Fuel 102 (2012) 221226

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A new technique to improve freezethaw durability of y ash

Gokhan Baykal a, Altug Saygl b,
a
Civil Engineering Department, Bogazici University, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
b
Civil Engineering Department, Mugla University, 48000 Mugla, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

" The addition of snow acted similar to the effect of air entrainment agents.
" Increase in void ratio and densication is the main cause of FT performance.
" 90180 days curing of both samples revealed similar results.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: High volume utilization of industrial wastes and by products is the solution for high disposal costs. Accept-
Received 20 January 2011 able durability levels in addition to environmental factors are a key factor for safe utilization of wastes and
Received in revised form 28 February 2012 by products of coal burning power plants in road construction activities. The durability levels of most y
Accepted 7 June 2012
ashes are similar to concrete if the strength and air content are kept constant. To obtain a better freeze
Available online 27 June 2012
thaw performance from the y ash samples, an air entraining agent must be added into the matrix. Snow
can be added to the y ash samples as an air entraining agent as presented. In this study a new technique
Keywords:
involving the use of snow as an additive to the y ash is presented. Compaction of y ash is very sensitive
Fly ash
Freeze thaw resistance
to water content which complicates the use of y ash in highway embankment construction. One or two
Utilization percent additional water over optimum moisture content makes compaction of the y ash impossible. On
By products the other hand, an excess amount of water is needed to enhance the reactions leading to formation of
Durability cementitious products, which increases strength. The extra water is added in solid phase as snow, which
allows compaction of the samples without liquefying. The 10% extra water added in the solid phase caused
a 30% increase in the void ratio. The main objective of this investigation is to evaluate whether the
increased void ratio causes a similar behavior expected from air entraining agents on the freeze thaw dura-
bility of y ash. Type C y ash at optimum moisture content and y ash with additional 10% by weight
snow are compacted, sealed and cured for 90 and 180 days at the curing room. After the curing period,
freezethaw durability tests are conducted with a freezethaw cabinet. The development of deterioration,
resonant frequency variation and weight losses of y ash and snow added y ash samples compacted at
optimum moisture content are determined throughout the test period. The relative dynamic modulus
of elasticity of the control samples decreased to 55% of their original value after 90 freeze thaw cycles,
for snow added y ash samples the same amount of reduction occurred after 120 freeze thaw cycles for
90 and 180 days cured samples. Higher freezethaw performance of the snow added samples is related
to the increased void ratio after melting of snow and densication of the matrix around the pores due
to higher level of cementitious mineral formation. The increase in the freezethaw performance of snow
added y ash samples will allow utilization of y ash in highway embankment construction activities
where large surface area exposure and large volume usage makes it more critical for the service life and
longevity of the constructed road in cold regions. Another advantage of the developed technique is the
reduction of transportation costs by more than 10% by using less material for construction.
Crown Copyright 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction construction requires an awareness of the properties of these

Large volumes of disposed y ash can be benecially utilized in
civil engineering applications. Using y ash in embankment
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 252 2111942; fax: +90 252 2111911.
E-mail addresses: saygili@mu.edu.tr, altugsaygili@yahoo.com (A. Saygl).
materials and the limitations associated with their use. Efcient
utilization of y ash is a global concern requiring extensive
research and development work towards exploring newer applica-
tions and maximizing use of existing technologies [1].
When used in structural lls or embankments, y ash offers
several advantages over natural soil or rock. Its relatively low unit

