Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECOND EDITION
M. S. Troitsky, DSc
Professor of Engineering
Concordia University, Montreal
Acknowledgements
Since the first edition of this book was published a decade ago, there has
been considerable development in the state of the art of cable-stayed
bridges. In this second edition, the contents have been revised to reflect
recent developments in research, analysis, design and construction of
new structures. Although much of the data of the first edition has been
retained, the arrangement of material has changed, chapters have been
expanded and new ones have been added.
For the convenience of the users, the following changes and additions
were made in the contents of the second edition. The first edition
contained seven chapters, while the second edition consists of twelve
chapters, as follows:
Chapter 1, The Cable-stayed Bridge System has an additional discussion
on the problems of economics and aesthetics.
Chapter 2, Typical Steel Bridges contains additional data on new steel
single and two-plane bridges, as well as pipeline and pontoon
bridges.
Chapter 3, Typical Concrete Bridges contains additional data on new
concrete structures.
Chapter 4, Typical Composite Bridges describes new deck types of cable-
stayed bridges.
Chapter 5, Typical Pedestrian Bridges presents additional types of pedes-
trian bridges.
Chapter 6, Structural Details provides additional structural details.
Chapter 7, Methods of Structural Analysis presents a discussion on the
structural behavior of bridges and methods of analysis.
Chapter 8, Approximate Structural Ana(ysis treats methods of preliminary
analysis.
Chapter 9, Exact Methods of Structural Analysis presents additional
methods.
Chapter 10, Model Analysis and Design discusses experimental methods of
design.
Chapter 11, Wind Action and Aerodynamic Stability provides expanded
treatment considering aerodynamic action.
Chapter 12, Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations for Design of Cable-
stayed Bridges is a new addition.
Every effort was made to correct some errors detected in the first edition.
To my wife Tania
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
During the past decade cable-stayed bridges have found wide applica-
tion, especially in Western Europe, and to a lesser extent in other parts of
the world.
The renewal of the cable-stayed system in modern bridge engineering
was due to the tendency of bridge engineers in Europe, primarily Ger-
many, to obtain optimum structural performance from material which
was in short supply during the post-war years.
Cable-stayed bridges are constructed along a structural system which
comprises an orthotropic deck and continuous girders which are suppor-
ted by stays, i.e. inclined cables passing over or attached to towers located
at the main piers.
The idea of using cables to support bridge spans is by no means new,
and a number of examples of this type of construction were recorded a
long time ago. Unfortunately, the system in general met with little suc-
cess, due to the fact that the statics were not fully understood and that
unsuitable materials such as bars and chains were used to form the in-
clined supports or stays. Stays made in this manner could not be fully
tensioned and in a slack condition allowed large deformations of the deck
before they could participate in taking the tensile loads for which they
were intended.
Wide and successful application of cable-stayed systems was realized
only recently, with the introduction of high-strength steels, orthotropic
type decks, development of welding techniques and progress in struc-
tural analysis. The development and application of electronic computers
opened up new and practically unlimited possibilities for the exact solu-
tion of these highly statically indeterminate systems and for precise
statical analysis of their three-dimensional performance.
Existing cable-stayed bridges provide useful data regarding design,
2 CABU:-SfAYED BRIDGES
fabrication, erection and maintenance of the new system. With the con-
struction of these bridges many basic problems encountered in their
engineering are shown to have been successfully solved. However, these
important data have apparently never before been systematically presen-
ted.
In summary, the following factors helped make the successful develop-
ment of cab:e-staycd bridges possible:
( 1) The development of methods of structur al analysis of highly static-
ally indeterminate structures and application of electronic computers.
(2) The development of orthotropic steel decks.
(3) Experience with previously built bridges containing basic clements
of cable-stayed bridges.
(4) Application of high-strength steels, new methods of fabrication and
erection .
(5) The ability to analyse such structures through model studies.
The history of stayed beam bridges indicates that the idea of supporting
a beam by inclined ropes or chains hanging from a mast or tower has been
known since ancient times. The Egyptians 1 applied the idea for their
sailing ships as shown in Fig. 1.1.
In some tropical regions of the world primitive types of cable-stayed
bridge, such as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3, were builrl. Inclined vines
Fig. 1.1 Egyptian sailing
boat with rope-srjlyed
attached to the trees on either bank supported a walk which was woven
sail beam of vines and bamboo sticks.
Fig. 1.2 Primithe bamboo
bridge in Borneo
Fig. 1.3 (bdow) Primitive
bamboo bridge: in Laos
Fig. 1.4 Bamboo bridge with bamboo stays O\'Cr Serajoc Ri,er 10 Ja,a,
Indonesia
I t HI I \
Like all bridge designs of this epoch, it exhibits many departures from
what .a structural analysis would dictate; nevertheless, it contains the
main features and basic principles of a metal suspension bridge stiffened
by stays.
In 1784, a German carpenter, Immanuel Loscher4 in Fribourg
designed a timber bridge of I OS ft (32 m) span consisting of timber stays
attached to a timber tower (Fig. 1.6).
In 1817, rwo British engineers, Redpath and Brown, built the King's
,\leadows Bridge5 , a footbridge in England which had a span of approxi-
mately II 0 ft (33.6 m), using sloping wire stay cable suspension members
attached to cast iron towers (Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.6 All-timber bridge stiffened by inclined timber stays, designed by
Loschcr in Germany, 1784.
The system of inclined chains was adopted in a bridge built at Dry burgh
Abbey across the Tweed River 6 in 1817. It had a 260ft (79.3 m) span,
and was 4ft ( 1.2 m) wide (Fig. 1.8).
It was observed that the bridge had a \'ery noticeable vibration when
crossed by pedestrians, and the motion of the chains appeared to be easily
accelerated. In 18 18, six months after the completion of the bridge, it was
destroyed by a violent gale.
Around 1821, the French architect Poyet7 suggested hanging the
beams up to rather high towers with wrought iron bars. Jn this system he
proposed using a fan-s haped arrangement of the stays, all being anchored
at the mp of the tower (Fig. 1.9).
Poyct's idea was further developed by the famous French engineer
Navier who, in 1823, stud ied bridge systems stiffened by inclined chains8
(Fig. 1.1 0).
By comparing both the weights of the deck and the inclined chains,
Navier found that for a given span and height of the towers, the cost of
both systems was approximately equal.
Fig. 1.9 Fan type stayed bridge proposed by Poyet, France, 1821.
THE CA BLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 7
l'
II
In 1824, a bridge was erected across the Saale River at Nienburg, Ger-
many, with a 256ft (78.0 m) span and having the main girder stiffened by
inclined members 9 . However, this bridge had excessive deflections under
loading and the foUowing year it collapsed under a crowd of people
because of failure of the chain-stays (Fig. 1. 11).
