RATIFICATION PAGE

Complete report of Animal Physiology with title Skeletas System

which made by :
name : Bertha Tandi
reg.number : 141 444 2 010
class : International Class Program of Biology ( ICP B )
group : V (fivth)
has been checked by Assistant and Assistant Coordinator, so this report was
accepted.

Makassar, April 4th 2017

Assistant Coordinator, Assistant,

A Citra Pratiwi, S.Pd, M.Ed Muhammad Nur Arsyad. S.Pd

Known by,
Lecturer of Responsibility

Dr. Drs. A. Mushawwir Taiyeb, M.Kes.

ID: 19644016 198803 1 002
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
One of the characteristic of living thing is they could do movement. But
have you ever think or see the differences between humans, animals and
plants? One of the reason is in their movement way. Plants rarely do the
movement but humans and animals always move. Plants generally move when
they grow up but animals and humans always move frome one place to
another places. The causes of animal and humans movements are both of
them have one system to support their movement called skeletal system.As
humans, the ability to walk upright and to perform a large number of tasks
with amazingprecision is often taken for granted. These abilities that give us
an edge over most other animalson our planet are the result of our skeletal
systems.
The skeletal system arranging about fifth of the all part of human body.
The skeletal system consists ofbones, teeth, joints, and structures that connect
bones to other bones or muscles (e.g., ligaments,tendons, and cartilage). Most
animals, excluding insects, have internal skeletal systemsthat serve a variety
of functions, including support, protection, storage, and healing.The skeletal
system has many functions, most of which we do not realize are taking
place.These various functions enable organisms to grow larger, move better,
protect effectively, andheal faster. Functions of the skeletal system
includesupport, protection, movement, mineral and energystorage, and blood-
cell formation.Movements such as throwing a ball, biking, and walking
require interactions are the results from the movement of skeletal systems and
without the skeletalsystem, our lives just would not have any structure.
So base on those reason, this observation had been held for gaining in-
depth knowledge and understanding in skeletal system (to know the
anatomical positions of humans) also can make the bone classification based
on the the form and their characteristics so we can know the bones name
easily.
B. Purpose
To know the anatomical position of humans

C. Benefit
After doing this observation, the students can know and understanding the
anatomical position of humans
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

We are born with 270 bones in our bodies, and even more bones form
during childhood. By the time we reach adulthood though, several separate bones
have fused together so that the number of our bones has decreased to around
2061, which make up the adult skeletal system. An example of this reduction
occurs in each half of our pelvis, where three separate bones the ilium, the
ischium, and the pubisfuse into one single bone called the os coxa. The skeletal
system is further divided into the axial skeleton, consisting of the bones of the
skull, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage; and the appendicular skeleton,
which consists of the bones of the upper and lower extremities along with their
associated girdles (Table 3.1) (Carlisle, 2007).

The human skeleton - a complete model of over 200 bones (Carles, 2005)
 Skeletal System: 206 bones- bones composed of osseous tissue (a type of
connective tissue) joints- where 2 bones meet ligaments - connects bone to bone
(strong, tough connective tissue) cartilage- strong, flexible connective tissue
locations 1. articulations- movable joints (provides smooth surface on jt.) 2. need
of flexibility: tip of nose external ear larynx (vocie box) rib attachment 2
subdivisions: Axial Skeleton: bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body
Appendicular Skeleton: bones of the limbs and girdles. There 5 Functions of
Bones :
1. Supportive internal framework
2. Protection of soft body organs
3. Movement using bones as levers
4. Storage of calcium and phosphorus ect
5. Hematopoiesis (Peck, 2009).
Classification of Bone there are 2 type Compact Bone Tissue- dense,
smooth, and homogeneous very strong, can endure great stress & impacts Spongy
Bone Tissue- has small needle-like bone pieces within open spaces strong yet
light-weight. Classification According to Shape: variety of shapes related to
function
a. Long Bones- longer than width shaft w/ heads at both ends mostly
compact bone (except epiphyses-ends) location: limbs (except wrist &
ankle)
b. Short Bones- cube shape mostly spongy bone location: wrist and ankle
sesamoid bones: special bones formed w/ in tendons eg. patella
c. Flat Bones- thin and flattened usually curved 2 thin layers of compact
bone sandwiching layer of spongy bone location: skull bones, ribs,
sternum
d. Irregular Bones- neither long, short, or flat bones location: vertebrae and
hip bones (Peck, 2009).

