Socratic method

Socratic method, also known as maieutics, method "Socratic dialogues", which generally portray Socrates
of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate, is engaging in the method and questioning his fellow citi-
a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between zens about moral and epistemological issues. But in his
individuals, based on asking and answering questions to later dialogues, such as Theaetetus or Sophist, Plato had
stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and un- a dierent method to philosophical discussions, namely
derlying presumptions. It is a dialectical method, often Dialectic.
involving a discussion in which the defense of one point
of view is questioned; one participant may lead another
to contradict themselves in some way, thus weakening the 2 Method
defenders point. This method is named after the classical
Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in
Elenchus (Ancient Greek: elengkhos argu-
Plato's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics) because it is
ment of disproof or refutation; cross-examining, testing,
employed to bring out denitions implicit in the inter-
scrutiny esp. for purposes of refutation[3] ) is the cen-
locutors beliefs, or to help them further their understand-
tral technique of the Socratic method. The Latin form
ing.
elenchus (plural elenchi ) is used in English as the tech-
The Socratic method is a method of hypothesis elimi- nical philosophical term.[4] The most common adjectival
nation, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily form in English is elenctic; elenchic and elenchtic are also
identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradic- current.
tions. The Socratic method searches for general, com-
In Platos early dialogues, the elenchus is the technique
monly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them
Socrates uses to investigate, for example, the nature or
to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The ba-
denition of ethical concepts such as justice or virtue.
sic form is a series of questions formulated as tests of
According to Vlastos,[5] it has the following steps:
logic and fact intended to help a person or group discover
their beliefs about some topic, exploring denitions or
logoi (singular logos) and seeking to characterize general 1. Socrates interlocutor asserts a thesis, for example
characteristics shared by various particular instances. Courage is endurance of the soul, which Socrates
considers false and targets for refutation.
2. Socrates secures his interlocutors agreement to fur-
ther premises, for example Courage is a ne thing
1 Development and Ignorant endurance is not a ne thing.

In the second half of the 5th century BC, sophists were
teachers who specialized in using the tools of philosophy
and rhetoric to entertain, impress, or persuade an audi-
ence to accept the speakers point of view. Socrates pro-
moted an alternative method of teaching which came to
be called the Socratic method.
Socrates began to engage in such discussions with his fel-
low Athenians after his friend from youth, Chaerephon,
visited the Oracle of Delphi, which conrmed that no
man in Greece was wiser than Socrates. Socrates saw this
as a paradox, and began using the Socratic method to an-
swer his conundrum. Diogenes Lartius, however, wrote
that Protagoras invented the Socratic method.[1][2]
Plato famously formalized the Socratic elenctic style in
prosepresenting Socrates as the curious questioner of
some prominent Athenian interlocutorin some of his
early dialogues, such as Euthyphro and Ion, and the
method is most commonly found within the so-called
3. Socrates then argues, and the interlocutor agrees,
that these further premises imply the contrary of the
original thesis; in this case, it leads to: courage is
not endurance of the soul.
4. Socrates then claims that he has shown that his inter-
locutors thesis is false and that its negation is true.
One elenctic examination can lead to a new, more rened,
examination of the concept being considered, in this case
it invites an examination of the claim: Courage is wise
endurance of the soul. Most Socratic inquiries consist of
a series of elenchi and typically end in puzzlement known
as aporia.
Frede[6] points out that Vlastos conclusion in step #4
above makes nonsense of the aporetic nature of the early
dialogues. Having shown that a proposed thesis is false is
insucient to conclude that some other competing the-
sis must be true. Rather, the interlocutors have reached

