write,
P
One mechanical revolution of rotor = cycles of e.m.f. electrically.
2
P
Thus there are cycles per revolution.
2

As speed is N r.p.m., in one second, rotor will complete revolutions.

N
60

But cycles/sec = frequency = f

Frequency f = (No.of cycles per revolution) (No.of revolution per second)

f = (p/2)X(N/60) .
2
..
60

So there exists a fixed relationship between three quantities, the number of poles P,
the speed of the rotor N in r.p.m. and f the frequency of an induced e.m.f. in Hz (Hertz).

Note : Such a machine bearing a fixed relationship between P, N and f is called

synchronous machine and hence alternators are also called synchronous generators.

3.6.2 Synchronous speed (Ns)

From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to
be rotated at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated e.m.f. constant at
the required value. Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as
N s.

Where, f = Required frequency

83
3.7 Armature Winding of Synchronous Generator
Armature winding of alternators is different from that of d.c. machines. Basically
three phase alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way
that there exists a phase difference of 120o between the induced e.m.f.s. in them. In a d.c.
machine, winding is brought out. In three phase alternators winding is open i.e. two ends of
each of set of winding is brought out. In three phase alternators, the six terminals are
brought out which are finally connected in star or delta and then the three terminals are
brought out. Each set of windings represents winding per phase and induced e.m.f. in each
set is called induced e.m.f. per phase denoted as Eph. All the coils used for one phase must
be connected in such a way that their e.m.f.s. help each other. And overall design should
be in such a way that the waveform of an induced e.m.f. is almost sinusoidal in nature.

3.7.1 Winding Terminology

1) Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
responsible for the induced e.m.f. is called active length of the conductor. The
conductor are placed in the armature slots.

2) Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a
turn. So two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in the Fig. 3.8(a).

Fig. 3.8
3) Coil: As there are number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped
together to form a coil. Such a coil is called multiturn coil. A coil may consists of single
turn coil. The Fig. 3.8(b) shows a multiturn coil.

4) Coil side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a
coil as shown in the Fig. 3.8(b).

5) Pole Pitch: It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen
that for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360o electrical of e.m.f.,
4 poles are responsible for 720o electrical of e.m.f. and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for
180o electrical of induced e.m.f.

Note : So 180o electrical is also called one pole pitch.

84
 o
Practically how many slots are under one pole which are responsible for 180
electrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch.e.g. Consider 2 pole, 18 slots armature of
o
an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 18/2 i.e. 9 slots. So pole pitch is 9 slots or 180
electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produced a phase difference of 180 between
the e.m.f.s induced in different conductors.

This number of slots/poles is denoted as 'n'.

6) Slot angle (): The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called
slot angle
.
As slots per pole contributes 180o electrical which is denoted as 'n', we can write,
. o
.. 1 slot angle = 180 /n

In the above example, n = 18/2 = 9, while = 180o/n = 20o

3.7.2 Types of Armature Windings

In general armature winding is classified as,

1) Single layer and double layer winding.
2) Full pitch and short pitch winding.
3) Concentrated and distributed winding.

1. Single Layer and Double Layer Winding

If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be single layer. This is shown in the
Fig. 1(a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top
the winding is called double layer as shown in the Fig. 3.9(b).

Fig.3.9
A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in practice generally double layer
winding is preferred.
85
2. Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding

As seen earlier, one pole pitch is electrical. The value of 'n', slots per pole indicates
how many slots are contributing electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is
connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from first slot,
the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil.

For example, in 2 pole, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n = 18/2 = 9 slots. So if
coil side in slot No.1 is connected to coil side No.10 such that two slots No.1 and No.10 are
one pole pitch or n slots or 180o electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil.
Here we can define one more term related to a coil called coil span.

2.1 Coil Span

It is the distance on the periphery of the armature between two coil sides of a coil. It is
usually expressed interms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil span is 'n' slots
or 180 o electrical the coil is called full pitch coil. This is shown in the Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Full Pitch Coil

As against this if coils are is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e. less than 180 electrical,
the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils. Generally coils are shorted
by one or two slots.

So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No. 1 to slot
No.10, it is connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, coil is said to be short pitched
coil and winding is called short pitch winding. This is shown in Fig. 3.11

Fig. 3.11 Short Pitch Coil

86
2.2 Advantages of Short Pitch Coils

In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages,

1) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. inactive length of winding
is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical.

2) Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal
nature of e.m.f. Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short
pitching.

3) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which
depend on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.

3. Concentrated and Distributed Winding

In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings,
each for a phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we
have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm'.

m = Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases

= n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3)
For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have,
n = 18/2 = 9
and m = 9/3 = 3
So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x' number of conductors per
phase are to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available.
But if all 'x' conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slot per pole
per phase empty then the winding is called concentrated winding.

Note : So in concentrated winding all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed
in one slot under every pole.

But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm' slots per pole per phase
available for distribution of the winding. So if 'x' conductors per phase are distributed
amongst the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed
winding. So in distributed type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well
distributed over the 'm' slots per phase, under every pole. Distributed winding makes the
waveform of the induced e.m.f. more sinusoidal in nature. Also in concentrated winding due
to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is poor.

Note : So in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature winding
is preferred for the alternators.

87
3.8 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
Let = Flux per pole, in Wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Zph = Conductors per phase connected in series
.
.. Zph = Z/3 as number of phases = 3.
Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.

Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a
conductor which is 180o electrical apart. So there two e.m.f.s will try to set up a current
in the same direction i.e. the two e.m.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f.
per turn will be twice the e.m.f. induced in a conductor.

... e.m.f. per turn = 2 (e.m.f. per conductor)

= 2 (2 f ) = 4 f volts
Let Tph be the total number of turn per phase connected in series. Assuming
concentrated winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So
88
induced e.m.f.s in all turns will be in phase as placed in single slot. Hence net e.m.f. per phase will
be algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s per turn.

... Average Eph = Tph (Average e.m.f. per turn)

... Average Eph = Tph 4 f

But in a.c. circuits R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The
form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal e.m.f.

... R.M.S. value of Eph = K Average value

Eph = 1.11 4 f Tph volts
Eph = 4.44 f Tph volts ........... (2)
Note : This is the basic e.m.f. equation for an induced e.m.f. per phase for full pitch,
concentrated type of winding.

Where Tph = Number of turns per phase

Tph = Zph /2 ....... as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn

But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short
pitch hence e.m.f. induced slightly gets affected.

Generalized Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator

Considering full pitch, concentrated winding.
Eph = 4.44 f Tph Volts.
But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this will reduce by
factors and . So generlised expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as

Where,

For full pitch coil, Kc = 1.

For concentrated winding Kd = 1.

89
Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Kc)
The factor by which, induced e.m.f. gets reduced due to short pitching is called pitch
factor or
coil span factor denoted by Kc.

It is defined as the ratio of resultant e.m.f. when coil is short pitch to the resultant
e.m.f. when coil is full pitched. It is always less than one.

Where, = Angle of short pitch

Distribution Factor (Kd)

The factor by which there is a reduction in the e.m.f. due to distribution of coils is called
distribution factor denoted as Kd.

Effect of Chording
The e.m.f. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x /2) where is angle of chording and
x is order of harmonic. If proper value of angle of chording is selected then harmonic e.m.f.s can be
reduced significantly.

90
3.9 ARMATURE REACTION AND VOLATGE REGULATION
3.9.1 Introduction
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal
voltage when full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided
by the rated terminal voltage.
So if, Vph = Rated terminal voltage
Eph = No load induced e.m.f.
The voltage regulation is defined as,

%=

As long as the alternator terminals are open (i.e), no load is connected to an

alternator, the induced e.m.f is same as the voltage available at the terminals. Thus
terminal voltage per phase Vph and induced e.m.f per phase Eph are same as long as
alternator is on no load.
But when the alternator is loaded, the armature of an alternator carries current. We
know that, any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. Hence on load,
armature of an alternator produces its own flux called armature flux. This flux has
significant effect on the performance of an alternator on load. The terminal voltage Vph no
longer remains same as induced e.m.f Eph on load conditions. The performance of an
alternator on load is mathematically expressed by a parameter called voltage regulation.
3.9.2 Parameters of Armature Winding
There are three important parameters of an armature winding of an alternator. These
are,
1. Armature resistance Ra
2. Armature leakage reactance XL
3. Reactance corresponding to armature reaction
1. Armature Resistance
Every armature winding has its own resistance. The effective resistance of an
armature winding per phase is denoted as Ra /ph.
Generally the armature resistance is measured by applying the known d.c. voltage and
measuring the d.c. current through it. The ratio of applied voltage and measured
current is the armature resistance. Generally the effective armature resistance under
a.c. conditions is taken 1.25 to 1.75 times the d.c. resistance.

2. Armature Leakage Reactance

When armature carries a current, it produces its own flux. Some part of this flux
completes its path through the air around the conductors itself. Such a flux is called
leakage flux. This is shown in the Fig. 3.12.

Fig. 3.12
91
Note : This leakage flux makes the armature winding inductive in nature. So winding
possesses a leakage reactance, in addition to the resistance.
So if 'L' is the leakage inductance of the armature winding per phase, then leakage
reactance per phase is given by XL = 2 f L /ph. The value of leakage reactance is much
higher than the armature resistance. Similar to the d.c. machines, the value of armature
resistance is very very small.
3. Armature Reaction
When the load is connected to the alternator, the armature winding of the alternator
carries a current. Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux so armature of
the alternator also produces its own flux, when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes
present in the air gap, one due to armature current while second is produced by the filed
winding called main flux. The flux produced by the armature is called armature flux.
Note : So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the
distribution is called
armature reaction.
The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current
flowing through the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor
of the load connected to the alternator.

3.9.3 Effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature reaction

3.9.3.1 Unity Power Factor Load

Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor.
As induced e.m.f. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load power factor is unity, Eph and
Iph are in phase with each other.
If f is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing Eph
then Eph lags f by 90o .
Now current through armature Ia, produces the armature flux say a. So flux a and
Ia are always in the same direction. This relation between f , a, Eph and Iaph can be
shown in the phasor diagram. (See Fig. 3.13)

Fig. 3.13 Armature reaction for unity power factor

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90o
between the armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also
shown in the Fig. 1. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each
other on the left half of each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole.
Hence average flux in the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets distrorted.
92
Note : Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity p.f. condition of the
load is called cross magnetising effect of armature reaction.
Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the
alternator.
3.9.3.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load
Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging
power factor. This indicates that Iaph driven by Eph lags Eph by 90o which is the power
factor angle .
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags main flux f by 90o while a is in the same direction as that
of Ia. So the
phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 3.14
It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the armature flux and the main flux are
exactly in opposite direction to each other.
Note : So armature flux tries to cancel the main flux. Such an effect of armature
reaction is called demagnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage drops. This drop
in the terminal voltage is more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.

Fig. 3.14 Armature reaction for zero lagging p.f. load

3.9.3.3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load
Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading power
factor. This means that armature current Iaph driven by Eph, leads Eph by 90o, which is
the power factor angle .
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags f by 90o while Iaph and a are always in the same
direction. The phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 3.15

Fig. 3.15 Armature reaction for zero leading p.f. load

It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the Fig. 3.15, the
armature flux and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each
other. This results into the addition in main flux.
93
Note : Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists field
flux is called magnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater e.m.f. gets induced in the
armature. Hence there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads.

3.9.4 Armature Reaction Reactance (Xar)

In all the conditions of the load power factors, there is change in the terminal voltage
due to the armature reaction. Mainly the practical loads are inductive in nature, due to
demagnetising effect of armature reaction, there is reduction in the terminal voltage. Now
this drop in the voltage due to the interaction of armature and main flux. This drop is not
across any physical element.
But to quantify the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, armature winding is
assumed to have a fictitious reactance. This fictitious reactance of the armature is
called armature reaction reactance denoted as Xar /ph. And the drop due to armature
reaction can be accounted as the voltage drop across this reactance as Iar Xar.
Note: The value of this reactance changes as the load power factor changes, as
armature reaction depends on the load power factor.

3.9.5Concepts of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance

The sum of fictitious armature reaction reactance accounted for considering
armature reaction effect and the leakage reactance of the armature called synchronous
reactance of the alternator demoted as Xs.
So Xs = XL + Xar /ph
Now from this, it is possible to define an impedance of the armature winding. Such
an impedance obtained by combining per phase values of synchronous reactance and
armature resistance is called synchronous impedance of the alternator denoted as Zs.
So Zs = Ra + j Xs /ph
and | Zs | = (Ra2 + jXs2 )
3.10 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator
From the previous discussion it is clear that in all there are three important parameters
of armature winding namely armature resistance Ra, leakage reactance XL and armature
reaction reactance Xar. If Eph is induced e.m.f. per phase on no load condition then on load
it changes to E' due to armature reaction as shown in the equivalent circuit. As current
flows through the armature, there are two voltage drops across Ra and XL as Ia Ra and
respectively. Hence finally terminal voltage Vt is less than E' by the amount equal to the
drops across Ra and XL.

Fig. 3.16 Equivalent circuit

94
 In practice, the leakage reactance XL and the armature reaction reactance Xar are
combined to get synchronous reactance Xs.
Hence the equivalent circuit of an alternator gets modified as shown in the Fig. 3.17

Fig. 3.17 Equivalent circuit of an alternator

Thus in the equivalent circuit shown,

Eph = induced e.m.f. per phase on no load
Vtph = terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = armature resistance per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase

Voltage Equation of an Alternator

The entire induced e.m.f. cannot be made available to the load due to the
various internal voltage drops. So the voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage
denoted as Vph.So, we can write a voltage equation in its phasor form as,

This is called voltage equation of an alternator.

kVA rating of an Alternator

The alternators are designed to supply a specific voltage to the various loads. This
voltage is called its rated terminal voltage denoted as VL. The power drawn by the load
depends on its power factor. Hence instead of specifying rating of an alternator in watts, it
is specified in terms of the maximum apparent power which it can supply to the load. In
three phase circuits, the apparent power is 3VL IL, measured in VA (volt amperes). This
is generally expressed in kilo volt amperes and is called kVA rating of an alternator
where IL is the rated full load current which alternator can supply.

