Environ Geochem Health
DOI 10.1007/s10653-017-9907-8
REVIEW PAPER
Trace metals accumulation in soil irrigated with polluted
water and assessment of human health risk
from vegetable consumption in Bangladesh
Md. Atikul Islam . Davor Romic . Md. Ali Akber . Marija Romic
Received: 18 May 2016 / Accepted: 4 January 2017
Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017
Abstract Trace metals accumulation in soil irri-
gated with polluted water and human health risk from
vegetable consumption was assessed based on the data
available in the literature on metals pollution of water,
soil, sediment and vegetables from the cites of
Bangladesh. The quantitative data on metal concen-
trations, their contamination levels and their pollution
sources have not been systematically gathered and
studied so far. The data on metal concentrations,
sources, contamination levels, sample collection and
analytical tools used were collected, compared and
discussed. The USEPA-recommended method for
health risk assessment was used to estimate human
risk from vegetable consumption. Concentrations of
metals in water were highly variable, and the mean
concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu and As in water were
found to be higher than the FAO irrigation water
quality standard. In most cases, mean concentrations
of metals in soil were higher than the Bangladesh
background value. Based on geoaccumulation index
(Igeo) values, soils of Dhaka city are considered as
highly contaminated. The Igeo shows Cd, As, Cu, Ni,
Pb and Cr contamination of agricultural soils and
Md. A. Islam  D. Romic  M. Romic (&)
Department of Soil Amelioration, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: mromic@agr.hr
Md. A. Islam  Md. A. Akber
Environmental Science Discipline, Khulna University,
Khulna, Bangladesh
sediments of the cities all over the Bangladesh.
Polluted water irrigation and agrochemicals are iden-
tified as dominant sources of metals in agricultural
soils. Vegetable contamination by metals poses both
non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to the public.
Based on the results of the pollution and health risk
assessments, Cd, As, Cr, Cu, Pb and Ni are identified
as the priority control metals and the Dhaka city is
recommended as the priority control city. This study
provides quantitative evidence demonstrating the
critical need for strengthened wastewater discharge
regulations in order to protect residents from heavy
metal discharges into the environment.
Keywords Wastewater discharge  Agricultural
soil  Sediment  Vegetable  Health risk assessment 
Bangladesh
Introduction
Irrigation by polluted surface water is a common
practice in many developing countries (Chary et al.
2008). This polluted water can contain municipal,
industrial and agricultural runoff (containing agro-
chemicals). Thus, metals pollution of agricultural soil
and vegetables from polluted water irrigation is one of
the most severe ecological and public health problems
in the developing countries, including Bangladesh
(Kashem and Singh 1999). Although, soils naturally
123

contain metals in trace level (Zhao and Kaluarachchi
2002; Pierzynski et al. 2005; Kabata-Pendias and
Pendias 1992; Wuana and Okieimen 2011), effluents
from industry or other sources carry a significant
amount of toxic metals which create a problem for safe
use of agricultural soil (Yadav et al. 2002; Singh et al.
2004; Chen et al. 2005). Therefore, long-term appli-
cation of polluted water for irrigation may contribute
in accumulation of metals such as Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni,
Pb and Mn in surface soil above defined background
level (Mapanda et al. 2005). Concentration of metals
above soil background value and safe limits of the
Netherlands and China are reported in several studies
conducted in different locations of Bangladesh (Ah-
mad and Goni 2010; Kashem and Singh 1999; Islam
et al. 2014b, 2015e, f; Goni et al. 2014; Alamgir et al.
2015). Excessive accumulation of metals in agricul-
tural soils may not only result in soil contamination but
also affect food quality and safety (Muchuweti et al.
2006; Sharma et al. 2006, 2008). Distribution and
translocation of metals into different parts of the plant
body depend upon the availability and concentration
of metals as well as particular plant species and its
population (Liu et al. 2007). Again, the uptake of
metal concentration by the plants also depends on
metal speciation, soil characteristics and type of plant
species (Lin et al. 2003).
Bangladesh is a predominantly agricultural country
having 8.3 Mha (million hectares) of arable land.
Although 7 Mha of this land is potential area for
irrigation, existing irrigation system covers only 4.48
Mha (BBS 2004). Given the shortage of water for
irrigation, use of polluted water for food crop culti-
vation in urban and peri-urban area is a growing
concern for human health safety in Bangladesh.
Polluted river water use is increasing in urban and
peri-urban agriculture where such use derives signif-
icant economic activity and supports the livelihood of
resource-poor farmers but alters environmental qual-
ity. Treatment of wastewater from industry is not a
priority in low-income countries like Bangladesh.
Although there are certain laws and regulations to
control industrial pollution, its monitoring system is
generally weak. Many small to medium scale indus-
tries operating in urban and peri-urban areas of
Bangladesh are disposing their contaminated effluents
directly into sewage system. Effluents from various
industries (tannery, textile, dying, washing, pharma-
ceuticals, chemicals, paints, steel, ceramic, etc.), and
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Environ Geochem Health
urban sewage discharged in the open water bodies and
rivers have already brought the pollution level in an
alarming state (Kashem and Singh 1999; Khan et al.
2008; Ahmad and Goni 2010; Rahman et al. 2012;
Islam et al. 2014a, d, 2015a, c, e). These polluted
waters are used for irrigation typically in dry season
(NovemberMay) when the scarcity of fresh water is
very high. Several studies from polluted water
irrigated areas of Bangladesh have reported high
concentration of metals in soils (Ahmad and Goni
2010; Islam et al. 2014b, 2015b, f; Alamgir et al.
2015).
Bangladesh is located at the floodplain delta of
three major river basinsthe Ganges, the Brahmapu-
tra and the Meghna (GBM). Riverbed sediments are
regarded as the ultimate sink for metal cations (Gibbs
1973). Studies suggest that metals have been widely
accumulated in the surface sediments of rivers of
Dhaka and other cities of Bangladesh (Alam et al.
2003; Mohiuddin et al. 2011; Halim et al. 2013; Islam
et al. 2014c, d, 2015b, c, e; Ali et al. 2016). It is known
that the behavior of metals in natural waters is a
function of substrate sediment composition, sus-
pended sediment composition and water chemistry.
Besides, transportation of metals causes numerous
changes in their speciation due to dissolution, precip-
itation, sorption and complexation processes (Dasse-
nakis et al. 1998; Akcay et al. 2003; Abdel-Ghani and
Elchaghaby 2007; Mohiuddin et al. 2011) which affect
their behavior and bioavailability (Nicolau et al. 2006;
Nouri et al. 2011; Islam et al. 2015e). Therefore,
concerns are growing over the contaminated sedi-
ments in river beds because it may cause substantive
damage to the aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, mon-
soon flood caused by the overflow of rivers inundates
about one-third of Bangladesh (Bala et al. 2009). This
may pose risks to agricultural soils as a result of the
mobilization and deposition of contaminated sedi-
ments in the floodplain.
Crops grown in metal contaminated soils usually
uptake an excessive level of metals, which enter into
the edible parts of plants (Alam et al. 2003; Mapanda
et al. 2005; Sharma et al. 2008). Contamination of
food is the major pathway for metal exposure to
humans (Khan et al. 2008). Shaheen et al. (2016)
examined the presence of toxic heavy metals (As, Cd,
Pb, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu and Zn) in nationally representative
samples of typically consumed vegetables ((Solanum
melongena (brinjal), Dolichos lablab (bean), Daucus
Environ Geochem Health
carota (carrot), Capsicum frutescens (green chili),
Allium cepa (onion), Solanum tuberosum (potato) and
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato)) in Bangladesh and
found that Cd concentrations in tomato among the
analyzed vegetables exceeded the maximum allow-
able concentration set by FAO/WHO. The target
hazard quotients (THQs) of all metals were \1,
suggesting no health hazards for adult population.
However, total THQs of Mn and Cu were [1 through
consumption of all vegetables, indicating significant
health risks. Higher contents of metals in food can
result in fatal diseases (Singh et al. 2011). Copper can
cause adverse health problems such as liver and
kidney damage (WHO 1995; Tuzen 2009). Cadmium
is toxic to the cardiovascular system, kidneys and
bones (Fang et al. 2014). Arsenic can cause skin
lesions, gangrene in leg, skin, lung, bladder, liver and
renal cancer (Anawar et al. 2002). Lead is associated
with pathological changes in organs and the central
nervous system, which may lead to decrements in
intelligence quotients (IQ) in children. Chromium and
Ni are known to cause a variety of pulmonary adverse
health effects, such as lung inflammation, fibrosis,
emphysema and tumors (Forti et al. 2011). Sufficient
amount of Zn is very important for normal body
functions and its deficiency can cause anorexia,
diarrhea, dermatitis and depression, immune dysfunc-
tion and poor wound healing; nevertheless, its toxicity
can cause a sideroblastic anemia (Muhammad et al.
2011). Various heavy metals in toxic levels are known
to have serious health implications, including car-
cinogenesis-induced tumor promotion. Therefore, it is
essential to identify heavy metals concentration in
food products and their dietary intake to determine
health risks (Zhuang et al. 2009). Growing conscious-
ness about the health risks associated with metals has
brought a major shift in global concern toward their
prevention accumulation in soil and vegetables (Mor-
tula and Rahman 2002; Ahmed et al. 2009b).
In last two decades, several studies were conducted
in the cities of Bangladesh to assess metal pollution in
river water, river water irrigated soil, rivers sediment
and vegetables grown in river water irrigated soil
(Kashem and Singh 1999; Khan et al. 2008; Rahman
et al. 2012; Islam et al. 2014a, d, 2015a, e). Most of
these studies were focused on Dhaka, which is the
capital city of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). However, quanti-
tative data on metal concentrations, their contamina-
tion levels and pollution sources have not been
systematically collected and studied so far. Therefore,
a comprehensive nationwide assessment of metal
pollution in different areas of Bangladesh is urgently
needed. The purpose of this study was to assess a
national scale metal contamination in polluted surface
water (hereafter called water), polluted water irrigated
soils (hereafter called soil), surface sediments of
polluted water (hereafter called sediment) and veg-
etables grown in polluted water irrigated soils (here-
after called vegetables) based on the survey of
available existing data. The specific objectives of this
research were (1) to evaluate trace metals pollution
level in water, soil, sediment and vegetable and (2) to
assess the health risks posed by vegetables grown in
polluted water irrigated soil.
Materials and methods
Data collection and processing
This study reviews data on metal contamination of
water, soil, sediment and vegetable in Bangladesh
available in the literature published over last two
decades. Seven metals, namely Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As
and Ni, were considered, all of them being identified
by the USEPA as priority metal pollutants. Relevant
references were searched within online electronic
databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect,
Scopus, SpringerLink, and Web of Science between
December 2015 and February 2016. Key words used
in the search are: heavy/trace metal contamination,
polluted/wastewater irrigation, soil, vegetable, sedi-
ment, health risk assessment and Bangladesh. Rele-
vant references from the bibliographies of identified
papers were also searched. Data on metal concentra-
tion in water, soil, sediment and vegetables were
extracted from relevant articles. Commonly con-
sumed vegetables [(e.g., Raphanus sativus (Raddish),
Solanum melongena (brinjal), Dolichos lablab (bean),
Daucus carota (carrot), Capsicum frutescens (green
chili), Allium cepa (onion), Solanum tuberosum
(potato), and Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato),
Abelmoschus esculentus (ladys finger), Brassica oler-
acea var. capitata (green cabbage), Lagenaria sicer-
aria (bottle gourd), Cucurbita (pumpkin), Brassica
oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower)] of Bangladesh
are considered in the reference studies. Data from
different articles were standardized in mg L-1 for
123

