LAB REPORT

FLUID MECHANICS LAB

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FLUID MECHANICS LAB

1. To measure the volume flow rate at various valve positions using the
volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench
2. To determine the density and specific gravity of a fluid and demonstrate
the capillary effect that occur in various tubes and plates
3. To determine the viscosity of a fluid using falling sphere method and
Viscometer
4. To measure the metacentric height of a floating body and determine its
initial static stability
5. To experimentally locate the center of pressure of a vertical, submerged,
plane surface
6. To study the characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging
sections and demonstrate Bernoullis theorem.
7. To determine the discharge coefficient of a venture meter and measure
flow rate
8. To demonstrate transition from laminar to turbulent flow using the
Osborne Reynolds demonstration unit and determine Reynolds number of
flow.
9. To measure the force developed by a jet of water deflected on a fixed
impact object by comparing it to the force predicted by the moment
theory.
10.To study the fluid friction head losses which occur when an incompressible
fluids flows through valves and pipe flow metering devices.
11.To measure losses in pipe fittings related to flow rate and calculate loss
coefficient related to velocity head.
12.To measure losses in gate valves related to flow rate and calculate loss
coefficient related to velocity head.
13.To determine the performance characteristics of a pelton wheel hydraulic
turbine and present the torque and power as a function of a turbine speed.
14.To study the characteristics of a single pump and multi pumps connected in
series and in parallel, with varying flow rates and pump speed.
The hydraulic bench
Objective
To measure the volume flow rate at various valve positions using the volumetric tank of the hydraulic
bench.

Apparatus
1. Water Channel
2. Working Bench
3. Flow Control Valve
4. Main Switch
5. Centrifugal Pump
6. Dump Valve
7. Volumetric Tank
8. Sight Tube
9. Dump Valve

10. Sump Tank

Introduction
Water is stored in a sump tank in the lower part. A centrifugal pump is provided to draw the water from
the sump tank through a control valve to an outlet in the bed of the open channel. After passing through
testing unit, water is collected in the volumetric measuring tank which is stepped to accommodate high
and low flow rates. The volumetric tank incorporates a stilling baffle and remote sight tube with
calibrated volumetric scale. A dump valve at the base of the tank returns water to the sump tank for
recycling. An overflow opening is incorporated on the stilling baffle to prevent overtopping if the dump
valve is left closed.

Procedure
1. Ensure that the Hydraulic Bench is placed on a level ground with locked wheels and that the
sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench is approximately 90% full.
2. Direct the water supply from Hydraulic Bench into the volumetric tank using appropriate
connector and hose. Then, fasten the hose with hose clip.
3. Fully close the flow control valve then switch on the main switch to run the centrifugal
pump.
 4. Gradually open the flow control valve and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has
been expelled from the system.
5. As the water level rises in the tank, measure the amount of time taken to fill a portion of the
sump tank by observing the sight gauge.
6. Repeat the observation for various flow rates. Use a measuring cylinder instead of the
volumetric tank, when small flow rates occur.

Results

Valve position Volume, q [m3] Time, t [s] Flowrate, [m3/s]

10

Exercise
Draw a graph between valve position and the volumetric flow rate.
Hydrostatic properties of fluids
Objective
To determine the density and specific gravity of a fluid, and demonstrate the capillary effect that occurs
in various tubes and plates.

Apparatus
From the hydrostatic properties of fluid bench you will need.

1. Triple beam balance

2. 100 ml beakers
3. Density bottle 25ml & 50ml
4. Test fluids
5. Acrylic tank
6. Acrylic plates
7. Glass capillary tubes with bores of 0.8 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.0 mm
8. Plastic shim materials, to fill the gaps.
9. Hook and point gauge

Triple beam balance, density bottle and capillary rise apparatus.

Procedure
A. Density and specific gravity using beakers
1. Use the triple-beam balance to weigh the mass of the empty graduated beaker (m0) then fill the
beaker with a small amount of test fluid and read the volume, (V1) in ml .
2. Now find the total mass, (m1). Add more fluid and note the total mass for the volume of fluid.
3. Find the density, = (m0 - m1)/V1 and the specific gravity, SG = /water.
 Sample fluid Liquid A Liquid B
m0 (kg)
m1 (kg)
V1 (m3)
(kg/m3)
SG

B. Density and specific gravity using density bottles

1. Weigh the dry density bottle and its attached glass stopper, (m1).
2. Fill the bottle with test liquid, replace the stopper, dry the bottle exterior using a cloth or tissue
and then weigh the density bottle and record the total mass, (m2).
3. Using the volume of fluid, V = 25.252cm3 (for 25ml bottle) and V = 51.741cm3 (for 50ml bottle)
calculate the density, = (m2/V), & specific gravity, SG = density/density of water (no units).

Sample fluid Liquid A Liquid B

m1 (kg)
m2 (kg)
V (m3)
(kg/m3)
SG

C. Capillary action
1. Fill the tank with sufficient amount of water and place the stainless steel mesh stand into the tank.
2. Place the 4 different bore size glass tubes in the holder and put it into the tank.
3. Prepare a shim with known thickness, clamp it in between 2 acrylic plates.
4. Similarly, insert the acrylic plates in the tank with its holder.
5. Record the level that water creeps up inside the tubes and plates with hook and point gauge. The
height level h, is measured from the surface of the tube/plate to the maximum water level in the
tube/plate.
6. Change the water with other liquids and repeat step (1) to step (5).
7. Plot the graph of Capillary action against different bore size for different test fluid.

