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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering:

Network Analysis

Electric Circuits and Networks

Arrows of Reference
Topology
Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws
Network Equations
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Arrows of Reference
Symbol of Network Elements

Current and voltage are scalar

Network Element (General) quantities. They have no direction
in contrast to a vector quantity.
i
Clamp Clamp However, in order to analyze the
current and voltage in networks,
u arrows of reference are introduced.
They are necessary to obtain the
correct sign in a sum over several
Arrow of Reference voltages or currents in the network.
(current arrow, voltage arrow)

Note: Arrows of reference are a strict convention in Europe,

but there is no uniform convention in the American literature!
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Arrows of Reference
Convention for Arrows of Reference
Convention:

u identical u oppositely
i oriented i oriented

a) b)
Passive Element Active Element

Passive Elements have identical oriented arrows of reference for current and
voltage. Therefore dissipation losses are a positive power in this convention.
Active Elements have oppositely oriented arrows of reference for current and
voltage. Therefore power, which is provided to the electric circuit is negative,
according to this convention.
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Topologic Terminology
Electric Network Elements
Symbol and Connection:

Clamp Clamp Network Elements:

(A) Passive Elements:
i
The (ideal) resistor (resistance)
The (ideal) capacitor (capacitance)
u
The (ideal) inductor (inductance)
Electric Networks:
The access to an element is realized by (B) Active Elements:
the clamps.
The (ideal) voltage source
Elements are connected via clamps to an
electric network. The (ideal) current source
With respect to the elements, there are The controlled voltage source
active and passive networks.
The controlled current source

Topologic Terminology
Electric Network
Access to Electric Networks:
Low frequency terminology:
The two clamps define two-terminals
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High frequency terminology:
The cross-section area of the two
clamps defines an (entrance) port
for an electromagnetic wave.

One-Port
Network
Two-terminal
network

Clamps 1 Port 1
Two-Port
Network

Four-terminal
network

Clamps 1 Clamps 2 Port 1 Port 2

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Topologic Terminology
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
Branches and Nodes:
Network Elements are connected on clamps.
This points are called nodes (K) of the electric
R4 R3 Network.
i5
i4 i3 The connection of a node with another node by
an element is called branch (Z). If a node has
i1 R5 i2 only two branches it is called trivial node.
It holds the convention for the arrows of
R1 reference:
R2
Z u and i of the source(s) are oppositely oriented.
K
Usually, the magnitude and direction of the
u0 voltage u0 (or the current i0 of a current source)
i0 is given.
The direction of the current arrows on all passive
elements can be arbitrary chosen.
Bridge
On all passive elements the current arrow and
voltage arrow are parallel oriented.
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Topologic Terminology
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
Directed Graph (Digraph) of a Network:

K4 The topologic structure of a network is

presented by a directed graph (digraph),
Z4 Z3 where the network elements in the
branches are replaced by directed lines
(arrows).
K1 Z5 K3
The nodes Ki are arbitrary counted.
The branches Zi contain the current arrow,
Z1 Z2 and are counted also arbitrary.

K2 The digraph is a cohesive figure

consisting of branches and nodes. There
Z0 is at least one directed connection from
one node to another node, which may
Digraph contain further nodes or branches of the
(with k = 4 nodes and z = 6 branches) digraph.
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Topologic Terminology
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
The Meshes of a Digraph: K4 K4 K4
Z4 Z3 Z4 Z3
A closed loop, e.g. a closed Z5
sequence of branches and K1 M1 M2 K3 K1 K3
nodes of the digraph,
Z1 Z2
where each node is M4
connected to two branches K2 K2
is called Mesh M
Z0

To each mesh Mi an K4
Z4
orientation is assigned K1 K3 K1 K3
(indicated by an arrow of Z5
reference). The orientation Z1 Z2
can be chosen arbitrary. K2
Z2
K2
Five possible meshes of
M3 M5
the digraph are presented.
Z0 Z0
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Topology: Basic Rules
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
The Meshes of a Digraph: K4 K4 K4
Z4 Z3 Z4 Z3
M1 {Z1, Z4, Z5}
Z5
M2 {Z2, Z5, Z3} K1 M1 M2 K3 K1 K3

M3 {Z1, Z2, Z0} Z1 Z2

M4
M4 {Z0, Z3, Z4} K2 K2
M5 {Z0, Z4, Z5 , Z2} Z0

(1) Sequence {M1, M2}: K4

Z4
new: Z2, Z3
K1 K3 K1 K3
(2) Sequence {M1, M2, M3}: Z5
Z1 Z2
new: Z0
K2
Z2
Number of branches zM K2
of a mash M3 M5
zM = kM corresponds to
the number of Z0 Z0
nodes kM.
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Topology: Basic Rules
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
The Meshes of a Digraph:
Example:
A set of meshes is called linear independent if each mesh
contains at least one branch which is not part of the other {M1, M2, M3}: linear. indep.
meshes. {M1, M2, M3 , M4}: lin. dep.