Fig. 1 Sampling locations in Bangladesh where heavy metals concentrations of polluted water, soil, sediment and vegetable have been
studied
water, mg kg-1 dry weight (dw) for soil and sediment,
and mg kg-1 fresh weight (fw) for vegetable. Data
were compared with standards widely used in the
literature for comparison of the related data. Water
quality data were compared with FAO safe limit and
Bangladesh standards. Metal concentrations of soil
were compared with the regulations of Netherlands
and China. Metals in sediment were compared with
the regulations of USEPA and Canada. FAO/WHO
safe limits were considered for the comparison of
vegetable data.
Sampling strategy and sample processing method
The sampling strategy, analytical tools and determined
metals of the related studies are listed in Tables 1, 2, 3,
4. Water is mainly contaminated by industrial and
municipal discharges, and agricultural run-offs. The
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Environ Geochem Health
water samples were digested with HNO3, or a mixture
of acids such as HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4, or with the
addition of H2O2 with HNO3 (Table 1). Total con-
centrations of metals were determined by ICP-MS,
ICP-OES, AAS, XRF and DR/890 Colorimeter. The
soil samples were collected from polluted water
irrigated agricultural field, to a depth of 520 cm.
The sediment samples were collected from bottom of
the polluted water (520 cm bottom sediment). In few
of the studies (Islam et al. 2014b, 2015b, f; Halim et al.
2015), several soil samples were taken and then mixed
thoroughly to obtain a composite sample. However,
for sediment samples, composite samples were taken
in two of the studies (Islam et al. 2014d, 2015e). Soil
and sediment samples were air-dried and mixed well.
Subsamples of soil and sediment were dried in oven,
ground into fine powder, sieved through 2 mm mesh.
Then, the sieved soil and sediment samples were
 Table 1 Sample collection and processing methods for heavy metals analysis of water of the cities in Bangladesh
City (sampling site) No of samples Digestion Analysis method (metals) References

Dhaka (River and canal of Hazaribagh tannery 18 X-ray Fluorescence (Cd, Cr, Pb, As) Islam et al. (2014a)
industries surrounding area)
Environ Geochem Health

Dhaka (River and canal of Hazaribagh tannery 49 HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Ahmad and Goni (2010)
industries surrounding area)
Dhaka (River of Hazaribagh tannery 20 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Bhuiyan et al. (2011)
industries surrounding area)
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ surrounding river and canals) 09 HNO3 ? H2SO4 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni) Ahmad et al. (2010)
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ surrounding river) 20 X-ray Fluorescence (Cu, Zn) Khan et al. (2014)
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ surrounding river and bill) 08 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Rahman et al. (2014a)
Dhaka (River and canal water, DEPZ, Savar) 12 HNO3 ICP-MS (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Ahmed et al. (2012b)
Dhaka (Buriganga river surrounding areas) 09 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Rahman et al. (2014b)
Dhaka (Buriganga river) 15 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Bhuiyan et al. (2015)
Dhaka (Buriganga, Shitalakshyaa, Turag, 09 HNO3 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) Sikder et al. (2013)
and Bongshi river)
Dhaka (Turag river) 05 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) Islam et al. (2012)
Dhaka (city surrounding major rivers) 45 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, As) Mokaddes et al. (2013)
Dhaka (River water from Dhaleshwari river 09 HNO3 ? H2SO4 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni) Ahmed et al. (2009b)
surrounding areas, Tangail)
Dhaka (Meghna River surrounding area) 11 HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cr, Zn) Hassan et al. (2015)
Dhaka (Buriganga River surrounding area) 20 ICP-AES (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Mohiuddin et al. (2011)
Dhaka (Dhaleshwari River surrounding area) 03 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb) Ahmed et al. (2012a)
Chittagong (Karnaphuli River surrounding area) 04 HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) Siddiqui and Aktar (2012)
Chittagong (Karnaphuli River surrounding area) 40 HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, As) Ali et al. (2016)
Pabna (Sugar Mill wastewater drain, Natore) 03 DR/890 colorimeter (Hach Co., USA) (Zn) Tabriz et al. (2011)
Rajshahi (Circuit house and Dargapara drains) - (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ni) Ahmed et al. (2009a)
Dinajpur (coal mine site drainage water) 20 AAS (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Bhuiyan et al. (2010a)
Dinajpur (coal mining area irrigation water) 10 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, As) Halim et al. (2013)
Mymensingh (Khiru river) 36 HNO3 ? H2SO4 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd,Cu, Pb, Zn) Rashid et al. (2012)
Mymensingh (Municipal wastewater) 05 DR/890 colorimeter (Hach Co., USA) (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) Mojid and Wyseure (2013)
Bogra (Korotoa River water) 40 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ni) Islam et al. (2015e)

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 Environ Geochem Health

digested with a mixture of acids such as HNO3 with Health risk assessment
HClO4, H2SO4, HCl, H2O2 or Aqua regia (Tables 2,
3). Total concentrations of metal for soil and sediment In relevant studies, health risks from metals are
were determined by ICP-MS, AAS and XRF. The assessed with the help of three indices, such as
edible part of the vegetable samples was washed with estimated daily intake (EDI) (Saha and Zaman 2013;
deionized distilled water to remove all observable dust Islam et al. 2014b, 2015b), target hazard quotient
particles and blotted with tissue paper. The edible (THQ) (Saha and Zaman 2013; Islam et al.
portion was dried in oven, ground into fine powder, 2014b, 2015b), and carcinogenic risk of arsenic and
sieved through 2 mm mesh. The vegetable samples lead (Saha and Zaman 2013; Islam et al. 2015b).
were digested with HNO3, or a mixture of HNO3 and The EDI of each of the metal is found by the
H2O2. Finally, the total concentrations of metals were following equation:
determined by ICP-MS, AAS and XRF (Table 4).
EDI EF  ED  FIR  MC  103 =BW  AT
Pollution levels of trace metals
where EF is the exposure frequency
(365 days year-1), ED is the exposure duration
The pollution levels of metals in soils are assessed by
(60 years), FIR is the food ingestion (g person-1
using geoaccumulation index (Igeo). Soil contamina-
day-1), MC is the metal concentration in vegeta-
tion is often evaluated by comparing metal concen-
bles (mg kg-1, on fresh weight basis), to convert dry
trations with the related environmental guidelines or
weight (dw) to fresh weight (fw) moisture content of
by quantifying an accumulation factor (pollution
87% was considered, BW is the average body weight
indexes, PIs) with respect to relevant background
(adult, 60 kg), AT is the averaging time for non-
values. The Igeo introduced by Muller (1969) enables
carcinogens (365 days year-1 9 number of exposure
the assessment of environmental contamination by
years, 60 years). Daily vegetable consumption rate for
comparing differences between current and preindus-
adult residents was considered to be 126 g person-1
trial element concentrations. It is also employed in
day-1 (Ali and Hau 2001).
pollution assessment of metals in sediment. Geoaccu-
Non-carcinogenic risk assessments are typically
mulation index is computed using the following
conducted to estimate the potential health risks of
equation:
pollutants using the THQ, which is the ratio between
Igeo log2 Cn =1:5Bn the estimated exposure and the oral reference dose
(RfD, mg kg-1 day-1) (USEPA 2000). The THQ
where Cn is the measured concentration of particular
values through the consumption of vegetables by local
metal found in the soil and sediment (mg kg-1dw),
inhabitants can therefore be assessed for each of the
and Bn is its geochemical background value (mg kg-1
metals and determined by the following equation:
dw). Due to unavailability of geochemical background
value of soil and sediment in Bangladesh, element THQ EDI=RfD
concentrations in upper continental crust reported by
The oral reference doses were based on 0.003, 0.02,
Wedepohl (1995) were taken for calculation. The
0.04, 0.3, 0.0003, 0.0005 and 0.004 mg kg-1 day-1
constant 1.5 is used due to potential variations in the
for Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd and Pb, respectively
baseline data (Loska et al. 2004; Solgi et al. 2012).
(JECFA 1993; USEPA 2007). A THQ below 1 means
According to Muller (1969), the Igeo for each of the
the exposed population is unlikely to experience
metals are calculated and classified as: Igeo B 0
obvious adverse effects, whereas a THQ above 1
practically uncontaminated; 0 B Igeo B 1uncon-
means that there is a chance of non-carcinogenic
taminated to moderately contaminated; 1 B Igeo -
effects, with an increasing probability as the value
B 2moderately contaminated; 2 B Igeo B 3
increases.
moderately to heavily contaminated; 3 B Igeo B 4
It has been reported that exposure to two or more
heavily contaminated; 4 B Igeo B 5heavily to
pollutants may result in additive and/or interactive
extremely contaminated; and 5 \ Igeoextremely
effects (Hallenbeck 1993). The total THQ (TTHQ) of
contaminated.