Capillary Action
Bore size, Liquid A Liquid B
d (mm) h hd h hd
0.8
1
1.5
2
Hydrostatic properties of fluids II
Objective
To measure the viscosity of a fluid and to determine the hydrostatic pressure of a fluid on a plane
surface as well as its center of pressure.

Introduction
The Ubbelohde Viscometer is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid, by measuring the time
taken by fluid to flow past two points and using it in an empirical relationship.
The Center of pressure is the point in a plane at which the total fluid thrust can be said to be
acting normal to the plane.

Apparatus
You will need the Ubbelohde Viscometer along with a stop watch, syringe and test fluids; as well as the
Hydrostatic pressure apparatus.

Hagenbach Correction
1. Capillary tube
Flow Time [s] y
2. Venting tube 40 0.15
3. Filling Tube 50 0.29
4. Reservoir 60 0.20
70 0.15
5. Reference Vessel 80 0.11
6. Dome-shaped top part 90 0.09
7. Capillary 100 0.07
110 0.06
8. Measuring sphere 120 0.05
9. Pre-run sphere 130 to 149 0.04
Note: 150 to 169 0.03
170 to 224 0.02
Viscometer constant = 0.05 225 to 399 0.01
400 to 449 0

Ubbelohde Viscometer

Procedure

A. Viscosity using the Ubbelohde Viscometer

1. Place the Ubbelohde Viscometer on a level table carefully and transfer 15ml of test sample into
the reservoir through the filling tube.
 2. Connect the capillary tube to syringe and close the venting tube by a finger or rubber stopper.
Then apply vacuum to capillary tube by pulling the syringe piston. This will cause successive filling
of the reference level vessel, then the capillary tube, the measuring sphere and the pre-run
sphere.
3. Discontinue the syringe suction and open the venting tube. A Liquid column will separate at the
lower end of the capillary (7) and form suspended level at the dome-shaped top part (6).
4. Remove the syringe from the tubing. Fluid begins to flow down through capillary.
5. Measure the time interval it takes the leading edge of the meniscus of sample to descend from
the upper edge of upper timing mark M1 to the upper edge of lower timing mark M2.
6. Repeat step 3 to 5, to get concordant readings.
7. The kinematic viscosity can be determined by the equation: = K (t - y), where;
o = kinematic viscosity (mm2/s)
o K = constant for respective viscometer
o t = measured time
o y = Hagenbach correction factor

B. Hydrostatic pressure on a plane

1. Trim (left side tank)

2. Weight
3. End Plate
4. Quadrant (right side tank)
NOTE:
1. Width of rectangle, 75 mm = 0.075 m
2. Lever arm, 195 mm = 0.195 m
3. Quadrant arm, 200 mm = 0.2 m

Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

1. Add some water to the Trim tank to balance the beam, protractor should indicate 90.
2. Add a weight on the hanger, add water into the right hand side water tank until the correct angle is
restored and record the height of the water surface, h in meters.
3. Repeat step 2 after adding weight to the weight hanger.
4. Calculate the resultant force, FR = (h/2)(0.075h) [for h < 0.095 m] and locate the center of pressure,
yR = 0.195W/FR.

Applied Height of Resultant Distance of

load, W [N] water, h [m] force, FR [N] CP, yR [m]
1
2
3
Metacentric height
Objective
To determine the stability of a floating body by calculating its metacentric height, using a buoyancy
floating study.

Introduction
A floating body is stable if it returns to its initial position after being disturbed from it. Metacenter (MC)
is the point of intersection of vertical centerline axis of the body and the line of action of buoyant force.

When the MC is above CG, a restoring couple is produced and the floating body is stable.
When the MC is below CG, an overturning couple is produced and the body is unstable.

Apparatus
1. A basin of water
2. Pontoon with scale and plumb bob
3. Weight

Procedure
1. Draw a center line that goes through the center hole of the pontoon to the 0.
2. Fill the red basin with water and float the pontoon in it.
3. Place the adjustable weight to the 2nd bottom row (135mm from base). Ensure the plumb
weight is pointing at the zero reading on the angular scale.
4. Move the adjustable weight in steps across the width of the pontoon and record the
corresponding angle of tilt at each step (beware of sign convention for the reading).
5. Repeat previous step for the other rows. Record all the readings into the table provided.
6. Plot the graph of against x1 for every y1 and compute the gradient for all the cases.

Observations
Total weight, W
= Weight of pontoon (Wp) + Adjustable
weight ()
= 1.280 + 0.219 = 1.499kg
Size of pontoon; breadth, D =0.220 m &
Length L =0.305 m.
Area of pontoon, A = LD = ______ m2
Pontoon displacement, V = W/water =
____________ m3
 Depth of immersion, OC = V/A = _____ m
Height of center of buoyancy B, = OC/2 = _____ m

Vertical Angle of tilt, (in radians) for given horizontal displacement, x1

displacement (mm) of the adjustable weight from the center line.
of Weight, y1
(mm) -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
135
200
265
315

Find the gradient of every Y and start calculate the metacentric height when different height of
the adjustable weight.

