Chapter 7:

Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?

How are strength and dislocation motion related?

How do we increase strength?

How can heating change strength and other properties?

Chapter 7 - 1
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +

Chapter 7 - 2
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides
over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).

If dislocations don't move, Adapted from Fig. 7.1,

Callister 7e.
deformation doesn't occur! Chapter 7 - 3
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line
Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Screw dislocation

Chapter 7 - 4
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur Chapter 7 - 5
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

A
F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A /cos f
FS
F nS f
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR s cos l cos f
Chapter 7 - 6
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion: tR tCRSS
Crystal orientation can make typically
it easy or hard to move dislocation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR s cos l cos f
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l =90 l =45 f =90
f =45

t maximum at l = f = 45 Chapter 7 - 7
Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 8
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f=60
tcrss = 3000 psi
l=35
t s cos l cos f
s 6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t (6500 psi) (cos35 )(cos60 )
(6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

t 2662 psi tcrss 3000 psi
s = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the
crystal to yield.

Chapter 7 - 9
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss 3000 psi sy cos l cos f sy (0.41)

tcrss 3000 psi

sy 7325 psi
cos l cos f 0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s sy 7325 psi
Chapter 7 - 10
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
Stronger - grain boundaries
s
pin deformations
Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National

tR will vary from one

Bureau of
Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
The crystal with the
largest tR yields first.
Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
300 mm
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 11
 Anisotropy in sy
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

Chapter 7 - 12
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7 - 13
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

Hall-Petch Equation: s yield so k y d 1 / 2

Chapter 7 - 14
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

Chapter 7 - 15
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 16
 Strengthening by Alloying
small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
reduce mobility of dislocation increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 17
 Strengthening by alloying
large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
density side

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 18
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation: s y ~ C1 / 2
Alloying increases sy and TS.

Chapter 7 - 19
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
advances but
precipitates act as
S pinning sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
Result: sy ~
S
Chapter 7 - 20
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
Chapter 7 - 21
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (%CW)
Room temperature deformation.
Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao Ad
%CW x 100
Ao Chapter 7 - 22
 Dislocations During Cold Work
Ti alloy after cold working:

Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 mm University.)

Chapter 7 - 23
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
Carefully grown single crystal
ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2
s
Yield stress increases
sy1 large hardening
as rd increases: sy0 small hardening

e
Chapter 7 - 24
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 25
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
Yield strength (sy) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 26
 Cold Work Analysis
What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2 rd2
%CW x 100 35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals , Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) Chapter 7 - 27
 s- e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
%EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3 . disl. glides past obstacle
Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

Chapter 7 - 28
 Effect of Heating After %CW
1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (C)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 20 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

Chapter 7 - 29
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
to regions a perfect
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
Scenario 2
3 . Climbed disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
cant move to the right

Chapter 7 - 30
 Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 7 - 31
 Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7 - 32
 Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580C 580C
coefficient dependent
Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
don Kt
Ostwald Ripening
Chapter 7 - 33


TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 34
Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of
highest rate of property change
1. Tm => TR 0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

Chapter 7 - 35
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm)
in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter
must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 36
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter
what happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

Ao Af Af
%CW x 100 1 x 100
Ao Ao
Df2 4 0.30 2
1 x 100 1 x 100 43.8%
Do 4
2 0.40

Chapter 7 - 37
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

sy = 420 MPa
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
%EL = 6 < 15
This doesnt satisfy criteria what can we do?
Chapter 7 - 38
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

Chapter 7 - 39
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
For objective we need a cold work of %CW 12-27
Well use %CW = 20
Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
must be calculated as follows:
Df 2 2 Df 2
2
%CW
%CW 1
2
x 100 1 2

D02 D02
100

Df 2 %CW
0.5 Df 2
D02
1 %CW
0.5
D02 100 1
100
0.5
20
Intermediate diameter = Df 1 D02 0.30 1 0.335 m
100
Chapter 7 - 40
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in Df1 = 0.335 m
2

%CW1 1
0.335
x 100 30
0.4

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1

Cold work D02= 0.335 in Df 2 =0.30 m
3.
0.3 2 Fig 7.19 s y 340 MPa
%CW2 1 x 100 20
0.335

TS 400 MPa
%EL 24
Therefore, meets all requirements

Chapter 7 - 41
 Rate of Recrystallization
E 50%
logR logt logR0 start
kT
B 1
logt C TR finish
T
note : R 1 / t

Hot work above TR log t

Cold work below TR

Smaller grains
stronger at low temperature
weaker at high temperature

Chapter 7 - 42
 Summary

Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.

Chapter 7 - 43
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 7 - 44