123
 Table 2 Sample collection and processing methods for heavy metals analysis of soils of the cities in Bangladesh
City (sampling site) No of Depth Digestion Analysis method (metals) References
samples (cm)
Environ Geochem Health

Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, Hazaribagh tannery 45 15 HNO3 ? H2SO4 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Ahmad and Goni
area) (2010)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, DEPZ, Savar) 12 5 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Kashem and Singh
(1999)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, DEPZ, Savar) 13 15 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Kashem and Singh
(1999)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, DEPZ, Savar) 15 15 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Kashem and Singh
(1999)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, Tongi 13 15 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Kashem and Singh
ceramic industrial area) (1999)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, Tongi textile, 36 20 HNO3 ? HCl ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ni) Islam et al. (2014b)
dying industrial area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil, Rupgonj sulfuric 50 15 HClO4 ? HNO3 ? H2SO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Goni et al. (2014)
acid producing industrial area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated soil surrounding 40 1520 Aqua regia AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Rahman et al. (2012)
polluted Turag, Buriganga, Shitalaksha river) (HCl:HNO3 = 3:1)
Dinajpur (Coal mining area wastewater irrigated soil) 15 15 HNO3 ? HClO4 ? HCl AAS (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ni) Halim et al. (2015)
Dinajpur (Coal mining area wastewater irrigated soil) 32 515 X-ray Fluorescence (Pb, Zn, As) Bhuiyan et al. (2010b)
Patuakhali (polluted Paira river irrigated soil) 21 10 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni) Alamgir et al. (2015)
Chittagong (city corporation area wastewater irrigated 40 10 HNO3 ? HCl ICP-MS (Cd, Cu, Pb, As, Ni) Islam et al. (2015b)
area)
Bogra (polluted Korotoa River irrigated soil) 48 10 HNO3 ? HCl ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ni, Islam et al. (2015f)
Zn)

123
 Table 3 Sample collection and processing methods for heavy metals analysis of sediments of the cities in Bangladesh
City (sampling site) No of Sampling method Depth (cm) Digestion Analysis method (metals) References
samples

123
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ surrounding river 09 Vertical corer and an Ekman HNO3 ? HClO4 ? H2SO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni) Ahmad et al.
and canal sediment) grab sampler (2010)
Dhaka (DEPZ surrounding area river 15 Sediment corer 510 X-ray Fluorescence (Cr, Bhuiyan et al.
and bill sediment) Cu,Pb, Zn, As, Ni) (2015)
Dhaka (Buriganga River sediment) 18 Ekman grab sampler 5 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Islam et al.
Ni) (2014d)
Dhaka (Buriganga River sediment) 08 Ekman grab sampler Bottom HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Rahman et al.
sediment As, Ni) (2014a)
Dhaka (Buriganga River sediment) 05 Bottom AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) Banu et al.
sediment (2013)
Dhaka (Buriganga River sediment) 05 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) Saha and
Hossain
(2011)
Dhaka (Turag, Buriganga and 09 Ekman grab sampler Surface HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Rahman et al.
Shitalakha river sediment) bed As, Ni) (2014b)
Dhaka (Turag River sediment) 11 10 HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Zn) Hassan et al.
(2015)
Dhaka (Meghna River sediment) 09 Vertical corer and an Ekman HNO3 ? HClO4 ? H2SO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni) Ahmed et al.
grab sampler (2009b)
Dhaka (Dhaleshwari river sediment) 20 15 ICP-MS (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Mohiuddin et al.
Ni) (2011)
Dhaka (Dhaleshwar River sediment) 03 Scoop Surface HNO3 ? HClO4 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb) Ahmed et al.
bed (2012a)
Chittagong (Karnaphuli river sediment) 40 Ekman grab sampler Surface HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni) Ali et al. (2016)
bed
Bogra (Korotoa river sediment) 40 Ekman grab sampler 5 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Islam et al.
Ni) (2015e)
Dinajpur (Coal mining area drain, canal 10 Bottom Not mentioned X-ray Fluorescence Halim et al.
sediment) sediment Spectroscope (Cr) (2013)
Mymensingh (Khiru river sediment) 36 20 HNO3 ? HClO4 ? H2SO4 AAS (Cd,Cu, Pb, Zn) Rashid et al.
(2012)
Patuakhali (Paira river sediment) 48 Ekman grab sampler 5 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Islam et al.
Ni) (2015c)
Environ Geochem Health
 Table 4 Sample collection and processing methods for heavy metals analysis of vegetables from the cities of Bangladesh
City (sampling site) Vegetables No of Digestion Analysis method References
samples (metals)

Dhaka (Hazaribagh tannery surrounding Stem amaranth, Raddish, Spinach 31 X-ray Fluorescence (Cd, Islam et al. (2014a)
Environ Geochem Health

area wastewater irrigated vegetables) Cr, Pb, As)

Dhaka (Hazaribagh tannery surrounding Brinjal, Chili, Ladys finger, tomato, green 59 HNO3 AAS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ahmad and Goni (2010)
area wastewater irrigated vegetables) cabbage Zn, Ni)
Dhaka (DEPZ surrounding area Stem amaranth, Raddish, Spinach 31 X-ray Fluorescence (Cu, Khan et al. (2014)
wastewater irrigated vegetables) Zn)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and tomato 36 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted Turag Pb, As, Ni)
River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and tomato 36 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted Pb, As, Ni)
Buriganga River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and tomato 36 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted Pb, As, Ni)
Shitalakha River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and tomato 36 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2015a)
vegetables surrounding polluted Turag, Pb, As, Ni)
Buriganga and Shitalakha River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Tomato, bottle gourd, brinjal, pumpkin, green 48 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam and Hoque (2014)
vegetables surrounding polluted Turag, amaranth, red amaranth, chili and banana Pb, As, Ni, Zn)
River)
Patuakhali (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, green amaranth, red amaranth, bottle 120 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2015b)
vegetables surrounding Paira River) gourd, tomato, pumpkin, chili, carrot, bean, Pb, As, Ni)
onion, potato, and lentil
Bogra (Wastewater irrigated Bean, cauliflower, spinach, brinjal, tomato, 130 HNO3 ? H2O2 ICP-MS (Cd, Cr, Cu, Islam et al. (2015f)
vegetables surrounding polluted potato, onion, carrot, chili, bottle gourd, Pb, As, Ni, Zn)
Korotoa River) cucumber, green banana, bitter gourd