Height of Center of gravity Meta-centric BM (mm),

Adjustable from base, OG Height, GM (mm) =BG + GM
= OG - OB + GM
Weight, y1 (mm) (mm) (mm/rad) = ( )

135 64
200 81
265 90
315 99
Venturi meter
Objective
To demonstrate Bernoullis theorem using a Venturi meter.

Introduction
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe
opens out and the fluid stagnates. This is expressed with the following equation:

p v2
+ + z = h * = Constant
g 2g

p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

= Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head

Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a classical Venturi made of clear acrylic. A series of wall tappings allow
measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging duct, while a total head tube is
provided to traverse along the centre line of the test section. These tappings are connected to a
manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve.

1. Manometer Tubes
2. Test Section
3. Water Inlet
4. Unions
5. Air Bleed Screw
6. Discharge Valve
7. Gland Nut
8. Hypodermic Probe
9. Adjustable Feet
Bernoullis theorem demonstration unit
Procedure
1. Connect the venture meter apparatus to the hydraulic bench and turn on the water supply
pump with the inlet valve fully closed and the outlet valve fully open.
2. Slowly open the inlet valve and allow the water to fill the venture meter, make sure that the
manometer tubes are properly connected and free of air-bubbles.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate Qav using volumetric method.
5. Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer #H, so that
its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. Wait for some time and note down
the readings from manometer #H and #A.
6. Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
7. Repeat step 3 to 6 with decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi discharge valve.
8. Calculate the velocity, ViB using the Bernoullis equation where; ViB = 2 g (h8 h i )
9. Calculate the velocity, ViC using the continuity equation where ViC = Qav / Ai
10. Determine the difference between two calculated velocities.

Cross Using Continuity

Using Bernoulli equation Difference
Section equation
h* = hH hi = hA ViB = Ai = ViC = ViB-ViC
i
(mm) (mm) [2*g*(h* - hi )] (m/s) Di2 / 4 (m2) Qav / Ai (m/s) (m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Discharge coefficient
Objective
To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter and us it to measure flow rate.

Introduction
In industrial practice one of the problems most frequently encountered by engineers is the
measurement of fluid properties, such as density, viscosity, pressure, velocity, flow rate. This apparatus
is designed to obtain the flow rate by using a venturi meter. It consists of a venturi tube and differential
pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown.

The converging portion increases the velocity of the fluid and

lowers its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and
throat develops, which is related to the rate of discharge. The
diverging cone changes the area of the stream back to the entrance
area and converts velocity head into pressure head.

Assuming incompressible flow and no frictional losses, and using the continuity Equation (Q = A1V1 = A2V2)
with Bernoullis Equation, we get:

p p2
p1 p 2 V2 A2
2
2 2 2 2 g 1 Z1 Z 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z 2 1 V22
2g 2g 2 g A1 A 2
1
2
A1

Ideally,
Qi A2V2 A2 1 2g
A2 2
A1
1 / 2
p1 p 2
Z1 Z 2
1/ 2
(1)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by equation (1) because of
frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,

Qa Cd A2 1 2g
A2 2
A1
1 2
p1 p 2
Z1 Z 2
12
(2)

In practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined discharge coefficient, C d

that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is:

Cd Qa Qi (3)

Apparatus
The apaprtus consists of a classical Venturi made of transparent acrylic. A series of wall tappings allow
measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging duct. These tappings are
connected to a manometer bank incorporating with air bleed screw.
 1. Staddle Valve
2. Manometer Tubes
3. Manometer Board
4. Control Valve
5. Venturi Outlet Connection
6. Baseboard
7. Unions
8. Venturi Inlet Connection
9. Venturi Meter
10. Adjustable Feet

Procedure
Discharge coefficient determination
1. Connect the venture meter apparatus to the hydraulic bench and turn on the water supply
pump with the inlet valve fully closed and the outlet valve fully open.
2. Slowly open the inlet valve and allow the water to fill the venture meter, make sure that the
manometer tubes are properly connected and free of air-bubbles.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate and after the level stabilizes, measure
the water flow rate using volumetric method and record the manometers reading.
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi control
valve.
5. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method.
6. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between hA and hC using Equation 1.
7. Plot Qa Vs Qi and finally obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope.

Flow rate measurement

1. Connect the venture meter apparatus to the hydraulic bench and turn on the water supply
pump with the inlet valve fully closed and the outlet valve fully open.
2. Slowly open the inlet valve and allow the water to fill the venture meter, make sure that the
manometer tubes are properly connected and free of air-bubbles.
3. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and record the
manometers reading.
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi control valve.
5. Calculate the venturi meter flow rate (Equation 2) of each data by applying the discharge
coefficient obtained.
6. Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate.
Impact of a jet
Introduction
The equipment enables the measurement of the force developed by a jet of water deflected on a fixed impact
object by comparing it to the force predicted by the momentum theory.

Theory
A theoretical model for the force necessary to hold the impact
surface stationary is obtained by applying the integral forms of
the continuity and momentum equations. The geometric and
fluid parameters for this experiment are shown on the right. A
stream of water with average velocity V flows upward from the
nozzle. It impinges on the impact surface and turns to flow
radially outward from the axis of the impact surface.