1837 Motley 10 built a bridge at Tiverton, England, a highly redun-
dant double cantilever with straight stays (Fig. 1.12).
The other type of stay arrangement, with parallel stays, now called
harp-shaped, was suggested by Hatley 11 in 1840 (Fig. 1.13). He men-
tioned that this system provided less stiffness than the fan-shaped one.
One interesting structure of the inclined-cable type is presented by the
bridge over the Manchester Ship Cana.l 12 in England (Fig. 1.14). And in
1843, Clive 13 proposed an original system of a cable-stayed bridge, shown
in Fig. 1.15.
Fig. 1.14 The Manchester Ship Canal Bridge, England
;,. ___ t , ,
.
-- ----------)+<(-- ---
I
- - - ---- -------- 106 -00 --~
' ' I
Fig. 1.16 The Franz joseph Bridge over the Moldau River in Prague,
Czechoslovakia, 1868
In 1868 the Franz Joseph Bridge, designed by Ordish and LeFeuvre 1.\
was built over the Moldau R iver at Prague, Czechoslovakia (Fig. 1.16).
This bridge actually represents a combination of a cable-stayed and a
classical suspension bridge.
A new form of suspension was introduced in this bridge, using sloping
rods running directly from the panel points of the floor system to the
tops of the towers, the direct tension members being supported and held
in position by catenary cables between the towers. These have no other
purpose than to sustain the weight of the direct tension bars. Here is a
very interesting idea of supporting an intermediate joint by an inclined
bar which transfers the tension to the longest stay of the other half of the
span.
The Albert Bridge 1 5 over the Thames at Chelsea with a main span of
400ft (122 m) and dating back to 1873, was built by Ordish, using his
system (Fig. 1.17). In this bridge the suspension system comprises tie
Fig. 1.17 The Albert Bridge over the River Thames, England, 1873
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 11
members converging at the top of the towers. There are three sloping
tie members on each side of the center span and four on each side of the
end spans.
The short historical review presented here indicates that the idea of
the stayed beam bridge is very old. However, it was not successfully
applied until the twentieth century. The reasons for such slow progress
have to be found in the collapse of several of the first built cable-stayed
bridges.
Inclined stays were first introduced in England and widely used there
in the early part of the nineteenth century. However, a number of suspen-
sion bridges with such stays failed, on account of insufficient resistance
to wind pressure, and this led to the partial abandonment of that type in
England.
It should be noted that in many cases these early cable-stayed bridges
actually possessed structural defects which led to their destruction. This
was mainly due to the misunderstanding on the part of the designers
of the actual structural behavior of such bridges and of the defects in
their construction. Cables, for instance, were usually of an insufficient
cross-section and were not tightened during erection. Consequently,
cables performed their proper function only after substantial deformation
of the whole structure under the action of the load. This aspect of their
behavior led to the opinion that cable-stayed bridges were exceptionally
flexible and not safe. It was Navier who reported on these failures and
suggested using suspension bridges instead of cable-stayed bridges.
Navier's statement led bridge engineers to prefer the suspension-type
bridge.
In the second half of the nineteenth century inclined stays were re-
viewed in America by the famous bridge engineer Roebling. In connec-
tion with the stiffening truss, introduced by Roebling, and efficient
lateral bracings, inclined stays proved more effective.
The cables in suspension bridges designed by Roebling were always
assisted by stays 16 . A network of diagonal stays occupied the same in-
clined plane as that of the cables. The purpose of these stays was twofold.
They not only assisted the cables greatly in the support of the bridge, but
they also supplied the most economical and efficient means for stiffening
the floor against cumulative undulations that may be started by the action
of the wind.
In 1855 Roebling built the first successful railroad suspension bridge
in the world across the Niagara River (Fig. 1.18). The total load was
divided between the cables and an extensive system of radiating stays.
The application of a system of stays provided all the stiffness required for
the passage of trains at a rapid rate, as well as stability against the wind
action.
Roebling also provided a generous system of inclined stays in the
)2 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
construction of the Ohio Bridge (Fig. 1.19). Nearly one-half of the total
weight of the roadway and the live load was carried by diagonal stays of
wire rope, running straight from the tops of the towers to successive
points along the floor. The main cables, themselves stiffened by this
arrangement, really had to carry only about one-half of the total weight of
the roadway and load. The stays served effectively to strengthen the floor
and to prevent or check vibration during the passage of heavy loads and
in high winds.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Brooklyn Bridge (Fig. 1.20)
is the system of inclined stays radiating downward from th e tops of the
towers to the floor of the span. Roebling introduced them primarily for
the critical function of adding rigidity to the ~pan, and then ingeniously
took advantage of the additional load-carrying capacity which they inci-
dentally supplied. This contribution to the strength of the bridge was
explained in simple terms by the designer:
The floor, in connection with the stays, will support itself without the
assistance of the cable, the supporting power of the stays alone will be ample
to hold up the floor. If the cables were removed, the bridge would sink in the
center, but would not fall.
As we know today, the designers of the old days had not yet been able
to calculate the forces in the inclined cables correctly, and they also under-
estimated the influence of hyperstat:ic behavior and of the sag of the stays.
14 CAB LE-STAYEO BRIDGES
s.oo
't.
...
fo,OO
0
0
.,0
E D
127' -1 1"
The Cassagnc
Bridge, France,
1907
1-JI~ ~I,.:I
I 298.6' I 1033.2' I 298. 6'
...
~,
..
. ,.
.. ..
"':
the tension members were made of timber, round bars or chains. They
consisted therefore of low-strength material which was fully stressed
only after a substantial deformation of the girder took place. This may
explain why the renewed application of the cable-stayed system was
possible only under the following conditions:
( 1) The correct analysis of the structural system.
(2) The use of tension members having under dead load a considerable
degree of stiffness due to high pre-stress and beyond this still suf-
ficient capacity to accommodate the live load.
(3) The use of erection methods which ensure that the design assump-
tions are realized in an economic manner.
The renaissance of the cable-stayed system, however, was finally success-
fully achieved only during the last decade.
Modern cable-stayed bridges present a three-dimensional system con-
sisting of stiffening girders, transverse and longitudinal bracings, ortho-
tropic-type deck and supporting parts such as towers in compression
and inclined cables in tension. The important characteristics of such a
three-dimensional structure is the full participation of the transverse con-
struction in the work of the main longitudinal structure. This means a
considerable increase in the moment of inertia of the construction which
permits a reduction in the depth of the girders and economy in steel.