123

heavy metals for foodstuff is treated as the mathemat-
ical sum of each individual metal THQ value:
TTHQ THQ toxixant 1 THQ toxixant 2
. . .THQ toxixant n
The lifetime carcinogenic risk of inorganic As and Pb
is estimated based on the USEPA carcinogenic slope
factors of 1.50 and 8.5 9 10-3 (mg kg-1 day-1),
respectively (USEPA 2010) by the following
equation:
R SF  EDI
where, R is the probability of excess lifetime cancer
(or simply risk), SF is the carcinogenic slope factor,
and EDI is the estimated daily intake of heavy metals.
Results and discussion
Trace metal concentrations
Trace metal concentrations in water
Considering the massive urbanization and industrial-
ization, water pollution surveys in Bangladesh were
mostly conducted in capital city of Bangladesh (Dhaka
city). Out of 25 relevant articles on metal contamina-
tions of water, 16 articles studied the Dhaka city areas
particularly (Table 5). Other articles referred to the
cities of Chittagong, Rajshahi, Pabna, Dinajpur,
Mymensingh and Bogra. Data of contamination of
water by metals are gathered from existing literatures.
Concentrations of metals (mean values and range) in
the waters of the reference studies from those cities are
presented in Table 5, and we found the concentrations
to be highly variable across the studies. Two reference
studies from Dhaka (Bhuiyan et al. 2011; Mohiuddin
et al. 2011) and another from Mymensingh (Rashid
et al. 2012) showed very high Cd concentrations
compared to the safe limits. Cadmium may appear in
water bodies from industrial discharges (Caruso and
Bishop 2009). Direct discharge of industrial and
municipal wastes was the reason of high Cd concen-
tration in water (Bhuiyan et al. 2011; Rashid et al.
2012). The concentrations of Cr were high in the
vicinity of tannery industry (Bhuiyan et al. 2011;
Islam et al. 2014a). Water of major rivers of Dhaka
also showed Cr concentration above safe limit
123
Environ Geochem Health
(Ahmed et al. 2009b, 2010; Ahmad and Goni 2010).
Wastewater from tannery industry and municipal
sewage may be attributed to the higher concentration
of Cr in the rivers and around Dhaka (Bhuiyan et al.
2011; Islam et al. 2014a). The study (Rahman et al.
2014a, b; Ahmad and Goni 2010) conducted from
Dhaka Export Processing Zone (DEPZ) area showed
very high Cu concentrations compared to the safe
limits. Copper in aqueous systems received attention
mostly because of its toxic effects on biota. Sewage
and industrial wastes may cause high concentration of
Cu in water (Koukal et al. 2004; Wu et al. 2008; Islam
et al. 2014d). Like Cr, As concentrations were very
high near tannery industry (Bhuiyan et al. 2011; Islam
et al. 2014a). In tannery industry, pesticides (arsenic
sulfide) are used for tanning and disinfecting hides.
Arsenic sulfide and chlorine are widely used to prevent
further decay of skin (Asaduzzaman et al. 2002).
Trace metal concentrations in agricultural soil
Like water, soil contamination studies were mostly
conducted in Dhaka city. Studies on soil contamina-
tion were conducted in Dhaka, Dinajpur, Patuakhali,
Chittagong and Bogra (Bangladesh). The concentra-
tions (mean values and range) of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn,
As and Ni in agricultural soils of the reference studies
are presented in Table 6. The mean Cd concentrations
of all reference studies were very high compared to the
Bangladesh background value and exceed the safe
limit of China. In addition, two studies from DEPZ
area of Dhaka (Ahmad and Goni 2010; Goni et al.
2014) had mean Cd concentration slightly lower than
the target intervention values of Netherlands. How-
ever, the maximum values for those studies were
above the target intervention values of Netherlands.
Widespread distribution of Cd and its high mobility
makes it a potential contaminant in a wide range of
natural environments. Generally, soil Cd concentra-
tions exceeding 0.5 mg kg-1 are considered evidence
of soil pollution (McBride 1994). Phosphatic fertiliz-
ers are one of the most ubiquitous sources of Cd
contamination in agricultural soils throughout the
world (Romic et al. 2012). Cadmium is found in
wastewater and also in phosphatic fertilizers due to the
presence of Cd as an impurity in all phosphate rocks
(Ahmad and Goni 2010).
Two reference studies (Halim et al. 2015; Islam
et al. 2014b) had Cr concentrations above the safe
 Table 5 Concentrations of heavy metals in wastewater of the cities in Bangladesh (mg L-1)
City (sampling site) Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

Dhaka (River and canal of 18 Mean (SD) 0 51.14 (7.63) 18.10 (2.63) 5.71 (1.01) Islam et al. (2014a)
Hazaribagh tannery Range 0 40.8960.09 15.3122.44 4.277.08
industries surrounding
area)
Dhaka (River and canal of 20 Mean (SD) 0.13 5.27 0.44 0.81 0.70 0.59 0.33 Bhuiyan et al. (2011)
Environ Geochem Health

Hazaribagh tannery Range 0.020.28 0.0220.20 0.031.50 0.122.50 0.022.50 0.101.10 0.021.10
industries surrounding
area)
Dhaka (River of 20 Mean (SD) 0.058 0.23 (0.10) Khan et al. (2014)
Hazaribagh tannery (0.022)
industries surrounding Range 0.0250.081 0.160.42
area)
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ 08 Mean (SD) 0.007 0.0068 1.26 0.132 3.37 0.03 0.046 Rahman et al. (2014a)
surrounding river and Range 0.0050.008 0.0430.089 1.081.46 0.0910.173 2.814.17 0.0270.039 0.0360.058
canals)
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ 12 Mean (SD) 0.034 (0.01) 0.2 (0.019) 0.06 (0.03) 0.87 (0.56) 0.007 (0.002) 0.059 (0.01) Ahmed et al. (2012b)
surrounding river) Range 0.0010.064 0.140.39 0.0360.1 0.242.2 0.0040.01 0.030.1
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ 09 Mean (SD) 0.007 (0.001) 0.09 (0.032) 1.05 (0.22) 0.10 (0.031) 3.32 (0.62) 0.02 (0.008) 0.035 Rahman et al. (2014b)
surrounding river and (0.012)
bill) Range 0.0050.01 0.040.15 0.651.46 0.170.68 2.134.17 0.0090.039 0.0580.130
Dhaka (River and canal 49 Mean (SD) 0.06 (0.04) 0.43 (0.08) 2.17 (0.46) 0.21 (0.05) 0.95 (0.40) 0.19 (0.05) Ahmad and Goni
water, DEPZ, Savar) Range 0.020.04 0.290.53 1.352.88 0.140.30 0.491.69 0.130.29 (2010)
Dhaka (Buriganga river 09 Mean (SD) 0.009 (0.001) 0.58 (0.04) 0.16 (0.03) 0.06 (0.004) 0.008 Ahmad et al. (2010)
surrounding areas) (0.001)
Range
Dhaka (Buriganga river) 15 Mean (SD) 0.059 0.114 0.24 0.12 0.33 0.13 0.15 Bhuiyan et al. (2015)
Range 0.030.09 0.0120.18 0.10.99 0.10.21 0.110.9 0.0050.22 0.090.4
Dhaka (Buriganga, 09 Mean (SD) 0.004 (0.0008) 0.023 (0.01) 0.014 (0.01) 0.004 0.0019 Sikder et al. (2013)
Shitalakshyaa, Turag, (0.0007) (0.001)
and Bongshi river) Range 0.0030.006 00.05 0.0030.05 0.0030.005 0.00010.005
Dhaka (Turag river) 05 Mean (SD) 0.002 (0.003) 0.07 (0.02) 0.05 (0.03) 0.14 (0.04) Islam et al. (2012)
Range 0.000.007 0.050.10 0.010.09 0.080.19
Dhaka (city surrounding 45 Mean (SD) 0.012 (0.004) 0.006 0.002 0.02 (0.01) 0.003 (0.006) Mokaddes et al. (2013)
major rivers) (0.004) (0.001)
Range
Dhaka (River water from 09 Mean (SD) 0.006 (0.0008) 0.44 (0.04) 0.15 (0.03) 0.05 (0.01) 0.007 Ahmed et al. (2009b)
Dhaleshwari river (0.001)
surrounding areas, Range 0.0050.008 0.30.5 0.090.18 0.030.06 0.0050.009
Tangail)

123
 Table 5 continued
City (sampling site) Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

123
Dhaka (Meghna River 11 Mean (SD) 0.003 (0.0016) 0.03 (0.023) ND 0.03 (0.03) ND Hassan et al. (2015)
surrounding area) Range 0.00120.0071 0.0060.073 0.010.11
Dhaka (Buriganga River 20 Mean (SD) 0.19 1.69 0.22 0.36 0.24 0.32 0.16 Mohiuddin et al. (2011)
surrounding area) Range
Dhaka (Dhaleshwari 03 Mean (SD) 0.001 (0) 0.13 (0.007) 0 (0) 0.2 (0.076) Ahmed et al. (2012a)
River surrounding area) Range
Chittagong (Karnaphuli 04 Mean (SD) 0.00003 0.0003 0.0002 0.0006 Siddiqui and Aktar
River surrounding area) (0.000008) (0.00008) (0.00008) (0.0003) (2012)
Range
Chittagong (Karnaphuli 40 Mean (SD) 0.0085 0.078 0.013 0.028 Ali et al. (2016)
River surrounding area) Range
Rajshahi (Sugar Mill 03 Mean (SD) ND Tabriz et al. (2011)
wastewater drain, Range
Natore)
Rajshahi (Circuit house Mean (SD) 0.008 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.003 0.02 Ahmed et al. (2009a)
and Dargapara drains) Range
Dinajpur (coal mine site 20 Mean (SD) ND 0.21 0.23 0.43 ND 0.18 Bhuiyan et al. (2010a)
drainage water) Range
Dinajpur (coal mining 10 Mean (SD) 0.003 0.003 0.006 0.003 0.026 0.0004 0.012 Halim et al. (2013)
area irrigation water) Range (0.0030.004) (0.0020.004) (0.0020.01) (0.0010.01) (0.0070.1) 0.00030.0005) (0.0080.02)
Mymensingh (Khiru Mean (SD) 0.12 0.004 0.022 0.006 Rashid et al. (2012)
river) Range
Mymensingh (Municipal 36 Mean (SD) 0.001 (0.009) 0.009 0.017 0.03 (0.01) Mojid and Wyseure
wastewater) (0.003) (0.008) (2013)
Range
Bogra (Korotoa River 05 Mean (SD) 0.009 0.078 0.067 0.031 0.04 0.03 Islam et al. (2015e)
water) Range
BMAC 1 0.005 0.05 1.0 0.05 5.0 0.05 0.1 DOE (1997)
BMAC 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.1 5.0 0.2 1.0 DOE (1997)
BMAC 3 0.05 1.0 3.0 0.1 10.0 0.2 1.0 DOE (1997)
FAO Safe limit 0.01 0.1 0.2 5 2.0 0.1 0.2 Pescod (1992)