95
3.11Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator
The phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions is as follows. For drawing
the phasor diagram consider all per phase values and remember following steps.

Steps to draw the phasor diagram:

1. Choose current as a reference phasor.

2. Now if load power factor is cos it indicates that angle between Vph and Ia is as Vph
is the voltage available to the load.

So show the phasor Vph in such a way that angle between Vph and Ia is . For lagging
'', Ia should lag Vph and for leading '', Ia should lead Vph. For unity power factor load
is zero, so Vph and Ia are in phase.

3. Now the drop Ia Ra is a resistive drop and hence will always be in phase with Ia. So
phasor Ia Ra direction will be always same as Ia, i.e. parallel to Ia. But as it is to be added
to Vph, Ia Ra phasor must be drawn from the tip of the Vph phasor drawn.

4. The drop Ia Xs is drop across purely inductive reactance. In pure inductance, current
lags voltage by 90o. So 'Ia Xs' phasor direction will be always such that Ia will lag Ia Xs
phasor by 90o. But this phasor is to be drawn from the tip of the Ia Ra phasor to complete
phasor addition of Vph, Ia Ra and Ia Xs.

5. Joining the starting point to the terminating point, we get the phasor Eph.

Whatever may be the load power factor, Ia Ra is a resistive drop, will be in phase with Ia
while Ia Xs is purely inductive drop and hence will be perpendicular to Ia in such a way
that Ia will lag Ia Xs by 90o.

By using the above steps, the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions
can be drawn.
3.11.1 Lagging Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is cos lagging so Ia lags Vph by angle . By using steps
discussed above, phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.18.

96
 Fig. 3.18 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f. load
To derive the relationship between Eph and Vph, the perpendicular are drawn on the current phasor from
points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.

Now, OD = Vph cos

AD = BE = Vphsin

DE = Ia Ra

Consider OCE, for which we can write,

(OC)2 = (OE)2 + (EC)2

... (Eph)2 = (OD + DE)2 + (EB + BC)2

... (Eph)2 = (Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vphsin + Ia Xs)2

...

97
3.11.2 Leading Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is cos leading. So Ia leads Vph by an angle . By
using steps discussed, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig.3.19.

Fig.3.19. Phasor diagram for leading p.f. load

To derive the relationship between Eph and Vph, the perpendicular are drawn on
the current phasor from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E
respectively.

From OCE, OD = Vph cos

AD = BE = Vphsin

DE = Ia Ra

Consider OCE, for which we can write,

(OC)2 = (OE)2 + (EC)2

... (Eph)2 = (OD + DE)2 + (BE - BC)2

... (Eph)2 = (Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vphsin - Ia Xs)2

.. .

3.11.3 Unity Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is unity i.e. cos = 1. So = 0, which means Vph is in
phase with Ia. So phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.20

98
 Fig. 3.20 Phasor diagram for unity p.f. load

Consider OBC, for which we can write,

(OC)2 = (OB)2 + (BC)2

... (Eph)2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC)2

... (Eph)2 = (Vph + Ia Ra)2 + (Ia Xs)2

It is clear from the phasor diagram that Vph is less than Eph for lagging and unity
p.f. conditions due to demagnetising and cross magnetising effects of armature reaction.
While Vph is more than Eph for leading p.f. condition due to the magnetising effect of
armature reaction.

Thus in general for any power factor condition,

(Eph)2 = ( Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vph sin Ia Xs)2

+ sign for lagging p.f. loads

- sign for leading p.f. loads

and Vph = per phase rated terminal voltage

Ia = per phase full load armature current

99
3.12 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF AN ALTERNATOR
Under the load condition, the terminal voltage of alternator is less than the induced
e.m.f. Eph. So if load is disconnected , Vph will change from Vph to Eph, if flux and speed
is maintained constant. This is because when load is disconnected, Ia is zero hence there
are no voltage drops and no armature flux to cause armature reaction. This change in the
terminal voltage is significant in defining the voltage regulation.
Note : The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal
voltage when full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by
the rated terminal voltage.
So if Vph = Rated terminal voltage
Eph = No load induced e.m.f. The
voltage regulation is defined as,

%=

The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the
power factor of the load. For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the
terminal voltage hence regulation values are always positive. While for leading
capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as load current increases.
Hence regulation is negative in such cases. The relationship between load current
and the terminal voltage is called load characteristics of an alternator. Such load
characteristics for various load power factor conditions are shown in Fig. 3.21

Fig. 3.21 Load characteristics of an alternator

3.13 METHODS OF DETERMINING THE REGULATION
The regulation of an alternator can be determined by various methods. In case of small
capacity alternators it can be determined by direct loading test while for large capacity
alternators it can be determined by synchronous impedance method.
The synchronous impedance method has some short comings. Another method which is
popularly used is ampere-turns method. But this method also has certain disadvantages.
The disadvantages of these two methods are overcome in a method called zero power
factor method. Thus there are following methods available to determine the voltage
regulation of an alternator,
1. Direct loading method
2. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method
3. Ampere-turns method or M.M.F. method
4. Zero power factor method or potier triangle method

100
5. ASA modified form of M.M.F. method
6. Two reaction theory

3.13.1. Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading

The Fig.3.22 shows the circuit diagram for conducting the direct loading test on the
three phase alternator. The star connected armature is to be connected to a three phase
load with the help of triple pole single throw (TPST) switch. The field winding is excited by
separate d.c. supply. To control the flux i.e. the current through field winding, a rheostat is
inserted in series with the field winding. The prime mover is shown which is driving the
alternator at its synchronous speed.

Fig. 3.22 Circuit diagram for direct loading test on alternator

Procedure: The alternator is first driven at its synchronous speed Ns by means of a

prime mover. Now Eph ..... (From e.m.f. equation)

By giving d.c. supply to the field winding, the field current is adjusted to adjust the flux
so that rated voltage is available across the terminals. This can be observed on the voltmeter
connected across the lines. The load is then connected by means of a TPST switch. The load
is then increased so that ammeter reads rated value of current. This is full load condition of
the alternator. Again adjust the voltage to its rated value by means of field excitation using
a rheostat connected. The throw off the entire load by opening the TPST switch, without
changing the speed and the field excitation. Observe the voltmeter reading. As load is
thrown off, there is no armature current and associated drops. So the voltmeter reading in
this situation indicates the value of internally induced e.m.f. called no load terminal voltage.
Convert both the reading to phase values. The rated voltage on full load is Vph while
reading when load is thrown off is Eph. So by using the formula,

%=

101
 the full load regulation of the alternator can be determined. The value of the regulation
obtained by this method is accurate as a particular load at required p.f. is actually
connected to the alternator.
Note : But for high capacity alternators, that much full load cannot be simulated or
directly connected to the alternator. Hence method is restricted only for small capacity
alternators.

3.13.2. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD (OR) E.M.F. METHOD

The method is also called E.M.F. method of determining the regulation. The
method requires following data to calculate the regulation.
1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against the field
current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against field
current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.23.

(i). Open Circuit Test

Procedure to conduct this test is as follows:
i) The switch S across the load is kept open.
ii) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to
the synchronous speed of the alternator.
iii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit (Alternator)
maximum, switch on the d.c. supply.
iv) The T.P.S.T switch in the armature circuit is kept
open.
v) With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from
its minimum value to the rated value. Due to this,
flux increasing the induced e.m.f. Hence voltmeter
reading, which is measuring line value of open
circuit voltage increases. For various values of field
current, voltmeter readings are observed.
Fig.3.24
102
 ( i i ) Short Circuit Test
In short circuit test, the T.P.S.T switch is closed so the armature gets short
circuited. Then the field excitation is gradually increased till full load current is obtained
through armature winding. This can be observed on the ammeter connected in the
armature circuit. The graph of short circuit armature current against field current is plotted
from the observation table of short circuit test. This graph is called short circuit
characteristics (S.C.C). This is also shown in the Fig. 3.24.
Note: As S.C.C. is straight line graph, only one reading corresponding to full load
armature current along with the origin is sufficient to draw the straight line.

(iii). Determination of Zs from O.C.C and S.C.C

The synchronous impedance of the alternator changes as load condition changes.
O.C.C. and S.C.C. can be used to determine Zs for any load and load p.f. conditions.
Consider a field current If. The O.C. voltage
corresponding to this field current is E. When winding is
short-circuited, the terminal voltage is zero. Hence, it may
be assumed that the whole of this voltage E is being used
to circulate the armature short- circuit current Iasc
against the synchronous impedance Zs.
This can be shown in the equivalent circuit drawn in the Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.25
From the equivalent circuit we can
write, Zs = E / Iasc
Now value of Iasc is known, which can observed on the alternator. To determine Zs it is
necessary to determine value of E which is driving Iasc against Zs.
Now internally induced e.m.f. is proportional to the
flux i.e. field current If.
E If ...... from e.m.f. equation
So if the terminal of the alternator are opened without disturbing If which was
present at the time of short circuited condition, internally induced e.m.f.

will remain same as E. But now current will be zero. Under this
condition
equivalent circuit will become as shown in the Fig. 3.26. Fig. 3.26
It is clear now from the equivalent circuit that as Ia = 0 the voltmeter reading (Voc)ph
will be equal to internally induced e.m.f. (E).
This is what we are interested in obtaining to calculate value of Zs. So expression for
Zs can be modified as,

103
 Thus in general,

So O.C.C. and S.C.C. can be effectively to calculate Zs.

The value of Zs is different for different values of If as the graph of O.C.C. is non linear
in nature. General steps to determine Zs at any load condition are:
(i). Determine the value of (Iasc)ph for corresponding load condition. This can be
determined from known full load current of the alternator. For half load, it is half of the
full load value and so on.
(ii).S.C.C. gives relation between (Iasc)ph and If. So for (Iasc)ph required, determine the
corresponding value of If from S.C.C.
(iii). Now for this same value of If, extend the line on O.C.C. to get the value of
(Voc)ph. This is (Voc)ph for same If, required to drive the selected (Iasc)ph.
(iv). The ratio of (Voc)ph and (Iasc)ph, for the same excitation gives the value of Zs
at any load conditions.

(iv). Regulation Calculations

From O.C.C. and S.C.C., Zs can be determined for any load condition.
The armature resistance per phase (Ra) can be measured by different methods. One of
the method is applying d.c. known voltage across the two terminals and measuring
current. So value of R a per phase is known.
Now,

So synchronous reactance per phase can be determined.

No load induced e.m.f. per phase, Eph can be determined by the mathematical
expression derived earlier.

where Vph = Phase value of rated voltage

Ia = Phase value of current depending on the load condition
cos = p.f. of load
Positive sign for lagging power factor while negative sign for leading power factor, Ra
and Xs values are known from the various tests performed.
The regulation then can be determined by using formula,

%=

104
(v). Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method
The main advantages of this method is the value of synchronous impedance Zs for
any load condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the alternator at any load
condition and load power factor can be determined. Actual load need not be connected to
the alternator and hence method can be used for very high capacity alternators.
The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous
reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results.
Hence this method is called pessimistic method.
13.3.M.M.F. METHOD (OR) AMPERE TURNS METHOD
This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn
method or Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method requires following data to calculate the
regulation.
1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against the field
current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against field
current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.27.

Fig. 3.27
For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires m.m.f. for two separate purposes.
1. It must have an m.m.f. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an m.m.f. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
The field m.m.f. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be
obtained from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as FO.
In short circuit test, field m.m.f. is necessary to
overcome drop across armature resistance and leakage
reactance and also to overcome effect of armature
reaction. But drop across armature resistance and
leakage reactance is very small and can be neglected.
Thus in short circuit test, field m.m.f. circulates the full
load current balancing the armature reaction effect. This
is denoted as FAR.As the armature reaction
reactance is dominating and hence the power factor
of such purely reactive circuit is zero lagging. Hence
FAR gives demagnitising ampere turns. Fig. 3.28
105
 The two components of total field m.m.f. which are FO and FAR are indicated in O.C.C.
(open circuit characteristics) and S.C.C. (short circuit characteristics) as shown in the Fig.3.28

If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field m.m.f. is the vector sum of its
two components FO and FAR. This depends on the power factor of the load which
alternator is supplying. The resultant field m.m.f. is denoted as FR. Let us consider the
various power factors and the resultant FR. Now consider that the load power factor is cos
. In such case, the resultant m.m.f. is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.

cos, lagging p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos lagging, the phase current Iaph lags Vph by
angle . The component FO is at right angles to Vph while FAR is in phase with the current
Iaph. This is because the armature current Iaph decides the armature reaction. The
armature reaction FAR due to current Iaph is to be overcome by field m.m.f. Hence while
Finding resultant field m.m.f., - FAR should be added to vectorially. This is because
resultant field m.m.f. tries to counterbalance armature reaction to produce rated terminal
voltage. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.29.

Fig. 3.29
From the phasor diagram the various magnitude are,
OA = FO , AB = FAR , OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The FAR is split into two parts as,
AC = FAR sin and BC = FAR cos
... (FR)2 = (FO + FAR sin )2 + (FAR cos)2 ................ (1)
From this relation (1), FR can be determined.
cos, leading p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos leading, the phase current Iaph leads Vph
by . The component FO is at right angles to Vph and FAR is in phase with Iaph. The
resultant FR can be obtained by adding - FAR to FO. The phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.3.30

106
 Fig. 3.30
From the phasor diagram, various magnitudes are, AC = FAR sin and BC = FAR cos
OA = FO, AB = FAR and OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angles triangle.
... (OB)2 = (OC)2 + (BC)2
... (FR)2 = (FO - FAR sin )2 + (FAR cos) .................... (2)
From the relation (2), FR can be obtained.
Using relations (1) and (2), resultant field m.m.f. FR for any p.f. load condition can be obtained.
Once FR is known, obtain corresponding voltage which is induced e.m.f. Eph, required
to get rated terminal voltage Vph. This is possible from open circuit characteristics drawn.
Once Eph is known then the regulation can be obtained as,

%=

Note : To obtain Eph corresponding to FR, O.C.C. must be drawn to the scale, from the
open circuit test readings.
This ampere-turn method gives the regulation of an alternator which is lower than
the actually observed. Hence the method is called optimistic method.