1
2 3 APPLICATION

aporia, an improved state of still not knowing what to say cratic method to point out the aws in the Platonic theory
about the subject under discussion. of the Forms, as presented by Socrates; it is not the
The exact nature of the elenchus is subject to a great deal only dialogue in which theories normally expounded by
of debate, in particular concerning whether it is a positive Plato/Socrates are broken down through dialectic. In-
method, leading to knowledge, or a negative method used stead of arriving at answers, the method was used to break
solely to refute false claims to knowledge.[7] down the theories we hold, to go beyond the axioms and
postulates we take for granted. Therefore, myth and the
W. K. C. Guthrie in The Greek Philosophers sees it as Socratic method are not meant by Plato to be incompati-
an error to regard the Socratic method as a means by ble; they have dierent purposes, and are often described
which one seeks the answer to a problem, or knowl- as the left hand and right hand paths to good and wis-
edge. Guthrie claims that the Socratic method actually dom.
aims to demonstrate ones ignorance. Socrates, unlike the
Sophists, did believe that knowledge was possible, but be-
lieved that the rst step to knowledge was recognition of
ones ignorance. Guthrie writes, "[Socrates] was accus-
tomed to say that he did not himself know anything, and 3.1 Socratic Circles
that the only way in which he was wiser than other men
was that he was conscious of his own ignorance, while
they were not. The essence of the Socratic method is A Socratic Circle (also known as a Socratic Seminar)
to convince the interlocutor that whereas he thought he is a pedagogical approach based on the Socratic method
knew something, in fact he does not."{pg 74} and uses a dialogic approach to understand information in
a text. Its systematic procedure is used to examine a text
through questions and answers founded on the beliefs that
all new knowledge is connected to prior knowledge, that
3 Application all thinking comes from asking questions, and that asking
one question should lead to asking further questions.[8] A
Socrates generally applied his method of examination to Socratic Circle is not a debate. The goal of this activity is
concepts that seem to lack any concrete denition; e.g., to have participants work together to construct meaning
the key moral concepts at the time, the virtues of piety, and arrive at an answer, not for one student or one group
wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Such an ex- to win the argument.[9]
amination challenged the implicit moral beliefs of the in- This approach is based on the belief that participants seek
terlocutors, bringing out inadequacies and inconsisten- and gain deeper understanding of concepts in the text
cies in their beliefs, and usually resulting in aporia. In through thoughtful dialogue rather than memorizing in-
view of such inadequacies, Socrates himself professed formation that has been provided for them.[9] While So-
his ignorance, but others still claimed to have knowl- cratic Circles can dier in structure, and even in name,
edge. Socrates believed that his awareness of his igno- they typically involve the following components: a pas-
rance made him wiser than those who, though ignorant, sage of text that students must read beforehand and two
still claimed knowledge. While this belief seems para-
concentric circles of students: an outer circle and an in-
doxical at rst glance, it in fact allowed Socrates to dis- ner circle. The inner circle focuses on exploring and
cover his own errors where others might assume they were
analysing the text through the act of questioning and an-
correct. This claim was known by the anecdote of the swering. During this phase, the outer circle remains
Delphic oracular pronouncement that Socrates was the
silent. Students in the outer circle are much like scien-
wisest of all men. (Or, rather, that no man was wiser tic observers watching and listening to the conversation
than Socrates.)
of the inner circle. When the text has been fully discussed
Socrates used this claim of wisdom as the basis of his and the inner circle is nished talking, the outer circle
moral exhortation. Accordingly, he claimed that the chief provides feedback on the dialogue that took place. This
goodness consists in the caring of the soul concerned with process alternates with the inner circle students going to
moral truth and moral understanding, that wealth does the outer circle for the next meeting and vice versa. The
not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and every length of this process varies depending on the text used
other blessing, both to the individual and to the state, for the discussion. The teacher may decide to alternate
and that life without examination [dialogue] is not worth groups within one meeting, or they may alternate at each
living. It is with this in mind that the Socratic method is separate meeting.[8][10]
employed. The most signicant dierence between this activity and
The motive for the modern usage of this method and most typical classroom activities involves the role of the
Socrates use are not necessarily equivalent. Socrates teacher. In Socratic Circles the students lead the discus-
rarely used the method to actually develop consistent sion and questioning. The teachers role is to ensure the
theories, instead using myth to explain them. The discussion advances regardless of the particular direction
Parmenides dialogue shows Parmenides using the So- the discussion takes.[8][10]
3.1 Socratic Circles 3