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.041
222 G. Baykal, A. Saygl / Fuel 102 (2012) 221226
weight makes it well suited for placement over soft or low bearing
strength soils, and its high shear strength, compared with its unit
weight, results in good bearing support and minimal settlement.
The ease with which y ash can be placed and compacted, espe-
cially when placed at the proper moisture content, can reduce con-
struction time and equipment costs. In areas where y ash is
readily available in bulk quantities, costs for the purchase, permit-
ting and operation of a borrow pit can be reduced or eliminated [2].
Fly ashes utilized in highway embankments have several
advantages over natural materials used in construction activities.
In areas where borrow or ll and cover material are scarce, y
ash may be obtained from nearby thermal power generation facil-
ities. Ease of availability combined with positive physical proper-
ties can make y ash utilization in embankment construction
cost effective and environmentally conscious. Shear strength is
an important characteristic for y ash utilization and it generally
equals or exceeds the strength of soils typically used for embank-
ments [3,4]. This strength is partially related to some types of y
ashes having self-hardening or pozzolanic properties, which is a
characteristic more common to class C y ashes and ashes from
atmospheric uidized bed boilers. The only major problem of y
ash usage in road construction activities is the frost susceptibility.
If placed in a cold region and exposed to frost action, the y ash
will have to be stabilized with a lime mixture to chemically bind
the entire mixture. Alternatives to this procedure are to cover the
ash with sufcient soil to put the ash below the local frost line [5].
From previous studies conducted at the Bogazici University Karl
Terzaghi Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory,
it is found that the snow addition to y ash samples caused an
improvement in shear strength, decrease in unit weight, and in-
crease in the void ratio. The compaction of the y ash is very sen-
sitive to compaction water content. One or two percent additional
water over optimum moisture content liquees the samples and
makes compaction of the y ash impossible. The extra water is
added in solid phase like ice or snow, which allows compaction
of the sample without liquefying. The objective of the previous
studies was to increase the compaction water content of y ash
by introducing extra water in the form of solid phase as ice or
snow. The higher strength of the snow added y ash samples is
due to the availability of more water over optimum moisture con-
tent for cementation reactions, which allow strength gain even
after long curing periods. These results are supported with the
XRD and SEM results conducted in the previous studies [6]. In this
study, the effect of 30% increase in void ratio on freeze thaw dura-
bility of y ash is investigated, keeping in mind the similarity to
the effect of air entraining agents on freeze thaw performance of
concrete or y ash.
The rst objective of this study is to assess the freezethaw
durability of the y ash and snow added y ash specimens.
Detailed literature study is conducted on the freezethaw proper-
ties of the y ash and their mixture with other materials used in
the construction industry. As a second objective, freezing and
thawing apparatus consisting of suitable chambers was used to
determine the freezethaw performance of y ash and snow added
y ash samples. In the nal part, the effect of snow addition on the
freezethaw durability is evaluated and the comparison among the
curing periods is presented.
Wang et al. conducted a set of experiments on concrete from
pure cement and cement with y ash to assess the effects of sev-
eral y ashes on the performances of freezing and thawing test.
The freezethaw tests indicated that all y ash concrete has statis-
tically equal or less weight loss than the pure cement concrete, and
weight loss percentages are roughly correlated with the durability
factors [7].
Liu et al. tested various methods to improve the freezethaw
property of the compacted y ash bricks, including using higher
compaction pressure and optimum y ash to water ratio, adding
a small amount of ber to the y ash before compaction, adding
some cement or lime to the y ash before compaction, using cer-
tain liquid sealants to coat the bricks, using a higher compaction
pressure to make stronger bricks, lengthening the curing time in
order to make stronger bricks, use of a split mold to make better
bricks and use of an air-entrainment agent to improve the freeze
thaw property of the bricks. The tests showed that some of the
methods that further improve the compressive strength of the
brick do not result in an improvement in the freezethaw property.
The air entrainment method appeared to be the most effective and
practical in all the methods tested. It enabled the bricks to pass the
50 cycle freezethaw test without damage. This study indicated
that air entrainment had a remarkable effect on improving the
durability of the y ash bricks [8].
Yazc replaced cement with y ash in various proportions from
30% to 60% with the incorporation of 10% silica fume and investi-
gated the freezethaw properties of self compacting concrete mix-
tures. Test results indicated that y ash replacement and silica
fume addition to the system positively affected both the fresh
and hardened properties of the high performance high volume y
ash self compacting concrete. Although there is a little cement con-
tent, these mixtures had good mechanical properties and freeze
thaw resistance [9].
Peng et al. conducted experiments using an air-entraining agent
and pozzolans such as silica fume and y ash, to meet the design
strengths 50 and 60 MPa, as well as frost resistance to 300 cycles
of freezing and thawing. Among a series of concretes of grade 50
or 60 MPa, the samples having air entraining agent and y ash re-
sisted 300 cycles of freezing and thawing, the nonair entrained
concrete incorporating no pozzolans had a frost resistance to 225
cycles of freezing and thawing. It was observed from the study that
frost resistance might be independent on strength of concrete. Air
entrainment caused an increase in cumulative pore volume, and
improved the durability and insulation properties of the tested
samples [10].
From the literature review, test samples having an air entrain-
ing agent and y ash performed better freezethaw results. In
the case of limiting freezethaw cycle values for test specimens,
any technique that will increase the number of freezethaw cycles
will enhance higher volumes of y ash utilization.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials used
The y ash used in this study is obtained from a thermal power
plant using lignite coal with a minimum caloric value of
2000 kcal/kg. The y ash is collected by electrostatic precipitators
and handled both by dry and wet methods. The residues collected
from units are hauled to the lagoons 79  106 m3 volumetric
capacity. The coal consumption is around 10,000 tons per day.
Approximately 30% by weight of the coal burned in the power
plant turns into ash upon burning.
Upon collection directly from the hopper at the power plant, the
y ash was sealed in bags and transported to the Bogazici Univer-
sity Karl Terzaghi Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
laboratory. Its exposure to air, moisture and light is prevented.
The physical and chemical properties of y ash were determined
and are presented in Table 1.
2.2. Sample preparation
Natural snow is collected in the winter season and stored in
special bags in a deep freezer at 25 C through the test period.
 G. Baykal, A. Saygl / Fuel 102 (2012) 221226 223