3.13.4. ZERO POWER FACTOR (ZPF) METHOD

This method is also called potier method. In the operation of any alternator,
the armature resistance drop and armature leakage reactance drop IX L are actually
e.m.f. quantities while the armature reaction is basically m.m.f. quantity. In the
synchronous impedance all the quantities are treated as e.m.f. quantities as against this in
M.M.F. method all are treated as m.m.f. quantities. Hence in both the methods, we are away
from reality.
Note : This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature
reaction effects. The armature leakage reactance XL is called Potier reactance in this
method, hence method is also called potier reactance method.
To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction m.m.f. separately, two
tests are performed on the given alternator. The two tests are,
1. Open circuit test
2. Zero power factor test
107
(i). Open Circuit Test
The steps to perform open circuit test are,
1. The switch S across the load is kept open.
2. The alternator is driven by its prime mover at its synchronous speed and same is
maintained constant throughout the test.
3. The excitation is varied with the help of potential divider, from zero upto rated value
in definite number of steps. The open circuit e.m.f. is measured with the help of
voltmeter. The readings are tabulated.
4. A graph of If and (Voc) i.e. field current and open circuit voltage per phase is plotted to some scale.
This is open circuit characteristics.

108
(ii). Zero Power Factor Test
To conduct zero power factor test, the switch S is kept closed. Due to this, a purely inductive
load gets connected to an alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has
power factor of cos 90o i.e. zero lagging hence the test is called zero power factor test.
The machine speed is maintained constant at its synchronous value. The load current
delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load is maintained constant at its rated full
load value by varying excitation and by adjusting variable inductance of the inductive
load. Note that, due to purely inductive load, an alternator will always operate at zero
p.f. lagging.

Fig. 3.32

Note : In this test, there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the curve. Only
two points are enough to construct a curve called zero power factor saturation curve.
One point for this curve is zero terminal voltage (short circuit condition) and the field
current required to deliver full load short circuit armature current. While other point
is the field current required to obtain rated terminal voltage while delivering rated full
load armature current. With the help of these two points the zero p.f. saturation curve can
be obtained as,
1. Plot open circuit characteristics on graph as shown in the Fig. 3.32
2. Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full
load zero p.f. armature current. This point is shown as A in the Fig. 3.32which is
on the x-axis. Another point is the rated voltage when alternator is delivering full
load current at zero p.f. lagging. This point is P as shown in the Fig. 3.32
3. Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in the
Fig. 11.1. This is called air line.
4. Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA.
5. From point Q draw the line parallel to the air line which intersects O.C.C. at point
R. Join RQ and join PR. The triangle PQR is called potier triangle.
6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point S.
7. The zero p.f. full load saturation curve is now be constructed by moving a triangle PQR so
109
 that R remains always on O.C.C. and line PQ always remains horizontal. The doted triangle is
shown in the Fig. 3.32 It must be noted that the potier triangle once obtained is constant for a
given armature current and hence can be transferred as it is.
8. Through point A, draw line parallel to PR meeting O.C.C. at point B. From B, draw
perpendicular on OA to meet it at point C. Triangles OAB and PQR are similar
triangles.
9. The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance
i.e. IXL.
10. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome demagnetising effect of
armature reaction at full load.
11. The length SQ represents field current required to induce an e.m.f. for
balancing leakage reactance drop RS.
These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR
and so on. So armature leakage reactance can be obtained as,

This is nothing but the potier reactance.

(iii). Use of Potier Reactance to Determine Regulation
To determine regulation using Potier reactance, draw the phasor diagram using following
procedure :
Draw the rated terminal voltage Vph as a reference phasor. Depending upon at which power factor
(cos) the regulation is to be predicted, draw the Current phasor Iph lagging or leading Vph by angle .
Draw Iph Raph voltage drop to Vph which is in phase with Iph. While the voltage drop Iph XLph is to be
drawn perpendicular to Iph Raph vector but leading Iph Raph at the extremely of Vph.
The Raph is to be measured separately by passing a d.c. current and measuring voltage across
armature winding. While XLph is Potier reactance obtained by Potier method.
Phasor sum of Vph rated, Iph Raph and Iph XLph gives the e.m.f. which is say E1ph.

Obtain the excitation corresponding to 1ph from O.C.C. drawn. Let this excitation be
Ff1. This is excitation required to induce e.m.f. which does not consider the effect of
armature reaction.
The field current required to balance armature reaction can be obtained from
Potier triangle, which is say FAR.
... FAR = l (PS) = l (AC) = .....
The total excitation required is the vector sum of the Ff1 and FAR. This can be
obtained exactly similar to the procedure used in M.M.F. method.
Draw vector Ff1 to some scale, leading E1ph by 90o. Add FAR to Ff1 by drawing vector FAR
in phase opposition to Iph. The total excitation to be supplied by field is given by FR.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.33

110
 Fig. 3.33

Once the total excitation is known which is FR, the corresponding induced e.m.f.
Eph can be obtained from O.C.C. This Eph lags FR by 90o. The length CD represents
voltage drop due to the armature reaction. Drawing perpendicular from A and B on
current phasor meeting at points G and H respectively, we get triangle OHC as right angle
triangle.
Once Eph is known, the regulation of an alternator can be predicted as,

%=

This method takes into consideration the armature resistance and leakage reactance
voltage drops as e.m.f. quantities and the effect of armature reaction as m.m.f. quantity.
This is reality hence the results obtained by this method are nearer to the reality than those
obtained by synchronous impedance method and ampere-turns method.
The only drawback of this method is that the separate curve for every load condition is
necessary to plot if potier triangles for various load conditions are required.

3.14.Parallel operation and Synchronization of Alternators

3.14.1.Introduction

The process of switching of an alternator to another alternator or with a common bus

bar without any interruption is called synchronization. Alternately it can also be defined
as the process of connecting the two alternators in parallel without any interruption. The
synchronous machine which is to be synchronized is normally called an incoming
machine. If any alternators is connected to a bus bar which has many other alternators
already connected, no matter what power it is supplying then alternator is said to be
connected to infinite bus bar. An infinite bus bar is one of whose frequency and phase

111
e.m.f. remains unaffected by changes in condition of any one machine connected to it. Thus
they are nothing but constant frequency and constant voltage bus bars.

3.14.2. Parallel Operation of Alternators

It is rare to find a 3-phase alternator supplying its own load independently except
under test conditions. In practice, a very large number of 3-phase alternators operate in
parallel because the various power stations are interconnected through the national grid.
Therefore, the output of any single alternator is small compared with the total
interconnected capacity.
For example, the total capacity of the interconnected system may be over 40,000
MW while the capacity of the biggest single alternator may be 500 MW. For this reason, the
performance of a single alternator is unlikely to affect appreciably the voltage and
frequency of the whole system. An alternator connected to such a system is said to be
connected to infinite busbars. The outstanding electrical characteristics of such busbars
are that they are constant-voltage, constant frequency busbars.
Fig. (3.34) shows a typical infinite bus system. Loads are tapped from the infinite bus
at various load centres. The alternators may be connected to or disconnected from the
infinite bus, depending on the power demand on the system. If an alternator is connected
to infinite busbars, no matter what power is delivered by the incoming alternator, the
voltage and frequency of the system remain the same. The operation of connecting an
alternator to the infinite busbars is known as paralleling with the infinite busbars. It
may be noted that before an alternator is connected to an infinite busbars, certain
conditions must be satisfied.

Fig. 3.34
3.14.3 Advantages of Parallel Operation of Alternators
The following are the advantages of operating alternators in
parallel:
(i) Continuity of service. The continuity of service is one of the important requirements of any
electrical apparatus. If one alternator fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained through
the other healthy units. This will ensure uninterrupted supply to the consumers.
(ii) Efficiency. The load on the power system varies during the whole day; being minimum during
die late night hours. Since alternators operate most efficiently when delivering full-load, units
can be added or put off depending upon the load requirement. This permits the efficient

112
operation of the power system.
(iii) Maintenance and repair. It is often desirable to carry out routine maintenance and repair of
one or more units. For this purpose, the desired unit/units can be shut down and the continuity of
supply is maintained through the other units.
(iv) Load growth. The load demand is increasing due to the increasing use of electrical energy. The
load growth can be met by adding more units without disturbing the original installation.

3.14.4 Conditions for Paralleling Alternator with Infinite Bus bars

The proper method of connecting an alternator to the infinite busbars is called synchronizing.
A stationary alternator must not be connected to live busbars. It is because the induced e.m.f. is zero at
standstill and a short-circuit will result. In order to connect an alternator safely to the infinite busbars,
the following conditions are met:
(i). The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must be the same as busbars voltage.
(ii).The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to the busbars
frequency.
(iii). The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the busbars
voltage. In other words, the two voltages must be in phase with each other.
(iv). The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the
busbars.
The magnitude of the voltage of the incoming alternator can be adjusted by changing its field
excitation. The frequency of the incoming alternator can be changed by adjusting the speed of the
prime mover driving the alternator.
Condition (i) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (ii) and (iii) are indicated by synchronizing lamps
or a synchroscope. The condition (iv) is indicated by a phase sequence indicator.
3.15. Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators
In case of single phase alternators, synchronization is done generally by lamp
methods. It can be done by two ways :
a) Lamp dark method b) Lamps bright Method.
3.15.1 Lamps Dark Method
In this method the lamps are arranged as shown in Fig. 3.35. The alternator to be
synchronized (which is also called incoming alternator) consists of two lamps connected
across the switch terminals of the same phase.

Fig. 3.35
113
 The voltage for the two alternators is measured with the help of a voltmeter. The lamps
are connected in such a way that the polarity and the frequency for the two machines can
be checked. No resultant voltage will appear across the switch terminals if the frequency of
the two alternators is exactly same as their voltage are in exact phase opposition. Thus
under this case lamps will not glow. This is represented in the Fig. 3.36

Fig. 3.36
It can be seen that with unequal frequencies of the two alternators, the two lamps will
become alternately bright and dark. The light beat will be produced whose number is equal
to the difference in frequencies for the two machines.
The resultant voltage appearing across the lamp will be difference of the two voltages at
any instant resulting in a waveform shown in the Fig. 3.37 Since number of cycle
completed by two machines in any given time are not same the light beat is produced
which is shown in the Fig. 3.37

Fig 3.37

Sometimes the resultant voltage is maximum and some other times minimum. Hence, the current
is alternatingly maximum and minimum. Due to this changing current through the lamps, a flicker will
be produced, the frequency of flicker being (f2 f1). Lamps will dark out and glow up alternately.
Darkness indicates that the two voltages E1 and E2 are in exact phase opposition relative to the local
circuit and hence there is no resultant current through the lamps. Synchronizing is done at the middle
of the dark period. The word middle is used as the lamp will not glow even though there is sufficient
voltage across it. So it becomes difficult to know the correct instant of zero voltage. That is why,
sometimes, it is known as lamps dark synchronizing.

3.15.2 Lamps Bright Method

Since it is very difficult to judge the correct instant of zero voltage in Lamps dark
method, this method is introduced which is shown in the Fig. 3.38

114
 Fig. 3.38
The lamps remain maximum bright when there is no difference in voltages
for the two machines. This is more sharp and accurate method of synchronization
because the lamps are much more sensitive to changes in voltage at their maximum
brightness than when they are dark.
3.16 Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators

The conditions to be satisfied for synchronization of three phase alternators are same
as that for single phase alternators. But instead of saying that voltages must act in phase
opposition, the phase sequence must be same i.e. phase must be connected in proper order
of R, Y, B. Typical setup for synchronization of alternators is shown in the Fig. 3.39

Fig. 3.39 Setup for Synchronization of Alternators

In synchronizing three phase alternators, three lamps are connected as shown in the
Fig.2, so that it can be used to indicate whether the incoming machine is running slow or
fast. With symmetrical connection of lamps, they would dark out or glow up
simultaneously provided that phase sequence is same for incoming machine and bus bar.
Consider the two alternators A and B to be synchronized. The alternator A is already
running at synchronous speed and its excitation is so adjusted that it builds up the rated
voltage. The alternator B is to be connected to bus bar i.e. it is to be synchronized with
alternator A. The process or synchronization can be explained as below :

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Step 1: Start the prime mover of machine B and adjust its speed to a
synchronous speed.
Step 2: By adjusting the rheostat, the excitation to the field is adjusted so that induced
e.m.f. of B is equal to the induced e.m.f. of A. This can be verified by voltmeter.
Step 3: To satisfy remaining conditions, the three lamps pairs are used which are L1, L2
and L3 as shown in the Fig. 3.39. These are connected in such a way that pair L1 is
straight connected while the pairs L2 and L3 are cross connected.
The phasor ERR', joining the tips R and R' is voltage across lamp pair L1.
Similarly EYB , and EBY, are voltages across lamps L2 and L3 respectively.
If there is difference between the two frequencies due to difference in speeds of the twp
alternators, the lamps will become dark and bright in a sequence. This sequence
tells whether incoming alternator frequency is less or greater than machine A.
The sequence L1, L2, L3 tells that machine B is faster as the voltage star R'Y'B' will
appear to rotate anticlockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB at a speed
corresponding to difference between their frequencies shown in the Fig. 3.40 The
sequence L3, L2, L1 tells that the machine B is slower because voltage star R'Y'B' will
appear to rotate clockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB. The prime mover speed
can be adjusted accordingly to match the frequencies.

Fig. 3.40
The synchronization is done at the moment when lamp L1 is in the middle of dark
period. If the lamps pair becoming dark and bright simultaneously, it indicates incorrect
phase sequence which can be correct by interchanging any two leads either of the incoming
machine or of bus bars.
In this method when lamp L1 is dark the other two lamp pairs L2 and L3 and
equally bright. So this method of synchronization is called ''Lamps bright and dark''
method.

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3.17 Synchronization by Synchroscope

It can be seen that the previous method is not accurate since it requires
correct sense of judgement of the operator. Hence to avoid the personal judgement, the
machines are synchronized by accurate device known as synchroscope.