A digraph with k nodes and z branches contains m linear Example:

independent meshes,
whish forming a complete m = z k +1 k = 4, z = 6
m=64+1=3
system.
there are three linear
independent meshes.
In the following, a proof will be given for this relation.
The proof contains also a way how to construct a complete
set of linear independent meshes.
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Topology: Basic Rules
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
The Tree:

A cohesive part of the digraph, which

contains all nodes, however, no meshes is
called a tree.

Therefore it follows that each tree has

exact one node more than the number of
branches zB in the tree.

k = zB + 1 zB = k 1
Example:
k=4
zB = 3
Each tree has three branches.
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Topology: Basic Rules
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
Determination of a complete sequence of linear independent meshes:

One starts with a tree with zB branches.

1
New meshes are obtained by including new
connecting branches. M1
These meshes are linear independent,
because each new connecting branch
creates a new mesh in the digraph.
The sequence of the meshes is complete,
because exact one new mesh per one added
connecting branch is generated.
Therefore is the number of connecting 1 3 1
branches zV equal to the number m of
M1 M3 M1
the linear independent meshes.

zV = m 2 2

M2 M2
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Topology: Basic Rules
Consideration on an Exemplary Network
Summary:

The Tree:
3 1
zV = m # connecting branches
M3 M1
z B= k 1 # branches of a tree
2
=
z z B + zV # branches of the Digraph
M2

The Digraph:

z = k 1 + m Due to the selection of a tree within the digraph is a

complete sequence
m = z k +1 of m linear independent m = zk +1
meshes uniquely defined.
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Topology
Final Remark

Note: The windows of a

However; there are other linear
network are linear
independent meshes possible:
independent meshes.

M3 M1
M3 M1
Windows

M2 M2

This is used in the praxis, in order

to identify quickly linear independent
meshes in a network.
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law
The current balance on a node

i1 + i2 i3 + i4 i5 = 0
It holds the principle of conservation of charge
i1 For a stationary situation there can be no charge
i5 stored or provided by the node.
K
Each charge which flows to the node has to flow
off the node.
i4
i2 The sum over all currents on the node
(including their correct sign) has to be zero.
i3

Kirchhoffs Current Law: On each node in a

n (KCL)

network is the sum over all electric currents
i node
=0 Kirchhoff
zero.
=1 current law
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law: Node- Equations
Example: Application of the Kirchhoffs Current Law

K4 KCL for the Nodes K1 to K4:

R4 R3 ( K1 ) : i0 + i1 + i2 + i3 i4 + i5 = 0
i5
i4 i3
(K2 ) : i0 i1 i2 + i3 i4 + i5 = 0
K1 R5 i2 K3
i1
(K3 ) : i0 + i2 i3 i4 + i5 = 0
R1 (K4 ) : i0 + i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 i5 = 0
R2
K2
=0
u0
i0 The sum over the currents of a column
yields always zero.
The sum over three equations yields the
forth equation (eventually with opposite
sign).
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law: Node- Equations
Consequences from the node equations:

K4 One of the four equations does not contain

additional information about the current.
R4 R3
i5 The 4 equations are linear dependent.
i4 i3
K1 i1 R5 i2 K3 In a network with k nodes are only
k1 node-equations linear independent.
The reason is that up to the (k1)-th node
R1 R2 equation at least one new current branch
is included.
K2
u0
i0 In a network with k nodes have only k1
node-equations to be calculated. The k-th
node-equation is automatically fulfilled.
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The sum over all voltages within a mesh:

4
M : u23 + u31 + u14 + u42 =
1 3
(2 3 ) + (3 1 ) + (1 4 ) + (4 2 ) =
1 2 3

4 =0

M 2 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL): The sum over all

voltages of the branches uz ( =1,2,,n) in a mesh
of an electric network is at every time zero.

(KVL)
u z Mesh
=0 Kirchhoffs
=1 voltage law
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law: Mesh-Equations
Application of KVL:

u4 Mesh-equations for the meshes M1 to M4:

u3
i4
R4 i5 R3
i3 ( M1 ) : u0 + u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 =0
u5
i1 M1 R5 M2 i2 ( M 2 ) : u0 + u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 = 0
R1 R2 ( M 3 ) : u0 u1 + u2 + u3 u4 + u5 = 0
u1 u2 ( M 4 ) : u0 + u2 + u 3 u 4 + u5 = 0
M3
M4 =0

i0 u0 The sum over all voltages of a column

yields always zero.
The sum over three equations yields the
forth equation (eventually with opposite
sign).
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
Mesh-Equations
Consequences from the mesh- equations:

u4 u3
R4 i5 R3 One of the four equations does not contain
i4 u5 i3 additional information about the voltage.

i1 M1 R5 M2 i2 The 4 equations are linear dependent.