3.1.1 Various approaches to Socratic Circles larger Socratic Seminar can then occur as a discus-
sion about how each text corresponds with one an-
Teachers use Socratic Circles in dierent ways. The other. Simultaneous Seminars can also be used for a
structure it takes may look dierent in each classroom. particularly dicult text. Students can work through
While this is not an exhaustive list, teachers may use one dierent issues and key passages from the text.[12]
of the following structures to administer Socratic Semi-
nar: No matter what structure the teacher employs, the basic
premise of the seminar/circles is to turn partial control
1. Inner/outer circle or shbowl: Students need to and direction of the classroom over to the students. The
be arranged in inner and outer circles. The inner seminars encourage students to work together, creating
circle engages in discussion about the text. The meaning from the text and to stay away from trying to
outer circle observes the inner circle, while taking nd a correct interpretation. The emphasis is on critical
[8]
notes. The outer circle shares their observations and creative thinking.
and questions the inner circle with guidance from
the teacher/facilitator. Students use constructive
3.1.2 Text selection
criticism as opposed to making judgements. The
students on the outside keep track of topics they Socratic Circle texts
would like to discuss as part of the debrief. Par-
ticipants of the outer circle can use an observation A Socratic Circle text is a tangible document that creates
checklist or notes form to monitor the participants a thought-provoking discussion.[13] The text ought to be
in the inner circle. These tools will provide struc- appropriate for the participants current level of intellec-
ture for listening and give the outside members spe- tual and social development.[14] It provides the anchor for
cic details to discuss later in the seminar.[8][10] The dialogue whereby the facilitator can bring the participants
teacher may also sit in the circle but at the same back to the text if they begin to digress. Furthermore,
height as the students.[11] the seminar text enables the participants to create a level
2. Triad: Students are arranged so that each partic- playing eld ensuring that the dialogical tone within the
ipant (called a pilot) in the inner circle has two classroom remains consistent and pure to the subject or
co-pilots sitting behind them on either side. Pilots topic at hand.[13] Some practitioners argue that texts do
are the speakers because they are in the inner circle; not have to be conned to printed texts, but can include
co-pilots are in the outer circle and only speak dur- artifacts such as objects, physical spaces, and the like.
ing consultation. The seminar proceeds as any other Pertinent elements of an eective Socratic text
seminar. At a point in the seminar, the facilitator
Socratic seminar texts are able to challenge participants
pauses the discussion and instructs the triad to talk
thinking skills by having these characteristics:
to each other. Conversation will be about topics that
need more in-depth discussion or a question posed
by the leader. Sometimes triads will be asked by 1. Ideas and values
the facilitator to come up with a new question. Any 2. Complexity and challenge
time during a triad conversation, group members
can switch seats and one of the co-pilots can sit in the 3. Relevance to participants curriculum
pilots seat. Only during that time is the switching of 4. Ambiguity
seats allowed. This structure allows for students to
speak, who may not yet have the condence to speak 1. Ideas and values - The text must introduce ideas and
in the large group. This type of seminar involves all values that are complex and dicult to summarize.[13]
students instead of just the students in the inner and Powerful discussions arise from personal connections to
outer circles.[10] abstract ideas and from implications to personal values.
3. Simultaneous seminars: Students are arranged in 2. Complexity and challenge - The text must be rich in
multiple small groups and placed as far as possible ideas and complexity [10] and open to interpretation.[15]
from each other. Following the guidelines of the So- Ideally it should require multiple readings,[16] but should
cratic Seminar, students engage in small group dis- be neither far above the participants intellectual level nor
cussions. Simultaneous seminars are typically done very long.
with experienced students who need little guidance
and can engage in a discussion without assistance 3. Relevance to participants and curriculum - An ef-
from a teacher/facilitator. According to the liter- fective text has identiable themes that are recognizable
ature, this type of seminar is benecial for teach- and pertinent to the lives of the participants.[14] Themes
ers who want students to explore a variety of texts in the text should relate to the curriculum.
around a main issue or topic. Each small group may 4. Ambiguity - The text must be approachable from a va-
have a dierent text to read/view and discuss. A riety of dierent perspectives, including perspectives that
4 5 REFERENCES