It consists of a rotating pointer which indicates the exact moment of closing the
synchronizing switch. If the pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction, it indicates that
incoming machine is running slow whereas clockwise rotation of pointer indicates that
incoming machine is running faster. The rotation of pointer is proportional to the difference
in the two frequencies. The pointer should rotate at a very low speed in the direction of
arrow marked fast as shown in the Fig. 3.41

When the rotating pointer reaches the vertical position at slow speed, the switch must
be closed. The pointer will oscillate about some mean position instead of rotating if
difference in frequencies is large. In such cases the speed of incoming machine is adjusted
properly.
The connections for synchroscope are shown in Fig. 3.41 Any two bus bars lines are
connected to its terminals while its other terminals are connected to corresponding lines of
incoming machine. The phase sequence can be checked with the help of phase sequence
indicator. The voltmeter is used to check the equality of voltage of bus bars and incoming
machine. The synchronization procedure is already explained before.

Fig.3.41
The use of lamps and synchroscope together is a best method of synchronization.

117
3.18 Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine)

It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is
uniform. Due to uniform air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux vary sinusoidally in
the air gap. In nonsalient rotor alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also
constant. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap varies and the
reluctance also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary sinusoidally in
the air gap. The reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in
case of salient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the distributing effects caused by
salient pole construction is called two reaction theory.
Note : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two
components as,
1. Components acting along the pole axis called direct axis.
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or demagnetising. The
component acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetising.
The relucatnce offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole
axis. This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The relucatnce offered is highest
when the m.m.f. wave is oriented at 90 to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis
i.e. q-axis. The air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on
moving away from the centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding
wound on salient poles produces the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always
acts along the pole axis which is direct axis.
Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the
direct axis. This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by
an angle 90o . When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave FAR. This
can be resolved in two components, one acting along d-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly
armature current Ia also can be divided into two components, one along direct axis and
along quadrature axis. These components are
denoted as,
Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR :
Fq = Component along quadrature axis

Id = Component along direct axis

Ia :
Iq = Component along quadrature axis

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 The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the Fig.3.42. The instant
chosen to show these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive
and is lagging Ef by angle .

Fig. 3.42 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole

machine
The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig.
3.43 The Ia lags Ef by angle .

Fig 3.43 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole machine

It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90o to Ef while Fq is produced by Iq which is
in phase with Ef .
The flux components of AR which are d and q along the direct and quadrature axis
respectively are also shown in the Fig.3.43. It can be denoted that the reactance offered to flux along
direct axis is less than the reactance offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux AR is
no longer along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and
quadrature axis, the flux AR lags behind Ia.

119
It is the final form of voltage equation for salient pole synchronous generator.
3.19 Determination of Xd and Xq using Slip Test

The method used to determine Xq and Xd, the direct and quadrature axis reactance
is called slip test. In an alternator, we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets
induced in the armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the
armature, having voltage must less than the rated voltage while the field winding circuit is
kept open. The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig.3.44

Fig.3.44 Circuit diagram for slip test

The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than synchronous
value. The three phase currents drawn by the armature (stationary) from a three phase
supply produce a rotating flux (m.m.f. wave) which is rotating at synchronous speed.

The rotor is made to rotate at a speed little less than the synchronous speed. Thus
armature m.m.f. having synchronous speed, moves slowly past the filed poles at a slip
speed (ns -n) where n is actual speed of rotor. This causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the
field circuit.

When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux d per poles is

120
set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.

When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux q per pole is
set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.

As the air gap is nonuniform, the reatance offered also varies and hence current drawn
the armature also varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency.

The r.m.s. current is minimum when machine reactance is Xd and it is maximum

when machine reactance is Xq. As the reactance offered varies due to nonuniform air
gap, the voltage drops also varies cyclically. Hence the impedance of the alternator also
varies cyclically. The terminal voltage also varies cyclically. The voltage at terminals is
maximum when current and various drops are minimum while voltage at terminals is
minimum when current and various drops are maximum.

The waveforms of voltage induced in rotor, terminal voltage and current drawn by
armature are shown in the Fig. 3.45

Fig. 3.45 Current and voltage wave forms in slip test

The reactances can be calculated as,

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Power Angle Characteristics of Synchronous Generator

The relation between Pi and is known as power angle characteristics of the machine.

It is shown in the Fig. 3.46

Fig. 3.46 Power Angle Characteristics

The maximum power occurs at = 90o. Beyond this point the machine falls out of step and
loses synchronism. The machine can be taken up to Pi max only by gradually increasing
the load. This is known as the steady state stability limit of the machine. The machine is
normally operated at much less than 90o.

Capability Curves of Synchronous Generators

The heating is a key factor in deciding the rating of alternators, transformers etc. The
heating is caused by losses so ultimately rating of machine depends on losses. These losses
are independent of load p.f. as I2R losses depend on current while core losses are
dependent on voltage. Thus the rating of a.c. equipments is decided by the volt-amperes of
the load it can supply and not on load power only.

The rating of synchronous generators is specified interms of maximum apparent power

in KVA and MVA load at a specified power factor (normally 80, 85 or 90 percent lagging)
and voltage for which they are designed to operate under steady state conditions. This load
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is carried by the alternators continuously without overheating. With the help of automatic
voltage regulators the terminal voltage of the alternator is kept constant (normally within
5% of rated voltage).

Fig. 3.47 Compounding curve for alternator

The power factor is also important factor that must be specified. This is because the
alternator that is designed to operate at 0.95 p.f. lagging at rated load will require more
field current when operate at 0.85 p.f. lagging at rated load. More field current results in
overheating of the field system which is undesirable. For this compounding curves of the
alternators can be drawn.

If synchronous generator is supplying power at constant frequency to a load whose

power factor is constant then curve showing variation of field current versus armature
current when constant power factor load is varied is called compounding curve for
alternator. It is shown in Fig. 1.

To maintain the terminal voltage constant the lagging power factors require more field
excitation that that required for leading power factors. Hence there is limitation on output
given by exciter and current flowing in field coils because of lagging power factors.

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 Fig. 3.48 Capability curve for an alternator with hydrogen cooling

The ability of prime mover decides the active power output of the alternator which is
limited to a value within the apparent power rating. The capability curve for synchronous
generator specifies the bounds within which it can operate safely. The loading on generator
should not exceed the generator rating as it may lead to heating of stator. The turbine
rating is the limiting factor for MW loading. The operation of generator should be away
o
from steady state stability limit ( = 90 ). The field current should not exceed its limiting
value as it may cause rotor heating. All these considerations provides performance curves
which are important in practical applications. A set of capability curves for an alternator is
shown in Fig. 3.48 The effect of increased Hydrogen pressure is shown which increases the
cooling.
When the active power and voltage are fixed the allowable reactive power loading is
limited by either armature or field winding heating. From the capability curve shown in
Fig. 2, the maximum reactive power loadings can be obtained for different power
loadings with the operation at rated voltage. From unity p.f. to rated p.f. (0.8 as shown in
Fig. 2), the limiting factor is armature heating while for lower power factors field heating is limiting
factor.
Short Circuit Transients in synchronous Generator

It may be possible in practice that the alternator running with full excitation may
undergo a sudden short circuit because of the abnormal conditions. Due to sudden
short circuit of alternator, large mechanical forces are developed which may not be
sustained by the alternator. These forces are proportional to square of the current value,
hence large pressure is built up between adjacent stator conductors.

The short circuit transients in a synchronous machine is a complicated

phenomenon due to number of circuits coupled to each other are involved. When a
synchronous generator undergoes short circuit, it has a characteristics time varying
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behaviour. During short circuit, flux per pole dynamically changes. Thus the transients are
seen in the field and damper windings. The alternator can be represented by an equivalent
circuit wherein the reactance is seen to be changed from subtransient reactance to final
steady state synchronous reactance.

When alternator undergoes a short circuit number of events take place which depends
on various factors such as the instant in the cycle at which short circuit occurs, whether
the machine is loaded or not, what is the excitation provided, how many phases are
involved, whether it is occuring near to machine terminals or away from it and on the
constructional features of the machine.

After the moment of short circuit, the time period followed by it can be divided into
three periods. The first one is very short period of one or two cycles the conditions of
which are dependent on the flux linkages between stator and rotor during short circuit.
The second interval is longer one which is nothing but transient decay of short circuit
current which is affected by damping and rise of armature reaction. The final period is
nothing but the steady state short circuit before which the generator is
normally open circuited.

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 UNIT-IV
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

4.1 Introduction
If a three phase supply is given to the stator of a three phase alternator, it can work
as a motor. As is is driven at synchronous speed, it is called synchronous generator. So
if alternator is run as a motor. It will rotate at a synchronous speed. Such a device
which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy running at synchronous
speed is called synchronous motor. Synchronous motor works only at synchronous
speed and cannot work at a speed other than the synchronous speed. Its speed is
constant irrespective of load, no doubt, its speed changes for an instant at the time of
loading.

4.2 Types
The two types of synchronous motor are,
1. Three phase synchronous motors
2. Single phase synchronous motor
The single phase synchronous motor are further classified as reluctance motor
and hysteresis motor. The three phase synchronous motor works on the concept
of rotating magnetic field. The field
produced by stationary three phase winding, which rotates in space is called rotating
magnetic field. Its speed is always synchronous and given by,
Ns = 120f/P
Where P = Number of poles for which winding is wound
f = Frequency of the supply.
4.3 Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Motor
Similar to d.c. machine where there is no constructional difference between a
generator and motor, There is no difference between the construction of synchronous
motor and the alternator, both being the synchronous machines.
The synchronous motor construction is basically similar to rotating field type
alternator. It consists of two parts:

Fig 4.1 Schematic representation of three phase synchronous motor

127
i) Stator:
Consisting of a three phase star or delta connected winding. This is excited by a three
phase a.c. supply.
ii) Rotor:
Rotor is a field winding, the construction of which can be salient (projected pole) or non-
salient (cylindrical) type. Practically most of the synchronous motors use salient i.e. projected
pole type construction. The field winding is excited by a separate d.c. supply through slip rings.

4.4 Principle of Working of 3-Phase Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two unlike
poles are brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a tremendous force of
attraction between those two poles. In such condition the two magnets are said to be
magnetically locked.
If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same direction, with
the same speed due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic locking condition. The
principle is shown schematically in the Fig.4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Principle of magnetic locking

So to have the magnetic locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and magnetic
axes of two must be brought very close to each other. Let us see the application of this principle
in case of synchronous motor.
Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2 poles. The two
magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting both the windings, stator
and rotor with three phase a.c. supply and d.c. supply respectively. When three phase winding
is excited by a three phase a.c. supply the the flux produced by the three phase winding is
always of rotating type, which is already discussed in the previous post. Such a magnetic flux
rotates in space at a speed called synchronous speed. This magnetic field is called rotating
magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to the physical rotation of magnets
in space with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous motor produces one magnet
which is as good as rotating in space with the synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of a
stator rotating magnetic field depends on the supply frequency and the number of poles for
which stator winding is wound. if the frequency of the a.c. supply is f Hz and stator is
wound for P number of poles, then the speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous
given by,
Ns = 120f / P( r.p.m.)
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 In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed of the rotating
magnetic field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the physical rotation of two poles with
a speed of Ns r.p.m. For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the stator poles are
N 1 and S1 which are rotating at a speed of Ns. The direction of rotation of rotating magnetic
field is say clockwise.
When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces two poles,
assuming rotor construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles be N2 and S2.
Now one magnet is rotating at Ns having poles N1 and S1 while at start rotor is
stationary i.e. second magnet is stationary having poles N2 and S2. If somehow the
unlike poles N1 and S2 or S1 and N2 are brought near each other, the magnetic locking
may get established between stator and rotor poles. As stator poles are rotating due to
magnetic locking rotor will also rotate in the same direction as that of stator poles i.e. in the
direction of rotating magnetic field, with the same speed i.e N s. Hence synchronous motor
rotates at one and only one speed i.e. synchronous speed. But this all depends on existence
of magnetic locking between stator and rotor poles. Practically it is not possible for stator
poles to pull the rotor poles from their stationary position into magnetic locking condition.
hence synchronous motors are not self-starting.

4.5 Why synchronous Motor Is Not Self Starting

Consider the rotating magnetic field as equivalent to physical rotation of two stator poles
N1 and S1. Consider an instant when two poles are at such a position where stator
magnetic axis is vertical, along A-B as shown in the Fig.13.3.
At this instant, rotor poles are arbitrarily positioned as shown in the Fig.13.3.
At this instant, rotor is stationary and unlike poles will try to attract each other. Due to
this rotor will be subjected to an instantaneous torque in anticlockwise direction as shown
in the Fig.4.3 (a).
Now stator poles are rotating very fast i.e. at a speed Ns r.p.m. Due to inertia, before
rotor hardly rotates in the direction of anticlockwise torque, to which it is subjected, the
stator poles change their positions. Consider an instant half a period latter where stator
poles are exactly reversed but due to inertia rotor is unable to rotate from its initial position.
This is shown in the Fig.4.3(b).
At this instant, due to the unlike poles trying to attract each other, the rotor will be
subjected to a torque in clockwise direction. This will tend to rotate rotor in the direction
of rotating magnetic field.

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 Fig.4.3
But before this happen, stator poles again change their position reversing the direction of
the torque exerted on the rotor.
Key Point: As a result, the average torque exerted on the rotor is zero. And hence the synchronous
motor is not self-starting.

4.5.1 Procedure to Start a Synchronous Motor

Now suppose the rotor is rotated by some external means at a speed almost equal to
synchronous speed. And then the rotor is excited to produce its poles. At a certain instant
now, the stator and rotor unlike poles will face each other such that their magnetic axes are
near each other. Then the force of attraction between the two, pulls both of them into the
magnetic locking condition.
Once magnetic locking is established, the rotor and stator poles continue to occupy the
same relative positions. Due to this, rotor continuously experiences a unidirectional torque in
the direction of the rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor rotates at synchronous speed and said
to be in synchronism with rotating magnetic field. The external device used to rotate rotor near
synchronous speed can be removed once synchronism is established. The rotor then continues
its rotation at Ns due to magnetic locking. This is the reason why synchronous motor runs only
at synchronous speed and does not rotate at any speed other than the synchronous. This
operation is shown in the Fig 4.4 (a)and(b). It is necessary to keep field winding i.e. rotor
excited from d.c. supply to maintain the magnetic locking, as long as motor is operating.

