Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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of this report and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the ACP
Group of States or the European Union.
CONTENTS
PROJECT BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................................1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................................2
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Methodology.......................................................................................................................................................3
2.2.1 Selected RWHI Storage technologies in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe...................................7
2.2.4 Groundwater dam systems: subsurface dams and sand storage dams.............................................................8
2.2.8 Tanks..................................................................................................................................................................9
2.4.1 Selected small-scale irrigation systems in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe ............................. 11
3. TECHNOLOGY-TRANSFER POTENTIAL..................................................................................................................15
3.2 Rainwater harvesting irrigation technologies with technology transfer potential ................................................16
3.3 Selected examples of technology transfer strategies in the African partner countries.....................................17
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................19
4.3 Barriers.............................................................................................................................................................20
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................21
7. RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................................................................................25
8. REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................27
PROJECT BACKGROUND
AFRHINET is a three-year project which focuses on fos- Demonstration of innovative RWHI management:
tering the knowledge and use of rainwater harvesting Effective demonstrations relative to RWHI will not
technologies for supplemental irrigation in rural drylands only support, but also reinforce, the idea of alternative
of sub-Saharan Africa. The project focuses on the imple- concepts to local community groups, academic and
mentation of integrated capacity building activities, the scientific institutions, businesses/micro-enterprises,
development of research and technology transfer acti- and non-governmental and public organisations.
vities, namely technology transfer centres and demonstra- Thereby, showcasing that implementing cost-effective
tion trials, and the setting-up of a transnational network RWHI projects for improved food security and poverty
of multivariate relevant actors. The AFRHINET project is alleviation is substantially feasible.
funded by the ACP Science and Technology Programme, Networking activities:
an EU cooperation programme which is funded by the Eu- To enhance the networking capacity of academic and
ropean Union and implemented by the ACP Secretariat. scientific institutions with other relevant stakeholders
The action of the project takes place in Ethiopia, Kenya, at national and international level.
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The African partners are
Addis Ababa University and WaterAid-Ethiopia in Ethiopia,
University of Nairobi and ICRAF-Searnet in Kenya,
Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique, and Univer-
sity of Zimbabwe and ICRISAT-Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe.
The AFRHINET project envisages close involvement and
participation of relevant stakeholders and target groups,
i.e. NGOs, businesses/micro-enterprises, consultancies,
ministries and local communities.
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is part of the AFRHINET project under the recharge groundwater resources. Low-head low-cost drip
ACP-EU Cooperation Programme in Science and Tech- irrigation systems were identified as the most efficient
nology (S&T II). The overall aims of the project are to irrigation system, usually using rainwater harvested from
enhance options for sustainable integration of rainwater rooftops. In Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe,
harvesting for irrigation through understanding adoption several mechanisms and technologies have been de-
constraints and developing networks for capacity building veloped to reduce evaporation and percolation losses,
and technology transfer. The African partners are Addis which include, among others, greenhouses, roof covers,
Ababa University and WaterAid-Ethiopia in Ethiopia, Uni- pond lining with geomembrane and groundwater dams.
versity of Nairobi and ICRAF-Searnet in Kenya, Eduardo The appropriateness of RWHI technologies in each country
Mondlane University in Mozambique, and University of was strongly determined by biophysical factors and the
Zimbabwe and ICRISAT-Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe. Ham- avaialability of financial resources.
burg University of Applied Sciences (Germany) is the
coordinator of the project. The national surveys in the four countries indicated that
RWHI interventions have been implemented by national
The report is a summary of the most relevant information associations, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
which was compiled in the frame of the baseline studies and private organisations. In most cases, NGOs significantly
in the 4 AFRHINET African countries. The main goal of the contributed to the implementation of these interventions.
baseline study was to conduct a capacity and technology However, there is also an increasing interest for research
transfer assessment in the field of rainwater harvesting and innovation in the field of RWHI among governmental
for irrigation management. The national baseline studies and scientific institutions, private sector and civil society.
were conducted through an extensive literature review,
in-depth key informant interviews with representatives of Studies and experiences in all countries indicated that
stakeholder institutions and experts in the field of rain- RWHI can be replicated and scaled up through self-
water harvesting management and small-scale irrigation. replicable capacity building activities, better coordinated
Relevant information was also collected in the field and research, improved communication and dissemination of
during national multi-stakeholder workshops, where in- cost-efficient and/or innovative technologies, transnational
formation and experiences of relevant stakeholders was networking activities, and effective policy-making.
shared.
Ethiopia and Kenya have made some progress in the im-
The use of rainwater harvesting for small-scale irrigation plementation of RWHI systems. However, Mozambique
during the dry season has been practiced in all the four and Zimbabwe face major challenges, like the stigmati-
countries with significant success in terms of high crop sation of RWHI as a technology for the poor, lack of tech-
productivity. In all the participating countries, rainwater nical standards, fragmented efforts in the implementation
harvesting for irrigation (RWHI) included collecting sur- of RWHI systems, and lack of specific policies on RWHI.
face runoff from external catchments and using storage For an effective implementation of RWHI management,
structures such as earth dams, water pans, farm ponds, there is a need in all countries to review policy, legal and
underground tanks and groundwater dams. The water institutional arrangements that negatively affect adop-
was used to irrigate crops during the dry season or to tion and scaling up of rainwater harvesting and irrigation
supplement rainwater during dry spells. In some cases, technologies.
surface runoff was redirected into the fields to irrigate
crops (flood irrigation) and to increase infiltration and
2
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Food and water scarcity have negative economic impacts soil storage and groundwater replenishment that impacts
and exacerbate poverty, especially in rural communities positively on springs and shallow wells, which in turn, can
that are located in arid and semi-arid areas of sub- also be used for small-scale irrigation.
Saharan Africa (UN, 2015). Water scarcity is often related
to high intensity and short duration of rainfall, with large 1.2 Goals and Objectives
spatial and temporal variability, rather than to cumulative
annual and seasonal rainfall (Falkenmark and Rockstrm, The report is a summary of 4 national baseline studies con-
2004; Rockstrm and Falkenmark, 2015; IWMI, 2015; ducted in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe in
Nicol et al., 2015). Such irregular patterns result in high the frame of the AFRHINET project. The main goal of the
risk of drought and intra-seasonal dry spells. This in turn national baseline studies was to carry out both a capacity
leads to unpredictable and depressed crop yields, peren- and technology transfer assessment in the field of RWHI
nial food shortages and disruptive conflicts over use and in these countries. The results of the baseline study pro-
access to existing water supplies (Ngigi, 2003). The situ- vided the conceptual basis for the implementation of key
ation is being aggravated by the ensuing climate change AFRHINET project activities, particularly the development
and variability (Pachauri et al., 2014). of capacity building programmes, the establishment of re-
search and technology transfer centres (RTTCs), and the
Climate change models have projected a decrease in implementation of demonstration trials. Extensive baseline
rainfall in sub-Saharan Africa (New et al., 2006; Musiyi- information focusing on each of the 4 AFRHINET countries
wa, 2014) and empirical literature has already shown sim- can be found at http://www.afrhinet.eu/materials/viewcate-
ilar trends (Nyagumbo et al., 2009). Therefore, meeting gory/11-baseline-studies.html.