Concentrations are compared with, FAO Safe limit = Safe limit of toxic heavy metals in irrigation water for agricultural purpose (Pescod 1992); BMAC 1 = Bangladesh
maximum admissible concentration for drinking water (DOE 1997); BMAC 2 = Bangladesh maximum admissible concentration for industrial wastewater discharge into inland
surface water (DOE 1997); BMAC 3 = Bangladesh maximum admissible concentration for industrial wastewater discharge into irrigated land (DOE 1997)
Environ Geochem Health
 Table 6 Comparison of metal concentrations (mg kg-1 dw) in soils with the reported value in the literatures
City (sampling site) Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 12 Mean (SD) 1.26 115.5 68.1 290.1 89.8 Kashem and Singh
soil, Hazaribagh tannery Range 0.871.80 35217 20.589.7 73477 47112 (1999)
area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 45 Mean (SD) 11.42 53.70 (12.37) 39.14 (5.36) 49.71 (3.32) 115.4 (7.75) 58.16 (18.15) Ahmad and Goni
soil, DEPZ, Savar) (4.63) (2010)
Environ Geochem Health

Range 6.2116.11 33.8967.58 31.3545.16 44.3152.21 103.20123.49 36.03 74.16

Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 50 Mean (SD) 10.67 51.22 (4.79) 40.97 (2.47) 46.0 (3.64) 116.1 (1.85) 38.79 (3.02) Goni et al. (2014)
soil, DEPZ, Savar) (2.59)
Range 7.2313.59 44.4658.93 37.4043.47 42.8850.96 113.48118.22 34.9042.78
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 40 Mean (SD) 0.52 42 75 25.7 201 3199 42 Rahman et al. (2012)
soil, DEPZ, Savar) Range
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 13 Mean (SD) 0.33 38.4 28.6 286.5 50.1 Kashem and Singh
soil, Tongi ceramic Range 0.110.58 2856 17.139.4 106465 2590 (1999)
industrial area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 15 Mean (SD) 0.48 163.7 56.4 206.5 51.1 Kashem and Singh
soil, Tongi textile, dying Range 0.240.58 29357 33.089.6 53354 3765 (1999)
industrial area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 13 Mean (SD) 0.53 63.5 36.9 125.9 88.2 Kashem and Singh
soil, Rupgonj sulfuric acid Range 0.420.64 4174 27.440.8 102147 59104 (1999)
producing industrial area)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated 36 Mean (SD) 7.1 (2.5) 384 (285) 311 (124) 199 (141) 64 (18) 192 (103) Islam et al. (2014b)
soil surrounding polluted Range 3.913 1581160 157519 84574 4193 104443
Turag, Buriganga,
Shitalaksha river)
Dinajpur (Coal mining area 15 Mean (SD) 107.3 29.96 188.6 160 22.44 98.58 Halim et al. (2015)
wastewater irrigated soil) Range 97.06129.73 15.0865.24 176.87216.70 108.73320.38 14.8341.97 53.77197.25
Dinajpur (Coal mining area 32 Mean (SD) 433 (95) 296 (111) 17.55 (5.66) Bhuiyan et al. (2010b)
wastewater irrigated soil) Range 155578 129470 8.2526.40
Patuakhali (polluted Paira 40 Mean (SD) 4.5 22 18 17 10 19 Islam et al. (2015b)
river irrigated soil) Range 0.613 3.741 3.746 4.532 2.326 3.936
Chittagong (city corporation 21 Mean (SD) 2.43 32.63 7.33 139.3 860.3 Alamgir et al. (2015)
area wastewater irrigated Range
area)
Bogra (polluted Korotoa 48 Mean (SD) 4.23 41.2 42.15 42.21 72.43 9.92 44.79 Islam et al. (2015f)
River irrigated soil) Range
Bangladesh Background 0.010.2 NA 27 20 68 3 22 Kashem and Singh
concentration (1999)

123
 Environ Geochem Health

(China) = Threshold of elements in natural background soil in China, National Environmental Protection agency of China, GB 15618, 1995 (NEPA 1995); National safe limit
Concentrations are compared with, Bangladesh background concentration = Kashem and Singh 1999; non contaminated soil = Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1992; Safe limit
limits of the Netherlands and China. The enrichment

KabataPendias and
of Cr in soils may be attributed to industrial discharge,
Pendias (1992)
for example, tanneries and textile factories which

VROM (2000)

VROM (2000)
NEPA (1995)
References

discharge chromates and dichromate as they use these

compounds as oxidants (Islam et al. 2014d). In all the
reference studies except the one conducted in Patu-
akhali (Islam et al. 2015b), the mean concentrations of

(Netherlands) and Target intervention value (Netherlands) = Target values and intervention values for soil remediation in Netherlands (VROM 2000)
Cu were higher than the background value. Studies
conducted in Dhaka exhibited high concentration of
210
Ni

Cu, and all of them exceed safe limits of the

30

40
35

Netherlands and China. Copper can be either a

micronutrient or a toxic element which depends on
the Cu concentration. Elevated levels of Cu in
As

29

55

agricultural soils result from the use of Cu-containing

compounds to control plant diseases and from appli-

cation of manure or sewage sludge (Romic et al.
2014). Mean concentrations of Pb in all the reference
100

100
140

720
Zn

studies except two of them (Alamgir et al. 2015; Islam

et al. 2015b) were above background concentration.
Studies conducted in coal mining areas (Halim et al.
2015; Bhuiyan et al. 2010b) had higher mean concen-
trations of Pb compared to the background value and
530
Pb

50

35
85

safe limits the Netherlands and China. Swaine (1990)

suggests that higher concentration of Pb in the soils
may be associated with the organic matter in the lower
190
Cu

ranked coals. Mean concentrations of Zn in all the

30

35
36

reference studies were higher than the background

concentration. The main sources of Zn pollution in soil
are industrial waste discharge and the use of liquid
100

100

380
Cr

manure, composted materials and agrochemicals

90

(such as fertilizers and pesticides) in agriculture

(Romic and Romic 2003). Other source of Zn in soils
may be associated with air emissions.
Cd

0.2
0.8

12
1

Mean concentrations of As in all the reference

studies were above the background value of soil. In
addition, two studies conducted from Dhaka (Islam
Contents

et al. 2014b; Rahman et al. 2012) showed mean As

concentrations above the target intervention vale of
Netherlands. Arsenic is a priority toxic element that
Samples

can cause arsenicosis and internal cancers, even in

trace amounts. As-contaminated ground water irriga-
tion is one the major source of As in soil of
Bangladesh. Other sources of high As in the soils
Target intervention value
Non contaminated soil
City (sampling site)

could be due to significant anthropogenic activity,

Table 6 continued

National safe limit

particularly industrial activities such as the metallur-

Safe limit (China)

(Netherlands)

(Netherlands)

gical and chemical industries and the use of arsenical

sprays (Yaylali-Abanuz 2011). All the reference
studies except the study conducted in Patuakhali
(Islam et al. 2015b) had mean Ni concentrations above

123
Environ Geochem Health

Table 7 Comparison of average concentrations (mg kg-1 dw) of heavy metals in wastewater irrigated soils from different Asian
cities (China, India and Pakistan) with the cities of Bangladesh
Location Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