The control volume, bounded by the dashed lines, is chosen so

that it crosses the jet streams at right angles. To proceed with
the analysis make the following assumptions:
1. Friction between the impact surface and the water jet is negligible
2. The magnitude of the jet velocity does not change as the jet is turned
3. Velocity profiles are uniform where the flow crosses the control surface
4. The jet exit is circumferentially symmetrical
Applying the conservation of mass to the jet streams gives , since therefore .
The integral equation for momentum conservation in the x-direction is;
( ) ( )
Similarly, the integral equation for momentum conservation in the y-direction is;
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

In case of impact on a flat object, = 0 (sin = 0) &

In case of impact on an hemispherical object, = 90 (sin = 1) &
In case of a conical object (45), = - 45 (sin = - 0.707) &

The jet outlet speed from the nozzle, v0, can be measured from the flow-rate Q, i.e. v0 = Q / area of the nozzle. The
jet, at the nozzle, has vertical direction but when it impacts the object it is deflected of an angle depending on
the shape of the object. Applying the Bernoulli equation between the nozzle and the impact object:

Where,
Pn is the pressure at the nozzle outlet
Zn is the position of the nozzle outlet
v0 the outlet speed from the nozzle
Pp is the pressure after the impact on the support
Zp is the impact position
v1 is the impact speed

Because the nozzle and the impacted object are at Patm, Pn/ Pp/ = 0. Also Zn - Zp = s, i.e. equal to the distance
between nozzle and impact object, we obtain:
So, it is possible to obtain the jet impact speed on the object from the jet speed at the nozzle outlet and from the
distance between the nozzle and the impact object.

Equipment Description
The equipment is composed of a transparent cylinder inside which water is fed from a bottom pipe provided with
an interchangeable nozzle. The jet produced by the nozzle strikes an object supported on a stem which extends
through the cover. To counterbalance the force exerted by the water jet, weights are applied to the upper end of
the stem. A height meter for the weight assembly gives the balance position in absence of jet. When there is jet of
water, the force exerted by the last causes the stem to rise and this will be counterbalanced by adding weights
until the stem returns to its starting position.

In this way it is possible to determine the force exerted by the jet of water on the object under test. 3 kinds of
objects are available: a flat one, a conical one at 45and a hemispherical one.

Technical Characteristics
The technical specifications of the equipment are:
1. Plexiglas diameter cylindrical tank
2. 8mm-diameter nozzle
3. 5mm-diameter nozzle
4. Impact object of flat shape having a 30mm diameter
5. Impact object of hemispherical shape having a 30mm diameter
6. Impact object of conical shape (45) having a 30mm diameter
7. Nozzle distance impact object: 20mm
8. Set of stainless steel weights

Procedure
1. Set the impact of jet apparatus unit on the hydraulic bench, connect the input of the unit to the bench
and set the outlet pipe of the unit over the tank of the hydraulic bench.
2. Remove the cover from the equipment by unscrewing the fixing screws and Screw the wished impact
object to the support stem, also connect the nozzle with the wished diameter to the bottom pipe
3. Set the cover and screw the fixing screws and adjust the pins so that the equipment is perfectly levelled
4. Set the pointer besides the weight stem assembly to the red level (balance position without jet)
5. Shut off the flow control valve of the hydraulic bench and open the exhaust valve of the volumetric tank
of the hydraulic bench. Then slowly switch on the pump of HB and open the valve until you reach the
wished flow value
6. Due to the jet, the impacted object will push the support stem upward; add the weights provided with the
stem until the plate will be taken back to the pointer height and note the value
7. Note the flow value indicated by the variable area flow-meter of HB and the one calculated using the
volumetric tank of HB and a timer
8. Repeat the test with different flow values and at the end of the experiment, shut off the hydraulic bench.

Observations & Calculations

Object shape: flat hemispherical conical Nozzle diameter: _________
Mass m (g) Volume V (l) Time t (s)

3 3
Theroretical force Fth = _______ N Flow Q = V (m ) / t(s) = ______ m /s
Nozzle section A = (D) /4 = _____ m
2 2
Speed v0 = Q/A = ____ m/s
Speed v1 = __________ m/s Force measured, Fm = ___________ N
 Head Loss through Fittings

Objective:
To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through
Standard fittings used in plumbing installations

Theory:
Piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows, tees and valves that form
obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid
flowing through the fittings.

H=
Where,
H = Head loss across fittings (mH2O)
K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/s2)

Test Section:
i. A 90o bend
ii. A 90o elbow
iii. A 45o elbow
iv. A 45o Y (135o flow, 180o flow)
v. A 90o T (90o flow, 180o flow)
vi. A sudden enlargement
vii. A sudden contraction
viii. An in-line strainer
ix. A gate valve (Fully opened, 1 turn, 2 turns, 3 turns, 4 turns, 5 turns)
x. A globe valve (Fully opened, 1 turn, 2 turns, 3 turns, 5 turns)

Procedures:
Start-up the apparatus according to general procedures.
Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test
section only.
Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
Measure differential head between tapping on each fitting with the pressurized water
manometer.
 Measure differential head between tapping on test valves using pressurized water
manometer and mercury manometer as appropriate for different valve settings (open to
closed).
Repeat the testing with different flow rate and obtain readings on test section.