HARP OR
4
2 PARALLEL
~ ~ ~
3
~ ~
FAN
4 STAR
~
THE CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 21
4. STAR SYSTEM
The star pattern is an aesthetically attractive cable arrangement. However,
it contradicts the principle that the points of attachment of the cables
should be distributed as much as possible along the main girder.
With respect to the various positions in space which may be adopted for
the planes in which the cable stays are disposed there are two basic
arrangements: two-plane systems and single-plane systems (Fig. 1.31 ).
22 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(c)
(d)
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 23
from the bridge. In addition, this system also offers the advantage of
relatively small piers, because their size is determined by the width of the
main girder.
It should be noted that all the possible variations regarding the longi-
tudinal arrangements of the cables used with two plane bridges are also
applied to single plane central girder bridges.
l 2 3 4 5 6
n
I I I
~
I I
uAl I I I I I
~
Portal type towers were used in the design of early cable-stayed bridges,
as in the case of suspension bridges, where the portal type was commonly
used to obtain stiffness against the wind load which the cable transfers to
the top of the towers. However, later investigation of cable-stayed bridges
indicated that the horizontal forces of the cables were in fact, relatively
small, so that freely standing tower legs could be used without disadvant-
age. The inclined stay cables even give a stabilizing restraint force when
the top of the tower is moved transversely.
With single towers or twin towers with no cross-member, the tower is
stable in the lateral direction as long as the level of the cable anchorages
is situated above the level of the base of the tuwer. In the event of lateral
THE CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 25
displacement of the top of the tower due to wind forces, the length of the
cables is increased and the resulting increase in tension provides a restor-
ing force. Longitudinal moment of the tower is restricted by the restram-
ing effect of the cables fixed at the saddles or tower anchorages.
There are three different solutions possible regarding the support
arrangement of the towers:
3. HINGED TOWERS
For structural reasons, the towers may be hinged at the base in the longi-
tudinal direction of the bridge. This arrangement reduces the bending
moments in the towers and the number of redundants, which simplifies
analysis of the overall structure. Also, in cases with bad soil conditions,
linear hinges at the tower supports are provided, allowing longitudinal
rotation, so that bending moments are not carried by the foundation.
In the search for a more efficient bridge deck, a major advance has been
made with the development of the orthotropic steel deck. Most cable-
stayed bridges have orthotropic decks which differ from one another
only as far as the cross-sections of the longitudinal ribs and the spacing
of the cross-girders is concerned. Typical ribs used in an orthotropic
deck are shown in Fig. 1.33.
Cross-girders are usually 6-8ft (1.8-2.5 m) apart for decks stiffened by
flexible ribs, and 15-18 ft (4.6--5.5 m) apart in the case of decks stiffened
26 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2 3 4 5
(a)
6 8 9 10
(b)
The following three basic types of main girders or trusses are presently
being used for cable-stayed bridges:
1. STEEL GIRDERS
Bridges built with solid web main girders may be divided into two types:
those constructed with !-girders and those with one or more enclosed
box sections, as shown in Fig. 1.34.
Plated 1-girders with a built-up bottom flange comprising a number of
cover plates have been used in some bridges. It is considered that in this
way, the required inertia of the section can be made to fit the moment
envelope exactly, that no excess steel is being used, and thus the minimum
weight of steel is attained. It is felt, however, that this arrangement does
not necessarily produce the most economical solution.
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 27
Twin
1 I
girder
=
I I==
Single
2 rectangular
box girder
===-
I I===
Central box
3 girder and
side single web girders 1 t=J r=
Single twin
4 cellular box girder
and sloping struts
=
~I I v=
Single
5 trapezoida I =:::::: s 7 ---===--=-
box girder "'-----/
6
Twin
rectangular
box girder =u u~
Twin
7 trapezoidal
box girder ==\_j vl~
Fig. 1.34 Types of main
girder
1 Highway
m
Highway
2
and
railroad
( project )
~~ r~
Highway
11/~1
and
3
railroad
( project )
:II: II !l :II:
:lt>O<JI:
Highway
and
4
railroad
( project )
Fig. 1.35 Deck supported
by stiffening trusses
2. TRUSSES
During the last decade trusses have rarely been used in the construction
of cable-stayed bridges. Compared to solid web girders, trusses present
an unfavorable visual appearance; they require a great deal of fabrication
and maintenance, and protection against corrosion is difficult.
Thus, except in special circumstances, a solid web girder is more satis-
factory both from an economical and an aesthetic viewpoint.
However, trusses may be used instead of girders for aerodynamical
reasons. Also, in the case of combined highway and railroad traffic, when
usually double deck structures are used, trusses should be provided as
the main carrying members of such bridges. In Fig. 1.35, typical bridge
cross-sections incorporating trusses are shown.
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 29
I
1
Single box
girder I rd
I Wadi Kuf
Bridge, Libya )
I
i
I
,,
",, I "
tJ IT
Twin box
2
girders
I
I River Parana
Bridge, Argentina) I
Twin box
girders I
3
(River Waal Bridge,
Holland) ~[ J[ Ii lllr
Mu Itip le box
looWoor
girder
4
( Polcevera Viaduct,
Italy)
Fig. 1.36 Reinforced and
prestressed concrete
girders
The basic structural characteristics and reasons for the rapid development
and success of cable-stayed bridges are as outlined below.
Cable-stayed bridges present a space system, consisting of stiffening
girders; steel or concrete deck and supporting parts as towers acting in
compression and inclined cables in tension. By their structural behavior
cable-stayed systems occupy a middle position between the girder type
and suspension type bridges.
The main structural characteristic of this system is the integral action
of the stiffening girders and prestressed or post-tensioned inclined cables,
which run from the tower tops down to the anchor points at the stiffening
girders. Horizontal compressive forces due to the cable action are taken
by the girders and no massive anchorages are required. The substructure,
therefore, is very economical.
Introduction of the orthotropic system has resulted in the creation of
new types of superstructure which can easily carry the horizontal thrust
of stay cables with almost no additional material, even for very long spans.
In old types of conventional superstructures the slab, stringers, floor
beams and main girders were considered as acting independently. Such
superstructures were not suitable for cable-stayed bridges. With the
orthotropic type deck, however, the stiffened plate with its large cross-
sectional area acts not only as the upper chord of the main girders and of
the transverse beams, but also as the horizontal plate girder against wind
forces, giving modern bridges much more lateral stiffness than the wind
bracings used in old systems. In fact, in orthotropic systems, all elements
of the roadway and secondary parts of the superstructure participate in
the work of the main bridge system. This results in reduction of the depth
of the girders and economy in the steel.