current and future food demands would require upgrad-
ing of agriculture by adopting climate- and water-smart The specific objectives of the baseline studies were:
technologies such as rainwater harvesting and manage- 1. To assess relevant and currently available know-how
ment (Rockstrm and Falkenmark, 2015). Smallholder and map best practices in the field of RWHI
farmers in semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa often 2. To identify the national capacity and training needs in
experience total crop failure once every ten years and the field of RWHI
drastically reduced yields two to four times within similar 3. To analyse the policy and institutional framework in
period (Fischer et al., 2009). Agricultural droughts, which the field of RWHI
occur during the crop growing season, often have dire 4. To analyse the research and innovation needs in the
consequences on food and economic security of poor field of RWHI
rural households (Malesu et al., 2012). 5. To assess the technology transfer and market-
oriented needs of RWHI
The potential of rainfed farming can be unlocked signifi-
cantly in regions subject to dry spells through rainwater 1.3 Methodology
harvesting and storage for small-scale irrigation during
the dry season (Awulachew et al., 2005; Mutabazi et al., The baseline studies consisted on an extensive literature
2005; Mati et al., 2006; Mati, 2007; Malesu et al., 2012). review coupled with in-depth key informant interviews with
When surface runoff is collected and stored in reservoirs, relevant institutions and experts in the field of RWHI. In
it can be used for growing crops during periods of low or addition, the baseline studies were further complemented
no rainfall. Surface runoff can also be used for recharging during the implementation of national multi-stakeholder
3
1
4
2. RAINWATER HARVESTING
MANAGEMENT FOR FOOD
SECURITY
Local communities in arid and semi-arid areas have since Macro-Catchment RWH Systems: Collection of
ancient times under widely varying ecological conditions surface runoff from macro-catchment systems with
attempted to harvest water to secure or increase agricul- water storage for supplementary irrigation
tural production (Prinz, 2002). Recently, a wide variety of In-situ RWH Systems: Techniques for maximising
techniques for collecting, storing, and using natural pre- infiltration, reducing surface runoff and soil evapora-
cipitation for agricultural purposes have gained worldwide tion, and improving soil and water availability
momentum (Biazin et al., 2012). Agricultural uses include
irrigation, livestock watering, fodder and tree production
and, less frequently, water supply for fish and duck ponds 2.1 Rainwater harvesting management for
(Biazin et al., 2012). In-situ techniques and appropriate small-scale irrigation (RWHI)
land management practices, which enhance infiltration
and reduce surface runoff and soil evaporation, are also RWHI is defined as a system that allows concentrating
included as rainwater harvesting management techniques and storing rainwater from a larger catchment area to be
(Rockstrom et al., 2002). In this study, the term rainwater used in a smaller target area. The collected rainwater is
harvesting and management (RWHM) for food security stored in a storage facility for irrigation of high-value crops
has been used to encompass all practices of rainwater during the dry season. RWHI differs from the use of rain-
collection, storage and efficient utilisation for crop produc- water for supplemental irrigation because it is specifically
tion (Rockstrom et al., 2002; Ngigi et al., 2005; Biazin et meant to conduct small-scale agricultural activities during
al., 2012). As it is shown in Figure 1, RWH management the dry season, especially kitchen gardens, trees, and
for food security can be further classified in three main high-value horticultural crops along riverbanks, by means
categories (Biazin et al., 2012): of the use of mainly macro-catchment RWH technologies
connected to a low-cost irrigation system.
5
2
6
In Ethiopia, trenches and terraces are common in steep
slopes. Only in Mozambique the use of pots has been
reported for irrigating horticultural crops. Widespread
adoption of tied ridges has been reported in Zimbabwe.
Although micro-basins have been widely promoted in Zim-
babwe by NGOs, their adoption appears to be hampered
by high labour requirements.
Table 1: Macro-catchment RWHI systems with the potential to be used for small-scale irrigation. Source: adapted from Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo
(2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Rock outcrops + ++ ++ +
Rooftop Catchments + + + +
7
2
1. Charco dams for predominantly flat lands 2.2.5 Rock outcrop catchment systems
2. Hillside dams for rolling and hilly lands
3. Valley dams for seasonal water courses and valleys Rock outcrops generate significant volumes of water that
can be collected and stored for small-scale irrigation pur-
poses. The major requirement is a rock outcrop with a
large surface area. Therefore, the option is suitable for
areas with rocky outcrops, as it is shown in Figure 9. It is
estimated that rock catchments can collect 90% of total
rainfall in the catchment area, providing a valuable water
supply even when rains are below normal levels (Hauser,
2012). Rocks lined near the bottom of the rock outcrop
can trap solid debri. The water is usually stored in tanks
which are built near the rock catchment. Also, a dam built
Figure 7: An earth dam in southern Kenya. Source: (AFRHINET Project)
on the surface of the rock can be built to store the water.
Figure 8: A sand storage dam built by stages in Zimbabwe (left) and in one- Figure 10: Roads can be used as a catchment to collect and divert rainwater,
stage in Kenya (right). Source: (AFRHINET project) as it is shown in this example in Kenya. Source: (AFRHINET Project)
8
2.2.7 Rooftop catchment systems 2.2.9 Surface dam systems
These type of technologies revolve around the collection Surface dams are runoff storage structures that are built
of rainwater by means of roof catchments and the storage across perennial and seasonal rivers. The dam wall is
through gutters in a tank (section 2.2.8) for their prospec- usually made of reinforced steel, concrete, rubble stone or
tive use for small-scale irrigation purposes, as it is shown soil. The capacity of dams varies from site to site. Figure
in Figure 11. Typically, a rooftop RWH system consists of 13 shows an example of a small-scale surface dam
a catchment area, filter, storage tank and a supply facility across a gulley.
(Mun and Han, 2012). Roofs, particularly those with tiles,
metal or asbestos sheets, can be used to collect and re-
direct rainwater into collection tanks. Gutters are usually
placed at the lower roof to concentrate and redirect rain-
water to a collection tank. In rural areas, rooftop RWH
systems are mainly used for household use (Gur and
Spuhler, 2010).
Figure 13: A small surface dam is used to store harvested water for irrigation.