Based on Krogman (2011) name type of bone are Follows :

 The skeletal elements of the Hexactinellida (model organisms
Monorhaphis chuni and Monorhaphis intermedia or Hyalonema sieboldi) and
Demospongiae (models Suberites domuncula and Geodia cydonium), the spicules,
are formed enzymatically by the anabolic enzyme silicatein and the catabolic
enzyme silicase. Both, the spicules of Hexactinellida and of Demospongiae,
comprise a central axial canal and an axial filament which harbors the silicatein.
After intracellular formation of the first lamella around the channel and the
subsequent extracellular apposition of further lamellae the spicules are completed
in a net formed of collagen fibers (Uller, 2007). Recovers skeleton pose and
surface motion fully-automatically from a multiview video sequence. To this end,
the skeleton motion and the temporal surface deformation are captured in an
interleaved manner that improves both accurate skeleton and detailed surface
estimation. In addition, we have introduced a novel optimization scheme for
skeleton-based pose estimation that makes automatic processing of large data sets
feasible. It reduces the computational burden for global optimization in high
dimensional spaces by splitting the skeleton-specific optimization problem into a
local optimization problem and a lower dimensional global optimization problem
(Gall, 2008).
 CHAPTER III
OBSERVATION METHOD
A. Time & Place
Day / Date : Wednesday, April th, 2017
Time : 13.30 pm 15.00 pm
Place : Biology Laboratory 3rdfloor east side of Mathematic and
Science Faculty, State University of Makassar.
B. Equipment and Materials
1. Equipments:
a. A pen
2. Materials:
a. Probandus
b. A Torso
c. A paper
C. Work Procedures
1. All the equipments and materials that we will used had been prepared
2. The prepared torso was observed by us
3. The bones part in the torso was mentioned by us
4. The bones in the table of observation results tabel was drawn
 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Result
1. The bone of skulls

Note :
1. Coronal sutura
2. Lateral sutura
3. Os Sphenoid
4. Os Temporal
5. Os Lacrimal
6. Zygomatic process
7. Os Zygomaticum
8. Condyle
9. Ramus
10. Angle of jaw
11. Os Mandibula
A. Os frontal
B. Os nasalis
C. Os nasalis spine
D. Mental
protuberance

Note :
A. Coronal sutura
B. Os frontal
C. Os temporal line
D. Os lakrimal
E. Os Sphenoid
F. Os nasalis
G. Os maksila
H. Ramus
I. Os mandibula
J. Os zygomaticum
K. Zygomaticum process
L. Condyle
M. Mastoid process
N. External audiotory meatus
O. Lambdoid sutures
P. Os occipital
Q. Lateral sutures
R. Os Parietal
S. Inferiormporal line
T. Os superior temporal
U. Os temporal
2. The bone of body

Note :
1. Clavicule
2. Scapula
3. Manubrium sterni
4. Corpus
5. Xiphoid procesus
6. Iga cartilage
7. Vertebrae lumbalis
8. Illium
9. Ischium
10. Pubis
11. Cocsigeal
12. Sacrum
13. Costa fluktuantes
14. Costa spuria
15. Costa vera
16. Vertebrae cervikalis

3. The bones of the upper limbs

Note:
1. Humerus
2. Radius
3. Ulna
4. Carpal
5. Metacarpal
6. Phalanges
4. The bones of the lower limbs
Note :
1. Femur
2. Tibia
3. Fibula
4. Tarsal
5. Metatarsal
6. Phalanges