Another structural characteristic of this system is that it is geometrically
unchangeable under any load position on the bridge, and all cables are
always in a state of tension. This characteristic of the cable-stayed systems
permits them to be built from relatively light flexible elements-cables.
The important characteristic of such a three-dimensional bridge is
the full participation of the transverse structural parts in the work of the
main structure in the longitudinal direction. This means a considerable
increase in the moment of inertia of the construction, which permits a
reduction of the depth of the girders and a consequent saving in steel.
The orthotropic system provides the continuity of the deck structure
at the towers and in the center of the main span. The continuity of the
bridge superstructure over many spans has many advantages and is
actually necessary for a good cable-stayed bridge.
Considering the range of applications in the domain of highway
bridges, cable-stayed bridges fill the gap that existed between deck type
and suspension bridges. Orthotropic deck plate girders showed superior-
ity over other systems in the case of medium spans. For long spans, how-
THE CAB LE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 31
2. DEFLECTION
The deformation characteristics are illustrated by deflection curves
under different loading cases.
Consider a three-span structure having a main span of 3280 ft
(1000 m). For both symmetrical and asymmetrical traffic loadings over
half the length of the main span, the suspension bridge has a greater
deflection at midspan than does the cable-stayed bridge.
However, deflection curves for structures with a 6560 ft (2000 m)
main span for the above loadings indicate that the deflection of the cable-
stayed bridge tends to becomes somewhat larger than that of the
suspension bridge. This may be another indication that a 6560 ft
(2000 m) main span is too large for cable-stayed bridges.
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 33
3. DECK
In terms of their structural behavior, cable-stayed systems occupy a
middle position between the girder and suspension type bridges. A
comparison of static performance of the cable-stiffened, bridle type and
self-anchored bridges is shown in Fig. 1.37.
A comparison between the deck performances of suspension and
cable-stayed bridges indicates a negligible difference. The suspension
bridge needs more bending and torsional stiffness, while the cable-
stayed bridge needs more steel area for the thrust. This thrust of the
cables, creating normal forces in the deck, causes second-order bending
moments due to the deflection, which must and can be kept at a
minimum by using stiff cables and sufficiently deep girders. The stresses
due to second-order moments are of the first order.
4. ANCHORAGES
The outstanding advantage of the cable-stayed bridge can be seen to be
the fact that it does not require large or heavy anchorages for the cables
as the suspension bridge does. The anchor forces at the ends of the
Llllllllf1IIF=
(a)
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(b)
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""~ 170
"""' 160
~ 150
0
.... 140
0
130
.;:' 120
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'100 '
"" 90
I
80
- 70
~-- ~~- --I ::..-~
~
UJ
~
60
50
, .
.... 40
0
30
0
fig. 1.38 Variation of LEGEND A SINGLE TOWERS
steel weight with span for
typical cable -stayed
bridges
0
0
500 1000 1500
TWIN TOWERS
2000 2500
S P A N F E E T
/
so
/
/Girder
,....- __..
/. . . -------
/ / / Cable stayed
/{
.
;
.....
...
100
/ ,..,.,.,.,.,'
............
~
....-- Suspension
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/ /
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Girder bridgeo
70
~ 60
.
.c
~
c 50
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.
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c
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20
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Fig. 1.40 Comparison
0 of spans for different
200 600 1000 1400 bridge systems
Center opan in feel
36 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
accordance with its own laws and has been given form and substance by
the twentieth century engineer.
In span after span, designers have demonstrated that beauty in cable-
stayed bridges can be obtained without sacrificing either utility or
economy. The new, slender and elegant bridge forms were created with
steel and mathematics in a combination of strength and beauty.
From an aesthetic point of view, cable-stayed bridges have a pleasing
shape, as they clearly reveal the function of the cables and towers and
because the cables, due to their small perimeter, are very unobtrusive in
the overall appearance of the bridge.
It should be noted that at the present time, the structural system of
cable-stayed bridges in their numerous variants is coming into promi-
nence. The thinking and daring exemplified by these bridges constitute
one of the most important contributions to the development of modern
bridge engineering.
The most striking feature about cable-stayed bridges built during the
last decade is not their technical features, though without them their new
look would not be possible, but their elegant form and the way in which
they have been blended with the landscape. Some of these notable
bridges have been constructed by engineers in close collaboration with
architects and town planners. Each in his own sphere has striven to give
of his best in a joint venture, so that as a team they have been able to
achieve a work which excels that which each would have contributed
individually.
It may be stated that most of the modern cable-stayed bridges gener-
ally satisfy the six classical principles of aesthetics set down by Vitruvius 34
as they apply to bridge architecture:
lines of the cables produced by the radial cable arrangement are avoided.
Towers are the most conspicuous part of the bridge, being visible
from many points on land and river. It is therefore important to give
them appropriate aesthetic treatment. The guiding motive usually is
structural simplicity and harmonious proportions. The height is deter-
mined by the clear height of the deck above water at the center, the depth
of the deck structure and the selected arrangement and inclination of the
cables.
The surfaces of the towers may be given a pleasing appearance by an
appropriate choice of form and by constructing their sections economic-
ally, using only metal required for structural reasons.
Architecturally free standing towers have a pleasant appearance, es-
pecially when only two towers are used along the longitudinal center line
of the bridge. This system is particularly attractive because in elevation
there is no intersection of the lines of the cables, and the road user has
an unobstructed view from the bridge on one side.
The aesthetic effect produced by cable-stayed bridges may be better
understood by further analysis of a few outstanding bridges of this new
type of construction.
References
30. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983, pp. 173-174; 186-194.
31. Taylor P. R., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges and Their Potential in Canada',
Engineering Journal, 52 (11), 15-21, 1969.
32. Thul, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges in Germany', Proceedings of the
Conference on Structural Steelwork, The Institution of Civil Engineers,
September 66-81, 1966, London, England.
33. Hamberg, H., 'Progress in German Steel Bridge Construction',
Report on Steel Congress 1964 of the High Authority ofthe European
Economic Community.
34. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by M. H. Mor-
gan, Dover Publications, New York, 1960, pp. 13-16.
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.1 View of In this bridge 1 2 the main girder is continuous over three spans of 245,
Striimsund Bridge, Sweden 600 and 245 ft (75, 183 and 75 m) (Fig. 2.1). The girders are supported
TYPI CAL STEI-.1. BRIDGES 43
4)'
11! I k
I
I
I
I I
IIIJ
Fig. 2.3 (bdow) View of
I I
56'
I North Bridge, DUsseldorf,
Germany
44 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
by groups of prestressed cables passing over the tops of towers on the main
piers. The stay system, in the form of radial cables, consists of two upper
and two lower cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower.
