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CONTENTS
INTERFEROMETRY
PRINCIPLE
Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves
in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some
meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves.
INTRODUCTION
This works because when two waves with the same frequency combine, the
resulting pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two
waveswaves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while
waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference.
Most interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic wave.
Introduction
Interference of 2 rays
Optical flats description, evaluation of flatness using optical flat
NPL flatness interferometer
Simple numerical on absolute length measurement.
Optical Projectors: Bausch & Lomb projector.
For understanding the phenomenon associated with interferometry, let
us first study the nature of light. According to Huygens Theory, light is
considered as wave motion propagated in the ether.
The light, therefore, can be considered as an electro-magnetic wave of
sinusoidal form. The high point of the wave is called the crest and the
low point is called the trough. The distance between two troughs or two
crests is called the wavelength .
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Generically, an interferometer is a device for producing interference

light travels along the OX-axis and the time
between two or more waves. There are numerous types with various
taken for travelling one wave length is
features, but only two distinctly different strategies.
called the time period (T).
The other approach is to use some sort of partial reflector to divide the
The maximum disturbance of the wave is
amplitude of the incident wave into separate beams which are
called the amplitude (A) and velocity of
eventually rejoined.
transmission is /T , 1/T being called the
Either method can make use of multiple beams. frequency

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
To understand the formation of interference fringes we must consider
what happens when two rays of the same wavelength are combined.
two monochromatic rays A and B of identical
wavelength but of unequal intensity; the wavelength
A ray of ordinary light can be considered as composed of an infinite
is denoted by the symbol and the intensity
number of wave lengths, the value of which determines the color of
measured by the square of the amplitudes a and b.
light. The amplitude defines the intensity.
The rays are exactly in phase and their combined
White light is a combination of all the colours of the visible spectrum, effect is equal to the sum of the two curves A and B
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, each colour band and is represented by the resultant ray R
consisting of a group of similar wavelengths.
Ray R, which has the same phase as the component
The advantage and peculiar property of the monochromatic light source rays and an amplitude r equal to the sum of a and b.
is that the above characteristics are virtually independent of any
ambient conditions such as temperature and pressure etc.

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the rays are shown out of phase by 180 degrees, For interference to occur, the two conditions are
If i.e.,
webyhavehalf atwo rays ofthe
wavelength; equal intensity
combined result, then
R, is necessary, i.e. the light rays are obtained by division from
thenow resultant
very smallwave will obviously
and would have zero amplitude
reduce to zero
if the amplitudes a and b were equal. a single source and the rays before being combined at the
and complete interference will be produced.
Atif this
two rays of equal nointensity are in phase theyis eye must travel paths whose lengths differ by an odd
condition, sensation of light
augment each other and produce increased number of half wavelengths
registered by the eye and the
brightness while if they are out of phase, i.e., differ zero
amplitude
in phase by /2 (intensity)
, they nullifyofeachlight produces
other and result
in darkness.
darkness.

two separate beams of light are formed which for the purpose of this
explanation may be assumed to be in phase.
when light from a single monochromatic source is split optically, made to
travel along two different paths and then recombined at a screen.
Light from monochromatic source A is split into two beams by passing it
through two splits Band C which are close together.
If the path BO & CO are exactly equal, the waves on these path are
in phase, producing maximum intensity at O.
At point M the CM-BM=/2 resulting in the waves to be out of face
producing a total darkness at M and similarly at N.
At point P, the ray path difference is 1 and waves again in phase
producing maximum intensity at P & Q.
Thus a series of light and dark bands are produced called as
interference fringes.