Source: (Simane et al., 2014)
9
2
Figure 16: Micro-catchment RWH systems (terraces -below- and trenches Figure 17: Mulching (top) and runoff collection with furrows (bottom). Source:
-above-) that are facilitating infiltration of rainwater; reduced runoff and higher (Studer and Liniger, 2013)
shallow groundwater levels in Ethiopia. Source: (Simane et al., 2014)
Table 2: Relevant micro-catchment technologies for RWHI in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Source: adapted from Biazin et al. (2012), Simane et
al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo (2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Pitting: Different types Grid of planting pits are dug across +++ +++ + +++
of planting pits and plots or along the contours with or
trenches without bunds downslope
10
Table 3: Overview of the most relevant in-situ RWH systems practices in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Source: adapted from Biazin et al. (2012),
Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo (2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Ridging Basins wider than traditional furrows are +++ +++ ++ +++
implemented using a modified ploughing
instrument
2.4 Small-scale irrigation systems incomes from rainfed land, which average less than USD
750/ha, irrigated land can produce two-three crops a year
Small-scale irrigation is emerging in sub-Saharan Africa worth USD 1,400 (snow peas, French beans), USD 450
as there is an increasing number of smallholder farmers (kale) or USD 600 (onions). The investment costs of pri-
that engage in small-scale irrigation and in many countries vate irrigation are usually low and affordable to individ-
the area under privately managed and owned irrigation is ual farmers and the operational costs of these manual
larger than under public irrigation schemes (De Fraiture technologies are low because family labour is typically not
and Giordano, 2014). In fact, much of the investment in priced in the market (De Fraiture and Giordano, 2014).
small-scale water extraction devices and irrigation equip-
ment in sub-Saharan Africa has been made by individual 2.4.1 Selected small-scale irrigation
farmers, without involving a formal irrigation scheme or a
water user association (Wichelns 2013, De Fraiture and systems in Ethiopia, Kenya,
Giordano, 2014). In this study, small-scale irrigation is Mozambique and Zimbabwe
understood as a group of simple technologies/practices
operated and managed by individuals or in small self-initi- Wichelns (2013) found that in sub-Saharan Africa, small-
ated groups, which usually have been initiated and funded holders mainly invest in buckets, watering cans, drip ir-
by the farmers themselves in areas lower than 2 ha, and rigation kits, pipes, manual pumps or small motorized
that use low-cost and easy-to-maintain technologies in pumps. The predominant water sources are nearby rivers,
order to grow high-value crops during the dry season for canals, reservoirs or shallow wells.
direct consumption and/or the local market (De Fraiture
and Giordano, 2014). The most common small-scale irrigation method in all
the four countries is manual irrigation by means of the
As agriculture is the most important source of rural live- use of a watering can, bucket or jerry can (Fraiture and
lihoods in Africa, improvements in agriculture will not Giordano, 2014; Simane et al., 2014; Oguge and Oremo,
only help secure food supply but also will contribute to 2014; Cuamba et al., 2015; Wuta et al., 2014). Water is
the growth of household incomes in rural areas (Roseg- directly applied to a plant through a spout fitted with a
rant et al., 2006). In addition, smallholder irrigation may shower rose. This method is widely practiced in the pro-
considerably contribute to agricultural productivity growth duction of garden vegetables and where the water source
in sub-Saharan Africa with a large potential for profitable is near the garden. In addition, most smallholder irrigation
smallholder irrigation expansion in sub-Saharan Africa schemes in sub-Saharan Africa usually apply surface irri-
(Xie et al., 2014). Small-scale irrigation during the dry gation (De Fraiture and Giordano, 2014). These methods
season has the specific advantage of obtaining additional involve the diversion of water from streams and dams by
income during a period when other agricultural incomes gravity or mechanised pumping. The water is then con-
are low (Wichelns, 2013; De Fraiture and Giordano, 2014; veyed by means of mainly open channels or pipes to the
Nicol et al., 2015). Therefore, small-scale irrigation has a cropped area. Canals, which are lined or unlined, are also
very significant potential for poverty alleviation and rural used to direct water into the fields. Unlined canals are
development (Wichelns, 2013; De Fraiture and Giordano, popular among the resource-poor farmers because of low
2014; Xi et al., 2014). Thus, Bacha et al. (2009) found initial costs. Water can also be conveyed to the fields by
that the incidence, depth, and severity of poverty were using pipes fitted with or without sprinklers. The pipes vary
significantly lower among those farm households with ac- in different sizes and can be moved from one position in
cess to irrigation. Nicol et al. (2015) found that small-scale the field to another (Simane et al., 2014; Oguge and Ore-
irrigators in Kenya gives good profits: compared with farm mo, 2014; Wuta et al., 2015).
11
2
A specific type of small-scale irrigation system with high is conveyed to the fields by use of the pipes. Such tech-
potential revolves around the use of micro-irrigation sys- nologies usually apply water only at the planting station
tems (Simane et al., 2014; Oguge and Oremo, 2014; Wuta (Wuta et al., 2014).
et al., 2014). These mainly involve low-head, low-cost
drip (LHLCD) irrigation kits for smallholder farmers. LHL- Xie et al. (2014) found that the area expansion potential
CD kits range from 20-litre bucket kits to 200-litre mini- in sub-Saharan Africa is 30 million ha for motor pumps,
tank systems that operate at 0.5 to 1 metre water head 24 million ha for treadle pumps, 22 million ha for small
and irrigate up to 2000 m2 (Ngigi, 2009). De Fraiture and reservoirs and 20 million ha for communal river diversions.
Giordano (2014) found that LHLCD kits that irrigate up These systems can benefit between 113 and 369 million
to 500 m2 are marketed for around USD 250. With drip rural people in the region generating net revenues of USD
systems, plants receive water through emitters that pro- 1422 billion per year, depending on the specific type of
duce droplets of water, thereby, wetting the soil around the system (Xi et al., 2014).
plant root zone (Ngigi, 2003). The simplest is a bucket
drip kit, which is made up of a bucket, a filter, connectors The most widely practiced methods of irrigation in Ethio-
and a drip tape. Farmers commonly use the system in pia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe are summarised
home/kitchen gardens (Kaluli et al., 2005). Other types in Table 4. The link between small-scale irrigation and
of micro-irrigation systems are based on vegetable gar- RWH comes when the rainwater stored during the rainy
dens that are manually irrigated and/or use simple manual season is used for irrigation during the dry season. An
pumps to lift water from a small reservoir usually located example of best practice is incorporating low-cost drip irri-
nearby the farm (Simane et al., 2014; Oguge and Oremo, gation technology to a rainwater harvesting system, which
2014; Cuamba et al., 2015; Wuta et al., 2014). can enhance rainwater management for agricultural pro-
duction during the dry season.