Table 1
Physical and chemical characteristics of y ash.

Chemical SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Cl (%) Loss on ignition Specic Specic surface area
analysis (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) weight (cm2/g)
Analysis report
Fly ash (FA) 36.94 17.2 4.76 33.22 1.36 3.82 0.34 1.82 0.0045 0.19 2.56 3206
Physical analysis Fineness (%) 45 mm 90 mm 200 mm
Fly ash (FA) 23.3 9.93 2.74

Table 2
Comparison of the properties of compacted y ash and compacted y ash and snow.
Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
Water content (w%)
Void ratio (e)
Fig. 1. Freezethaw cabinet.
snow by weight over optimum moisture content for the investi-
gated group.
Fly ash (FA) Fly ash + snow (FI) % Change The scope of adding natural snow was to provide extra water for
hydration and air entrainment after the samples were molded into
13.41 11.78 12% decrease
19.54 28.89 48% increase shape. This additional water and air entrainment was introduced
0.87 1.13 30% increase by the thawing of snow.
The compaction hammer was used to apply standard compac-
tion energy (593,7 kJ/m3). The specimens used in this test were
prisms compacted and cured in accordance with the ASTM C666
requirements [11]. Specimens used were 76 mm in width,
102 mm in depth and 405 mm in length. A total number of 16 sam-
ples were prepared. The y ash was placed into the molds in three
layers. The sample preparation equipments were cooled to 15 C
to prevent melting of snow during the sample preparation stage.
After the compaction procedure, the samples were sealed and
cured for 90 and 180 days in a humidity (82%) and temperature
controlled (20 C) curing room.
The physical properties of the compacted samples and their
comparison are summarized in Table 2. The dry unit weight of
snow added y ash samples decreased by 12%. Also with addition
of snow, the total water content of the sample increased by 48%.
The test results on the samples show that as the snow content in-
creased from zero to 10%, the optimum moisture content in-
creased, while the maximum dry unit weight decreased. When
snow is added into the mixture by 10% by weight, the snow parti-
cles distributed in the matrix created air voids, similar to an air-en-
trained structure achieving a 12% lower dry unit weight. The void
ratio of snow added y ash is 30% higher than that of y ash com-
pacted at optimum water content.

2.3. Rapid Freeze and Thaw tests

This test covers the determination of the resistance of speci-

Fig. 2. Freezethaw apparatus refrigerating and heating equipment and controls.
The moisture content-dry density relationship of y ash was
determined as described in ASTM D698. The optimum water con-
tent and maximum dry density of y ash are 19.05%, and
14.92 kN/m3, respectively. Samples were prepared at optimum
moisture content for the control group, and by adding 10% natural
mens to rapidly repeated cycles of freezing and thawing in the lab-
oratory by rapid freezing and thawing in water ASTM C666
Procedure A. This procedure is intended for use in determining
the effects of variations in the properties of the specimens, on
the resistance to the freezing and thawing cycles specied in the
ASTM procedure.
The freezing and thawing apparatus as presented in Figs. 1 and
2 consists of suitable chambers in which the specimens may be
subjected to the specied freezing and thawing cycles, together
with the necessary refrigerating and heating equipment and con-
trols to produce continuously, and automatically reproducible
cycles within the specied temperature requirements. Each speci-
men is supported at the bottom of its container in such a way that
the temperature of the heat exchanging medium has not been
transmitted directly through the bottom of the container to the full
area of the bottom of the specimen, thereby subjecting it to condi-
tions substantially different from the remainder of the specimen.
The nominal freezing-and-thawing cycle for this test consisted
of alternately lowering the temperature of the specimens from
+4 to 18 C and raising it from 18 to +4 C in 5 h [11].
The apparatus is so arranged that, except for necessary sup-
ports, each specimen is completely surrounded by not less than
224 G. Baykal, A. Saygl / Fuel 102 (2012) 221226

Fig. 3. Resonant frequency test setup.