So a general procedure to start a synchronous motor can be stated as :

1. Give a three a.c. supply to a three phase winding. This will produce rotating magnetic
field rotating at synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.
2. Then drive the rotor by some external means like diesel engine in the direction of
rotating magnetic field, at a speed very near or equal to synchronous speed.
3. Switch on the d.c. supply given to the rotor which will produce rotor poles. now there are
two fields one is rotating magnetic field produced by stator while the other is produced
by rotor which is physically rotated almost at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic
field

130
 Fig. 4.4 Unidirectional torque experienced by rotor
4. At a particular instant, both the fields get magnetically locked. The stator field pulls
rotor field into synchronism. Then the external device used to rotate rotor can be
removed. But rotor will continue to rotate at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic
field i.e. Ns due to magnetic locking.
4.5.2 Methods of Starting Synchronous Motor
As seen earlier, synchronous motor is not self-starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at
a speed very near to synchronous speed. This is possible by various method in practice. The
various methods to start the synchronous motor are,
(i) Using pony motors
(ii) Using damper winding
(iii)As a slip ring induction motor
(iv)Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.
(i) Using pony motors
In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of some
external device like small induction motor. Such an external device is called 'pony motor'.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched
on. Once the synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to
rotate as synchronous motor.
(ii) Using Damper Winding
In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the additional winding
consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited
with the help of end rings. Such an additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding.
This winding as short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor. The
schematic representation of such damper winding is shown in the Fig.4.5.

131
 Fig . 4.5 Starting as a squirrel cage I.M.
Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motors starts rotating as an
induction motor at sub synchronous speed. Then d.c. supply is given to the field winding. At a
particular instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a synchronous
speed. As rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper winding and
the rotating magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is running as synchronous motor, there
cannot be any induced e.m.f. in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start,
to run the motor as an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is out of the circuit. As damper
winding is short circuited and motor gets started as induction motor, it draws high current
at start so induction motor starters like star-delta, autotransformer etc. used to start the
synchronous motor as an induction motor.
(iii) As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor does
not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the damper winding, it
is designed to a form a
three phase star or delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding are brought out
through slip rings. An external rheostat then can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit.
So when stator is excited, the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to
resistance added in the rotor provides high starting torque. The resistance is then gradually
cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near synchronous. d.c. excitation is
provided to the rotor, then motors gets pulled into synchronism ans starts rotating at
synchronous speed. The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial
resistance added in the rotor not only provides high starting torque but also limits high inrush
of starting current. Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.

132
 Fig. 4.6 Starting as a slip ring I.M.

The synchronous motor started by this method is called a slip ring induction motor is shown
in the Fig.4.6.It can be observed, that the same three phase rotor winding acts as a normal
rotor winding by shorting two of the phases. From the positive terminal, current 'I' flows in one
of the phases, which divides into two other phases at start point as 1/2 through each, when
switch is thrown on d.c. supply side.
(iv) Using Small D.C. Machine
Many a times, a large synchronous motor are provided with a coupled d.c. machine. This
machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed.
Then the excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous
motor, the same d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the
synchronous motor is then excited by this exciter itself.

4.6 Behavior of Synchronous Motor on Loading

When a d.c. motor or an induction motor is loaded, the speed of the motors drops. This
is because the load torque demand increases then the torque produced by the motor. Hence
motor draws more current to produce more torque to satisfy the load but its speed reduces.
In case of synchronous motor speed always remains constant equal to the synchronous
speed, irrespective of load condition. It is interesting to study how synchronous motor reacts to
changes in the load condition.
In a d.c. motor, armature develops an e.m.f.after motoring action starts, which opposes
supply voltage, called back e.m.f. Eb.
Hence if Ra the armature resistance and V is the supply voltage, we have established the
relation for the armature current as,

In case of synchronous motor also, once rotor starts rotating at synchronous speed, the

133
stationary stator (armature) conductors cut the flux produced by rotor. The only difference is
conductors are stationary and flux is rotating. Due to this there is an induced e.m.f. in the
stator which according to Lenz's law opposes the supply voltage. This induced e.m.f. is called
back e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor. It is obtained as Ebph i.e. back e.m.f. per phase.
This gets generated as the principle of alternator and hence alternating in nature and its
magnitude can be calculated by the equation,

As speed is always synchronous, the frequency is constant and hence magnitude of such
back e.m.f. can be controlled by changing the flux produced by the rotor.
So back e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor depends on the excitation given to the field
winding and not on the speed, as speed is always constant.
As stator construction is similar to the armature of a three phase alternator, the impedance
of the stator is called synchronous impedance of synchronous motor consisting of Ra as the
stator winding resistance and Xs as the synchronous reactance. All the values are generally
expressed on per phase basis.
Zs = Ra + jXs per phase
So similar to the d.c. motor, we can write voltage equation for a synchronous motor as,

The difference is that this equation is vector equation as each quantity is alternating and has
different phase. So addition is to be performed vectorially to obtain the result.

where Vph is the supply voltage per phase. The magnitude of Ebph is adjusted almost equal to
Vph, on no load by controlling flux produced by rotor i.e. field winding.

4.6.1. Ideal Condition on No Load

The ideal condition on no load can be assumed by neglecting various losses in the motor. and
Vph = Ebph Under this condition, the magnetic locking between stator and rotor is in such a
way that the magnetic axes of both, coincide with each other as shown in the Fig.4.7. As
this is possible only under no losses condition, is said to be ideal in case of synchronous
motor.

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 Fig. 4.7 Magnetic locking under no load condition
As magnitude of Ebph and Vph is same and opposes the phasor diagram for this condition can be
shown as in the Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Phasor diagram on no load losses

In practice this is impossible. Motor has to supply mechanical losses and iron losses along with
small copper losses.

4.6.2 Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Losses)

We have seen that Ebph and Vph are magnitude wise same, which is adjusted by
controlling field current, in turn controlling the flux.
Now due to the various losses practically present on no load, the magnetic locking
exists between stator and rotor but in such a way that there exists a small angle
difference between the axes of two magnetic fields as shown in the Fig.4.9So the rotor axis
falls back with respect to stator axis by angle '' as shown in the Fig.4.9 This angle decides the
amount of current required to produce the torque to supply various losses.
Hence this angle is called load angle, power angle, coupling angle, torque angle or angle
of retardation and denoted as as mentioned earlier.
The magnetic locking still exists between the two and rotor rotates at synchronous speed
along with rotating magnetic field maintaining angle difference between the axes of two fields,
as shown in the Fig. 4.9(b). The flux lines between the two get stretched due to such
retardation of rotor axis with respect to stator.

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 Fig. 4.9 Magnetic locking under practical condition

Now though Ebph = Vph , Ebph will not be located in exact opposition with Vph ,
but will get displaced from its initial position by angle'' as shown in the Fig. 4.9(a).

Fig. 4.9(a) Phasor diagram for no load condition with losses

Hence the vector difference between the two, Ebph and Vph is not zero but give rise to a
phasor 'OB' as shown.

This resultant decides the amount of current Iaph to be drawn to produce the torque which meets
the various losses present in the synchronous motor. Under no load condition, is very small and hence
ERph is also very small.
So current drawn by the motor is also very small on no load which is the case in all the various type
of motors.

4.7 Synchronous Motor on Load / Effect of Increased Load with Constant Excitation
As the load on the synchronous motor increases, there is no change in its speed. But
what gets affected is the load angle '' i.e. the angle by which rotor axis retards with respect to
stator axis. Hence as load increases, increases but speed remains synchronous.
As increases, though Ebph and Vph magnitudes are same, displacement of Ebph from its
ideal position increases.
Hence, the vector difference increases.
As synchronous impedance is constant, the magnitude of Iaph drawn by the motor

136
increases as load increases. This current produces the necessary torque which satisfied the
increased load demand. The magnetic locking still exists between the rotor and stator.
The phasor diagrams showing ERph increases as load increases are shown in the Fig.
4.10(b) and (c).

Fig. 4.10

(i).Constant Excitation circle

Fig. 4.10 (c)

So from the above discussion it is clear that on no load, current drawn by the motor is
very small. This is because the stator and the rotor magnetic axes are almost matching
transformer each other i.e. load angle is very small. As load increases, rotor magnetic axis
starts retarding with respect to stator axis i.e. load angle increases maintaining the magnetic
locking condition. And hence in case of the synchronous motor load affects the angle without
affecting the speed. As increases, the magnitude of ERph increases which shows that motor
137
draws more current from the supply. This satisfies the increased load torque demand.
So torque produced in the synchronous motor depends on the load angle '' for small
values of and to be precise depends on 'sin'. The load angle '' is measured in degrees
electrical.

As angle increases, the magnetic flux lines producing the force of attraction
between the two get more and more stretched. This weakens the force maintaining the
magnetic locking, though torque produced by the motor increases. As reaches upto 90o
electrical i.e. half a pole pitch, the stretched flux lines get broken and hence magnetic
locking between the stator and rotor no longer exists. The motor comes out of
synchronism. So torque produced at equal to 90o electrical is the maximum torque, a
synchronous motor can produce, maintaining magnetic locking i.e. synchronism. Such s
torque is called pull out torque. The relationship between torque produced and load angle is
shown in the Fig 4.11.

Fig. 4.11 Torque angle characteristic

4.9 Analysis of Phasor Diagram
Consider a phasor diagram with normal excitation i.e. such a current through field winding which will
produce flux that will adjust magnitude of Ebph same as Vph.
Let be the load angle corresponding to the load on the motor. So from the exact opposing position of
Ebph with respect to Vph. Ebph gets displaced by angle .
Vector difference of Ebph and Vph, gives the phasor which represents Ia Zs, called ERph.
Now Zs = Ra + j Xs
where Ra = Resistance of stator per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance of stator per phase
i.e. = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
and | Zs | = (Ra2 + Rs2)
This angle '' is called internal machine angle or an impedance angle.
The significant of '' is that it tells us that phasor Iaph lags behind ERph i.e. Ia Zs by angle . Current
always lags in case of inductive impedance with respect to voltage drop across that impedance. So phasor
Iaph can be shown lagging with respect to ERph by angle . Practically Ra is very small compared to Xa and
hence tends to 90o.
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 Note : The power factor at which motor is running, gets decided by the angle between Vph and Iaph
shown. This angle is denoted as and called power factor angle.

and cos = Power factor at which motor is working.

Fig. 4.12 Phasor diagram under normal working condition

The nature of this p.f. is lagging if Iaph lags Vph by angle . While it is leading if Iaph leads Vph by
angle . Phasor diagram indicating all the details is shown in the Fig.4.12

4.10 Operation of Synchronous Motor at constant Load Variable Excitation / Effect of

Excitation on Armature Current and Power Factor

We have seen previously that when load changes, for constant excitation, current drawn by the motor
increases. But if excitation i.e. field current is changed keeping load constant, the synchronous motor reacts
by changing its power factor of operation. This is most interesting feature of synchronous motor. Let us see
the details of such operation.
Consider a synchronous motor operating at a certain load. The corresponding load angle is .
At start, consider normal behavior of the synchronous motor, where excitation is adjusted to get Eb = V
i.e. induced e.m.f. is equal to applied voltage. Such an excitation is called Normal Excitation of the motor.
Motor is drawing certain current from the supply and power input to the motor is say Pin. The power factor
of the motor is lagging in nature as shown in the Fig. 4.13(a).
Now when excitation is changed, changes but there is hardly any change in the losses of the motor. So the
power input also remains same for constant load demanding same power output.

Now, Pin = 3 VL IL cos = 3 (Vph Iph cos )

Most of the times, the voltage applied to the motor is constant. Hence for constant power input as V ph
is constant, 'Iph cos ' remains constant.
Note : So far this entire operation of variable excitation it is necessary to remember that the cosine
component of armature current, Ia cos remains constant.
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 So motor adjusts its cos i.e. p.f. nature and value so that Ia cos remains constant when excitation of
the motor is changed keeping load constant. This is the reason why synchronous motor reacts by changing
its power factor to variable excitation conditions.
(a) Under Excitation
When the excitation is adjusted in such a way that the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is less than the
applied voltage (Eb < V) the excitation is called Under Excitation.
Due to this, ER increases in magnitude. This means for constant Zs, current drawn by the motor
increases. But ER phase shifts in such a way that, phasor Ia also shifts (as ER ^ Ia = ) to keep Ia cos
component constant. So in under excited condition, current drawn by the motor increases. The p.f. cos
decreases and becomes more and more lagging in nature.
(b) Over Excitation
The excitation to the field winding for which the induced e.m.f. becomes greater than applied voltage
(Eb < V), is called over excitation.
Due to increased magnitude of Eb, ER also increases in magnitude. But the phase of ER also changes.
Now ER ^ Ia = is constant, hence Ia also changes its phase. So changes. The Ia increases to keep Ia cos
constant. The phase of ER changes so that Ia becomes leading with respect to Vph in over excited condition.
So power factor of the motor becomes leading in nature. So overexcited synchronous motor works on
leading power factor. So power factor decreases as over excitation increases but it becomes more and more
leading in nature.

(c) Critical Excitation

When the excitation is changed, the power factor changes. The excitation for which the power factor of
the motor is unity (cos = 1) is called critical excitation. Then Iaph is in phase with Vph. Now Ia cos must
be constant, cos = 1 is at its maximum hence motor has to draw minimum current from
supply for unity power factor condition.
So for critical excitation, cos = 1 and current drawn by the motor is minimum compared
to current drawn by the motor for various excitation conditions.

140
 Fig. 4.13 Constant load variable excitation operation

Under Excitation Lagging P.F Eb < V

Over Excitation Leading P.F Eb > V
Critical Excitation Unity P.F Eb V
Normal Excitation Lagging Eb = V

141
4.11 V Curves and Inverted V Curves

From the previous article, it is clear that if excitation is varied from very low (under
excitation) to very high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum
at unity p.f. and then again increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then
becomes leading in nature. This can be shown as in the Fig. 4.14.

Fig. 4.14
Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field
winding of synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against
field current (If) is plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are
obtained at various load conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are
called V-curves of synchronous motor. These are shown in the Fig.4.15 (a).