Note:
Be extremely careful when handling mercury. Always make sure that the pressure
losses measurement is within the range of the mercury manometer.

Observations:

Time Flow rate Mean Velocity Manometer Head Fitting

Volume (sec) Q Velocity Head Readings Loss Factor
V m/sec U2/2g (m) H
(m) K
H1 H2 mH2O

For
90o
bend
For
45o
elbow
For
90o
elbow

Graphs:
Head loss Vs. Velocity Head.

Sloe of the Graph = fitting factor (K)

Plot a graph of K factor against valve opening for each test valve.

Conclusions/comments:
Critical velocities of transitional flow
Introduction
This experiment is designed for students to study laminar, transition and turbulent flow. The objective is
to determine the upper and lower critical velocities of transitional flow regime and the associated
Reynolds number.

Equipment description
The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration apparatus is equipped with a visualization tube for students to
observe the flow condition. The rocks inside the stilling tank are to calm the inflow water so that there
will not be any turbulence to interfere with the experiment. The water inlet / outlet valve and dye
injector are utilized to generate the required flow.

1. Dye reservoir
2. Dye injector
3. Stilling tank
4.Observation tube
5. Water inlet valve
6. Bell mouth
7. Water outlet valve
8.Overflow tube

Theory
For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits of D diameter the Reynolds number is .
Where V is velocity (m/s) and is Kinematic viscosity (m2/s).

For Re < 2300, the pipe flow will be laminar. For 2300 < Re < 4000 the pipe flow will be considered a
transitional flow. Turbulent occur when Re > 4000. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the
characteristic of the flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Fluid with higher viscosity is easier to achieve a
turbulent flow condition. The viscosity of fluid is also dependent on the temperature.

Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denotes a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel
paths, there being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition
the dye observed will remain as a solid, straight and identifiable component of flow.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the
center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in
different manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have
different equations that predict their behavior.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes an unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact causing
shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed will
become disperse in the water and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be
identifiable at this point.

Procedure
1. Place the Osborne Reynolds apparatus on a level ground and connect hose to the apparatus
outflow, inflow and overflow.
2. Fill up the dye reservoir with the provided blue ink.
3. Establish water supply by connecting the inlet hose to a water source and open the inlet valve
and proceed to fill up the stilling tank with water. Then open the outflow valve to test the unit.
4. Now, lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.
5. Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
6. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
7. Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
8. Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
9. Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is achieved.
10. By repeating the procedures to create a laminar flow, slowly increase the flow rate until the
laminar flow produce small disturbance or eddies. This will be lower critical velocity.
11. Determine the flow rate by using a volumetric result
12. Repeat the experiment by first introducing a turbulent flow and slowly decrease flow rate till the
flow become transitional. This will be upper critical velocity

Observations
Laminar flow
Volume T1 T2 T3 Tavg Q

Reference
Kinematics viscosity for 25C water = 0.89 x 10-6 m/s.
Diameter (D) = 0.0156 m, Area (A) = 1.91x10-4 m2
Osborne Reynolds demonstration
Introduction
This experiment is designed for students to study laminar, transition and turbulent flow. The objective is
to observe laminar, transitional and turbulent flow and compute the Reynolds number.

Equipment description
The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration apparatus is equipped with a visualization tube for students to
observe the flow condition. The rocks inside the stilling tank are to calm the inflow water so that there
will not be any turbulence to interfere with the experiment. The water inlet / outlet valve and dye
injector are utilized to generate the required flow.

1. Dye reservoir
2. Dye injector
3. Stilling tank
4.Observation tube
5. Water inlet valve
6. Bell mouth
7. Water outlet valve
8.Overflow tube

Theory
For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits of D diameter the Reynolds number is .
Where V is velocity (m/s) and is Kinematic viscosity (m2/s).

For Re < 2300, the pipe flow will be laminar. For 2300 < Re < 4000 the pipe flow will be considered a
transitional flow. Turbulent occur when Re > 4000. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the
characteristic of the flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Fluid with higher viscosity is easier to achieve a
turbulent flow condition. The viscosity of fluid is also dependent on the temperature.

Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denotes a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel
paths, there being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition
the dye observed will remain as a solid, straight and identifiable component of flow.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the
center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in
different manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have
different equations that predict their behavior.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes an unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact
causing shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye
observed will become disperse in the water and mix with the water. The observed
dye will not be identifiable at this point.

Procedure
1. Place the Osborne Reynolds apparatus on a level ground and connect hose to the apparatus
outflow, inflow and overflow.
2. Fill up the dye reservoir with the provided blue ink.
3. Establish water supply by connecting the inlet hose to a water source and open the inlet valve
and proceed to fill up the stilling tank with water. Then open the outflow valve to test the unit.
4. Now, Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.
5. Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
6. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
7. Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
8. Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
9. Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is achieved.
10. Regulate the water inlet and outlet valve until a straight identifiable dye line is achieved. The
flow will be laminar.
11. Measure the flow rate using volumetric method.
12. Repeat the experiment by regulating water inlet and outlet valve to produce transitional and
turbulent flow.