1 mm, nor more than 3 mm of water at all times while it is being

subjected to freezing and thawing cycles. A at spiral wire
(Dia = 3 mm) is placed at the bottom of the containers.
The fundamental resonant frequencies were determined using
the forced resonance method. The supported specimens were
forced to vibrate by an electromechanical driving unit. The speci-
men response was monitored by a lightweight pickup unit on
the specimen. The driving frequency is varied until the measured
specimen response reached maximum amplitude. The value of
the frequency causing maximum response is the resonant fre-
quency of the specimen. Relative dynamic modulus was calculated
using the natural frequency data obtained from nondestructive fre-
quency testing according to ASTM C215 [12]. Fig. 3 represents the
resonant frequency measurement test setup.

3. Results and discussion

Freezethaw test results of the y ash and snow added y ash

samples are presented in Table 3 and Figs. 46. Throughout the test
period, samples developed cracks along the sides about mid depth
and the lower and upper part of the samples started to break off.
Deterioration was observed by a decrease in weight of the speci-
mens and depreciation was evaluated by rating based on visual
observation as given in Table 4. These cracks became more signif-
icant and widespread as the test proceeded, resulting in spalling
and eventual breaking down of the samples. The progress of dete- Fig. 4. 90 days cured samples after 33 freeze thaw cycles.
rioration was monitored by visual inspection and rating on a scale
of zerove, zero being no damage and ve being total breakdown. added samples. For these low to moderate deterioration levels,
Table 3 gives the visual observation data during the test. Weight snow addition increased the required number of freeze thaw cycles
changes were also monitored during the test. by nearly three times which corresponds to signicant perfor-
For control specimens, wide spread surface scaling was ob- mance improvement.
served after 18 freeze thaw cycles. For snow added y ash samples, By 91 cycles, control y ash samples had broken down as indi-
wide spread surface scaling was observed at 65 freeze thaw cycles, cated in Table 3. There appears to be not much difference in the
which shows a signicant improvement in freeze thaw resistance. freezethaw durability of 90 and 180 days cured y ash specimens.
Scaling along with cracks on the sides and bottom of the slabs was The snow added y ash samples showed higher freezethaw per-
observed after 33 freeze thaw cycles for control samples whereas formance than the control samples. This is mainly because of the
the same deterioration level was reached after 91 cycles for snow increase in void ratio by snow melting during the curing period.

Table 3
Development of deterioration of the test specimens.