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Whenever CM-BM is odd multiplier of /2, two waves arriving at

M are opposite phase.
Thus for max intensity at P CP-BP= (2n)/2
For total darkness at M CM-BM= (2n+1) /2

CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES FLATNESS

Flatness is one of the most important aspect of a part's geometry.
The two sources should continuously emit waves of the same wavelength or
frequency. Before length can be measured, for example, the two planes that
For obtaining interference fringes, the amplitudes of the two interfering wave include the length must be defined, and an important of that definition
trains should be equal or very nearly equal. is flatness.
The two sets of wave-trains. from the two sources should either have the And as the dimensional tolerances for length grow tighter, so do these
same phase or a constant difference in phase.
The two sources should be very narrow. for flatness.
The sources emitting a set of interfering beams should be very close to each
other.
The surface must be reflective

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DEFINITION OF FLATNESS GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF OPTICAL FLAT [O.F]

Flatness is the minimum distance between two parallel planes that Application of interface OF
contain all the irregularities of the surface under examination. Transparent Material
Flatness tolerance zone is the area between these two parallel planes Glass or Quartz with two highly polished surface
Figure shows the flatness value and the symbol used to represent the The OF is never a perfect plane
flatness on the drawing. Made to flatness error of 25 to 100 micromillimeter from edge to edge
Appropriate for 1/10 th of typical flatness work tolerance.
Any slight imperfection is in OF a calibrated values should be
considered.

FOR GREATER ACCURACY OF OPTICAL FLAT

Must be used in constant temperature

The surface of work & flat must be thoroughly clean and free from dust.
The surface should be wiped with solvent such as Benzine or
Methylated spirit.
Clean with soft cloth, brushed.
Flat must be laid on the work not slide across the surface causes
wringing false pattern of interference band.
Fine scratches will not affect the accuracy

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FLATNESS TESTING
Flat plate placed upon a flat metal surface so that a thin wedge
film of air is entrapped between them.
This wedge is stable enough for bands reading because of the
presence of minute dust particles or lint after grease and soil have
been removed.
When suitably illuminated interference fringes are visible when
the deviation from the planarity are of order 0.001mm or less.
For small values of , AC=DC=/4.
Therefore, the change in separation between the optical
flat and the surface between two similar adjacent fringes
is difference between
AC and FH= 3/4- /4= /2
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Part of ray is reflected to follow the path AB
Remainder continues along the path AC
Reflected from the metal surface C along the path CDE
Both rays [AB & CDE] are combined at eye having traversed
unequal distance.
RECALL
For interference to occur, the two conditions are
necessary, i.e. the light rays are obtained by division from
a single source and the rays before being combined at the
eye must travel paths whose lengths differ by an odd
number of half wavelengths
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Each band indicating a path of constant separation Now there are four possible cases when the contact between the optical
between optical flat and surface under examination flat and the work surface occurs at one point only.
Thus it is obvious that each (i) If the surfaces are perfectly wrung together, then no air gap exists
adjacent fringe represents a and no fringe pattern will be observable.
change in elevation of the (ii) If angle is increased, then points C and H will be closer together
work surface relative to the and fringes are brought closer together.
optical flat of /2 and total (iii) If angle is reduced, then fringes spacing increases as the points C
change in elevation from point and H will occur at greater distances.
of contact to the outermost (iv) If is made too large, then fringes will be closely spaced as to be
fringe will be n x /2 if it indistinguishable and no observable pattern will be visible.
contains n number of adjacent It may be necessary to perform a number of trial placing with optical flat
fringes. before satisfactory result are obtained.

Each band indicating a path of constant separation

between optical flat and surface under examination
If the surface is curved then the band will follow the line of
constant separation and curvature in one plane reproduced by the
fringes.
Concave and Convex
Will not be clear from the simple usual observation .
Some other methods are used to detect the surfaces.
Change in the elevation between the optical flat and surface can
be calculated by counting the number of fringes and multiplying by
half the wave length.
where 3 fringes are seen with an incident light
having A of 0.5m, the separation will be

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While checking the flat surface The degree of accuracy also depends upon
Support of the optical flat
first inspection flat fringes
Viewing angle
Advised rotate the air wedge to 90deg, if the second test also If only the surface counter being checked- mounting arrangement not
shows the flat fringes important.
Then the surface is flat surface. If measurement involves comparison of two surface- the surface
support become the deciding factor.
If the other surface is curved bands workpiece is cylindrical
Steel flats, Granite flats and even optical flats are used as the
supporting the work.