Fig. 4.15 V-curves and Inverted V-curves

As against this, if the power factor (cos ) is plotted against field current (If), then the shape
of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against If, at
various load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are
shown in the Fig. 4.15(b).
The power factor can be obtained as,

142
4.12 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor

Net input to the synchronous motor is the three phase input to the stator.
... Pin = 3 VL IL cos W
where VL = Applied Line Voltage
IL = Line current drawn by the motor
cos = operating p.f. of synchronous motor
or Pin = 3 (per phase power)
= 3 x Vph Iaph cos W
Now in stator, due to its resistance Ra per phase there are stator copper
2
losses. Total stator copper losses = 3 x (Iaph) x Ra W
.
.. The remaining power is converted to the mechanical power, called gross mechanical power
developed by the motor denoted as Pm.
.
.. Pm = Pin - Stator copper losses

Now P = T x

This is the gross mechanical torque developed. In d.c. motor, electrical equivalent of gross mechanical
power developed is Eb x Ia, similar in synchronous motor the electrical equivalent of gross mechanical
power developed is given by,
Pm = 3 Ebph x Iaph x cos (Ebph ^ Iaph)
i) For lagging p.f.,
Ebph ^ Iaph = -
ii) For leading p.f.,
Ebph ^ Iaph = +
iii) For unity p.f.,
Ebph ^ Iaph =
Note : While calculating angle between Ebph and Iaph from phasor diagram, it is necessary to
reverse Ebph phasor. After reversing Ebph, as it is in opposition to Vph, angle between Ebph
and Iaph must be determined.
In general,

143
 Positive sign for leading p.f.
Neglecting sign for lagging p.f.
Net output of the motor then can be obtained by subtracting friction and windage i.e.
mechanical losses from gross mechanical power developed.
... Pout = Pm - mechanical losses.

where Tshaft = Shaft torque available to load.

Pout = Power available to load

4.12.1 Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor

Except for very small machines, the

armature resistance of a synchronous motor is
negligible as compared to its synchronous
reactance. Hence, the equivalent circuit for the
motor becomes as shown in Fig. 4.16 (a).

From the phasor diagram of Fig. 4.16

(b), it is seen that,

AB =Eb sin = Ia XS cos Fig. 4.16

EV
or VIa cos = b sin
XS
Now, VIacos = motor power input/phase
EV
Pin = b sin ... per phase
XS
EbV
=3 sin ... for three phases
XS

144
 Since stator Cu losses have been neglected, Pin also represents the gross mechanical power (Pm)
developed by the motor.
3EbV
Pm = sin
XS
Pm
The gross torque developed by the motor is Tg = 9.55 Nm ...Ns in rpm.
Ns
4.12.2Alternative Expression for Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor

Consider the phasor diagram of a synchronous motor running on leading power

factor cos as shown in the Fig. 4.17.

Fig. 4.17
The line CD is drawn at an angle to AB.
The lines AC and DE are perpendicular to CD and AE.

and angle between AB = Ebph and Iaph is also .

The mechanical per phase power developed is given by,

In triangle OBD,
BD = OB cos = Ia Zs cos
OD = OB sin = Ia Zs sin
Now BD = CD - BC = AE - BC

Substituting in (2),
Ia Zs cos = Vph cos (-) - Eb cos

145
 All values are per phase values
Substituting (3) in (1),

This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of the load angle and
the internal machine angle , for constant voltage Vph and constant Eph i.e. excitation.

4.12.3 Condition for Maximum Power Developed

The value of for which the mechanical power developed is maximum can be obtained as,

4.12.4The Value of Maximum Power Developed

The value of maximum power developed can be obtained by substituting = in the equation
of Pm.

Thus when Ra is negligible, = 90o for maximum power developed. The

corresponding torque is called pull out torque.

146
4.13 Blondel Diagram (Constant Power Circle)
The Blondel diagram of a synchronous motor is an extension of a simple phasor
diagram of a synchronous motor.
For a synchronous motor, the power input to the motor per phase is
given by, Pin = Vph Iph cos ........... per phase
The gross mechanical power developed per phase will be equal to the difference between
Pin per phase and the per phase copper losses of the winding.
Copper loss per phase = (Iaph)2 Ra
... Pm = Vph Iph cos - (Iaph)2 Ra .......... per phase
For mathematical convenience let Vph = V and Iaph = I,
... Pm = VI cos - I2 Ra
... I2 Ra - VI cos + Pm = 0

Now consider the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 4.18.

Fig. 4.18
The equation (1) represents polar equation to a circle. To obtain this circle in a phasor
diagram, draw a line OY at an angle with respect to OA.

Fig. 4.19 Blondel diagram

The circle represented by equation (1) has a centre at some point O' on the line OY. The
circle drawn with centre as O' and radius as O'B represents circle of constant power. This is
called Blondel diagram, shown in the Fig. 4.19.
thus if excitation is varied while the power is kept constant, then working point B while move along
the circle of constant power.

147
4.14 Hunting in Synchronous Motor
It is seen that, when synchronous motor is on no load, the stator and rotor pole axes
almost coincide with each other.
When motor is loaded, the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator. The angle by
which rotor retards is called load angle or angle of retardation .
If the load connected to the motor is suddenly changed by a large amount, then rotor tries
to retard to take its new equilibrium position.

Fig. 4.20 Hunting in synchronous motor

But due to inertia of the rotor, it cannot achieve its final position instantaneously.
While achieving its new position due to inertia it passes beyond its final position corresponding
to new load. This will produce more torque than what is demanded. This will try reduce the
load angle and rotor swings in other direction. So there is periodic swinging of the rotor on
both sides of the new equilibrium position, corresponding to the load. Such a swing is
shown in the Fig. 4.20.
Such oscillations of the rotor about its new equilibrium position, due to sudden
application or removal of load is called swinging or hunting in synchronous motor.

Fig. 4.21 Current variations during hunting

148
 Due to such hunting, the load angle changes its value about its final value . As changes, for
same excitation i.e. Ebph the current drawn by the motor also changes. Hence during hunting there are
changes in the current drawn by the motor which may cause problem to the other appliances
connected to the same line. The changes in armature current due to hunting is shown in the Fig. 4.21
If such oscillations continue for longer period, there are large fluctuations in the current.
If such variations synchronous with the natural period of oscillation of the rotor, the amplitude
of the swing may become so great that motor may come out of synchronism. At this instant
mechanical stresses on the rotor are sever and current drawn by the motor is also very large.
So motor gets subjected to large mechanical and electrical stresses.
Note : Hence hunting is not desirable phenomenon from motor point of view and must be
prevented.

4.14.1 Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Hunting

It is mentioned earlier that in the slots provided in the pole faces, a short circuited winding
is placed. This is called damper winding.
When rotor starts oscillating i.e. when hunting starts a relative motion between damper
winding and the rotating magnetic field is created. Due to this relative motion, e.m.f. gets
induced in the damper winding. According to Lenz's law, the direction of induced e.m.f. is
always so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the hunting. So such induced e.m.f.
oppose the hunting. The induced e.m.f. tries to damp the oscillations as quickly as possible.
Thus hunting is minimised due to damper winding.
The time required by the rotor to take its final equilibrium position after hunting is
called as setting time of the rotor. If the load angle is plotted against time, the schematic
representation of hunting can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 4.22 It is shown in the diagram
that due to damper winding the setting time of the rotor reduces considerably.

Fig.4.22 Effect of damper winding on hunting

149
4.15 Synchronous Condensers

When synchronous motor is over excited it takes leading p.f. current. If synchronous
motor is on no load, where load angle is very small and it is over excited (Eb > V) then power
factor angle increases almost upto 90o. And motor runs with almost zero leading power
factor condition. This is shown in the phasor diagram Fig. 4.23

Fig. 4.23 Synchronous condenser

This characteristics is similar to a normal capacitor which takes leading power factor
current. Hence over excited synchronous motor operating on no load condition is called as
synchronous condenser or synchronous capacitor. This is the property due to which
synchronous motor is used as a phase advancer or as power improvement device.

4.15.1 Disadvantage of Low Power Factor

In various industries, many machines are of induction motor type. The lighting and heating
loads are supplied through transformers. The induction motors and transformers draw
lagging current from the supply. Hence the overall power factor is very low and lagging in
nature. The power is given by,
P = VI cos .............. single phase

The supply voltage is constant and hence for supplying a fixed power P, the current is
inversely proportional to the p.f. cos. Let P = 5 KW is to be supplied with a voltage of 230 V
then,

Thus as p.f. decreases, becomes low, the current drawn from the supply increases to
supply same power to the load. But if p.f. maintained high, the current drawn
from supply is less.

150
 The high current due to low p.f. has following disadvantages:
1. For higher current, conductor size required is more which increases the cost.
2. The p.f. is given by

Thus for fixed active power P, low p.f. demands large KVA rating alternators and
transformers. This increases the cost.
3. Large current means more copper losses and poor efficiency.
4. Large current causes large voltage drops in transmission lines, alternators and other
equipments. This results into poor regulation. To compensate such drop extra
equipments is necessary which further increases the cost.
Note : Hence power factor improvement is must practice. Hence the supply authorities
encourage consumers to improve the p.f.

4.15.2 Use of Synchronous Condenser in Power Factor Improvement

The low power factor increases the cost of generation, distribution and transmission of the
electrical energy. Hence such low power factor needs to be corrected. Such power factor
correction is possible by connecting synchronous motor across the supply and operating it on
no load with over excitation.
Now let Vph is the voltage applied and I1ph is the current lagging Vph by angle 1. This
power factor 1 is very low, lagging.
The synchronous motor acting as a synchronous condenser is now connected across the
same supply. This draws a leading current of I2ph.
The total current drawn from the supply is now phasor of Iph and I2ph. This total current IT
now lags Vph by smaller angle due to which effective power factor gets improved. This is
shown in the Fig. 4.24.

Fig. 4.24 Power factor correction by synchronous condenser

This is how the synchronous motor as a synchronous condenser is used to improve power factor of the
combined load.

151
4.16 Applications of Three Phase Synchronous Motor

The important characteristics of the synchronous motor is its constant speed irrespective
of the load conditions, and variable power factor operation. As seen earlier its power factor can
be controlled by controlling its excitation. For over excitation its power factor is leading in
nature, which is very important from the power factor correction point of view.
Due to constant speed characteristics, it is used in machine tools, motor generator sets,
synchronous clocks, stroboscopic devices, timing devices, belt driven reciprocating
compressors, fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps, vacuum pumps, pulp grinders, textile mills,
paper mills line shafts, rolling mills, cement mills etc.
The synchronous motors are often used as a power factor correction device, phase
advancers and phase modifiers for voltage regulation of the transmission lines. This is possible
because the excitation of the synchronous motor can be adjusted as per the requirement.
The disadvantages of synchronous motor are their higher cost, necessity of frequent
maintenance and a need of d.c. excitation source, auxiliary device or additional winding
provision to make it self-starting. Overall their initial cost is very high.

4.17 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motor

156
 UNIT V

SINGLE PHASE AND SPECIAL MACHINES

5.1Introduction
As the name suggests, these motors are used on single-phase supply. Single
phase motors are the most familiar of all electric motors because they are extensively
used in home appliances, shops, offices etc. It is true that single phase motors are
less efficient substitute for 3-phase motors but 3-phase power is normally not
available except in large commercial and industrial establishments. Since electric
power was originally generated and distributed for lighting only, millions of homes
were given single-phase supply. This led to the development of single-phase motors.
Even where 3-phase mains are present, the single-phase supply may be obtained
by using one of the three lines and the neutral. In this chapter, we shall focus our
attention on the construction, working and characteristics of commonly used single-
phase motors.

5.2 Types of Single-Phase Motors

Single-phase motors are generally built in the fractional-horsepower range and
may be classified into the following four basic types:
1. Single-phase induction motors
(i) split-phase type
(ii) capacitor type
(iii) shaded-pole type
2. A.C. series motor or universal motor
3. Repulsion motor
4. Unexcited single phase Synchronous motors
(i) Reluctance motor
(ii) Hysteresis motor

5.3 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

5.3.1 Introduction
For general lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses, schools etc. Single
phase a.c. supply is commonly used. Hence instead of d.c. motors, the motors which
work on single phase a.c. supply are very popularly in use. These a.c. motors are
called single phase induction motors. The numerous domestic applications use single
phase motors. The power rating of such motors is very small. Some of them are even
fractional horse power motors, which are used in applications like small toys, small
fans, hair dryers etc. This chapter explains the construction, working principle and
applications of various types of single phase induction motors.

5.3.2 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors

Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main
parts.one rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction
motors is called stator while the rotating part is called rotor.

157
 The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are
slotted on its periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding.
This is excited by a single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps
iron losses to minimum. The stampings are made up of material like silicon steel
which minimises the hysteresis loss. The stator winding is wound for certain definite
number of poles means when excited by single phase a.c. supply, stator produces the
magnetic field which creates the effect of certain definite number of poles. The number
of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the synchronous speed of the
motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed relation with
supply frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

Ns 120 f rpm
P
The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed
which is slightly less than the synchronous speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of
uninsulated copper or aluminium bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently
shorted at both the ends with the help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire
structure looks like cage hence called squirrel cage rotor. The construction and symbol
is shown in the Fig.5.1.

Fig.5.1
As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire
rotor is very very small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as
small as possible. The main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself
for same number of poles as that of the stator winding.
5.3.3 Working Principle of 1-phase Induction Motor
The schematic representation of single phase induction motor is shown in the
Fig.5.2.

Fig.5.2
158
 For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each
other to produce the torque. In d.c. motors, field winding produces the main flux
while d.c. supply given to armature is responsible to produce armature flux. The main
flux and armature flux interact to produce the torque.
In the single phase induction motor, single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator
winding. The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the
flux which is also alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links
with the rotor conductors and due to transformer action e.m.f. gets induced in the
rotor. The induced e.m.f. drives current through the rotor as rotor circuit is closed
circuit. This rotor current produces another flux called rotor flux required for the
motoring action. Thus second flux is produced according to induction principle due to
induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called induction motor. As against this in d.c. motor
a separate supply is required to armature to produce armature flux. This is an
important difference between d.c. motor and an induction motor.
Another important difference between the two is that the d.c. motors are self-
starting while single phase induction motors are not self-starting.
Let us see why single phase induction motors are not self-starting with the help of
a theory called double revolving field theory.