Visual ratings
Days cured 90 180
No. of FT cycles 0 5 18 33 65 91 121 0 5 18 33 65 91 121
Fly ash (FA) 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Fly ash + snow (FI) 1 1 2 3 5 1 1 2 3 5
 G. Baykal, A. Saygl / Fuel 102 (2012) 221226
Fig. 5. Deterioration pattern due to ASTM C666 test.
Fig. 6. Durability factors of control compacted y ash and snow-added y ash
samples.
Table 4
Visual rating.
Rating Description
1 Less than 25% of surface has exposed scaling
2 Wide spread surface scaling
3 Scaling along with cracks on the sides and bottom of the slabs
4 Well developed cracks reaching the top surface
5 Fully broken
The control y ash specimens deteriorated much faster than snow
added y ash samples as indicated in Table 3. Test was continued
for up to 121 cycles for snow added samples and at 91 cycles still
the visual rating was only 3 for the snow added y ash samples.
Observations indicated that 10% snow addition to the matrix can
improve the freezethaw durability of compacted y ash samples.
Snow added y ash samples lasted throughout the 121 cycles,
passing 91 cycles of the test without being broken down. When
the weight began to decrease due to deterioration, the reduction
was rapid for both y ash and snow added y ash samples. How-
ever, the number of cycles at which deterioration of the specimens
began was signicantly affected by the presence of snow in the
specimens as can be seen from Figs. 46. Images representing
depreciation of the specimens exposed to different freezethaw cy-
cles are presented in Fig. 4.
In Fig. 4, 90 days cured control sample (FA90) presented scaling
along with cracks on the sides and bottom of the slabs after 33 cy-
cles, however after 33 freeze thaw cycles snow added y ash sam-
ple (FI90) showed only less than 25% of surface scaling. After 65
cycles the FA90 sample presented well developed cracks reaching
the top surface, at the same freeze thaw cycle level the FI90 sample
showed only wide spread surface scaling. At 91 freeze thaw cycles,
FA90 sample is evaluated as fully broken, however the FI90 sample
presented only scaling along cracks on the sides and bottom of the
225
slab which is indicated as 3 in the visual ratings. Damage to the y
ash structure due to the freezethaw cycles occurred because of
the developed pressure when water in the saturated pores froze
and increased its volume.
The weight changes measured after the application of freeze
thaw cycles are presented in Fig. 5. The weight gain phenomena
in this test might be attributed to water gain of samples in the
freezing and thawing machine, which were sealed and cured for
90180 days in the humid room. After 65 freeze thaw cycles 5.5%
weight loss is measured for the control y ash samples. After 91 cy-
cles weight loss increases to 11%. The weight loss for snow added
y ash sample is only 3% even after 91 cycles.
A quantitative measure of freeze thaw resistance is made by
observing the reduction in relative dynamic modulus of elasticity
for the samples subjected to increasing number of freezethaw cy-
cles. The test results are presented in Fig. 6. It is not recommended
that specimens be continued in the test after their relative dynamic
modulus of elasticity has fallen below 50% due to ASTM C666. After
65 freeze thaw cycles, the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of
the control y ash samples decreased to 65% of the original value,
whereas for snow added y ash samples, the relative dynamic
modulus of elasticity decreased to 75% of the original value. After
91 freeze thaw cycles, the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity
of the control y ash samples decreased to 55% of the original value
and is considered as broken down, however the snow added y ash
samples showed a reduction to 65% of the original value.
Fig. 6 shows the durability factors of the control y ash and
snow added y ash samples, which correlated roughly with the
weight loss percentages in Fig. 5. Snow addition substantially af-
fects the freezing and thawing behavior of the y ash specimens
with extra moisture supply for cementitious mineral formation
around the pores and air entrainment in the matrix.
By natural snow addition, controlled amount of microscopic
snow crystals into y ash specimens are entrained. Snow crystals
preserved stability during mixing, transporting, placing, compac-
tion and hardening stages. Snow addition improved the freeze
thaw resistance of the y ash specimens by 30% increase in the
void ratio and by creating more cementitious minerals around
the pore spaces with the extra supplied moisture which resulted
in a lightweight and durable construction material. In winter time,
water in capillary pores expands on freezing resulting in disruptive
internal stresses. Successive cycles of freezing and thawing may
lead to progressive deterioration. By snow addition, voids uni-
formly dispersed in the matrix (created after melting of snow) pro-
vide a reservoir for water to expand. Ten percent by weight snow
addition over optimum moisture content of y ash has provided
a better freezethaw performance.
4. Conclusions
This paper investigates the freezethaw properties of y ash
and snow added y ash samples. Based on the results from the lit-
erature and the conducted study, the following conclusions are
presented:
1. The freeze thaw performance of the snow added sample of y
ash increased signicantly. The addition of snow to compaction
water content of y ash caused a 30% increase in void ratio,
which acted similar to the effect of mixing with air entrainment
agent.
2. A total of 121 freeze thaw cycles have been applied which dem-
onstrated the high performance of snow addition. Even after 91
freeze thaw cycles, only scaling along with cracks on the sides
and bottom of the slabs were observed, where control y ash
samples were fully broken at that cycle level.
226 G. Baykal, A. Saygl / Fuel 102 (2012) 221226
3. The weight reduction after 91 freeze thaw cycles was only 3%
for snow added samples, where the reduction in weight reached
to 11% for the control samples.
4. Snow added y ash samples showed a reduction in relative
dynamic modulus of elasticity values to 5560% after 121
cycles, however control y ash samples showed same reduction
level at 91 (180 days cured) and 65 (90 days cured) freeze thaw
cycles.
5. 90180 days curing of both samples revealed similar results.
6. The increase in void ratio and the densication of the matrix
due to formation of cementitious products [6] is the main cause
of increase in the freeze thaw durability performance.
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