In-case of spherically concave surface, the flat is resting

on a line passing around the surface and on lightly
pressing the edge of the optical flat, the edge line does
not move as the pressure is varied. Rather, light
pressure at the centre will cause the optical flat to be
deflected and will become more nearly parallel to the
concave surface, thus reducing the number of fringes
observed

Fringe pattern
Thus if by light pressure, the centre of fringes is
displaced and the fringes are brought closer, it is
convex (hill) surface and the level at that place must be
lowered down to form a flat surface. If by light pressure
the number of fringes is reduced and the fringes move
apart, It is (valley) concave surface

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SURFACE CONTOUR TEST
In the study of the surface contours it is important to know as to
where the optical flat is in contact with the surface being tested.
In mono-chromatic light, the bands are sharper near the point of
contact; and in daylight the point of contact can be seen as the
colour of the surface being tested.
Let XX be the line of contact in Fig. Contour BAB shows that all the points on it
are at equal height from the surface of the optical flat. Points A and C are at the
centre of two contours BAB and DCD. It is obvious in Fig. that edge at B is /2
higher or lower than C. The air gap will keep on increasing as we move away
from XX. As BAB represents points at equal height, it means that B is actually
higher than C. This means that edges of this surface are higher and central
portion is lower, thus, it is concave surface. If the bands curve in opposite
direction, the surface in convex

concave surface convex surface

Band due to scratch High or low spots Surface in the

D distance between two dark bands middle is flat
d- distance due to scratch
Depth of scratch= (d/D)X(/2)

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N.P.L. FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

This interferometer, as the name suggests, is used for checking the

flatness of the surfaces.
The interferometer was designed by N.P.L. and is commercially
manufactured by Hilger and Watts ltd.
The flatness of the surface is measured by comparing it with an
optically flat surface which is generally the base plate of the
interferometer.

interferometer in its simplest form consists of a

mercury vapor lamp whose radiations are
This light is focused on to a pinhole, giving an
passed through a green-filter, this is giving less
intense point source of monochromatic light
fatiguing green monochromatic light.
which is in the focal plane of a collimating lens
and is thus projected as a parallel beam of light.

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This beam is directed on to the gauge to be

tested via an optical flat so that interference
fringes are formed across the face of the gauge,
the fringes being viewed from directly above by
means of a thick glass plate semi-reflector set at
45 to the optical axis.
The gauge base plate is so designed that it can
be rotated and the fringes can be oriented to the
best advantage. Further, the optical flat is
mounted on an adjustable tripod, independent of
the gauge base plate, so that its angle can be
adjusted.

The gauge to be tested is wrung on the base platen

whose surface is finished to a degree comparable to
that of the highest quality gauge face.

the optical flat is placed above it in a little tilted

position, interference fringes are formed; one between The gauge to be tested is wrung on the base
rays reflected from the under surface of the optical flat platen whose surface is finished to a degree comparable
and those reflected from the surface of the gauge, and to that of the highest quality gauge face. As
the other between rays reflected from the under
surface of the optical flat and those reflected' from the
base plate.

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indicates that the upper surface of a gauge block is both flat and parallel to the
base platen.
The fringes are straight, parallel to the base.
The fringes are straight, parallel to the base fringes, and equi-spaced, and their
spacing is the same as the base fringe spacing.
Thus the angle is the same for both the gauge and the base.
The displacement of the gauge fringes relative to the base fringes is entirely a
function of the gauge length and wavelength of the light used and is of no
concern in flatness testing.
When the gauge surfaces are more than
about 25 mm apart, the fringes from the
platen are not bright enough to be used
for comparison purposes, and so a
method must be used whereby only
those from the top surface of the gauge
are used.
However, if only the number of fringes from the top surface of the gauge are
considered, the method must eliminate the effect of the inclination of the optical
flat, and the inclination of the platen axis (causing the platen surfaces to be
inclined).
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The fields of view in Fig. indicate that the gauge face is flat but not
parallel to the base in the direction X-Y as the pitch of the fringes
on base plate and the gauge surface is different.
The difference between the number of gauge and base fringes
multiplied by 1/2 will give the amount of taper present.
The procedure for checking the parallelism (or taper) of the gauge
surface using this, is as follows:
1. With the slip gauge in position '1' on the platen, count the number of
fringes or bands from its surface (N1).
2. With the slip gauge still on the platen, rotate the platen through an
angle of 180. (i.e. position 2) and count the number of fringes from
the surface of the slip gauge (N2).
3. Half the difference between the two counts, i.e. 1/2 (N1 - N2)
multiplied by 1/2 will give the error (e) or taper is
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OPTICAL PROJECTORS