5 Chinese Cities 176 Mean 1.8 60.99 200.6 181 327 77.83 53.64 *
4 Indian Cities 128 Mean 21.9 50.2 27 177 199 4.1 47.1 **
2 Pakistan Cities 204 Mean 5.35 33.5 15 29.45 35 42.01 ***
5 Bangladeshi Cities 380 Mean 3.95 100.2 80.83 92.20 182.7 553.8 136 This review
Non contaminated soil 1 100 30 50 100 30 Kabata-Pendias and
Pendias (1992)
Safe limit (China) 0.2 90 35 35 100 40 NEPA (1995)
National safe limit 0.8 100 36 85 140 29 35 VROM (2000)
(Netherlands)
Target intervention value 12 380 190 530 720 55 210 VROM (2000)
(Netherlands)
Concentrations are compared with, non contaminated soil = Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1992; Safe limit (China) = Threshold of
elements in natural background soil in China, National Environmental Protection agency of China, GB 15618, 1995 (NEPA 1995);
National safe limit (Netherlands) and Target intervention value (Netherlands) = Target values and intervention values for soil
remediation in Netherlands (VROM 2000)
* Zhuang et al. (2009), Liu et al. (2005, 2011), Zhang et al. (2015), Bai et al. (2011)
** Chary et al. (2008), Jagtap et al. (2010), Singh and Kumar (2006), Sehgal et al. (2012)
*** Khan et al. (2013), Saleem et al. (2014)

the background value. One reference study (Alamgir
et al. 2015) had mean Ni concentration above the
target intervention value of Netherlands. Nickel may
present a problem in agricultural land receiving wastes
such as sewage sludge (Romic et al. 2012). In addition,
long-term and extensive use of agricultural land with
frequent application of pesticides may cause Ni
accumulation in the topsoil (Nicholson et al. 2003).
This results indicate that the polluted water irrigated
soils are highly contaminated by Cd, Ni and Cu and
less contaminated by Pb, Zn, As and Cr.
Comparison with other trace metal soil studies To
compare metal concentrations of Bangladesh with that
of other Asian countries where polluted water
irrigation is a common practice, we selected studies
from China, India and Pakistan (Table 7). These
studies indicate that the soil is often contaminated by
metals due to polluted water irrigation (Liu et al. 2005;
Chary et al. 2008; Zhuang et al. 2009; Jagtap et al.
2010). The mean concentrations of Cr and Ni in the
soils of Bangladesh are higher than that of other
countries (Table 7). However, Cd concentrations were
found higher compared to the standards in studies
from India and Pakistan (Jagtap et al. 2010; Khan et al.
2013). Mean concentration of Cu, Pb and Zn is higher
in soils of China compared to other countries.
Trace metal concentrations in sediment
Trace metals concentrations in sediments were studied
in Dhaka, Chittagong, Bogra, Dinajpur, Mymensingh
and Patuakhali. The concentrations (mean values and
range) of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ni in sediments of
the reference studies are presented in Table 8. The
mean Cd concentrations of Buriganga river sediments
(Ahmad et al. 2010; Mohiuddin et al. 2011; Saha and
Hossain 2011; Islam et al. 2014d; Bhuiyan et al. 2015)
were very high compared to the toxicity reference
value (TRV) of USEPA (USEPA 1999) and lowest
effect level (LEL) proposed by Ontario Ministry of
Environment and Energy in aquatic sediment quality
guidelines (Persuad et al. 1993). The River Buriganga
flowing by the city of Dhaka is one of the most
polluted rivers in Bangladesh. Many industries have
set up in and around the Dhaka city over the last two
decades, and the number of new industries is contin-
ually increasing. Water quality of Buriganga has gone
through severe deterioration due to the development of
tannery industries in Hazaribagh. There are 277
tannery industries in the Hazaribagh area (Khan
et al. 2014). Some of them use modest technology
and machinery, but most of them operate in very
conventional way as they did decades ago and release
untreated toxic chemical waste in the river. The mean

123
 Table 8 Comparison of metal concentrations (mg kg-1 dw) in sediments of the cities in Bangladesh
City (sampling site) Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

123
Dhaka (Dhaka DEPZ 08 Mean (SD) 0.53 79.72 33.95 64.40 124.35 2.19 32.34 Rahman et al. (2014a)
surrounding river and Range 0.330.84 42.81111.74 19.1551.38 54.1373.92 93.04174.15 1.333.15 20.5850.21
canal sediment)
Dhaka (DEPZ surrounding 09 Mean (SD) 0.61 (0.19) 98 (26.31) 31 (8.91) 59.99 (13.01) 117 (26.45) 1.93 (0.74) 25.67 (10.46) Rahman et al. (2014b)
area river and bill Range 0.330.93 42.81137.04 18.0351.38 37.4886.52 78.42174.15 0.653.15 8.3250.21
sediment)
Dhaka (Buriganga River 05 Mean (SD) 0.80 (0.55) 101.20 184 79.80 (16.90) 502 (320.30) Saha and Hossain (2011)
sediment) (42.20) (133.80)
Range 0.401.60 52.80139.60 70346 60.30105.60 245984.90
Dhaka (Buriganga River 20 Mean (SD) 5.30 610 232 477 836 15 125 Mohiuddin et al. (2011)
sediment) Range
Dhaka (Buriganga River 09 Mean (SD) 3.33 (0.77) 177.53 27.85 (3.56) 69.75 (4.13) 200.45 (29.21) Ahmad et al. (2010)
sediment) (30.19)
Range
Dhaka (Buriganga River 15 Mean (SD) 7.29 1399 61.86 68.36 54.54 19.25 50 Bhuiyan et al. (2015)
sediment) Range 4.2011.28 10191884 17.3085.20 50.1280.20 45.4560.50 11.8226.40 3559
Dhaka (Turag, Buriganga 18 Mean (SD) 17 695 191 356 35 355 Islam et al. (2014d)
and Shitalakha river Range 829 1122471 65405 451846 1258 139606
sediment)
Dhaka (Turag River 05 Mean (SD) 0.28 (0.33) 43.02 (18.31) 50.40 (5.62) 32.78 (3.32) 139.48 Banu et al. (2013)
sediment) (42.48)
Range 0.000.80 32.0075.50 46.3060.00 28.3036.40 94.60190.10
Dhaka (Meghna River 11 Mean (SD) 0.23 (0.16) 31.73 (14.94) 9.47 (12.38) 79 (50.15) 76.11 (63.80) Hassan et al. (2015)
sediment) Range 0.090.69 12.6556.95 0.4044.85 29.41204.76 28.24218.85
Dhaka (Dhaleshwari river 09 Mean (SD) 3.23 (0.61) 117.56 44.05 64.22 (3.80) 181.06 (33.27) Ahmed et al. (2009b)
sediment) (19.57) (14.93)
Range 2.112.14 95.76141.27 31.5376.52 58.1970.26 135.02231.44
Dhaka (Dhaleshwar River 03 Mean (SD) 2.08 (0.01) 27.39 (1.29) 37.45 (0.33) 15.79 (1.25) Ahmed et al. (2012a)
sediment) Range
Chittagong (Karnaphuli 40 Mean (SD) 2.01 20.30 43.69 81.09 Ali et al. (2016)
river sediment) Range 0.633.56 11.5635.48 21.9873.42 37.23160.32
Bogra (Korotoa river 40 Mean (SD) 1.20 109 76 58 25 95 Islam et al. (2015e)
sediment) Range 0.262.80 55183 35118 3683 2.6052 37163
Dinajpur (Coal mining area 10 Mean (SD) 3.50 95.90 47.60 115.50 123.60 29.10 131.30 Halim et al. (2013)
drain, canal sediment) Range 34 48122 16138 92185 91169 1678 40262
Mymensingh (Khiru river 36 Mean (SD) 2.05 34.76 5.60 97.77 Rashid et al. (2012)
sediment) Range
Environ Geochem Health
Environ Geochem Health

Concentrations are compared with, USEPA TRV = USEPA Toxicity Reference Value (TRV) (USEPA 1999); Lowest Effect Level (LEL) (Ontario Canada) and Severe Effect
concentration of Cd in one of the studies from Dhaka
exceeded the severe effect level (SEL) (10 mg kg-1

Persuad et al. (1993)

Persuad et al. (1993)
Islam et al. (2015c)
dw) proposed by Ontario Ministry of Environment and
USEPA (1999)
Energy in its aquatic sediment quality guidelines
References

(Persuad et al. 1993). Studies conducted in other cities

of Bangladesh also had mean concentrations of Cd
above the TRV and LEL. Higher Cd concentration
Level (SEL) (Ontario Canada) = Guidelines for the Protection and Management of Aquatic Sediment Quality in Ontario, Canada (Persuad et al. 1993)
might be related to industrial activity, deposition of
organic and fine grain sediments, sedimentation of
1363

leachates from defused NiCd batteries and Cd plated

Ni

34

16
16
75

items (Mohiuddin et al. 2011).

The mean concentrations of Cr in sediments in all
the reference studies except one study from Chit-
2.6029

tagong (Ali et al. 2016) were above the TRV and LEL
As

12

33

value. Particularly, sediments from Buriganga River

6
6

had very high mean concentration of Cr compared to

the SEL value (110 mg kg-1 dw). Like soil, Cr can
accumulate in sediments from natural and anthro-
110
120
820
Zn

pogenic sources. Chromium tends to accumulate in

sediment with immobilization by geochemical pro-

cesses. In tannery industry, chromium (III) is used for
9.1058

leather tanning because it forms stable complexes with

250
Pb

25

31
31

amino groups in organic material. In the presence of

excessive oxygen, chromium (III) oxidizes into
Cr(VI), which is highly toxic and more soluble in
1065

water than are other forms (Chandra and Kulshreshtha

110
Cu

30

16
16

2004). Chromium (VI) can easily cross the cell

membrane, whereas the phosphatesulfate carrier also
transports the chromite anions.
1793