Observations
Laminar / Transitional / Turbulent flow
Volume T1 T2 T3 Tavg Q

Reference
2
Kinematics viscosity for 25C water = 0.89 x 10-6 m/s.
Diameter (D) = 0.0156 m, Area (A) = 1.91x10-4 m2
Pelton turbine
1. Introduction
The Pelton turbine is an impulse turbine largely employed for the energy production when low flows with high
heads are available (e.g. in alpine hydroelectric basins). In this experiment the performance characteristics of a
Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine are to be determined. The torque and power are to be presented as a function of
turbine speed.

2. Equipment description
The Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine is driven by a jet of water issuing from a nozzle and striking the buckets on the
wheel causing it to rotate and thus develops a power output. This creates a torque on the wheel. The nozzle has a
central needle (Doble needle) which functions like a spear valve and enables the adjustment of the flow. It also has d
a pressure gauge to measure the inlet pressure.

Fig 1: Section view of the Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine and its components

The flow leaves the turbine casing it empties into a hydraulic bench where its volume is measured along with the
time using a digital timer. This will then give the volumetric flow rate through the turbine. The turbine wheel
speed is measured by a digital tachometer. The torque on the turbine wheel is measured by a brake system with
spring balances.

3. Theory
The flow, Q, of a fluid discharged on the turbine is;
Q = V/t.
The pressure head provided to the turbine, Hi, to produce work, is the pressure head of water at the nozzle inlet
(i.e.the one generated by the pump of the hydraulic bench) it can be measured by the pressure gauge; Hi = P/g.
Thus, the hydraulic power, Ph, provided to the turbine is;
Ph = gHiQ = PQ (Nm/s = W).
The power, Pb, absorbed by the brake is;
Pb = 2 nb (Nm/s = W),
where n is the number of revolutions and b is the torque measured with the friction dynamometer that can be
calculated from; b = r F (Nm), where r is the radius of the friction dynamometer wheel (30 mm). And F = F1 F2
difference between the force values measured with the spring dynamometers.
The efficiency of the turbine is the fraction of available pressure head that is converted to mechanical power
(absorbed by the brake);
t = 100 x 2nb / PQ (%)

4. Technical Characteristics
The main technical characteristics of the unit are the following:
Diameter of stainless steel Pelton turbine, D = 100 mm,
Number of buckets, n = 20
Turbine speed = about 0-2000 rpm
Pressure gauge, range 0-2.5 bar
2 dynamometers, range 0-10 N, division 0.1 N

5. Procedure
1. Switch ON the pump of the hydraulic bench and slowly open spear valve of Pelton Turbine.
2. Adjust the screw of the friction dynamometer so that the wheel does not touch the belt
3. Set the optical tachometer near the brake wheel
4. Adjust the nozzle valve so that the tachometer reading shows the maximum speed value
5. Measure the water flow using the volumetric tank
6. Note the speed, brake force, flow rate and input pressure values
7. Adjust the screw of the friction dynamometer so that the turbine speed drops by about 200 rpm.
8. Note the speed, brake force, flow rate and inlet pressure values
9. Repeat the procedure until the screw, in order to set the dynamometers under tension, gets to the end or
the turbine stops
10. Plot a graph with torque, power and efficiency as function of the turbine speed
11. Repeat the experiment for other values of Q

6. Observations and Calculations

F (N) b (Nm) Ph (Nm/s) Pb (Nm/s) t
Q (m3/s) P (N/m2) N (s-1)
F = F1 F2 b = r F Ph = PQ Pb = 2 nb t = 100xPb/Ph

Draw graphs of torque and power as a function of turbine speed at different flow rates.
Fluid Friction Measurement
Introduction
This apparatus is designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head losses which occur when an
incompressible fluid flows through pipes, bends, valves and pipe flow metering devices.

The objective is to determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow
of water through smooth bore pipes; and then compute the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation.
Next objective is to determine the fluid friction coefficient by calculating the Reynolds number for flow of
water through a pipe having a roughened bore.

Equipment Description
1. Smooth Bore Pipes
2. Artificial Roughen Pipe
3. Manometer
4. Gate Valve
5. Globe Valve
6. Outlet Flow Control Valve
7. Sudden Enlargement and
Contraction
8. Inline Strainer
9. Various Pipe Fittings
10. Differential Pressure
11. Pitot Static Tube
12. Venturi Meter
13. Orifice Meter

There are six pipes arranged to provide facilities for testing: Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (6mm,
10mm and 17mm), an artificially roughened pipe, a 90o bend, a 90o elbow, a 45o elbow, a 45o Y, a 90o
T, a sudden enlargement, a sudden contraction, a gate valve, a globe valve, an in-line strainer, a venturi
made of Perspex, an orifice meter made of Perspex and a Pitot Static Tube.

A system of isolating valves in provided whereby the pipe to be tested can be selected without
disconnecting or draining the system. The arrangement allows tests to be conducted on parallel pipe
configurations. Ported manometer connecting valves ensure rapid bleeding of all interconnecting pipe work.