Manually operated pumps such as treadle pumps have
not been adopted at large scale, despite social marketing 2.4.2 Manual irrigation systems
efforts by international NGOs (De Fraiture and Giordano,
2014). These authors also found that the adoption of water Table 5 provides an overview of key factors relevant to
pumps which are coupled to diesel- and petrol-powered the implementation of small-scale manual irrigation tech-
engines in sub-Saharan Africa has only recently started to nologies. Figure 18 shows a specific example of manual
take off, but the technology is spreading steadily. In Ethio- irrigation in Kenya.
pia, a conservative estimate of 400,000 pumps were import-
ed from 2002 to 2012 (De Fraiture and Giordano, 2014).
Table 4: Small-scale irrigation technologies commonly practiced in the countries under study. Source: adapted from Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo
(2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Ox-drawn/tractor-drawn bowsers - - - ++
Surface irrigation ++ + + ++
Manual pumping ++ ++ ++ ++
Mechanised pumping + + + +
12
Table 5: Key factors relevant for the implementation of small-scale manual irrigation systems. Source: adapted from Staufer and Spuhler (2010a)
Manual Water is delivered Simple Effective High labour Low initial Arid and semi-arid areas:
irrigation: to the cropping No need of and time capital costs Higher suitability for
Bucket/can area manually technical requirements small-scale farming at
irrigation equipment household level or
Self-replicable riparian communities
Reduction of
evaporation
Table 6 provides an overview of key factors relevant to Table 7 provides an overview of key factors relevant for
the implementation of small-scale sprinkler irrigation sys- the implementation of small-scale low-cost drip irrigation
tems. Figure 19 shows a specific example of this system systems. Figure 20 shows specific examples of this sys-
in Zimbabwe. tem in Kenya and Zimbabwe.
Figure 19: A sprinkler irrigation system in Zimbabwe. Source: Figure 20: A low-cost drip irrigation system in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Source:
(Nyamangara, 2015) (AFRHINET Project; Nyamangara, 2015)
Table 6: Key factors relevant for the implementation of small-scale sprinkler irrigation systems. Source: adapted from Staufer and Spuhler (2010b)
Sprinkler Rainfall-likeirriga- Suitable for all Clogging High For small sprinkler Low suitability to
irrigation tionto the crops types of crops evaporation equipment for arid and semi-arid
through a system and irrigable soils losses gardening the initial areas and resource
of pipes usually Sensitivity to capital costs are poor farmers but
by pumping crop diseases relatively low. High it is appropriate
operation costs due for small-scale
to expenses for irrigation
pumping, labour and
sprinklers and pipes
Table 7: Key factors relevant for the implementation of small-scale drip irrigation systems. Source: adapted from Staufer (2010)
Low-cost Water flows Effectivity Water Maintenance Simple self-made Arid and semi-arid
drip through a filter conservation requirements systems are cheap areas:
irrigation into special drip Reduction (US$15 to $85) or Higher suitability for
pipes. evaporation construct it with small-scale farming
Reduction deep local available at community-based
Water is distrib- drainage High material (buckets, level
uted through performance bamboo or plastic
the emitters Small-scale drip pips)
directly into the systems can
soil near the be operated by
roots trained farmers
13
2
Figure 22: Manual pumping using a hand-pump in Kenya (top left and right),
Figure 21: Water is gravitated from a 50 year old sand dam to fields situated solar pumping in Zimbabwe (bottom left) and a portable petrol-powered water
at lower elevations (left) and surface irrigation in Zimbabwe (right). Source: pump suitable in Kenya (bottom right). Source: (AFRHINET Project; Gumbo,
(Nissen-Petersen, 2015 and Nyamangara, 2015) 2015 and Nissen-Petersen, 2015)
Table 8: Key factors relevant for the implementation of small-scale surface irrigation systems. Source: adapted from Staufer and Spuhler (2010c)
Table 9: Key factors relevant for the implementation of small-scale surface pumping systems. Source: adapted from Bruni and Spuhler (2010a,b)
Manual Water-lifting Simple to High maintenance Low-cost options Arid and semi-arid
pumping devices that can install and requirements, exist making use areas for small-scale
be operated operate especially at of locally available irrigation at household
manually Effective: community level material and labour level Highly suitable
depths up to Low cultural for places where ac-
80 metres acceptance cess to power sources
Versitability islimited and where
Suitable to financial resources for
wide local investment are
condition constrained
Mechan- Water-lifting is Very high High level of High capital, Arid and semi-arid
ised driven by various performance technical skills operation and areas for small-scale
pumping power sources: if correctly Regular needs for maintenancecosts. irrigation at community
electricity, fuels, maintained spare parts Low-cost options level. Low suitability
animals, wind and for mechanised for small-holders
power, solar operated pumps hardly exist
power, and
gravity.
motorised pumps
are associated
with diesel- and
electro pumps
14
3. TECHNOLOGY-TRANSFER
POTENTIAL
3.1 Technology transfer and rainwater
harvesting irrigation management
Technology transfer is the process of transferring skills, capacities. Therefore, a key element of this wider view of
knowledge, technologies and facilities in order to ensure technology transfer is choice (Boithi et al., 2014). There is
that scientific and technological developments are acces- no single strategy for successful transfer that is appropri-
sible to a wider range of users, who can then further de- ate to all situations. Desirably, a technology recipient will
velop and exploit the technology into new products, pro- choose a technology, which at least meets the definition
cesses, applications, materials or services. It is closely of being environmentally sound (Morelli, 2011). Environ-
related to knowledge transfer. Horizontal transfer is the mentally sound technologies (ESTs) are technologies that
movement of technologies from one area to another. Ver- have the potential for significantly improved environmental
tical transfer occurs when technologies are moved from performance, relative to other technologies. Such tech-
applied research centres to research and development nologies contribute to the three pillars of sustainable de-
departments. The development and effective diffusion of velopment.
new agricultural practices and technologies will largely
shape how and how well farmers, especially in sub-Sa- Farmers and other resource users are naturally more
haran Africa, mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate willing to adopt technologies that provide significant and
change (e.g. water scarcity) (Lybbert and Sumner, 2012). sustained returns in terms of increased food production
and farm income. Water harvesting technologies recom-
Technology transfer must be recognized as a broad and mended for up-scaling must be profitable for users and
complex process in order to avoid dependency of the re- local communities. In this regard, cost efficiency, includ-
cipient and contribute to sustained and equitable develop- ing short and long-term benefits are fundamental to the
ment. The end-result for the recipient must be the ability to adoption of such technologies. Farmers who have inse-
use, replicate, improve, and ideally resell the technology. cure land tenure and limited access to market information
Transfer of technology is more than the transfer of tech- are less likely to adopt rainwater harvesting technologies
nologies from North-South, South-South or South-North. (Merrey, 2013). On the other hand, yield increase ranks
It also encompasses the transfer of know-how, goods and as the most important driver for adoption of water har-
services, and organizational and managerial procedures. vesting technologies across sub-Saharan Africa (Dile et
Thus, technology transfer is the suite of processes en- al., 2013) but farmers are reluctant to invest in water har-
compassing all dimensions of the origins, flows and up- vesting if the yield potential and returns on investment are
take of know-how, experience across and within countries, low (Bouma et al., 2016). Rainwater harvesting irrigation
stakeholder organizations and institutions. A further stage systems should focus on overcoming the bottlenecks and
of technology transfer involves commercialization, where maximizing opportunities along the market value chain.