5.3.4 Double Revolving Field Theory

According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two
rotating components which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude
as half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.
In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an
alternating magnetic field having maximum magnitude of 1m.
According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of the
stator flux, each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e.
( 1m/2). Both these components are rotating in opposite directions at the
synchronous speed Ns which is dependent on frequency and stator poles.
Let f is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while b is the
backward component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two
components at any instant gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at the
instant. So resultant of these two is the original stator flux.

Fig. 5.3 Stator flux and its two components

The Fig. 5.3 shows the stator flux and its two components f and b. At start both the
159
components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.5.3 (a). Thus the resultant R = 0. This is
nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at start. After 90 o , as shown in the
Fig. 5.3 (b), the two components are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same
direction. Hence the resultant R is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components.
So R = (1m/2) + (1m/2) =1m. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at
= 90o as shown in the Fig 5.3 (c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the
original alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to cutting
of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current produces
rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component f to produce a torque in one particular
direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward component b to
produce a torque in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise
torque is negative.
At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque tries
to rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start.
And hence the single phase induction motors are not self-starting.

5.4 Torque speed characteristics

The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively with
the help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Figure.5.4

5.4Torque-speed characteristics

It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase
motors are not self-starting.
However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant average torque
increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor starts rotating in that
direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally hence some
modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motors to make them self-
starting.

160
5.5 Making Single-Phase Induction Motor Self-Starting
The single-phase induction motor is not
self- starting and it is undesirable to
resort to mechanical spinning of the
shaft or pulling a belt to start it. To
make a single-phase induction motor
self-starting, we should somehow
produce a revolving stator magnetic field.
This may be achieved by converting a
single-phase supply into two-phase
supply through the use of an
additional winding. When the motor
attains sufficient speed, the starting
means (i.e., additional winding) may be
removed depending upon the type of the
motor. As a matter of fact, single-phase Fig.5.4 (a)
induction motors are classified and named
according to the method employed to make them self-starting.
Such two fluxes are shown in the Fig. 5.4 (b) having phase difference of
between them.

Fig. 5.4 (b)

More the phase difference angle , more is starting torque produced. Let us see
how the rotating magnetic field is produced in single phase induction motors.
5.6 Production of Rotating Field from Two-phase Supply
It will now be shown that when stationary coils, wound for two phases are
supplied by two phase supply respectively, a uniformly-rotating (or revolving)
magnetic flux of constant value is produced.

Fig.5.5
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 The principle of a 2-, 2-pole stator having two identical windings, 90 space
degrees apart, is illustrated in Fig. 5.5.
The flux due to the current flowing in each phase winding is assumed
sinusoidal and is represented in Fig. 5.5 The assumed positive directions of fluxes are
those shown in Fig. 5.5

Fig.5.6
Let 1 and 2 be the instantaneous values of the fluxes set up by the two
windings. The resultant flux r at any time is the vector sum of these two fluxes (1
and 2) at that time. We will consider conditions at intervals of 1/8th of a time period
i.e. at intervals corresponding to angles of 0, 45, 90, 135 and 180. It will be
shown that resultant flux r is constant in magnitude i.e. equal to m the
maximum flux due to either phase and is making one revolution/cycle. In other words,
it means that the resultant flux rotates synchronously.

1. When = 0 i.e.corresponding to point 0 in Fig. 5.6, 1 = 0, but 2 is maximum i.e.

equal to m and negative. Hence, resultant flux r = m and, being negative, is shown
by a vector pointing downwards [Fig. 5.6(i)].
2. When = 45 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Fig. 5.6b. At this instant,1= m /2
and is positive; 2 = m / 2 but is still negative. Their resultant, as shown in Fig.
5.6(ii), is r = = m although this resultant has shifted 45
clockwise.
3. When = 90 i.e. corresponding to point 2 in Fig. 5.6b. Here 2 = 0, but 1 = m
and is positive. Hence, r = m and has further shifted by an angle of 45 from its
position in (b) or by 90 from its original position in (a).
4. When = 135 i.e. corresponding to point 3 in Fig. 5.6b. Here, 1 = m/2 and is
positive, 2 = m/2and is also positive. The resultant r=m and has further shifted
clockwise by another 45, as shown in Fig. 5.6 (iv).

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 5. When = 180 i.e. corresponding to point 4 in Fig. 5.6 Here, 1 = 0, 2 =
m and is positive. Hence, r = m and has shifted clockwise by another 45
or has rotated through an angle of 180 from its position at the beginning. This
is shown in Fig. 5.6(v).
Hence, we conclude
(i). That the magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is equal to m the
maximum flux due to either phase.
(ii).That the resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by Ns = 120f / P rpm.

5.7 Types of Single Phase Induction Motor

(i) Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action through the use of an
auxiliary or starting winding.
(ii) Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through the use of an
auxiliary winding and a capacitor.
(iii) Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by
means of a shading coil around a portion of the pole structure.

5.7.1 (i) Split-Phase Induction Motor

The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an auxiliary or
starting winding S in addition to the main or running winding M. The starting winding
is located 90 electrical from the main winding [See Fig. (5.7 (i))] and operates only
during the brief period when the motor starts up.

Fig.(5.7)
The two windings are so resigned that the starting winding S has a high
resistance and relatively small reactance while the main winding M has relatively
low resistance and large reactance as shown in the schematic connections in Fig.
(5.7 (ii)). Consequently, the currents flowing in the two windings have reasonable
phase difference c (25 to 30) as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. (5.7 (iii)).
Operation
(i) When the two stator windings are energized from a single-phase supply, the
main winding carries current Im while the starting winding carries current Is.

163
(ii) Since main winding is made highly inductive while the starting winding highly
resistive, the currents Im and Is have a reasonable phase angle a (25 to 30)
between them as shown in Fig. (5.7 (iii)). Consequently, a weak revolving field
approximating to that of a 2-phase machine is produced which starts the motor.
The starting torque is given by;
Ts kIm Is sin
where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon the design of the motor.
(iii) When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch
opens the circuit of the starting winding. The motor then operates as a single-
phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal
speed. The normal speed of the motor is below the synchronous speed and
depends upon the load on the motor.
Characteristics
(i) The spinning torque is 1.5 to 2 times the full-load torque mid (lie starting
current is 6 to 8 times the full-load current.
(ii) Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most popular single-
phase motors in the market.

(iii) Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current density is high and
the winding heats up quickly. If the starting period exceeds 5 seconds, the
winding may burn out unless the motor is protected by built-in-thermal relay.
This motor is, therefore, suitable where starting periods are not frequent.
(iv) An important characteristic of these motors is that they are essentially
constant-speed motors. The speed variation is 2-5% from no-load to full-load.
(v) These motors are suitable where a moderate starting torque is required and
where starting periods are infrequent e.g., to drive:
(a) fans (b) washing machines (c) oil burners (d) small machine tools etc.
The power rating of such motors generally lies between 60 W and 250 W.

5.7.2 (ii) Capacitor-Start Motor

The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except that
the starting winding has as many turns as the main winding. Moreover, a capacitor C
is connected in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig. (5.8 (i)). The value of
capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about 80 (i.e., ~ 80) which is
considerably greater than 25 found in split-phase motor [See Fig. (5.8 (ii))].
Consequently, starting torque (Ts = k Im Is sin ) is much more than that of a split-

164
phase motor Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal switch when the
motor attains about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then operates as a
single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal
speed.

Characteristics
(i) Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are better than
those of a split- phase motor, both machines possess the same running
characteristics because the main windings are identical.
(ii) The phase angle between the two currents is about 80 compared to about 25
in a split- phase motor. Consequently, for the same starting torque, the current
in the starting winding is only about half that in a split-phase motor. Therefore,
the starting winding of a capacitor start motor heats up less quickly and is well
suited to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.

Fig.(5.8)
(iii) Capacitor-start motors are used where high starting torque is required and
where the starting period may be long e.g., to drive:
(a) compressors (b) large fans (c) pumps (d) high inertia loads
The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 7-5 kW.

5.7.3 (iii) Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that starting winding is
not opened after starting so that both the windings remain connected to the supply
when running as well as at starting. Two designs are generally used.
(i) In one design, a single capacitor C is used for both starting and running as
shown in Fig.(1.6 (i)). This design eliminates the need of a centrifugal switch
and at the same time improves the power factor and efficiency of the motor.

165
 Fig.(5.9)

(ii) In the other design, two capacitors C1 and C2 are used in the starting winding
as shown in Fig. (5.9(ii)). The smaller capacitor C1 required for optimum running
conditions is permanently connected in series with the starting winding. The
much larger capacitor C 2 is connected in parallel with C1 for optimum
starting and remains in the circuit during starting. The starting capacitor C1
is disconnected when the motor approaches about 75% of synchronous speed.
The motor then runs as a single-phase induction motor.
Characteristics
(i) The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for perfect 2-phase
operation at any load. The motor then produces a constant torque and not a
pulsating torque as in other single-phase motors.

(ii) Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free and can be
used in: (a) hospitals (6) studios and (c) other places where
silence is important.

5.7.4 (iv). Shaded Pole Induction Motor

This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of
salient poles i.e. projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a copper
band on one of its unequally divided part called shading ban Fig.5.10(a) shows 4 pole
shaded pole construction while Fig. 5.10(b) shows a single pole consisting of copper
shading band.

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 Fig 5.10
Key point: When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.
The production of rotating magnetic field can be explained as below :

The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces alternating
flux. The waveform of the flux is shown in the Fig. 5.11(a). The distribution of this flux
in the pole area is greatly influenced by the role of copper shading band. Consider the
three instants say t 1, t2 and t3 during first half cycle of the flux as shown, in the Fig
5.11(a).

Fig. 5.11 (a) Waveform of stator flux

At instant t = t1, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due to
the transformer action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band. This
circulates current through shading band as it is short circuited, producing its own
flux. According to lenz's law, the direction of this current is so as to oppose the cause
i.e. rise in current. Hence shading ring flux is opposing to the main flux. Hence there
is crowding of flux in non-shaded part while weakening of flux in shaded part. Overall
magnetic axis shifts in non-shaded part as shown in the Fig. 5.11(b).

167
 Fig. 5.11 Production of rotating magnetic field
At instant t = t2, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is
almost zero as flux almost reaches to its maximum value. So d/dt = 0. Hence there
is very little induced e.m.f. in the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux is also
negligible, hardly affecting the distribution of the main flux. Hence the main flux
distribution is uniform and magnetic axis lies at the centre of the pole face as shown
in the Fig. 5.11(c).
At the instant t = t3, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of decrease
is high which again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This circulates
current through the ring which produces its own flux. Now direction of the flux
produced by the shaded ring current is so as to oppose the cause which is decrease in
flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux means its
direction is same as that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux in
the shaded part as compared to non-shaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts
to the middle of the shaded part of the pole. This is shown in the Fig. 5.11(d).
This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently this
produces an effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from non-shaded
part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor produces the
starting torque is low which is about
40 to 50% of the full load torque for this type of motor. The torque speed
characteristics are shown in the Fig. 5.12

Fig. 5.12 Torque-speed characteristics of shaded pole motor

Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but
this type of motor has a lot of lamination as :
1. The starting torque is poor.
168
 2. The power factor is very low.
2
3. Due to I R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the
additional set of shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing
other, direction can be reversed but the method is complicated and expensive.
5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are
usually available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.
Application
These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor
and low efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, by motors,
advertising displays, film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers, photo
copying machines.

5.8 UNEXCITED SINGLE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

These motors
1. operate from a single-phase a.c. supply
2. run at a constant speed the synchronous speed of the revolving flux
3. need no d.c. excitation for their rotors (that is why they are called unexcited)
4. are self-starting.
These are of two types (a) reluctance motor and (b) hysteresis motor.

5.8.1 RELUCTANCE MOTOR

It is a single-phase synchronous motor which does not require d.c. excitation to
the rotor. Its operation is based upon the following principle:
Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is located in a magnetic field; a force
is exerted on the material, tending to align the material so that reluctance of the
magnetic path that passes through the material is minimum.

Fig.5.13
Construction
A reluctance motor (also called synchronous reluctance motor) consists of:
(i) a stator carrying a single-phase winding along with an auxiliary winding to
produce a synchronous-revolving magnetic field.
(ii) a squirrel-cage rotor having unsymmetrical magnetic construction. This is
169
achieved by symmetrically removing some of the teeth from the squirrel cage rotor to
produce salient poles on the rotor. As shown in Fig. (5.13 (i)), 4 salient poles have
been produced on me rotor. The salient poles created on the rotor must be equal to
the poles on the stator. Note that rotor salient poles offer low reluctance to the stator
flux and, therefore, become strongly magnetized.
Operation
(i) When single-phase stator having an auxiliary winding is energized, a
synchronously-
revolving field is produced. The motor starts as a standard squirrel-cage induction
motor and will accelerate to near its synchronous speed.
(ii) As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the rotating stator flux will exert
reluctance torque on the rotor poles tending to align the salient-pole axis with the axis
of the rotating field. The rotor assumes a position where its salient poles lock with
the poles of the revolving field [See Fig. (5.13 (ii))]. Consequently, the motor will continue
to run at the speed of revolving flux i.e., at the synchronous speed.
(iii) When we apply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall slightly behind the
stator poles, while continuing to turn at synchronous speed. As the load on the
motor is increased, the mechanical angle between the poles increases progressively.
Nevertheless, magnetic attraction keeps the rotor locked to the rotating flux. If the
load is increased beyond the amount under which the reluctance torque can
maintain synchronous speed, the rotor drops out of step with the revolving field. The
speed, then, drops to some value at which the slip is sufficient to develop the
necessary torque to drive the load by induction-motor action.

However, even though the rotor revolves synchronously, its poles lag behind the
stator poles by a certain angle known as torque angle, (something similar to that in
a synchronous motor). The reluctance torque increases with increase in torque
angle, attaining maximum value when = 45. If increases beyond 45, the rotor
falls out of synchronism. The average value of the reluctance torque is given by
T= K(V/f)2sin2 where K is a motor constant.
Characteristics
(i) These motors have poor torque, power factor and efficiency.
(ii) These motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to
synchronous speed.
(iii)The pull-in and pull-out torques of such motors are weak.