In all the reference studies, mean concentrations of

110
Cr

45

26
26

Cu were above the TRV and LEL value. Three studies

(Mohiuddin et al. 2011; Saha and Hossain 2011; Islam
0.151.60

et al. 2014d) from Dhaka city had mean Cu concen-

0.72
Cd

0.6
0.6
10

trations above SEL value. Higher level of Cu indicates

industrial and agrochemical input of Cu in water and
sediments. Copper can be retained by sediment
Mean (SD)
Contents

through exchange and specific adsorption but precip-

Range

itation may also be an important mechanism of

retention in polluted sediments. Out of 16 reference
Samples

studies, 12 of them had mean concentrations of Pb

above TRV and LEL values. Two studies (Mohiuddin
48

et al. 2011; Islam et al. 2014d) from Dhaka city had

mean concentrations of Pb above SEL value
(250 mg kg-1 dw). At SEL the sediment is considered
LEL (Ontario Canada)
City (sampling site)

Patuakhali (Paira river

SEL (Ontario Canada)

Table 8 continued

heavily polluted and likely to affect the health of

sediment-dwelling organisms. The USEPA has clas-
USEPA TRV
sediment)

sified Pb as a probable human carcinogen (Adriano

2001). Contamination from Pb is a good indicator of
traffic related sources or battery recycling plants and is

123

considered as an indicator of pollution by urban runoff
water (Mukai et al. 1994). Out of 9 reference studies, 6
of them had mean concentrations of Zn above TRV
value. One reference study from Dhaka (Mohiuddin
et al. 2011) had mean concentration of Zn above SEL
value. Except two studies (Rahman et al. 2014a, b) of
Dhaka DEPZ areas (Savar), all reference studies had
mean concentrations of As above TRV and LEL value.
Two studies (Islam et al. 2014d; Ali et al. 2016) had
mean concentrations of As above SEL value.
Untreated wastewater could be the main source of
As in sediment. Mean concentrations of Ni in all the
reference studies were above the TRV and LEL value.
Out of 11 reference studies, 7 of them had mean
concentrations of Ni above SEL value. High Ni
concentration might be the geochemical trap for Ni
bonded in the fine-grained sediment; depositional
acceleration of clay mineral and accumulation of Ni
adsorbed on clay particles. These results indicate that
the sediments are highly contaminated by Cr, Cu, Cd,
and Ni and less contaminated by Pb, Zn and As.
Trace metal concentrations in vegetable
Available studies on metal contamination of vegeta-
bles focused mainly on Dhaka city area. The mean
Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ni in
vegetables as of the reference studies are presented in
Table 9.
Except one study, all of them had mean concentra-
tions of Cd above FAO/WHO safe limit. Most of
studies conducted in and around Dhaka city area had
very high mean concentrations of Cd. Out of 9
reference studies, respectively, 4 and 5 of them had
Cu and Pb concentrations above FAO/WHO safe
limit. The mean As concentrations of three reference
studies were above safe limit. In case of Ni, except one
study, all the studies mean concentrations were above
FAO/WHO safe limit. High metal concentrations in
vegetable confirm the uptake of metals from the
polluted soils.
Pollution level of metals in soil
The Igeo values of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ni in the
soils subjected to polluted water irrigation in different
cities are listed in Table 10. The data suggests that Cr,
Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni fall into the category of uncon-
taminated to moderately contaminated. Arsenic falls
123
Environ Geochem Health
into moderately contaminated to heavily contami-
nated, while Cd falls into extremely contaminated
category. In general Cd and As show the highest Igeo
values for most cities (Table 10). In all the cities, Igeo
values for Cd and As ranges are wide, suggesting high
spatial variability of soils properties within studied
urban areas as well as number and variety of pollution
sources. Among the cities, Dhaka appears to be the
highest contaminated city with high Igeo values for Cd,
As and Cu.
Pollution level of metals in sediment
The Igeo values of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ni in
sediments from different cities of Bangladesh are
presented in Table 11. The data suggest that Cr, Cu,
Pb, Zn, and Ni fall into the category of uncontami-
nated to moderately contaminated. Arsenic falls into
moderately contaminated category, while Cd falls
into heavily to extremely contaminated category.
Overall Cd and As show the highest Igeo values for
most of the cities, while high concentrations of other
metals are found in places depending on the source of
pollution.
Non-carcinogenic risk from the heavy metals
The THQ value estimated for non-carcinogenic risk
and carcinogenic risk (CR) of adult inhabitants are
presented in Table 12. THQ of each of the metals was
less than 1, except Cd, Cr, Pb and As in few cases. So,
intake of a single metal through consumption of
vegetables does not pose a significant potential health
hazard. However, TTHQ estimated from all the metals
together was higher than 1, which indicates that
consuming this vegetable may pose health risk.
Arsenic and Cd exhibited relatively higher THQ
compared to other metals. Thus, the non-carcinogenic
health hazards from exposure to heavy metals through
vegetables intake were found unsafe for human
consumption.
Carcinogenic risk of As and Pb
Due to the lack of oral slope factor for the other five
metals, only the carcinogenic risk (CR) of As and Pb
were estimated. The target carcinogenic risks derived
from the intake of As and Pb through the consumption
of vegetables were considered since these elements
 Table 9 Comparison of the concentrations of metals (mg kg-1 fw) in vegetables from the cities of Bangladesh
City (sampling site) Vegetables Samples Contents Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

Dhaka (DEPZ surrounding area Stem amaranth, Raddish, Spinach 31 Mean 0.76 5.03 Khan et al. (2014)
wastewater irrigated vegetables)
Dhaka (Hazaribagh tannery Stem amaranth, Raddish, Spinach 31 Mean 0.03 0.85 0.24 0.01 Islam et al. (2014a)
Environ Geochem Health

surrounding area wastewater

irrigated vegetables)
Dhaka (Hazaribagh tannery Brinjal, Chili, Ladys finger, tomato, 59 Mean 0.32 0.86 2.00 2.02 3.84 1.54 Ahmad and Goni (2010)
surrounding area wastewater green cabbage
irrigated vegetables)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and 36 Mean 0.10 0.49 9.00 0.36 0.03 2.11 Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted tomato
Turag River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and 36 Mean 0.17 0.92 15.4 1.47 0.11 4.8 Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted tomato
Buriganga River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and 36 Mean 0.19 0.63 11.15 0.69 0.09 2.76 Islam et al. (2014b)
vegetables surrounding polluted tomato
Shitalakha River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, bottle gourd, pumpkin, and 36 Mean 0.15 0.68 11.75 0.83 0.07 3.22 Islam et al. (2015a)
vegetables surrounding polluted tomato
Turag, Buriganga and Shitalakha
River)
Dhaka (Wastewater irrigated Tomato, bottle gourd, brinjal, pumpkin, 48 Mean 0.21 1.44 18.1 0.76 51.2 0.05 5.34 Islam and Hoque (2014)
vegetables surrounding polluted green amaranth, red amaranth, chili and
Turag, River) banana
Patuakhali (Wastewater irrigated Brinjal, green amaranth, red amaranth, 120 Mean 0.11 0.83 2.53 0.5 0.24 1.87 Islam et al. (2015b)
vegetables surrounding Paira bottle gourd, tomato, pumpkin, chili,
River) carrot, bean, onion, potato, and lentil
Bogra (Wastewater irrigated Bean, cauliflower, spinach, brinjal, 130 Mean 0.06 0.62 1.7 0.49 2.83 0.24 0.46 Islam et al. (2015f)
vegetables surrounding polluted tomato, potato, onion, carrot, chili,
Korotoa River) bottle gourd, cucumber, green banana,
bitter gourd
FAO/WHO safe limit 0.05 2.3 10 0.5 20 0.1 1.50 FAO/WHO (1984)
Concentrations are compared with, FAO/WHO safe limit = Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program (FAO/WHO 1984)

123
 Environ Geochem Health

Table 10 Geoaccumulation index of heavy metals in soils of different cities in Bangladesh

City Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

Dhaka 22.96 0.11 0.25 0.22 0.09 0.21 Ahmad and Goni (2010)
Dhaka 2.18 0.33 0.24 0.10 0.23 Kashem and Singh (1999)
Dhaka -10.45 0.25 0.19 0.10 0.20 Kashem and Singh (1999)
Dhaka -6.92 0.35 0.23 0.10 0.20 Kashem and Singh (1999)
Dhaka -5.99 0.29 0.20 0.09 0.23 Kashem and Singh (1999)
Dhaka 18.48 0.16 0.39 0.30 2.00 0.27 Islam et al. (2014b)
Dhaka 22.32 0.11 0.26 0.22 0.09 0.19 Goni et al. (2014)
Dhaka -6.17 0.10 0.30 0.18 0.10 3.88 0.19 Rahman et al. (2012)
Dinajpur 0.13 0.23 0.30 0.09 1.50 0.24 Halim et al. (2015)
Dinajpur 0.34 0.11 1.38 Bhuiyan et al. (2010b)
Patuakhali 14.18 0.08 0.20 0.16 1.11 0.15 Islam et al. (2015b)
Chittagong 8.37 0.24 0.11 0.09 0.35 Alamgir et al. (2015)
Bogra 13.60 0.10 0.26 0.21 0.08 1.10 0.20 Islam et al. (2015f)
Median 8.37 0.11 0.26 0.22 0.09 1.44 0.21

Table 11 Geoaccumulation index of heavy metals in sediments of different cities in Bangladesh

City Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni References

Dhaka 11.34 0.14 0.23 0.24 0.27 Ahmad et al. (2010)