technology moves from research and development stage Besides contributing to household food security, rainwater
to become a product or service (Mc Inerney, 2014). harvesting should promote better linkages and access to
markets by supporting transition of smallholder agricul-
If the transfer of inadequate, unsustainable, or unsafe ture from subsistence to small-scale commercial enter-
technologies is to be avoided, technology recipients prise in local markets, especially under semi-arid environ-
should be able to identify and select technologies that ments. Moreover, rainwater harvesting systems, such as
are appropriate to their actual needs, circumstances and earth dams, enhance diversification of income activities,
15
3
including tree nurseries, brick making, fish farming, and affordable rainwater harvesting systems, such as India,
poultry (ducks and geese), and therefore, contribute to China, Brazil, the Netherlands, Ethiopia and Kenya, will
poverty reduction. Improved access to markets is crucial enhance adoption of best practices. The AFRHINET
to support such activities and enhancing realization of project represents an excellent opportunity to kick-start
benefits. this process of strengthening cooperation and enhan-
cing networking among academic and research com-
While rainwater harvesting has been tried and tested of- munities with businesses/micro-enterprises, NGOs and
ten with significant success in terms of high crop yields public sectors, and policy-making actors and local com-
(Dile et al., 2013; Karpouzoglou and Barron, 2014), such munities.
successes can be suppressed by high labour require-
ments and low market prices (Medhin and Teklehaimanot, Furthermore, an improved rainwater harvesting network
2013). With improving market prices and increased know- could also help facilitate the introduction of a certification
ledge about innovative rainwater harvesting technologies, process for rainwater harvesting products. A standardized
drylands have the potential to become self-sufficient and framework for various products, such as water tanks or
even net food producers. However, without secure land farm ponds, and the development of technical capacity
tenure, water rights and access to markets, farmers will building programmes is required in order to enhance
remain reluctant to invest time and money in rainwater quality control in design and production of rainwater har-
harvesting technologies. Access to land, inputs and mar- vesting products and services. Such a network would
ket is a prerequisite for the successful adoption of rainwa- also develop guidelines, standards and criteria for site
ter harvesting innovations (Medhin and Teklehaimanot, selection, provide basic data for design and socio-eco-
2013). nomic analysis, and linkage with service providers (e.g.
trainers and spare parts) for various components of rain-
While a large number of rainwater harvesting projects water harvesting systems. The analysis of potential sites
have been carried out, the adoption and replication of for rainwater harvesting in terms of topography, soils, and
such technologies remains low due to the following chal- climate; and socio-economic data is very essential (Jha et
lenges. al., 2014). The technology required should be appropriate
to the local needs (Boithi et al., 2014; Mc Inerney, 2014).
Firstly, promoting rainwater harvesting and increasing For example, the use of electric pumps for rainwater har-
investments, both at community and donor levels, would vesting tanks or ponds in rural areas may not be prudent
require showcasing its potential through successful and because they will be rendered useless if spare parts or
sustainable projects (Malesu et al., 2012). This would technical knowledge is not locally available or affordable
serve to build confidence in rainwater harvesting as a or if electricity is unreliable or non-existent.
viable and sustainable source of water for multiple uses
-domestic, livestock and crop production, and hence,
improved livelihoods, and food security. The main in- 3.2 Rainwater harvesting irrigation techno-
dicators of a successful project that will attract interest
logies with technology transfer potential
and investment, will be how rapidly and to what extent
crop yields and income can be improved through rain- As the appropriateness of RWHI technologies in each
water harvesting irrigation systems (Dile et al., 2013; country is determined by the biophysical conditions of
Bouma et al., 2016). Analysis of the potential of scaling the area, access and availability of resources, there is a
up rainwater harvesting from farm to watershed scale need to conduct region-specific research on RWHI. At the
is a challenge that must be addressed to convince po- smallholder scale, availability of labour is critical for sus-
licy-makers and development partners about the cost- tainable implementation of rainwater harvesting technol-
effectiveness and sustainability. Success should first ogies. Runoff collection and storage may present a better
be demonstrated at farm and watershed levels before opportunity for implementation in all the partner countries
scaling up to river basin and national levels. due to their lower labour requirements. It is also easier to
divert rainwater/runoff into different storage systems, like
Secondly, targeted practical training and establish- farm ponds, and use any excess water to water the fields
ment of technology promotion and demonstration cen- during the rainy season. This technology can be attractive
tres should be promoted. In addition, more emphasis to farmers because of the often high intensity rainfall that
should be given to publicity and awareness creation on are received within the tropical areas.
the effects of climate change on smallholder farming
systems, and the potential of rainwater harvesting as a In the drier regions of the countries under study, there is
key adaptive strategy. also potential for implementing groundwater dams. This
technology has the advantage of increasing infiltration
Thirdly, establishment and strengthening of rainwater and reducing evaporation. It is estimated that evaporation
harvesting networks has the potential to accelerate in- can account up to 60-97% of the water loss from open wa-
vestments and adoption of rainwater harvesting and ir- ter sources (Mugabe, 2003; Fowe et al., 2015). However,
rigation systems (Karpouzoglou and Barron, 2014). An the link of groundwater dams with small-scale irrigation
improved rainwater harvesting network will enhance, is limited to the immediate nearby area of the riverbed.
not only the communication and collaboration among This means that usually the water stored in the reservoir
relevant stakeholders, but will also lobby for govern- is used to grow horticultural crops along the riverbeds.
ment and donor support. Moreover, strengthening
regional rainwater harvesting networks in countries at The link of groundwater dams with small-scale irrigation
the forefront of innovative research and promotion of at household level requires a conveyance and pumping
16
system, which may be too expensive for smallholders. This necessarily increases the costs of this option and
At household level, the use of ponds, rooftops and bare limits the adoption from local communities, and therefore,
rocks has also potential. However, rooftop RWHI normally its suitability as a rainwater harvesting irrigation technolo-
requires special water collecting structures such as gut- gy. It is necessary to take into account the limited storage
ters which can be expensive for the smallholder farmers. capacity of the storage system, which will be proportion-
Table 10 shows the transfer potential of the rainwater har- al to the costs of the system. However, the link between
vesting storage technologies that can be used for small- harvesting water from roads and their prospective use for
scale irrigation. small-scale irrigation shows high potential for research
and innovation, as there is still the need to identify dif-
ferent systems that could cost-efficiently carry out this
Replicability function. With regard to the use of in-situ/groundwater re-
RWH Storage Technology and Transfer charge techniques specifically meant to recharge shallow
potential groundwater (for its prospective use for small-scale irriga-
tion during the dry season), the replicability and transfer
Earth dams and Community ponds +++ potential is also estimated to be medium because not all
potential implementation sites will have the necessary bio-
Farm ponds +++ physical conditions to allow this.