Theory
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that for Laminar flow in a pipe head loss, h velocity, u. While in
Turbulent flow at higher velocities h un. These two types of flow are separated by a transition phase
where no definite relationship between h and u exists. Graphs of h versus u and log h versus log u show
these zones.
Head Loss, h Log h

h un h un

Turbulent Flow

Transition Higher Critical Velocity

Transition Lower Critical Velocity
hu
hu Laminar Flow

Velocity, u Log u

1
For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH 2O) may be calculated from the formula:
4f Lu 2 Lu 2
h or
2gd 2gd
where,
L = length of pipe between tappings (m) = 1 m for all pipes
d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s2)
f = pipe friction coefficient (British) 4f = (American)
Having established the value of Reynolds number for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined from a Moody diagram. = 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 and = 999 kg/m3 at 15C.

Procedure
1. Connect the water supply from Hydraulics Bench to Fluid Friction Measurement Apparatus using
flexible hose.
2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test section
only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
4. For small flow rates, use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control valve.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping of smooth and rough bore pipes using the manometer
6. Repeat the testing with different flowrate and obtain readings on all test sections.
7. All readings should be tabulated as follows:

Test Section: Smooth Bore Pipe

Volum Time Flowrate Pipe Velocity, Reynolds (from Measured Calculated
e, , , Dia., u No., Moody Head loss, Head Loss,
V T Q d (m/s) Re Diagram) h H
3
(Litre) (Sec) (m /s) (m) 4Q ud (mH2O) (mH2O)
-3
d Lu
2 2
V x 10
T 2gd

Test Section: Roughened bore pipe

Volume, Time, Flowrate, Pipe Velocity, Reynolds Head loss, Pipe
V T Q Dia., u No., h Friction
3
(Litre) (Sec) (m /s) d (m/s) Re (mH2O) Coefficient
-3
V x 10 (m) 4Q ud f
d
2
T gdh
2
2Lu

Assignments:
Plot a graph h versus u and log h versus log u for each size of pipe. Identify the laminar, transition
and turbulent zones on the graphs.
Compare the values of head loss determined by calculation with those measured using the
manometer.
Can the head loss be predicted using the pipe friction equation provided?
Plot a graph of pipe friction coefficient versus Reynolds number (log scale).

2
Energy losses in gate valve
Objective
To measuring the losses through gate valve related to flow rate and calculating loss coefficients related
to velocity head

Apparatus

Theory
Energy losses occur when a fluid
flows through pipe fittings such
as an elbow or a bend, an
enlargement or contraction in
cross-section, or through a valve.

These energy losses, which are termed as minor losses, are primarily due to the change in the direction
of flow and the change in the cross-section of the flow path that typically occurs in valves and fittings.

Experimental techniques are used to determine minor lossesand tests have shown that the head loss in
valves and fittings is proportional to the square of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe in which
the valve or fitting is mounted.

Thus the head loss is also proportional to the velocity head of the fluid. Experimental values for energy
losses are usually reported in terms of a loss coefficient, K, as follow:

in which
K= Loss coefficient
v= Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)
g= Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2)

The value of loss coefficient K of a gate valve is dependent on the position of the valve. Fluids flow
through fully open gate valves in straight line paths, thus there is little resistance to flow and the
resulting pressure loss is small. For fluid flow through partially opened gate valve, resistance to flow will
be greater and thus produces a larger value of K.

Procedure
1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump supply from
hydraulic bench.
3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve to reduce
the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. Slowly close the gate valve to 4 turns position and measure and record the differential pressure reading
across the valve. Then, measure the flow rate with the volumetric tank.
6. Repeat the differential pressure measurement with different decreasing flow rates. The flow rates can be
adjusted by utilizing the bench flow control valve.
7. Plot graph differential piezometer head, 'h against velocity head for the gate valve and determine the loss
coefficient.
8. The experiment can be repeated with different gate valve opening.

Results

Volume Time Flow Pipe Velocity Velocity Head K Valve

V T rate Q dia. u Head loss Position
d u2/2g
(Litre) (m3 /s) (m) (m/s) (mH2O) (mH2O)
(sec)

Assignments :

Confirm that K is a constant for each fitting over the range of test flow rates.
Plot a graph of K factor against valve opening for each test valve. Note the differences
in characteristic.
 Demonstration of the operation and
characteristic of three different basic
types of flow meter
Objective:
To obtain the flow rate measurement by utilizing three basic types of flow measuring
techniques, which are rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter

Theory:
Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free
float is the indicating element. Basically, a rotameter
consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through
which fluid flow upward. Within the tube is placed a
freely suspended float of pump-bob shape. When
there is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom
end. As flow commences, the float rises until upward
and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight.
The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow is
small, and vice versa. The points of equilibrium can be
noted as a function of flow rate. With a well-calibrated
marked glass tube, the level of the float becomes a
direct measure of flow rate.

Orifice Meter
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe.

1 2
At 2
Q Cd At 1 2 g h7 h8 1 2
A
Where
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.63)
D7 = Orifice diameter = 16 mm
D8 = Orifice upstream diameter = 26 mm
At = Orifice area = 2.011 x 10-4 m2
A = Orifice upstream area = 5.309 x 10-4 m2
(h7 h8) = Pressure difference across orifice (m)

1
Procedures:

1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet
pipe into volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened,
start up the pump supply from hydraulic bench.
3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start
to close the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable
flow rate.
5. By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board.
Retain maximum readings on manometers with the maximum
measurable flow rate.
6. Note readings on manometers (A - J), rotameter and measured flow rate.
7. Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted
by utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve.
8. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures,
adjust bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels
as required.