The towers were built as trapezoidal frames, hinged at the base to allow
rocking movements in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The cables
are anchored to the main girders by means of double web anchor beams,
with the four cable ends of one set of stays held in one block of cast steel.
The deck structure consists of a reinforced concrete slab supported by
stringers and cross-beams (Fig. 2.2). The depth of the stiffening plate
girders is 10ft 6 in (3.2 m) or lsof the span.
This bridge, built in 1958 in Germany, was the first long span cable-
stayed bridge 3 4 (Fig. 2.3). The river part of this bridge consists of
continuous suspended box girders over three spans of 354, 853 and 354ft
(108, 260 and 108m).
The cables, in a harp configuration, are in two planes supported by
single towers 134ft (40.9 m) high, which are built into the deck structure.
The tower saddle for the center cable is fixed, but the saddles for the
Fig. 2.4 North Bridge,
upper and lower cables are supported on rocker type bearings.
general arrangement
I n
0 0
-
N
--"'
.1 0 a
-
1 l .J.
57. 7'
--- n ~
I
---- ---
TYPIC\!. STELL BR!D(iES 45
!
~
- I
~. 5 l 1o. 5' I 62.8'
TYPICAL STEEL BRIDGES 47
'h ..
61 '-0"
r- I W-0" I 24'-0" I .
H! :l~I:I!f:l! t:t:W:w: ~~
48 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
sections anchored in concrete at the bottom and rigidly joined at the top.
Inside, the boxes are reinforced by a system oflongitudinal and transverse
stiffeners.
The suspension spans are composed of 45 sections varying in length
from 47 to 53ft (14.3~ 16.2 m). The box girders and deck for each section
were shop-welded.
The first major cable-stayed bridge in Britain was the George Street
Bridge over the Usk River 1 0 11 opened to traffic in 1964 (Fig. 2. 7).
The 500ft (152 m) steel central span is supported from hollow rein-
forced concrete towers, by wire ropes which pass over rollers within the
towers, and which are anchored at the concrete side spans on piers at a
55ft 6 in (16.9 m) spacing. The weight of the concrete anchor spans thus
serves to counter the live and dead loads on the steel center span.
The reinforced concrete towers, each 170ft (52 m) above high water,
taper upward from a 13ft 6 in by 14ft (4.12 by 4.27 m) base section to
10ft by 7ft (3.05 by 2.14 m) at the top. The wall thickness varies from
18 in (0.46 m) at the base to 6 in (0.15 m) at the top. Since the stresses are
wholly compressive, concrete was chosen for the towers. The provision
of three levels of support points in each tower leads to considerable
economy in the cable length required for the structure.
In order to provide the required clearance, the main span is a cellular
steel box design of shallow construction. The cable layout presents a well-
distributed support for the steel box deck, thus minimizing longitudinal
bending stresses.
In cross-section, the deck consists of two steel edge boxes 38 ft 4 in long
by 5 ft wide by 3ft 10 in deep (11.68 by 1.52 by 1.17 m), with infilling
transverse boxes. The top and bottom flange plates of the deck are
stiffened by welded closed type ribs running longitudinally (Fig. 2.8).
The design of the top deck plate presented an unusual problem in that
it had simultaneously to sustain longitudinal and lateral compressive
forces, and heavy wheel loads at any position. A 4 in (0.10 m) thick
reinforced concrete slab is provided over this deck plate.
The theoretical dead load tensions required are not the same as the
actual rope tensions set in the computed bridge. The reason for the
difference is that the rope tensions have been adjusted to produce bene-
ficial post-stressing in the steel-box structure, after completion. By this
method, it has been possible to produce a reasonably even stress envelope
for all loading conditions-that is, the maximum longitudinal bending
stresses at midspan are approximately the same as the maximum com-
bination of direct and bending stresses which occur elsewhere in the steel.
1\ l'lt. \I. SH.I I IIKII>(,I S 49
29'-9"
t- 19' -II"
1 I
I
-'
N
2 1 -0 11
This bridge, built in 1969, crosses the south arm of the Loire River at
Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, France 12 13 (Fig. 2.9).
It has two spans each of 340ft (104m). The main support is formed by
the river pier, which is surmounted by a portal type tower, supporting the
stay cables arranged in a radial pattern on each side. The stay cables are
disposed in the vertical plane of each side girder. They are arranged in
three radiating bundles which converge at the top of the portal frame.
Each bundle comprises two identical cables.
The bridge deck is formed by two solid web side girders interconnected
by cross-girders (Fig. 2.10). The deck plate is an all-welded structure
extending in one continuous length of 682 ft (208 m) between abutments
and supports the reinforced concrete deck slab.
This bridge, built near Rees in I 967, has a multi-cable system supporting
the main span of 837 ft (255 m) and side spans each 341 ft (104 m)
long14. 15. 16 (Fig. 2.11).
The cables are formed in two planes outside the roadway and are
supported from single towers built into the piers. The cable stay system is
n PICAI. STEI-.1. IIRID(il.<; 51
;:...
'
in the form of a multi-stringed harp, having ten stays, one above the other,
on each side of the tower.
This arrangement is a result of the desire to achieve structurally simpler
transmission of the forces acting in the cables to the main girder. The
latter is thus no longer suspended at a few isolated points but, instead, has
something very much like a continuous elastic support from the stay
system.
The cross-section consists of two main plate girders, 11!ft (3.5 m) deep,
and spaced 62ft (18.9 m) apart, spanning between which is an orthotropic
roadway deck (Fig. 2.12).
The stiffening in the deck is of interest in that so-called 'tension bands'
are introduced transversely between the normal T -section transverse
stiffeners, and a more effective transverse distribution oflocal wheel loads
is thereby achieved.
26' -3"
11'-2" -1 11'-lQII
The Knie Bridge at Dusseldorf spans the Rhine with a single long span of
1050 ft (320 m/ 9 20 21 (Fig. 2.15).
Five shorter spans, 160ft (48 m) each, comprise the approach on the
left bank. An asymmetrical scheme was chosen largely because of site
conditions.
The towers, which are 312ft (95 m) high, each support four parallel
cables rigidly anchored at each of the four flood. span piers._ The cable
anchorages on both the side and main spans are formed from sloping box
structures which cantilever out from the webs of the two main plate
girders. The towers are of reinforced concrete, having dimensions of28 ft
by 21 ft 4 in (8.54 by 6.50 m) at the base, and 10ft 10 in by 9ft 2 in (3.30
by 2.80 m) at the top.