5. Explain the differences between active movement and passive

movement !
Answer : Active movement is muscle because the muscle attaches to
the bone, so that muscles can do the motion by itself and can move
bones while the passive movement is the skeletal because it can't
move on its own when not actuated by muscles.
6. Explain about the function of skeletal!
Answer :
a. Strut: the establishment of the body, where the ligaments attached,
muscles, soft tissue organ
b. Storage of mineral (calcium phosphate) and lipids (yellow
marrow)
c. The production of blood cells (red marrow)
d. The protector; form cavity protecting the delicate vital organ
e. Movers; can change direction while moving skeletal muscle
strength; the presence of joints
7. Explain the kind of skeletal based on the characteristic!
Answer :
 a. Cartilage bone : The cartilage are elastic (elastic). The cartilage is
composed by kondrosit. Mature kondrosit formed from cartilage
young cells called kondroblas.
b. Osteon bone : The bone is composed of a very compact bone cells
on its surface. Bone cells contain a matrix consisting of calcium
and phosphate compound that results in bone becomes hard.
Activity 1.2

Types of Bone Name of bone

1. Humerus
Long bone 2. Tibia
3. Fibula
1. Carpal
Short bone
2. Tarsal
1. Cranium
Flat bone 2. Ribs
3. Hip bones
B. Discussion
Based on this observation we obtained the torso we know that human
skeletal divided into three parts, namely the skull, the bone of body and the
limbs bones. The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the
body. In this lab conducted observations of the order or the bones that make up
the human body skull is divided into the skull and face, body bones, and the
bones that make up the upper limbs and lower limbs.
The skeletal of our body consist of two parts namely axial skeleton and
apendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull (cranium), spine
(vertebral column), rib (costal), and the breastbone (sternum). The apendicular
include the upper limbs and the lower limbs.
The detailed skeleton on the human body can be described as follows:
1. Axial skeleton
Consisted of a group of bones that make up the axis of the body and
provide support and protection to the organs in the head, neck and body.
Various axial skeleton, namely:
a. Skull face, consisting of:
1) Coronal sutures; when fused bones in the joint line growth fades
2) Angle of jaw, attached to the temporal bone of the skull. It is the
only relationship between the bone with free movement
3) Lower jaw, compiled in part from the nose, and the palate
4) Palatine (palate bone), compiled in part from the nasal cavity and
the upper part of the roof of the oral cavity
5) Os sphenoid; Sphenoid portion, adjacent to the eye socket bone,
such as bone wedge
6) Os parietal ; Part of the parietal bone forehead
7) Os frontal; Part of the front of the head and upper of lakrimal bone
8) Os temporal; Temporal parts, bones left and right side head ear
9) Os occipital: Occipital part, the rear area of the skull
10) Os Zygomatic, cheek bones
11) Os Nasal
12) Os Lacrimal, nasal septum bone.
13) Os mandibula; lower of the jaw, but did not merge with the skull in
the temporomandibular joint
b. Skull head, consisting of:
1) Coronal sutures; when fused bones in the joint line growth fades
2) Lateral sutures
3) Angle of jaw, attached to the temporal bone of the skull. It is the
only relationship between the bone with free movement
 4) Lower jaw, compiled in part from the nose, and the palate
5) Palatine (palate bone), compiled in part from the nasal cavity and
the upper part of the roof of the oral cavity
6) Os parietal ; Part of the parietal bone forehead
7) Os frontal; Part of the front of the head and upper of lakrimal bone
8) Os temporal; Temporal parts, bones left and right side head ear
9) Os occipital: Occipital part, the rear area of the skull
10) Os sphenoid; Sphenoid portion, adjacent to the eye socket bone,
such as bone wedge
11) Os ethiomoid; Part of the ethmoid bone that make up the nasal
cavity
c. Sternum, which is composed of three bones:
1) Manubrium sterni, located at the top of the sternum, the ribs were
attached first and second
2) Corpus sterni, situated in the middle, the ribs were attached to three
to seven, the combined rib to eight to ten.
3) Processus xiphoideus, located in the lower part of the sternum.
This bone is formed from cartilage.
d. Ribs, divided into three parts:
1) Costae vera that consist of seven pairs. The ribs on the back of the
sections dealing with the spine while dealing with the front end
through the breastbone cartilage
2) Costae spuriae affixae that consists of three pairs. The ribs have a