The adaptation of optical principles to the practical needs of workshop
inspection has given rise to the construction of toolmakers microscope
and projectors.
These apparatuses incorporate every feature of accuracy and
refinement in their design, and hence they are known as precision
inspection apparatuses.
The inspection operation and dimensional measurement that can be
carried out with optical projector are similar to engineering microscope
Microscopes are intended primarily for tool room and gauge room
applications and require certain degree of skill in operation.
On the other hand, projectors are basically production-oriented
instruments in shop floor by machine tool operators.
Optical projectors are not adaptable to various types of special
accessories designed for microscope. But they provide application
advantages in many other respects in comparison to the
capabilities of engineering microscopes.

PRINCIPLES OF OPTICAL PROJECTORS

The need of observing a magnified image of an object from a
convenient distance has given rise to the construction of projectors.
Unlike microscope where observation and measurement of objects
with the aid of optical magnification are limited to viewing through an
ocular, projector uses project magnified image of the object on a glass
screen.
As a result visual impressions become a physical reality as the
dimensions and forms can be directly compared to the physical master
components

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SHADOW PROJECTION LIGHT
SOURCE SYSTEM
In this system, light rays
originating from the light source
hit the object, whose physical
body creates a shadow bounded
by the actual contour of the
object when viewed in the
direction of light rays.
This shadow is then magnified by
the lens system and projected on
the viewing screen.
a relay lens is used to transfer the
shadow on the projecting lenses.
REFLECTION PROJECTION
LIGHT SOURCE SYSTEM
In this system, light source illuminate
the front side of the object, which faces
the lens system.
The lens system receives reflected light,
which is magnified and projected on the
screen as the object image.
Modern optical projectors are equipped
with light switches with a provision to
regulate the light intensity.
This enables the production of best
level of illumination for any particular
magnification
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PARTS OF A PROJECTOR
1. SOURCE OF LIGHT
Light source is usually a powerful lamp up to 1000 watts or more.
Generally, tungsten filament lamp is used for illumination.
it is replaced by high-pressure mercury lamp when specific measurement has to
be made. It produces steady light without flickering.
The light source has to be designed with consideration of several factors to
avoid harmful heat transfer to the optical system and operating elements of the
projector. Therefore, the lamp house is usually mounted externally with a
powerful blower fan.
It also has special heat absorbing glass filters to keep back the heat rays that
might affect the dimensional stability of the object.
2. COLLIMATING OR CONDENSING LENS
These lenses are the parts of a projector, which refract the light into a
beam with parallel rays of almost uniform intensity on the entire area of
object illumination.
They are fixed in the lens housing and are situated nearest to the light
source.
The glass used for collimating lens must be heat resistant.
For special applications of projectors, like photo-elastic stress analysis
provisions are made in the collimators to mounting of polarizing filters.
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3. PROJECTION LENS 4. SCREEN

The projection lens system magnifies and transmits the object contour or image
resulting from the collimated parallel light rays.
The image formed on the screen should be unreversed.
Different types of lens arrangement are possible according to need and application.
For plainer type of optical projectors, the magnifying lens system is interchangeable
lens system. For complicated application like in measuring machine, the lens system
consists of several lenses with different magnification.
They can be adjusted manually or with power drives. The lens system must be
capable of giving clear definition of the object. Therefore it is coated for extra light
transmission
The projected image of the object appears and is displayed on the
screen for inspection.
It is made of ground glass, with finely grained texture, to provide a
bright, glare-free image. The screen must present an image easy to
measure with accuracy without causing fatigue to the operator.
The brightness of the image must be uniform over the full area of
the screen. It must permit observation of the image without
distortion, when viewed by a group at different angles.

Bausch and Lomb Projector

CABINET PROJECTOR

The various advantages and conveniences of projection as a

method of inspection have led to the development of a self-
contained type of projector.