The anchorages for all four cables are placed outside the main girder
webs, while the cables are supported in saddle bearings which allowed
limited movement during erection, but were fixed when completed.
The cables on the rear side of the two single towers anchor to the
approach span girders at pier locations, while on the other side they con-
nect to the main span. In order to eliminate any uplift in the short span, the
girders are fixed to the piers, so, in effect, the cables are also connected to
fixed points.
The aerodynamic stability of the towers was checked in the wind tunnel
at the National Physical Laboratory, London, both for the various stages
of erection and in the final form. With this bridge, additional components
1-
I 9 6 ' - 2 ' _ '-
74 I -1"
i1
TYPICAL STEEL IJRIDGES 55
To help with the calculations for the structure, certain very exacting
aerodynamic investigations were undertaken, with wind-tunnel testing
being conducted. These investigations showed that despite the stream-
lined shaped of the box girder, it was possible that, for certain wind
velocities, mostly quite moderate movements could be set up, which
might cause some qualms for those using the bridge; and that the fitting
of deflector plates for those part lengths of the deck structure
considerably reduced this effect, so that these fins were added to the
structure.
A carriageway paving, to a thickness of 6 em (2 1/z in) of special com-
position for orthotropic decks was laid.
Regarding the hollow-deck units, the method of assembly was the
same, whether for the 52 ft 6 in (16 m) lengths of the main central span
or for those of 518 ft (15 8 m) for the two approach spans. The work
was started on fixed templates, where 16ft 6 in (4.5 m) lengths of the side
parts were spot-welded together. These included the footway and the
upper and lower side-plating, with diaphragms at 13 ft: (4 m) centers.
The welds were then run to full-length, and to full-section on a tilting
framework. These assembled units were then welded to bottom plates,
mounted, for this purpose, onto a gantry and adjusted to the required
camber. Finally, they were butt-jointed end-to-end, to give their 314 ft
10 in (158 m) lengths. The work was then completed by inserting
additional diaphragms and fixing the deck-plating.
Much thought has been given to the surface protection of the
structure, and a method was found which promised 10-years' resistance
to the aggressive Atlantic atmosphere.
Inside the box girders, the treatment consisted only of zinc-based
paint on previously shot-blasted steel plate. Externally, the priming coats
were of zinc-rich paint, followed by an undercoat which was epoxy-resin
based, and then an acrylic finishing coat. The footways were surfaced
with a screening of epoxv-silicon
composition, _!_
16
in (1.6 mm) thick laid
onto a course of epoxy pitch .
.The towers set up on the main piers appear as inverted V-shapes
having a height of 223 ft (68 m) above the piers. The tower legs have a
cross-section of 8.2 X 6.6 ft (2.5 X 2.0 m) in welded plate, adequately
stiffened. The vertical extension above the two box-section legs of the
tower is fitted with steel gusset plates, for attaching the stay cables (Fig.
2.18). The stay cables, arranged in sloping planes, are attached at the top
to thick steel gusset plates, fixed to either side of the top length of the
towers. At the top as well as at the lower ends, forked roller bearings
form hinged connections between the stays and their fastening points.
The steel wire ropes of locked-coil type have a core of round strands
with three or four enclosing layers of z-shaped strands, the two other
layers being galvanized. These cables vary in diameter from 2 ~ in
TYPICAL STEEL BRIDGES 57
I
(72 mm) to 4 ""if m (105 mm) according to their location in the Fig. 2.18 Saint-l\'azaire
Bridge, general
superstructure. arrangement
high , having a top chord 57ft 5 in (17.6 m) wide and a bottom chord 19ft
7 in (5. 98 m) _wide. Its orthotropic deck consists of steel plate, having a
thickness of TI in (12 mm) at its roadway, and 1. in (9.5 mm) at both of
its sidewalks. x
The deck-plate is stiffened by longitudinally trape~oidall) -shaped
ribs, 5 t in (143 mm) high, and its wall thickness is TI in (5.6 mm).
Cross-beams arc spaced apart ar 6ft 5 in (1.95 m) and 7 fr (2.13 m). The
deck surfacing consists of 2 ~ in (70 mm) thick asphalt.
Two towers ha\'e the A-shape and two trans\'erse beams. The ends of
the cables are connected to the upper straight parts of the towers (Fig.
2.20). The ca~les arc of patent type \\ith diameters ranging from 2* in
(5-t mm) to -t-17; in (110 mm) and a strength of 120 kp mm 2.
The na,igablc part of the RiYcr Dncpr in KicY17 is spanned with a cable-
Sta) ed bridge ha,ing a central span of 98-t ft (300 m), a single tower and
fan-shaped double-plane bracing system (Fig. 2.21).
TYPICAL STEEL BRIDGES 59
319 1 -0 11
I 1705'- 8"
57' -5"
52'- 6"
I~-~
28'- 2 11
I
I z II $1.$'
42.2$'
~IO'i"~iJ
1 16. 4' 1 I
The main \Varren trusses are continuous over three spans and
supported by the fan-type arranged cables. Both upper and lower steel
deck plates bonded to the chord members of the main truss act as part of
its flange and participate in CarlJ~ng the bending moments in the main
truss. The deck plates arc supported only on cross-girders with a spacing
of 8ft 2in (2.5 m). The cross-girders are rigidly connected with the steel
deck, and arc supported as simple girders on the chord members.
Because the steel plate decks act as the top and bottom flanges of the
main truss and provide a large sectional area, the following problems
were investigated:
(I) Shear Jag phenomena in the orthotropic plates have been taken into
account for not only the overall bending of the truss but also for the
local bending of chord members as continuous beams over
equidistant supports.
(2) The axial forces transmitted from the cables and the diagonal
members were distributed through the orthotropic plat~s. F rom the
results of the above investigation the effective widths of the
orthotropic plates were determined for both overall and local
bending.
Each pylon has a modified H -shape \\~th a pair of legs spread towards
the supports. The cross-section is a 6ft 7 in X 7 ft 2 in (2.0 X 2.2m) box
with a maximum plate thickness of32 mm. The upper parts of the pylons
are designed to have the same transverse distance in between as the top
chord members in order to have the cables inclined transversally. The
pylons are simply supported on the shoes, fixed at intermediate piers, so
62 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
623'
1345-'
-y------r-----_11 1 it
in
"'
<0
79'
~I----
.
.,ci "'"'
"'
...
! I
li II il li il II II ,I
i
I 51.7'
!, ..~.y
1
1~-.1
, 11,9' 27.9 II. 9
Main span
51.7'
Fru=TI9,,.j
[( "'
Side spans
.I
Section B. B
Fig. 2.27 Tjiirn Bridge,
general arrangement
North E.