seem mutually exclusive, thus provoking critical thinking three types of questions to prepare:
and raising important questions. The absence of right and
wrong answers promotes a variety of discussion and en- 1. Opening questions generate discussion at the be-
courages individual contributions.[10][16] ginning of the seminar in order to elicit dominant
Two dierent ways to select a text themes.[10][15]
Socratic texts can be divided into two main categories: 2. Guiding questions help deepen and elaborate the dis-
1. Print texts (e.g. short stories, poems, and essays) and cussion, keeping contributions on topic and encour-
non-print texts (e.g. photographs, sculptures, and maps); aging a positive atmosphere and consideration for
and others.
2. Subject area, which can draw from print or non-print 3. Closing questions lead participants to summarize
artifacts. As examples, language arts can be approached their thoughts and learning[10] and personalize what
through poems, history through written or oral historical theyve discussed.[15]
speeches, science through policies on environmental is-
sues, math through mathematical proofs, health through
nutrition labels, and physical education through tness 3.2 Psychotherapy
guidelines.[10][13]
The Socratic method, in the form of Socratic questioning,
has been adapted for psychotherapy, most prominently
3.1.3 Questioning methods in Socratic Circles in Classical Adlerian psychotherapy, Logotherapy,[18]
Cognitive Therapy[19][20][21][22] and Reality Therapy. It
Socratic Circles are based upon the interaction of peers. can be used to clarify meaning, feeling, and conse-
The focus is to explore multiple perspectives on a given quences, as well as to gradually unfold insight, or explore
issue or topic. Socratic questioning is used to help stu- alternative actions.
dents apply the activity to their learning. The pedagogy of The Socratic method has also recently inspired a new
Socratic questions is open-ended, focusing on broad, gen- form of applied philosophy: socratic dialogue, also called
eral ideas rather than specic, factual information.[8] The philosophical counseling. In Europe Gerd B. Achenbach
questioning technique emphasizes a level of questioning is probably the best known practitioner, and Michel We-
and thinking where there is no single right answer. ber has also proposed another variant of the practice.
Socratic circles generally start with an open-ended
question proposed either by the leader or by another
participant.[14] There is no designated rst speaker; as 4 See also
individuals participate in Socratic circles, they gain
experience that enables them to be eective in this role Dialectic
of initial questioner.[10]
Marva Collins
The leader keeps the topic focused by asking a variety of
questions about the text itself, as well as questions to help The Paper Chase, based on a 1970 novel of the same
clarify positions when arguments become confused. The name, dramatizing the use of the Socratic method in
leader also seeks to coax reluctant participants into the law school classes
discussion, and to limit contributions from those who tend
to dominate.[10] She or he prompts participants to elabo- Socrates Cafe
rate on their responses and to build on what others have
said. The leader guides participants to deepen, clarify, Socratic irony
and paraphrase, and to synthesize a variety of dierent
Socratic dialogue
views.[10]
The participants share the responsibility with the leader to
maintain the quality of the Socratic circle. They listen ac- 5 References
tively in order to respond eectively to what others have
contributed. This teaches the participants to think and
[1] Jarratt, Susan C. Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric
speak persuasively using the discussion to support their Regured. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illi-
position.[8] Participants must demonstrate respect for dif- nois University Press, 1991., p 83.
ferent ideas, thoughts and values, and must not interrupt
each other.[10] [2] Sprague, Rosamond Kent, The Older Sophists, Hackett
Publishing Company (ISBN 0-87220-556-8), p. 5.
Questions can be created individually or in small
groups.[15] All participants are given the opportunity to [3] Liddell, Scott and Jones, Greek-English Lexicon, 9th Edi-
take part in the discussion.[17] Socratic Circles specify tion.