The number of linear independent
R1 R2 equations is equal to the number of linear
u1 u2 independent meshes.

M3
M4 In a network with z branches and k nodes
u0 have only m = z k + 1 linear independent
i0 mesh- equations to be calculated. The
mesh-equations for further meshes are
automatically fulfilled.
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Network Equations
The Complete Description of a Network
Example:

K4 (a) Electric currents:

R4
i5
R3 ( K1 ) : i0 + i1 + i2 + i3 i4 + i5 = 0
i4 i3
K1
u4 R5 u3
K3
(K2 ) : i0 i1 i2 + i3 i4 + i5 = 0
i1 u5 i2
u1 u2
(K3 ) : i0 + i2 i3 i4 + i5 = 0
R1 R2
K2
(b) Electric voltages: (m Equations)
u0
i0 ( M1 ) : u0 + u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 =0
( M 2 ) : u0 + u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 = 0
= 1, 2,,5
( M 3 ) : u0 u1 + u2 + u3 u4 + u5 = 0
(c) for each
element:
u = R i
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Network Equations
The Complete Description of a Network
Summary:

K4 There are 11 linear independent

equations for 11 unknown quantities.
R4 R3
i5
i4 i3 The unknown quantities are u and i
u4
K1
R5 u3
K3 with = 1, 2,, 5 and i0.
i1 u5 i2
u1 u2
In principle, the problem (the
R1 determination of these unknown
R2
variables) is solved.
K2
u0 However: A straight-forward solution
i0 of these network equations is quite
extensive.

Therefore, a search for more comfortable

solutions is appropriate.
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Branch Current Analysis
Formalism
Example: Bridge Procedure:
K4
M1 M2 numerate the nodes
R4 R3 numerate the branches
i4 i5 i3 and draw current arrows
draw voltage arrows in branches
K1 i1
u4
u R5 u3 i
u1 5 u2 2 K3 according to the convention
numerate meshes and assign
an orientation
R1 R2 (here always clockwise, for convenience)
K2
u0 M3
i0
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Branch Current Analysis
Formalism
Example: Bridge Procedure:
K4
M1 M2 Write down KCL (Node Equations)
R4 R3
i4 i5 i3 ( K1 ) : i0 + i1 + i2 + i3 i4 + i5 =
0
u4 R5 u3 i
K1 i1 u
u1 5 u2 2 K3 (K2 ) : i0 i1 i2 + i3 i4 + i5 =0
( K3 ) : i0 + i2 i3 i4 + i5 =0
R1 R2
K2
M3 Remember:
u0
Equation of node 4 (K4) is linear dependent
i0 and therefore not required.

Note:
If the network contains current sources, the branch
with the current source is not considered as branch,
but the current of the source appears on the right side of KCL.
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Branch Current Analysis
Formalism
Example: Bridge Procedure:

K4 Write down KVL (Mesh Equations)

M1 M2
R4 R3
i4 i5 i3 ( M1 ) : u0 + u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 =
0
u4 R5 u3 i
K1 i1 u
u1 5 u2 2 K3 ( M 2 ) : u0 + u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 =
0
R1 ( M 3 ) : u0 u1 + u2 + u3 u4 + u5 = 0
R2
K2
u0 Remember:
M3
There are only m=z-k+1 (=3) linear
i0 independent meshes.
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Branch Current Analysis
Formalism
Example: Bridge Procedure:

Express the branch voltage by the

branch current in the mesh equations via:

u=
R i

( M1 ) : R1i1 + Z i 2 + Z i 3 + R4 i4 + R5i5 =
0
( M 2 ) : Z i1 Ri2 R3i3 Z i4 R5i5 =
0 and shift all voltages, that
( M 3 ) : R1i1 + R2 i2 + u3 u4 + u5 =
u 0 can not be expressed by
current (voltage sources)
to the right side
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Branch Current Analysis
Formalism
Example: Bridge Procedure:

Combine Node Equation and Mesh Equations

known from the circuit to an equation system
(here in matrix presentation):

1 1 0 0 1 0 i0 0
0 1
1 0 0 1 i1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 i2 0
=
Solve equation system
by standard procedures
0 R1 0 0 R4 R5 i3 0
0 0 R2 R3 0 R5 i4 0

0 R1 R2 0 0 0 i5 u0 Sources (known)

Branch current vector (unknown)

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Branch Current Analysis
Summary

The branch current method follows straight forward

from KCL and KVL
Voltage sources and current sources can be present in the circuit
The calculation is extensive and therefore this method is rarely used