Navigational clearance
only at supports
77.15' I
Cable stays are in two planes in line with the tower legs. Three groups
of stay cables arc attached to the top of each tower in a fan arrangement.
The cables are rigidly connected to the cross-girders and to the tower
tops. Each stay consists of two or four cables arranged about 2 ft (0.6 m)
apart. Each cable is a bundle of ~ in (6 mm) diameter steel wires placed
inside a polyethylene tube to protect against corrosion during slipping
and erection. Once the full dead load was in place, the tubes were filled
with a special cement grout as further protection.
This cable-stayed steel bridge spanning the M ississippi River in the delta
area near New Orleans, at Luling, was opened for traffic in 1983 3u s.
This stretch of the river is navigable by ocean-going vessels requiring a
horizontal clearance of 1200 ft (366 m) and a vertical clearance of 133 ft
(40.5 m). The main span of the bridge was set as 1220 ft (372 m) and
side spans of 508 ft (155 m) and 495 ft (151 m) together with adjacent
spans of 259 ft (79 m) (fig. 2.29).
The deck carries four traffic lanes and a 2 ft 6 in (0. 7m) median
barrier for a total width gutter to gutter of 79 ft (24 m). A steel
orthotropic deck is supported by two longitudinal trapezodial box girders
spaced 39 ft (I 1. 9 m) apart.
The metalwork is high-strength weathering steel. The wearing surface
+
is 2 in (57 mm) of epoxy asphalt. To eliminate the possibility of vortex
shedding and to improve aerodynamic stability in steady wind, a fairing
plate was added to the main span.
The towers are internally stiffened box members with dimensions of 5
ft 3 in (1.60 m) in the transverse direction and 7 ft 3 in (2.20 m) in the
longitudina l direction of the bridge, rising 138 ft (42 m) above the bridge
deck (Fig. 2.30).
68 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
85'
The cables are galvanized spiral bridge strands with maximum cable
forces from 738 k (3280 kN) to 497 k (2210 kN), requiring a diameter up
to 3.96 in (101 mm). At lower cable anchorages the vertical cable
components are carried by cantilevers of the cross-girder. The horizontal
cable components are carried by horizontal cantilevers at the level of the
deck plate.
This bridge, with symmetrical multi-cable fans and displaced end piers,
was erected in 1985 35 - 38 , with a central span of951 ft (289m) and two
i.
TYPIC\L STEEL BRIDGES 69
side spans each of 394ft (120m) (Fig. 2.31). The end pier is positioned
under the anchor point of the second cable, 52 ft 6 in (16 m) from the
end of the fan. Thus, the three outer cables of the side span can be
regarded as forming the anchor cable.
The steel deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form 73 ft: 6
in (22.4 m) wide at the top and of height 11.50 ft (3.5 m) reinforced by
longitudinal box-type stiffeners. Both pylons are made of reinforced
concrete, romboidal in shape. The pylon legs have a hollow cross-section
and a hexagonal cross-section at the pier junction.
rigidity of the closed box section, resulting in cable economy over a dual-
cable system.
The chief structural element of the bridge structure, apart from its
cables, is the central box girder, chosen for its great torsional strength and
rigidity.
It should be noted that the idea of applying a middle type main carrying
system to bridges originated with Haupt, a German engineer. He pro-
posed similar systems in 194839-42 .
In 1962, the North Elbe Bridge, the first bridge with single-plane cables,
was built over the Elbe River in Hamburg. The central span is 565 ft
(172 m) long and the flanking spans each measure 210 ft (64 m) 43 - 51
(Fig. 2.32).
The central towers standing 174 ft' (53 m) above the deck support a
star-shaped configuration of cables which gives the bridge an interesting
appearance. Although the configuration cannot be justified from a purely
economical viewpoint, a visually satisfying solution has been achieved,
which is complemented by the increased height of the tower above the
cable saddles.
The bridge has a cross-section with a central box girder and two single
web girders, one on each side, which are joined at about 72 ft (22 m)
centers by transverse beams (Fig. 2.33). In the side spans, the bottom
flange of the central box is replaced by diagonal bracing. The central box
and side girders are about 10ft (3 m) deep, and the central box web and
plate girder webs are equally spaced at 25.6 ft (7.80 m) centers.
The Jiilicher Street crossing, having spans of 105, 325 and 105ft (32, 99
and 32 m) was completed in 1963 (Fig. 2.34). The bridge consists of a
52 53
single box girder supported by a single-plane cable-stay system . The
towers, rising 53 ft (16.2 m) above the deck, are of a rectangular box
section and are both longitudinally and transversely restrained between
the two inner webs of the deck box girder.
In cross-section, the main girder consists of a shallow 4ft 11 in ( 1.50 m)
rectangular box supporting the cantilevers and incorporating a roadway,
cyclist path and sidewalks (Fig. 2.35). The top and bottom plates of the
main girder are stiffened by open type longitudinal ribs.
~!~~ Elbe Bridge,
. 32 Two views of
Germany
72 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
This bridge, erected over the Rhine at Leverkusen in 1965, has a single
twin cellular box girder from which sloping struts, which support the
deck, cantilever out 54-56 . The river part of this structure comprises a
continuous suspended box girder over three spans of 347, 920 and 347ft
(106, 281 and 106m) (Fig. 2.36).
Support is provided to the deck by a single-plane system of two sets of
parallel cables dividing each of the side spans into two equal lengths and
the center span into five parts.
The towers rise 147ft (44.8 m) above the bridge deck, and are of rather
unusual design in that they taper towards the base which is built into the
deck structure and is supported on a hinged bearing. By tapering the
tower, a reduction in the required width of the median strip is obtained,
thus providing a substantial saving in cost.
The steel roadway deck is stiffened with triangular shape box ribs, and
the walkway is of reinforced concrete (Fig. 2.37).
The cable-stayed portion of the Wye River Bridge, built in 1966, consists
of a 770 ft (235 m) central span and two 285 ft (87 m) side spans 57 58
(Fig. 2.38). At each end of the central span a single box-section tower,
96 ft (29.3 m) high and pivoted at road level, supports a staying cable,
anchored to the box girder 255 ft (78 m) either side of the tower. The cable
passes into the box girder through a 13ft (3.96 m) wide median strip be-
tween the two lanes and is anchored into a system of diaphragms.
TYPIC \I . STI~F I . BRIDGES 73
223'-10"
532'-6"
This bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, completed in 1967, has a stay system
in the form of a multi-stringed harp comprising twenty cables strung one
above the other S<J,r,o (Fig. 2.40). A multi-cable single plane system is
T\ I'IC \I. STEEl. llRIDGI'-'i 75
,-
1
Q.....