size shorter than the true ribs. On the back associated with spinal
segments while the three front ends of the bones are united by
cartilage that attach at one point in the sternum
3) Fluctuantes that consist of two pairs. The ribs on the back end
associated with spinal segments, while the front end is free.
The ribs have multiple functions including:
a) Protect the heart and lungs of the shake-up.
b) Protects the stomach, spleen and kidneys, and
c) Help respiration
e. Vertebrae also called spine, composed by 33 pieces of bone with
irregular shapes.
1) Vertebrae cervicalis (The first seven sections). The first vertebra of
the neck bone called the atlas bone, and a second node or bone
 shaft player. The shape of the bone atlas allows the head to make a
move.
2) Vertebrae torakalis (Twelve sections form the backbone).
Backbone segments on the left and the right is where the
attachment of the ribs.
3) Vertebrae lumbalis (Five sections). Bone size larger than the waist
backbone. Lumbar vertebrae hold most of the weight attached to
the body and many muscles.
4) Sacrum, which is fused, triangular located below the lumbar
vertebrae.
5) The lower part of the spine joints called the tail bone (coccyx),
composed of 3 to 5 fused vertebrae.
2. Appendicular skeleton
Composed of bones which are in addition to the axial skeleton. Axial
skeleton consists of:
a. Upper limb bones (superior extremity), composed of:
1) Humerus including a group of long bones / pipes, great top end,
smooth, and surrounded by the scapula. At the bottom has two
grooves is the place of attachment of the radius and ulna bones
2) Radius and ulna. Ulna bone is larger than the radius, and firmly
attached to the humerus. Radius bone has a major contribution to
the movement of the forearm than the ulna.
3) Carpal composed of 8 pieces of bone that are interconnected by
ligaments
4) Metacarpal / palm of the hand, the hand is made up of five pieces.
At the top of the wrist associated with bone, while the bottom
associated with the bones of the fingers (palanges)
5) Phalanges composed of 14 pieces of bone. Each finger is
composed of three bones, except for the thumb which is only
composed of 2 pieces of bones.
b. Lower limb bones (lower extremities), composed of bone:
1) Femur, including a group of long bones. Located ranging from the
pelvic girdle to the knees.
2) Tibia and fibula associated with the base end portion associated
with knee ankle. Size tibia fibula than larger because it serves to
 hold the load or weight. Fibula is the place of attachment of several
muscles
3) Patella, located between the femur with the tibia, triangular. Patella
protects the knee joint and the strength of the tendons that make up
the knee
4) Tarsal / ankle bone, including bone and is composed of eight short
bones with one of them being the heel bone.
5) Metatarsal / foot bone, made up of 5 pieces of bone is to flat.
6) Phalanges / bone fingers. Each finger is composed of 3 bones
except thumb bone on 14 bones.
c. Shoulder girdle bone (clavicle and scapula / shoulder blade and
clavicle)
d. Pelvic girdle.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
Skeletal in humans is divided into two axial skeleton and appendicular
skeleton. Axial skeleton including skull, spine, ribs. Appendicular skeleton the
upper limbs and lower limbs. Overall, 29 human bones were found on the
head, 22 bones form the skull, spine 21 of them, not including the lower jaw,
or mandible, fused into a single structure and solid. The spine is also called the
backbone. The upper limbs like humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal and
phalanges. The lower limbs like femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsal and
phalanges.
B. Suggestion
For the next observation, students have to be more activeso the results
that they get are more clear, detailed and accurate.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carles H.A. 2005. The Human Skeleton. Oxford University Museum of Natural
History

Carlisle. 2009. The skeletal System . University Of Michigan : U.S.A

Gall Juergen., Stoll Carsten., Aguiar Edilson., Dkk. 2008. Motion Capture Using
Joint Skeleton Tracking and Surface Estimation. BIWI Informatik Stanford :
University Leibniz-Universitat Hannover

Krogman, Wilton Mario. 2011. The Human Skeleton In Forensic Medicine.

University Of Michigan : U.S.A

Peck Lisa. 2009. Skletal System Notes. University Of Michigan : U.S.A

Uller W. E. G. M 1, Jinhe Li2, H. C. Schroder1, Li Qiao3, Dkk. 2007. The

unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida and
Demospongiae) that evolved first from the Urmetazoa during the
Proterozoic: a review. Biogeosciences. 4, 219232, 2007