Road Catchments + Storage System ++
This is especially the case for reservoirs of shallow
In-situ RWH for shallow groundwater ++ groundwater coupled with layers of highly permeable soil
recharge materials. In these cases, the investment costs would
be considered to be low. However, the human labour
Roof Catchments + Storage System + requirements would be high, which would further limit
their adoption. The innovation potential with regard to the
Rock Catchments + Storage System + use of these set of options is considered to be low. Roof
and rock catchments are considered to have the relative
Groundwater dams: sand dams, + lowest technology transfer potential. This is mainly caused
subsurface dams and weirs because their implementation is limited where suitable
catchment areas (i.e. roof or rocks) exist. In addition,
Table 10: Transfer potential of the rainwater harvesting storage technologies there is the need to add a storage system, which further
that can be used for small-scale irrigation. Source: adapted from Simane et increases the costs and reduces the adoption potential for
al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo (2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al.
(2014)
local communities. Another key point is the limited storage
capacity of the storage system, which will be proportional
to the costs. Groundwater dams are also considered to
Earth dams and community ponds, and farm ponds, are have a limited replicability potential due to the many bio-
considered the technologies with the highest replication physical conditions that limit their suitability, among them,
and transfer potential. This is due to the fact that these seasonal sandy riverbeds with no seepage problems. In
technologies are suitable to a wider range of biophysical addition, the need to link the sand reservoir with a pump-
conditions as compared to the other selected technolo- ing and conveyance system is a barrier that needs to be
gies. Even though the capital investment and the labour taken into account in order to evaluate the adoption of this
requirements are significant and should be taken into ac- option for small-scale irrigation. In any case, groundwater
count, there are many examples of spontaneous adoption dams present research and innovation potential in order
and replication of these technologies, which necessarily to identify low-cost and cost-efficient ways to connect the
indicates the replicability potential of these technologies. sand reservoirs with small-scale irrigation at the house-
The link with small-scale irrigation comes inherently to the hold level.
implementation of these structures, especially for farm
ponds. In the case of earth dams and community ponds, 3.3 Selected examples of technology
the use for small-scale irrigation is necessarily related to
community-based groups in nearby areas of the struc- transfer strategies in the African
tures. Strictly focusing on technology transfer, there are partner countries
still many innovations that these technologies could adapt
in order to improve their replication and transfer potential. In 1995, the regional government of Tigray, in Ethiopia,
A good example of this is the selection of appropriate lin- embarked on a water harvesting plan which consisted on
ing systems that avoid seepage in farm ponds, as well building 500 micro-dams in 10 years, intended mainly for
as the link of these ponds with affordable greenhouses in irrigation agriculture. However, the program was initiated
order to reduce evaporation. without initial assessment, and stopped in 2001, achieving
less than 10% of the target. An evaluation study in 1998
Road catchments (coupled with a suitable storage system) showed that the initial assumptions of potential water
and in-situ/groundwater recharge techniques specifically resources available were overly optimistic: the cost was
meant to recharge shallow groundwater (for its prospec- significantly higher than estimated, and technical skills,
tive use for small-scale irrigation during the dry season) human capacity and equipment were lacking.
are considered to have medium technology transfer po-
tential. Even though roads are ubiquitous, the necessity At the end, 46 micro dams were constructed out of
to add a storage system in order to use it for small-scale which 37 are still operational. Some have sedimen-
irrigation limits the replicability and transfer potential. tation problems or are seeping, while others were
17
3
never filled because rainfall and catchment capacity were 3.4 Regional similarities and differences
overestimated. Also in Ethiopia, RAIN Foundation estab-
lished a Rainwater Harvesting Capacity Centre (RHCC) in Rainwater harvesting interventions are being implement-
2005 within an existing organization called ERHA (Ethiopian ed in all project partner countries, as it is shown in Table
Rainwater Harvesting Association). They built 11 tanks 10. In most cases such projects are funded by interna-
with a total storage capacity of 445,000 litres to supply tional organizations and it is very common to see such
water to more than 3,000 people. The collected rainwater projects becoming disfunctional after the end of the donor
is currently used at schools and health centres, mainly for funding. However, Ethiopia and Kenya have made sig-
drinking and hygiene purposes. nificant steps in implementing RWHI technologies. In all
project partner countries, there are national associations,
There has not been a clear or elaborated technology NGOs and private organisations dealing with rainwater
transfer strategy in Kenya. Different stakeholders usually harvesting. In Mozambique, there is a relatively lower
implement their projects independently and without na- implementation of RWHI technologies at all levels.
tional monitoring, coordination, and standardization pro-
cess. Stakeholders in Kenya are rarely aware of what
their peers or other organizations are developing or pro-
moting. Notwithstanding lack of a clear technology trans-
fer strategy, relevant stakeholder in the field of rainwater
harvesting, mainly from development organizations, have
recorded some achievements in technology development
and transfer. For instance, Kenya Rainwater Association
(KRA) has designed, piloted and upgraded on-farm rain-
water harvesting and management systems for smallhold-
er farmers. Their integrated technological innovation pack-
age includes upgraded farm ponds, flexible designs of low
head drip irrigation kits, and locally designed and assem-
bled low-cost metallic greenhouses. These products are
tailor-made to suit farmers preference, land dimensions
and economic capacity. In addition, KRA has developed
an integrated technological package for pastoral commu-
nities (e.g. upgraded communal reservoirs) and primary
schools (i.e. WASH and Nutrition components comprising
roof catchment systems, farm ponds, and vegetable gar-
dens under drip irrigation). The KRA technological pack-
ages have shown significant impacts in improving liveli-
hoods of target communities and beneficiaries.