Bausch and Lomb Projector

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The various parts of a Bausch and Lomb projector is shown in Figure.
The eliminating system consists of a light source, a tungsten arc lamp.
The glowing element in the lamp is a small cylinder of tungsten, which is
heated to incandescent by electron bombardment. It is enclosed in a
ventilated lamp house.
The projection system consists of projection lens, roof prism, a pair of
image reflectors and screen.
The magnification of the projector can be adjusted by changing the
projection lens assembly. The adjustment for changing the lens assembly
is very easy and accurate. It is done by merely placing the assembly into
the bracket.
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The light from the lamp passes to a system of lenses called achromatic
condenser. With a single lens condenser, the screen image consists of
various colors. So to get rid of them, each lens assembly is composed of
two kinds of glasses. The parallel beam of light from the condenser is
then transmitted to the illumination mirror, which sends them vertically
upward, through the glass stage plate in the worktable, past the object.
The light travels past the object to the projection lens from which it
passes upward to the roof prism.
The function of the roof prism is to direct the beam of light horizontally
towards the back of the projector to assist in the projections of the image
so that its aspects presented to the observer are correct.
From the roof prism, light passes to two optically flat reflectors that
change the direction of the beam of light and direct it horizontally to the
screen.
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When an observer looks at the image, he will find the image as erect
and its aspects same as that of the object, i.e. movement of an object in
any direction on the worktable will cause a corresponding travel of the
image.
If the object is moved to right or back, a corresponding movement of
image to the right or up will be observed.
Inspection by Comparison to Master Charts
Projected images are compared with the help of screen charts for the inspection of
standard forms, e.g. angles, radii, screw threads, gear forms, etc.
Inspection by Direct Measurement on the Screen Image
Linear measurements using graduated rulers or glass scales, angular measurements
using drafting or toolmakers protractor, radii using transparent templates are also
done with projectors.
Inspection with Measuring Devices Built into the Optical Projectors
Projectors can be used for measuring the Coordinate table movement (along X and Y
axes) by reading the displacement distance on the micrometer heads. For angular
measurement, graduated protractors provided in the instruments are used.
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APPLICATIONS OF PROJECTOR
A variety of inspection can be made with the help of projectors.
Image Inspection
This is the primary use of projectors. Shadow outline of the image to be inspected is
formed on the screen. The image is magnified by projection, reflection or the
combination of both.
Inspection by Observation
Surface properties like texture, finish, surface conditions; general contour
straightness, consistency of curvature; contact patterns with mating parts are
observed by projectors.
Inspection with the Aid of Fixtures and Special Attachments
Adjustment of helix angle to project thread form, transferring dimensions by means
of work holding devices and charts with reference points, optical sectioning with
special illumination can also be done.
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There is no physical contact between the specimen and the measuring instruments in
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL PROJECTORS projectors. Thus, specimen to be inspected is free from mechanical distortion or
defects. This increases the accuracy in measurement

A single setting of the specimen provides observation, comparison and inspection of

several dimensions and form characteristics in a projector.
Several people can observe the projected image simultaneously. Thus, projectors are
handy tools when images are to be inspected by a group of people.
The image can be magnified according to requirement. Thus, dimensions to be
inspected individually or their interrelation with other dimensions of the same part
can be observed without any additional instruments
Unlike the mechanical gauges, which undergo wear and tear due to prolong uses,
measurements by optical projectors are free from wear.
Optically obstructed surface elements can be traced by means of projectors.
Application of cross-sectioning provides means for the accurate measurement of
dimensions, whose inspection by any method other than optical projection is
extremely difficult

Projector provides direct measurements of various lengths and angles. Lengths are
measured by graduated rulers and angles by drafting protractors.

Greater range of inspection is possible in projectors. For example, the observation of

surface characteristics by light reflection, using either normal or oblique illumination,
substantially widens the scope of inspection procedure.

The open screen, commonly at eye level, permits the observation of the image in
unrestricted position under more natural conditions than viewing through a
microscope eyepiece

The contour of the inspected part can be traced with a pencil by mounting a vellum
paper on the glass screen. This serves for future recording.

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