Volume Time Flowrate Rotameter Manometer Flow rate

V T Q Flow rate Readings calculated
using the
(Litre) (min) (L/min) (L/min) Bernoullis eq.
H7 H8
(L/min)

Comments:

2
 SERIES & PARALLEL PUMP TEST RIG

Unit Assembly

6
3

2
4
1

Figure 1(a): Equipment assembly

1. Pump, P1
2. Pump, P2
3. Water Tank
4. Speed Sensor
5. Pressure Gauge
6. Pressure Transmitter

SUMMARY OF THEORY

Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to produce
the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive displacement and dynamic.

Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the velocity of the
fluid. Figure shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most commonly used type of
dynamic pumps.
 Construction features of a centrifugal pump

Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps have two major components:

1. The impeller consists of a number of curved blades (also called vanes) attached in a regular
pattern to one side of a circular hub plate that is connected to the rotating driveshaft.
2. The housing (also called casing) is a stationary shell that enclosed the impeller and supports the
rotating drive shaft via a bearing.

A centrifugal pump operates as follows. When the prime mover rotates the driveshaft, the impeller fluid is
drawn in axially through the center opening (called the eye) of the housing. The fluid then makes a 90 0 turn
and flows radially outward. As energy is added to the fluid by the rotating blades (centrifugal action and
actual blade force), the pressure and velocity increase until the fluid reaches the outer tip of the impeller.
The fluid then enters the volute-shaped housing whose increased flow area causes the velocity to
decrease. This action results in a decrease in kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.

The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the direction of flow to
produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of housing and discharge opening.

Centrifugal Pump Connected in Parallel

If a single pump does not provide enough flowrate for a given application, connecting two pumps in parallel,
as shown in Figure, can rectify the problem. The effective two-pump performance curve is obtained by
adding the flowrates of each pump at the same head. As shown, when two pumps are connected in
parallel, the operating points shift from A to B, providing not only increased flowrate as required but also
greater head. Figure 5 shows the characteristics of two identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be
the same.
 Two centrifugal pumps connected in parallel

Centrifugal Pump Connected in Series

On the other hand, if a single pump does not provide enough head for a given application, two pumps
connected in series, as shown in Figure 6, can be a remedy. The effective two-pump performance curve is
obtained by adding the head of each pump at the same flowrate. The operating point shifts from A to B,
thereby providing not only increased head as required but also greater flow. Figure 6 shows the
characteristics of two identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be the same.

Two centrifugal pumps connected in series

Experiment 1: Single Pump Operation

Sample Sheet:

i) Single pump operation with variable flow rate

Flow rate Speed Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head, Efficiency
(LPM) (RPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m) (%)

ii) Single pump operation with variable pump speeds

Speed Flow rate Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head,
(RPM) (LPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m)

Graphs :
Pump Head Vs flow rate (Flow rate on X axis)
Efficiency Vs flow rate

Flow rate Vs pump speed (pump Speed on X axis)

Pump Head Vs Pump speed
Experiment 2: Pumps in Series Operation

Sample Sheet:

i) Series pump operation with variable flow rate

Flow rate Speed Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head, Efficiency
(LPM) (RPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m) (%)

ii) Series pump operation with variable pump speeds

Speed Flow rate Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head,
(RPM) (LPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m)

Graphs :
Pump Head Vs flow rate (Flow rate on X axis)
Efficiency Vs flow rate

Flow rate Vs pump speed (pump Speed on X axis)

Pump Head Vs Pump speed
Experiment 3: Pumps in Parallel Operation

Sample Sheet:

i) Parallel pumps operation with variable flow rate

Flow rate Speed Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head, Efficiency
(LPM) (RPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m) (%)

ii) Parallel pumps operation with variable pump speeds

Speed Flow rate Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head,
(RPM) (LPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) H (m)

Graphs :
Pump Head Vs flow rate (Flow rate on X axis)
Efficiency Vs flow rate

Flow rate Vs pump speed (pump Speed on X axis)

Pump Head Vs Pump speed
 Safety
Measures
Do not perform unauthorized experiments by yourself.
No eating or drinking in the lab.
Do not drink from lab equipment.
Shoes should not be slippery in order to avoid any slippage of student on
lab floor.
Before carrying out any maintenance operation, disconnect the apparatus
from the main.
Electric wires should not be kept at the floor level.
While using lab equipment, keep in mind there are proper draining
points for water drainage.
Be extra careful when handling the hot water. Can cause severe burn if
have direct contact with human skin
Use the handles of the support base of the vessel for the handling, do not
use valves and piping for handling the system
No laboratory work should be carried out in the absence of the
instructor.
Never leave an experiment that is in progress unattended.
Do not exceed wattage limits of devices when plugging them into
electrical outlets.
In case of a fire, chemical, or other emergency alert the instructor and all
students in the laboratory.
In case of serious injury, requiring professional medical attention, the
student(s) should contact the MEDICAL CENTER Department, Extension
1666.