18
4. RESEARCH, INNOVATION
AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
NEEDS
4.1 Introduction
Agricultural water scarcity in the predominantly rainfed 2009). Innovation goes beyond the creation of knowledge
agricultural system of sub-Saharan Africa is more related and encompasses factors affecting demand for and use
to the variability of rainfall and excessive non-productive of knowledge in novel ways. The form of agricultural in-
losses than the total annual precipitation in the growing novations generated and adopted by farmers is a product
season (Biazin et al., 2012). Although several RWHI in- of economic forces and the state of scientific knowledge.
novations have been developed worldwide and some
of them have been introduced in eastern and southern 4.2 Needs in the 4 AFRHINET African
Africa, applied research and innovation is still required in
order to fit them to local lifestyles, local institutional pat- partner countries
terns and social systems (Mbilinyi et al., 2005; Ludi et
al., 2013; Boithi et al., 2014; Mc Inerney, 2014). There is Table 11 shows a summary of the key research, innova-
also need to build the capacity of smallholder farmers to tion and capacity-building needs in the field of RWHI in
enable them to operate the systems and where possible, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. In addition,
introduce local innovations to fit their particular circum- relevant stakeholders in the field of rainwater harvesting
stances and preferences. This will enable wide adoption irrigation can be classified as it follows:
of RWHI technologies and ultimately increase the resil-
ience of the farmers in the face of ever increasing climate Academic and scientific institutions
change-induced droughts and dry spells because innova- Government: Decision- and policy-makers, and their
tions that go through a participatory process of local ad- technical staff (both national as well as regional or
aptation have a greater chance of adoption by smallholder local governments)
farmers (Rockstrm et al., 2004).
NGOs and civil society groups: At national and interna-
tional level
There is an increasing interest for research and innova-
tion in the field of rainwater harvesting for food security in Private sector: Local and international consultancies
eastern and southern Africa (Ludi et al., 2013; Nyamad- and businesses/micro-enterprises. All working in the
zawo et al., 2013). In an effort to increase food security agriculture, irrigation and water sector
in arid and semi-arid areas, the AFRHINET project seeks Cooperatives and community interest groups: Invol-
to introduce cost-effective innovations in the use of rain- ving small-scale farmers, women and youth groups,
water for small-scale irrigation during the dry season. It is and small entrepreneurs and civil society
recognized that linking rainwater with proper small-scale
irrigation and agronomic services at watershed level will
have a positive impact on sustained productivity (Awu-
lachew et al., 2005; Gezahegn et al., 2006). However,
while strengthened research systems may increase the
supply of new knowledge and technology, it may not
necessarily improve the capacity for innovation (Ngigi,
19
4
Table 11: Key research, innovation and capacity-building needs in the field of RWHI. Source: adapted from Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo (2014),
Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
More applied research to adapt recog- Increased forums for sharing Regular contact and information
nized RWHI techniques findings exchange with communities
Assessing the impacts, benefits, and Improvement of the awareness of Institutionalization of RWHI
economic viability of different rainwater decision makers guidelines, manuals and techni-
harvesting and irrigation technologies cal papers
with the aim of convincing farmers and
development partners to invest in the
technology
Reviewing policy, legal and institutional is- Better documentation of projects Enhancing sense of ownership
sues that may affect adoption and scaling detailing with best practices and for communal structures by the
up of rainwater harvesting and irrigation lessons learnt communities
technologies
Assessing the impacts of different financ- Integration of rainwater harvesting Linking of training institutions and
ing mechanisms such as subsidies and interventions with other activities government extension services
credits on the adoption of rainwater har-
vesting and irrigation technologies
Promote farm-based demonstration trials Promoting sustainable projects, A longer-term commitment by do-
and research on promising practices of which do not stop when the fund- nors and government to support
rainwater harvesting at different hydrologi- ing ends RWHI
cal scales and farming systems
Determine factors that cause low adoption Better cooperation between pro- Lack of capacity of partner/asso-
of rainwater harvesting technologies de- jects and RWHI interventions ciate institutions to capitalize and
spite their demonstrated impacts on water disseminate their expertise and
and food security outputs
4.3 Barriers
Major problems found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique 4. Curricula at universities does not incorporate RWHI
and Zimbabwe concerning the implementation of rainwa- 5. Imbalance between eastern and southern Africa:
ter harvesting irrigation are common and can be summa- Ethiopia and Kenya are much more advanced in
rised as follows: terms of implementation of RWHI techniques. They
have a range of functional institutions at all categories
1. Efforts in RWHI are currently fragmented: NGOs, mentioned above
government departments and research institutions 6. Lack of technical standards for RWHI techniques is a
are each of them doing their own interventions with major challenge and therefore, research should help
none or little cooperation among them in overcoming this challenge
2. Policy in the countries on RWHI mainly focuses on 7. Low self-adoption of rainwater harvesting irrigation
large and complex infrastructure but does not provide ttechnologies: In some communities RWHI tech-
guidelines for technologies applied at lower levels niques are perceived to be for the poor and some
such as rainwater harvesting at household level and stigma exits around the application of these tech-
small-scale irrigation niques
3. Extension workers are often not adequately trained
on RWHI
20
5. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
OF POLITICAL AND INSTITU-
TIONAL FRAMEWORKS
5.1 Introduction
The governments of sub-Saharan African countries have conducted at several regional and international forums, such
primarily been focused on promoting large-scale water as the African Ministerial Conferences on Water (AMCOW)
storage projects for water supply and irrigation far beyond and the World Water Forum to facilitate lobbying for policy
household and community level (Van Koppen. 2003). change (Carlow et al., 2013).
While rainwater harvesting could provide a viable solu-
tion to decrease water resource scarcity at a local level, The management of water resources involves key activ-
existing national policies are not conducive to widespread ities that have to be undertaken as the core functions of
uptake of such technologies (Rockstrm et al., 2010). dedicated water sector institutions. These functions gene-
Policy evaluation studies are geared towards assessing rally include the categories highlighted in Table 12. Sector
impacts and inclusion in agricultural, food security and functions include monitoring of water resources and water
poverty alleviation policies. However, in addition to review- usage, information management, and education, training
ing strategies for promoting rainwater harvesting irriga- and capacity development.
tion, policy research should also identify gaps and make
recommendations for enhancing policy and institutional
reforms. From some of these studies, advocacy has been
Table 12: Management of water resources by key stakeholders and smallholder farmers. Source: adapted from Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo (2014),
Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Water resource Allocation of water rights (or rights to use water), management and control of abstractions from
management water sources, management and control of water quality, overall responsibility for developing
water resources, and catchment management roles and responsibilities
Water supply Management of infrastructure for transmission, storage, and treatment; management of retail
provision water and sanitation services (distribution); Setting of tariffs and standards for service delivery
Agriculture Development of irrigation policy and infrastructure; Development of rainwater harvesting for
irrigation policy. Assessment of efficiency of different irrigation and water harvesting techniques.
Provision of extension support in irrigation, agronomy and produce marketing.
Self-supply Establishment of water conveyance and temporary storage infrastructure. Managing the
application of water to the crops.
Irrigation Purchasing irrigation equipment and developing on-farm water conveyance infrastructure.
Developing irrigation scheduling systems for efficient water application.
21
5
5.2 Relevant policies in the 4 AFRHINET port irrigation development projects. Nevertheless, issues
African partner countries related with small-scale rainwater harvesting systems for
irrigation have not been considered so far. Under the 1995
The four countries have developed legislation on matters Water Law, the National Water Directorate is responsible
concerning the use of water and irrigation. The govern- for policy making and implementation, the overall plan-
ment ministries and departments responsible for water ning and management of the countrys water resources,
sector for each country are shown in Table 13. and the provision of water supply and sanitation services.