[4] Websters New World College Dictionary, 4th Edition; Ox-
ford English Dictionary.
[5] Gregory Vlastos, 'The Socratic Elenchus, Oxford Studies
in Ancient Philosophy I, Oxford 1983, 2758.
[6] Michael Frede, Platos Arguments and the Dialogue
Form, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Supplemen-
tary Volume 1992, Oxford 1992, 20119.
[7] Stephen Salkever, Methods of Interpreting Plato and his
Dialogues (Bryn Mawr Classical Review)
[8] Copeland, Matt (2010). Socratic Circles: Fostering Critical
and Creative Thinking in Middle and High School. Port-
land, MN: Stenhouse.
[9] The Socratic Circle (PDF). Retrieved 17 July 2012.
[10] Furman: Socratic Seminar (PDF). Retrieved 2012-07-
17.
[11] Ting Chowning, Jeanne (October 2009). Socratic Sem-
inars in Science Class. The Science Teacher. National
Science Teachers Association. 76 (7): 38.
[12] Gose, Michael (January 2009). When Socratic Dialogue
is Flagging: Questions and Strategies for Engaging Stu-
dents. College Teaching. 57 (1): 46.
[13] The Paideia Seminar: active thinking through dialogue
centre. 3.4 Planning step 3: Select text. Retrieved July
16, 2012.
[14] Chorzempa, Barbara; Lapidus, Laurie (January 2009).
To Find Yourself, Think For Yourself. Teaching Ex-
ceptional Children. 41 (3): 5459.
[15] Mangrum, Jennifer (April 2010). Sharing Practice
Through Socratic Seminars. Kappan. 91 (7): 4043.
[16] Facing History and Ourselves: Socratic Seminar. Re-
trieved July 16, 2012.
[17] Gose, Michael (2009). When Socratic Dialogue Is Flag-
ging; Questions and Strategies for Engaging Students.
College Teaching. 57 (1).
[18] Lukas, Elisabeth, Logotherapy Textbook, 2000, p. 86
[19] Overholser, J. C. (1993). Elements of the Socratic
method: II. Inductive reasoning. Psychotherapy. 30: 75
85. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.30.1.75.
[20] Overholser, J. C. (1994). Elements of the Socratic
method: III. Universal denitions. Psychotherapy. 31
(2): 286293. doi:10.1037/h0090222.
[21] Overholser, J. C. (1995). Elements of the Socratic
method: IV. Disavowal of knowledge. Psychotherapy.
32 (2): 283292. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.32.2.283.
[22] Overholser, J. C. (1996). Elements of the Socratic
method: V. Self-improvement. Psychotherapy. 33:
283292.
5
6 Further reading
Articles
Areeda,Philip E. 'The Socratic Method' (1996)
109(5) Harvard Law Review 911-922
Darvhisi, Dariush, "Distinction between Dialectical
methods of Socrates and Plato", Logical Study, Vol-
ume & Issue: Volume 2, Number 4, Winter 2012,
pp. 4976.
Vlastos, Gregory; Vlastos (1983). The Socratic
Elenchus. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. 1:
2758.
Books
Benson, Hugh (2000) Socratic Wisdom. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Frede, Michael (1992) 'Platos Arguments and the
Dialogue Form' in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philos-
ophy, Supplementary Volume, 201-19.
Guthrie, W. K. C. (1968) The Greek Philosophers
from Thales to Aristotle. London: Routledge.
Jarratt, Susan C. (1991) Rereading the Sophists:
Classical Rhetoric Regured. Carbondale and Ed-
wardsville: Southern Illinois University Press.
Sprague, Rosamond Kent (1972) The Older
Sophists. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Com-
pany ISBN 0-87220-556-8.
7 External links
Robinson, Richard, Platos Earlier Dialectic, 2nd
edition (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1953).
Ch. 2: Elenchus;
Ch. 3: Elenchus: Direct and Indirect
Philosopher.org - 'Tips on Starting your own
Socrates Cafe', Christopher Phillips, Cecilia
Phillips
Socraticmethod.net Socratic Method Research Por-
tal
How to Use the Socratic Method
UChicago.edu 'The Socratic Method' by Elizabeth
Garrett (1998)
Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling, an exam-
ple from Rick Garlikov
Project Gutenberg: Works by Plato
6 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

Project Gutenberg: Works by Xenophon (includes

some Socratic works)
Project Gutenberg: Works by Cicero (includes some
works in the Socratic dialogue format)
The Socratic Club

Socratic and Scientic Method

 7

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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