170
 Despite the above drawbacks, the reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type
of synchronous motor. They are widely used for constant-speed applications such as
timing devices, signalling devices.
5.9 SERVOMOTORS
They are also called control motors and have high-torque capabilities. Unlike
large industrial motors, they are not used for continuous energy conversion but only
for precise speed and precise position control at high torques. Of course, their basic
principle of operation is the same as that of other electromagnetic motors. However,
their construction, design and mode of operation are different. Their power ratings
vary from a fraction of a watt upto a few 100 W. Due to their low-inertia, they have
high speed of response. That is why they are smaller in diameter but longer in length.
They generally operate at very low speeds or sometimes zero speed. They find wide
applications in radar, tracking and guidance systems, process controllers,
computers and machine tools. Both dc and a.c. (2-phase and 3-phase) servomotors are
used at present.
Servomotors differ in application capabilities from large industrial motors
in the following respects:
1. They produce high torque at all speeds including zero speed.
2. They are capable of holding a static (i.e. no motion) position.
3. They do not overheat at standstill or lower speeds.
4. Due to low-inertia, they are able to reverse directions quickly.
5. They are able to accelerate and deaccelerate quickly.
6. They are able to return to a given position time after time without any drift.

These motors look like the usual electric motors. Their main difference from
industrial motors is that more electric wires come out of them for power as well as for
control. The servomotor wires go to a controller and not to the electrical line through
contactors. Usually, a tachometer (speed indicating device) is mechanically connected
to the motor shaft sometimes; blower or fans may also be attached for motor cooling at
low speeds.
AC Servomotors
Presently, most of the ac servomotors are of the two-phase squirrel-cage
induction type and are used for low power applications. However, recently three-phase
induction motors have been modified for high power servo systems which had so far
been using high power d.c. servomotors.
(i). Two-phase AC Servomotor
Such motors normally run on a frequency of 60 Hz or 400 Hz (for airborne
systems). The stator has two distributed windings which are displaced from each other
by 90 (electrical). The main winding (also called the reference or fixed phase) is supplied
from a constant voltage source, Vm 0 (Fig. 5.14). The other winding (also called the
control phase) is supplied with a variable voltage of the same frequency as the reference
phase but is phase-displaced by 90 (electrical). The control phase voltage is controlled
by an electronic controller. The speed and torque of the rotor are controlled by the phase
difference between the main and control windings. Reversing the phase difference from
leading to lagging (or vice-versa) reverses the motor direction.
171
 Fig. 5.14
Since the rotor bars have high resistance, the torque-speed characteristics for
various armature voltages are almost linear over a wide speed range particularly near
the zero speed. The motor operation can be controlled by varying the voltage of the
main phase while keeping that of the reference phase constant.
(ii). Three-phase AC Servomotors
A great deal of research has been to modify a three-phase squirrel-cage
induction motor for use in high power servo systems. Normally, such a motor is a
highly non-linear coupled- circuit device. Recently, this machine has been operated
successfully as a linear decoupled machine (like a d.c. machine) by using a control
method called vector control or field oriented control. In this method, the currents
fed to the machine are controlled in such a way that its torque and flux become
decoupled as in a dc machine. This results in a high speed and a high
torque response.

SINGLE PHASE A.C. SERIES MOTOR

1. Single Phase Commutator Motors
The commutator is a feature of d.c. motors. But a.c. motors having wound rotor with brushes
and commutator arrangements, are called commutator motors which work on single phase a.c.
supply. The commutator arrangement present in these motors is similar to the armature of a d.c.
motor. In this section we will discuss two types of single phase commutator motors namely a.c.
series motors and the universal motors which are widely used in practice.
1.1 Single Phase A.C. Series Motor
In a normal d.c. motor if direction of both field and armature current is reversed,
the direction of torque remains unchanged. So when normal d.c. series motor is
connected to an a.c. supply, both field and armature current get reversed and
unidirectional torque gets produced in the motor hence motor can work on a.c.
supply.
But performance of such motor is not satisfactory due to the following reasons :
i) There are tremendous eddy current losses in the yoke and field cores,
which causes overheating.

172
ii) Armature and field winding offer high reactance to a.c. due to which operating
power factor is very low.
iii) The sparking at brushes is a major problem because of high voltage and current
induced in the short circuited armature coils during the commutation period.
Some modifications are required to have the satisfactory performance of d.c. series
motor on a.c. supply, when it is called a.c. series motor. The modification are :
i) To reduce the eddy current losses, yoke and pole core construction is
laminated.
ii) The power factor can be improved by reducing the magnitudes of field and
armature reactance. Field reactance can be decreased by reducing the number of
turns. But this reduces the field flux. But this reduction in flux (N 1/), increases
the speed and reduce the torque. To keep the torque same it is necessary to
increase the armature turns proportionately. This increases the armature
inductance.
Now to compensate for increased armature flux which produce severe armature
reaction, it is necessary to use compensating winding. The flux produced by this
winding is opposite to that produced by armature and effectively neutralizes the
armature reaction.
If such a compensating winding is connected in series with the armature as shown
in the Fig.1(a), the motor is said to be 'conductively compensated'. For motors to be
operated on a.c. and d.c. both, the compensation should be conductive. If
compensating winding is short circuited on its self as shown in the Fig. 1(b), the motor
is said to be 'inductively compensated'. In this compensating winding acts as a
secondary of transformer and armature as its primary. The ampere turns produced
by compensating winding neutralize the armature ampere turns.

Fig. 5.15

To reduce the induced e.m.f. due to transformer action in the armature coils while
commutation period, the following measures are taken:
i) The flux per pole is reduced and number of poles are increased.
ii) The frequency of supply used is reduced.
iii) Preferably single turn armature coils are used.
The characteristics of such motor are similar to that of d.c. series motor. The
torque varies as square of the armature current and speed varies inversely as the
armature current. The speed of such motor can be dangerously high on no load
condition and hence it is always started with some load. Starting torque produced is
high which is 3 to 4 times the full load torque. The speed- torque characteristics of
such type of motors is as shown in the Fig.5.16.

173
 Fig. 5.16 Speed-torque characteristic of a.c. and d.c. series motor
Applications : Because of high starting torque it is used in electric traction, hoists,
locomotives

5.10 Universal Motor

There are small capacity series motors which can be operated on d.c. supply or
single phase alternating supply of same voltage with same characteristics, called
universal motors. The general construction of such motor is similar to that of a.c.
series motor as discussed in last article. It is manufactured in two types.
i) Non compensated, low h.p ii) Compensated type, high h.p.
Non compensated type pole has 2 poles, having entire magnetic path as laminated.
Armature is wound type similar to the normal d.c. motor. Such non compensated
construction is shown in the Fig. 5.17.

Fig. 5.17 Cross-section of non-compensated universal motor

While in compensated type, the motor has distributed field winding consisting of
main field and compensating winding. This is somewhat similar to the stator of split
phase single phase induction motor type construction. This also has a wound
armature similar to the normal d.c. motor. Fig.5.18 shows the connection diagrams for
both the types of universal motor.

174
 Fig. 5.18 Connection diagrams for a universal
motor

Speed torque characteristics: The speed - torque characteristics for both

the types of universal motor are shown in the Fig.5.19

Fig. 5.19 Speed-torque characteristic of universal motor

Compensated type universal motor has better speed - torque

characteristics i.e. the characteristics are same for the operation of motor on
a.c. or d.c. supply. The motors are generally designed for full load operation speeds
ranging between 3000 to 20000 r.p.m.
Applications : Though compensated type characteristics are better, the non
compensated type are more preferred for low h.p. applications. While compensated
type of universal motors are preferred for h.p. applications. High starting torque is the
important feature of universal motors.
The universal motors are used for domestic applications like vacuum cleaners, food
processor and mixers, hair driers, coffee grinders, electric shavers etc. Their other applications
are blowers, portable tools like drilling machines and small drivers.
5.10.1 Reversal of Rotation of Universal Motors
By reversing the flow of current through the armature or field windings, the
direction of rotation can be reversed for salient pole non compensated type universal
motor. This is possible by interchanging the terminals on brush holders as shown in
the Fig. 5.20
In case of compensated type, the armature or field loads are interchanged and
brushes are shifted against the direction of rotation of motor, to achieve the reversal of
direction.

175
 Fig. 5.20 Reversal of rotation of universal motors
5.11 Linear Induction Motor
The linear induction motor works on the same principle as that of normal
induction motor with difference that instead of rotational movement, the rotor moves
linearly. If the stator and rotor of the induction motor are made flat then it forms the
linear induction motor. The flux produced by the flat stator moves linearly with the
synchronous speed from one end to the other. The synchronous speed is given by,
vs = 2wf
where, vs = Linear Synchronous Speed
(m/s)
w = Width of one pole pitch (m)
f = Frequency of supply (Hz)
It can be seen that the synchronous speed is independent of number of poles but
depends only one width of pole pitch and supply frequency. The schematic of linear
induction motor is shown in the Fig. 5.21.

Fig. 5.21

The flux moves linearly and forces the rotor to move in straight line in the same
directions. In many of the practical applications the rotor plate is a stationary member
whereas stator moves. The analysis of linear machines is nearly same as that of
rotating machines. All the angular dimensions and displacements are displaced by
linear ones and torque is replaced by the force. The expressions for machine
parameters are derived analogously and the results are similar in form. Some of the
typical results are as given below,

176
 The linear induction motors are widely used in transportation fields i.e. in electric
trains. The stator is mounted on the moving vehicle and a conducting stationary rotor
forming the rails. The induced currents in the rail not only force the stator to move
but also provide magnetic levitation in which the train floats in air above the track.
This mechanism proves better for high speed transportation without the difficulties
associated with wheel-rail interactions present in conventional rail transport. Thus the
trains may have speed of about 300 km/hr. A powerful electromagnet fixed
underneath the train moves across the rails which are conducting. The induces the
currents in the rail which provides levitation so that the train is pushed up above the
track in the air. The operation of such system is automatic and the system is reliable
and safe.
Linear motors also find application in the machine tool industry and in robotics
where linear motion is required for positioning and for operation of the
manipulators. In addition to this,reciprocating compressors can also be driven by the
linear machines.
5.12 Permanent Magnet D.C. Motors
Permanent magnet D.C. motors are small as that of ordinary d.c. shunt motor with the
difference that there is permanent magnet instead of stationary field winding for producing the
required magnetic flux. These stationary electromagnets are fixed to the outer shell of the motor.
5.12.1 Construction
The constructional features of permanent magnet d.c. motor is shown in the Fig. 5.22 As
seen from the figure the cylindrical steel stator supporting the electromagnets also provides
return path for magnetic flux as it is made up of magnetic material.
The armature consists of stator windings, commutator segments and brushes same as those in
conventional d.c. motors. The stator is having some structure having cylindrical shell of uniform
thickness which is magnetized in radial direction. The material used for permanent magnet is
having high residual flux density and high coercivity. For the motors having the rating up to 150
kW the material like Alnico may be used. The ferrite magnets are used in the fractional kilowatt
motors while rate earth magnets even though costly are economical in small and large motors.
The material used in rare earth magnets are newly developed materials like somarium cobalt and
neodymium-iron-cobalt which gives high residual flux density, high coercivity with maximum
energy product.

177
 Fig. 5.22 Cross section of a typical permanent-magnet motor

The latest trend is to use neaodymium-iron-boran material which gives larger flux
density, coercivity and maximum energy product than somarium cobalt. It is
also having good mechanical properties and comparatively less expensive.

5.12.2Working and Performance Characteristics

These motors normally run on 6 V, 12 V or 24 V d.c. supply. This d.c. supply can
made be available from batteries or from rectification (a.c. to d.c.). Because of the
interaction between flux produced by permanent magnets and current carried by the
armature, the torque is produced.
The equivalent circuit of a permanent magnet d,c, motor is as shown in the Fig. 5.23.

Fig. 5.23
Ra is representing the resistance of the armature winding. The field winding connections are
absent because of permanent magnets.
In conventional d.c. motor, the relation between speed and voltage can be written as,

Also the relation between torque and current in conventional dc motor is given as,

But in case of permanent magnet dc motors the resultant flux is constant. Hence the above
relationships can be expressed as,
178
 5.12.3Performance Characteristics
The set of typical performance characteristics of permanent magnet DC motors are
shown in the Fig. 5.24.
The speed-torque characteristics are almost linear which makes it suitable in servomotors.
With increase in torque the current also increases.

Fig.5.24
The efficiency of these motors is better than conventional motors owing to absence of field losses.
As the field flux is remaining constant, the speed control is not possible with flux control method.
Thus the method used for speed control is armature control using a rheostat or using electronic
circuits. The speeds obtained are below the normal speeds.
5.12.4 Advantages
1. These motors do not require external excitation for producing magnetic fields. Thus there is
saving in energy required for creating magnetic fields.
2. As the windings on the field are absent, the size of such motor is small as compared to equal
rating conventional motor.
3. The cost of these machines is low.
4. The efficiency of these motors is high compared to conventional motors as the field losses are
absent.
5. The motors designed up to 12 V or less produces less TV and radio interference.
6. These motors produce less air noise.

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15.12.5 Disadvantages
1. The excessive currents in the armature windings of these motors may demagnetize the
permanent magnets because of armature reaction mmf. The other sources of demagnetization are
improper design, or brush shift or temperature effects.
2. The flux density produced in the air gap by the permanent magnets is limited.
3. The speeds above normal speeds are not possible flux per pole cannot be controlled.
4. As the magnets are totally enclosed to prevent them from magnetic junk, as compared to
conventional motors their temperature is higher which limitation in applications is where the
motor is used for short period.
15.12.6 Applications
These motors are extensively used in automobiles for windshield wipers and washers. They
are also used in blowers used in heaters and air conditioners. They are also used to raise and
lower windows and in slot cars. Fort disc drives in personal computers these motors are used.
The rating available for these motors is up to 150 kW. These motors may also be used in
applications such as fans and radio antennas, electrical fuel pumps, marine engine starters, wheel
chairs and cordless power tools. In toy industry, tooth brush, food mixer, ice crusher, vacuum
cleaner and in portable electric tools these motors are extensively used.

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