The National Institute for Irrigation, within the Ministry of
The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Proclama- Agriculture and Food Security, maintains responsibility for
tion, issued in March 2000, is currently the basic legal in- activities relating to irrigation and drainage.
strument governing the management, planning, utilization
and protection of water resources in Ethiopia. This docu- In Zimbabwe, the governing of the water sector rests with
ment provides the fundamental principles that need to be the Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate, within
taken into account for the management and administration which there is the Zimbabwe National Water Authority
of the water resources in the country. (ZINWA), responsible for the costing, allocation and the
distribution of water. It is also the regulator in the water
In Kenya, the policy making process for integrated water sector, and is in charge of major dams and all water re-
resources management including RWHI, rests with the sources. The Department of Water Development (DWD) is
Ministries of Water and Agriculture (Table 13). The overall in charge of the overall formulation of national policies and
development of water storage infrastructure is under the standards for the planning, management and develop-
Ministry of Water, while development of the agricultural ment of the nations water resources. The Environmental
sector and intervention in irrigation sub-sector policies is Management Agency (EMA) monitors and enforces water
the docket of the Ministry of Agriculture. The reforms in quality standards to prevent pollution of water bodies, wet-
the water sector through the Water Act 2005 can be sum- lands and land.
marized in four themes: (a) the separation of water re-
sources management and development of water delivery
services; (b) the separation of policy making from day to 5.3 Regional similarities and differences
day administration and regulation; (c) the decentralization
of functions to lower level state organs; and (d) the in- The four project partner countries have both institutional
volvement of non-state actors/entities in the management frameworks and legislations, which accommodate rainwater
of water resources and in the provision of water services. harvesting activities. In Ethiopia, Kenya and Zimbabwe,
rainwater harvesting irrigation activities are anchored in
The major institution dealing with water issues in Mozam- the legal framework. However, in Mozambique, rainwater
bique is the National Directorate of Water, which is inte- harvesting irrigation does not feature in the water policy
grated in the Ministry of Public Works, Housing and Hydro and irrigation policy. Mozambique has been giving more
Resources. This body deals with water legislation for dif- attention to the exploitation of groundwater for rural water
ferent purposes and for different users. The Ministry of Ag- supply, which is part of the water legal framework.
riculture and Food Security addresses issues related with
water for irrigation. This Ministry used to have a National
Directorate for Hydraulic issues, which has been turned
into the National Institute for Irrigation, with tasks to sup-
Table 13. Functions and responsibilities of Government Departments in the studied countries. Source: adapted from Simane et al. (2014), Oguge and Oremo
(2014), Cuamba et al. (2015) and Wuta et al. (2014)
Kenya Ministry of Water & Water Service Boards Water Resources Water Resources
Irrigation Management Management Authority
Authority
22
6. APPLICABILITY TO OTHER
ARID AND SEMI-ARID
REGIONS
Arid and semi-arid areas are characterized by low erratic Notwithstanding, the responsability of replicating and
rainfall of up to 700 mm per annum, periodic droughts upscaling RWHI interventions at local level, as well as
and different associations of vegetative cover and soils. regional and national level, should not exclusively fall
Inter-annual rainfall varies from 50-100% with averages of on the shoulders of local communities. Instead, all other
up to 350 mm. Thus, rainfall in arid and semi-arid zones is relevant stakeholders, especially governmental bodies,
characterised by high variability. This is coupled with high NGOs and the scientific community, each of them playing
evaporative demand which creates severe constraints for their respective part, should develop and implement all
crop growth. For example, Barron et al. (2003) reported mechanisms to make possible the adoption, replication
at a semi-arid site in Kenya that maize was exposed to at and upscaling of RWHI interventions.
least one dry spell of at least ten days in 74-80% of sea-
sons, and yet crops only utilized 36-64% of the rainwater
while the rest was lost through runoff and deep percola-
tion. RWHI can therefore be crucial to optimise the collec-
tion of rainwater/runoff in arid and semi-arid areas, and
subsequently use this water to improve crop productivity.
23
24
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
Arid and semi-arid areas comprise a very wide area in 1. Securing and redirecting external and institutional
sub-Saharan Africa, which is however, equally and greatly funding in order to carry out long-term programmes at
affected by the variability of rainfall, and its consequences a local, regional and national level which specifically
on agriculture, landscape and livelihood. The use of rain- focus on replicating and transferring cost-efficient
water for small-scale irrigation during the dry season has small-scale RWHI interventions for food security, pover-
not been exploited sufficiently in despite of the scarcity of ty alleviation and climate resilience.
water resources in these areas. The absence of an en- 2. Raising the awareness of decision- and policy-makers
abling financial, policy and institutional environment in order that the inclusion of RWHI interventions into
coupled with capital investment costs which are usually local, national and regional policies, as well as their
out of reach for local communities, it is a major barrier for financing, can be secured.
the replication of existing and emerging RWHI technologies. 3. Implementing self-replicable and tailor-made capacity
building activities to all relevant stakeholders, espe-
From the different RWHI systems highlighted, it is clear cially governmental bodies, scientists and practition-
that most of them are site specific, and hence, their adop- ers, and local communities. It is strictly required to
tion, applicability, and scalability are limited to biophysical first make good use of the capacity already available
and hydrological characteristics. This means, each tech- in the region as a first basic step towards it.
nology is applicable under different circumstances based 4. Planning, designing, implementing, operating and
on topography, landscape characteristics, and commu- maintaining RWHI schemes as agribusiness at different
nity capacity and preferences. Therefore, the recom- scale levels by ensuring profitability through access
mendations on each technology should be considered to information and markets for agro-inputs, farm pro-
independently based on a multidimensional analysis of ducts and credit facilities.
all relevant biophysical, technical, economic and social 5. Providing economic incentives (prices, subsidies, tax
factors. exemptions) that recognise the opportunity costs of
water and water services. In addition, capital, oper-
In Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, there ation and maintenance costs require incentives to
are institutional frameworks on both water and irrigation ensure development and sustainability.
sectors which could be used more effectively to promote 6. Promoting and showcasing cost-effective and innova-
rainwater harvesting for irrigation. However, higher educa- tive activities on rainwater harvesting irrigation.
tion and research institutions need reinforcing in order to 7. Fostering innovation through the strategic implemen-
tackle issues oriented to rainwater harvesting. In addition, tation of research and technology transfer activities
the legislation needs to make a clear reference to not only and the establishment of research and technology
rainwater harvesting but its specific use for small-scale irri- transfer and/or excellence centres.
gation purposes. In all countries studied, there is a need to
promote policy and institutional developments in order to
sustain a favourable economic environment by means of:
25
26
8. REFERENCES
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