Dhaka 18.73 0.20 0.28 0.24 0.07 1.42 0.20 Bhuiyan et al. (2015)
Dhaka 26.72 0.18 0.36 0.33 1.71 0.30 Islam et al. (2014d)
Dhaka -5.99 0.12 0.24 0.24 0.09 0.38 0.18 Rahman et al. (2014a)
Dhaka -12.00 0.10 0.27 0.20 0.09 Banu et al. (2013)
Dhaka -2.10 0.13 0.36 0.25 0.12 Saha and Hossain (2011)
Dhaka -4.66 0.13 0.24 0.23 0.09 0.32 0.17 Rahman et al. (2014b)
Dhaka -13.86 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.22 Hassan et al. (2015)
Dhaka 11.06 0.13 0.26 0.24 0.27 Ahmed et al. (2009b)
Dhaka 15.73 0.18 0.37 0.35 0.12 1.30 0.25 Mohiuddin et al. (2011)
Dhaka 6.91 0.09 0.25 0.16 Ahmed et al. (2012a)
Chittagong 6.58 0.08 0.21 2.11 Ali et al. (2016)
Bogra 2.47 0.13 0.30 0.23 1.54 0.24 Islam et al. (2015e)
Dinajpur 11.81 0.13 0.27 0.27 0.09 1.62 0.25 Halim et al. (2013)
Mymensingh 6.77 0.24 0.10 0.08 Rashid et al. (2012)
Patuakhali -3.10 0.10 0.23 0.18 1.19 0.18 Islam et al. (2015c)
Median 6.68 0.13 0.28 0.23 0.09 1.42 0.24

may promote both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic
effects depending on the exposure dose. The CR
values for As ranged from 0.000032 to 0.000756 and
that of Pb ranged from 0.000004 to 0.000036, which
were higher than the acceptable risk limit (0.000001)
(USEPA 2010). Thus, the inhabitants consuming these
vegetables are exposed to As and Pb and thereby
subjected to carcinogenic risk. The potential health
risk of the inhabitants due to metal exposure through
consumption of vegetables should not be neglected.
Here it is necessary to mention that shallow ground-
water is widely used for drinking and irrigation
purposes in Bangladesh. Studies conducted in Ban-
gladesh reviled that shallow groundwater As concen-
tration (on local scale) ranges up to 0.8 mg/L (Das
et al. 2004; Farid et al. 2003; Kurosawa et al. 2008;

123
Environ Geochem Health

Table 12 Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk due to vegetable consumption in Bangladesh

City THQ Carcinogenic risk References
Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn As Ni TTHQ As Pb

Dhaka 0.04 0.04 0.08 Khan et al. (2014)

Dhaka 0.13 0.59 0.13 0.07 0.92 0.000032 0.000004 Islam et al. (2014a)
Dhaka 1.34 0.60 0.11 1.06 0.03 0.16 3.30 0.000036 Ahmad and Goni (2010)
Dhaka 0.42 0.34 0.47 0.19 0.21 0.22 1.86 0.000095 0.000006 Islam et al. (2014b)
Dhaka 0.71 0.64 0.81 0.77 0.77 0.50 4.21 0.000347 0.000026 Islam et al. (2014b)
Dhaka 0.79 0.44 0.59 0.36 0.63 0.29 3.11 0.000284 0.000012 Islam et al. (2014b)
Dhaka 0.63 0.47 0.62 0.44 0.49 0.34 2.99 0.000221 0.000015 Islam et al. (2015a)
Dhaka 0.88 1.00 0.95 0.40 0.36 0.35 0.56 4.51 0.000158 0.000014 Islam and Hoque (2014)
Patuakhali 0.46 0.58 0.13 0.26 1.68 0.20 3.31 0.000756 0.000009 Islam et al. (2015b)
Bogra 0.25 0.43 0.09 0.26 0.02 1.68 0.05 2.78 0.000756 0.000009 Islam et al. (2015f)

Rahman et al. 2013). Besides, the irrigation waters are
usually taken from shallow groundwater which con-
tains relatively higher concentration of As (Kile et al.
2007). Although few studies elicited that the As
concentration in a crop correlates positively to the As
concentration of the groundwater used for irrigation
and to the As of the soil (Farid et al. 2003; Kurosawa
et al. 2008), several studies testified lack of a strong
correlation for this (Senanayake and Mukherji 2014).
Moreover, As concentration in crops is found to vary
widely in different crop species (Williams et al. 2006)
and in spatial scale (Farid et al. 2003). Therefore,
future studies may assess concentration of As in rice
and other crops grown with arsenic-contaminated
groundwater irrigation compared to that of wastewater
irrigation and their associate health risks.
Priority control components
Based on the comparisons with the environmental
quality standard of Netherlands soil, Cr and As
concentrations of two reference studies, and Cu and
Ni concentrations of one reference study exceed their
corresponding target intervention value, which are
currently hazardous to agricultural production and
human health. Therefore, Cr, Cu, As, and Ni are
selected as priority control heavy metals. According to
the pollution assessment using Igeo, the nationwide
soils have been extremely contaminated by Cd and
moderately contaminated by As. From this point, Cd
and As are identified. In addition, health risk assess-
ment showed carcinogenic health risk from As and Pb.
As a whole, according to the above analyses, Cd, As,
Cr, Cu, Pb and Ni are selected as the priority control
heavy metals in soils of Bangladesh. Special attention
should be paid to these priority control metals in order
to target the lowest threats to human health.
Recommendations for management efforts
In Bangladesh, the discharge of wastewater into the
water environment is often untreated or only partially
treated and the use of polluted water in agriculture is
largely unregulated. This poses health risks to farmers
and communities consuming the agricultural products.
It also has adverse effects on the ecosystems.
Government must take serious steps to address metal
pollution generated by industrial, municipal and
agrochemical sources as well as the related human
health risks due to water, soil, sediment and food
contamination caused by those metals. The most
effective approach to mitigate metal contamination of
soil is efficient control of the pollution sources and
strict enforcement of environmental regulations, espe-
cially in terms of waste discharge (Chen et al. 1999). In
Bangladesh, a growing number of small-scale indus-
tries are causing severe pollution to the environment,
largely due to no wastewater treatment facilities. It is
difficult for small-scale industries to install their own
wastewater treatment plant since the installation cost
is high. Therefore, integrated wastewater treatment
plant may be useful to reduce the pollution level. In
addition, emphasis should be placed on supporting
sustainable and integrated approaches (i.e., regulation,

123

training and incentives to apply appropriate pollution
control technology). Although many countries have
regulations governing wastewater discharge, these
regulations are rarely enforced, and knowledge and
information is typically not available to communities
associated with polluted water irrigation. This is more
likely to happen in countries like Bangladesh where
wastewater management is a relatively new concept.
Safe irrigation water agriculture practices require
more innovative and integrated planning and close
cooperation among government authorities, farming
communities, urban dwellers and relevant
stakeholders.
Limitations
The articles on metals pollution of water, soil,
sediment and vegetables utilized for this study are
mostly from Dhaka city and only few from other cities
of Bangladesh. Therefore, this study may not fully
represent the overall water, soil, sediment and veg-
etable contamination situation of Bangladesh. How-
ever, it provides an idea about heavy metal
contamination of highly urbanized and industrialized
Dhaka city and few other cities of Bangladesh.
Furthermore, some discrepancies may occur in the
accumulation of data due to variations among different
studies, which may impact the consistency of the
obtained data. However, these discrepancies are not
large enough to affect the results of general assessment
because the research methods used by the selected
studies are very similar to one another and are
accepted by the scientific community. For metal
concentration of vegetables, averages of all the
vegetables considered in the particular studies were
used. So, the study findings only provide an idea about
the metal contamination of vegetables from wastew-
ater irrigation.
Conclusions
The studies on heavy metal pollution mainly con-
ducted in the capital city of Bangladesh. Despite its
limitations, this review gives the first description of
the overall pollution levels posed by metals in the
polluted water, soil, sediment and vegetable of differ-
ent cities of Bangladesh. Mean concentrations of Cd,
123
Environ Geochem Health
Cr, Cu and As in waters for several reference studies
were higher than the FAO irrigation water quality
standard. Based on the results of the pollution
assessments, it is apparent that polluted water irrigated
soils are highly polluted by metals. Mean concentra-
tions of Cd in all reference studies were very high
compared to the Bangladesh background value and
exceed the safe limit of China. Besides, mean
concentration of Cr in one reference study and mean
concentration of As in two reference studies were
higher than the target intervention value of Nether-
lands. The Igeo values suggest that the contamination
of Cd, As, Cu, Pb and Ni is widespread in urban soils
and sediments of the cities. Soils of Dhaka appear to be
highly contaminated with high Igeo values for Cd, As
and Cu. Polluted water irrigation and agrochemicals
are the major sources of metals in soil. Vegetable con-
tamination by metals shows carcinogenic and non-
carcinogenic risks to the public. As a whole, Cd, As,
Cu, Pb, Ni and Cr are selected as the priority control
heavy metals. This review provides quantitative
evidence demonstrating the critical need for strength-
ened wastewater discharge regulations in order to
provide health safety from metal discharges into the
environment.
Acknowledgements Financial support from the Erasmus
Mundus Action 2 Project (EXPERTS-SUSTAIN) during this
study is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also gratefully
acknowledge the comments of the anonymous reviewers that
helped improve the original manuscript.
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