~ 320'
L:f::: ~ ~--~ f~
I 347' I
;; .;o 4$0 ,, ....
920'
I
347 ' I 320'
76 C \Bl.F.-ST:\YED URIIXiES
260'-0"
1340'-0"
employed to support the main and side spans of 920ft and 393 ft (280 m
and 120m) respectively.
A very striking appearance is given to the bridge by the 20 cables sup-
ported from each tower, which, perhaps because of their small size, do not
appear obtrusive, and thus an overall impression oflightness is achieved.
The cables are formed from single strands varying in diameter from 156 to
H in (7.94 to 11.90 mm) and are fixed immovably in the tower top. The
tower itself splays out below deck level, and is rigidly fixed to the pier with
prestressed anchor rods.
Fig. 2.40 View of Bonn-Nord Bridge, Germany
78 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The deck structure consists of a single box girder from which cantilever
out sloping struts that support the floor (Fig. 2.41).
1 -: - - 1_ _:_c39:_::_3_'
- :__7
"_ + 1705'-6"
393'-7"
41 1 -4 11
I -I
~~-'
I ,,. I 790'
I
1 295'
1380'
r.,
4'1 1 ~'11"
E~::::,II.EI::vJ
I 17 1 -0" ~
t
17 1 -0"
~ 44 I -8" 44 I -8" I
82 CABLE- STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. 2.46 View of hollow box girder is supported by bundles of cables fanning out in an
Duisburg-
Neuenkamp asymmetrical harp from a slender tower at each end of the main span.
Bridge, Germany Project engineers estimate that use of the hollow box design accounted
for about half of the cost saving. The other half comes from the use of
special high strength steel, developed in the USA, that allowed design of
the slim towers that kept the unusable center strip on the bridge to a
mmtmum.
The two towers, which soar 161 ft (49 m) above the road deck, consist
of 79 ft (25.1 m) high welded sections. The towers taper inward from
7.5 ft (2.29 m) at the base to about 6 ft (1.83 m) at a point 30 ft (9.15 m)
above the roadway, then flare to a maximum width of 10ft (3 .0 5 m) at the
top. Each tower carries six bundles of nine cables that thread through the
towers on three different levels. The cables rest on saddle bearings with a
lid bolted down on top to hold them in place. They connect to the hollow
center girder in two vertical planes by steel bearings through which the
cables are inserted.
The cross-section comprises a twin rectangular cellular box girder
39.5 ft (12.05 m) wide and 12.2 ft (3.72 m) high. Sloping struts from the
bottom flange of the box s upport the cantilevered deck plate which is
stiffened longitudinally with triangular stiffeners (Fig. 2.-1-7). The deck
plate extends 42ft (12 .8 m) from the main box on either side, providing a
119ft (36.3 m) width to carry three lanes in each direction flanked by a
sidewalk and a bicycle path.
The Massena Bridge, finished in 1971, is one of the largest and most up-
to-date cable-stayed bridges in France68 - 71 . It crosses the railway lines
coming from the Austerlitz Station in Paris (Fig. 2.48).
This bridge has an overall length of 1615 ft (493 m) and comprises three
spans of length 266,530 and 265ft (81.1, 161.6 and 80.8 m).
The 118ft (36.0 m) wide deck carries a 13ft (4.0 m) central section, two
46ft (14.0 m) roadways and two 6ft 6 in (1.98 m) walkways. The stiffening
TYP ICAL STEL BRIDGES 83
. I 2549'-1 1" I I
119 '-0"
I 1 qtQI I 2'3'' 41 10' ' 2'2'f 8'6" !2'2'' lt l' -QII 2'3'' 9IQI I lQII
r-- II l I" II I
118'
~+---4~-~-~-;~_.--------------1~3-._. ,.2="~~-----_--_- _- - '-"45c__'1._1._"---~'1
i
Pig. 2.49 Massena girders consist of two 16 ft 5 in (5.00 m) wide box girders located a
Bridge, general
arrangement distance of 59ft (18.0 m) center to center and interconnected by solid-
web cross girders (Fig. 2.49).
The three center spans are supported by four stays located on the
longitudinal center-line of the bridge and carried by two towers which
rise to a height of 108ft (32.9 m) above deck level. Each stay comprises
19 cables arranged in a hexagonal pattern. The stays are installed cable by
cable. An initial tension of 10 tons is given to the cables at the instant of
anchoring the sockets in the deck. Load is then applied to the structural
system by raising the bearing in the tower, this being achieved by means
of a telescopic support resting on jacks.
The Erskine cable-stayed bridge over the River Clyde west of Glasgow,
Scotland, finished in 1971, is a continuous, all welded steel box girder
with a cable-stayed main span of 1000 ft (305m) and side spans each 360ft
(110 m) long 72- 75 (Fig. 2.50).
A single all-welded steel box girder that runs the whole length of the
bridge carries the dual24 ft (7.3 m) roadway, cycle tracks and footpaths.
The southern abutment provides a fixed anchorage for the deck girders.
There is a single cable over each steel tower above the main piers and
anchored in the median between the roadways. The stays are 2~ in (63.5
mm) wire strands arranged in two groups anchored to the deck steelwork
T\ I'IC:\1. STEEl. BRII)GES 85
in the central section between traffic lanes and passing over the tops of
125ft (38.1 m) high steel towers directly above the main piers. The box
girder is shaped rather like an airplane wing in cross-section, 65 ft wide
;tnd about 10ft deep (19.8 m by 3m), with cantilevered wings upstream
and downstream to carry the cycle and walkway tracks (Fig. 2.5 1).
The actual construction of the superstructure involved the use of pre-
fabricated sections of some 60ft long by 8ft wide (18.3 m by 2.4 m) and of
varying depth. Erection was carried out by cantilevering out from the first
span of each approach viaduct, so that the bridge grew from the abutments
along each viaduct, then each side span and finall y each half of the
main span, until the two halves finally met over the center of the river.
The final 1000 ft span, across the river, was not installed using staging,
but was guyed during construction.
The design permits expansion at a later date from a four-lane crossing
to six lanes, by taking in the cantilevered wings which will carry cyclists
86 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
C:ClC~
168' 224'
iI
" -1
224' 224'
I -
360' "'' '"' 1ooo
. --1-.--- -
-----
4-33_4_' -_-- _ -
fttl. LJ,_UL.lq~A
,,,., 36o'
-----~-
2.24 224' 224' 224' 224' 224'
. --1------l-- ----;----- _,.______..
-
I
224'
I
2o6 1
:1
102'-6"
IT 8'-9 11 8 1 -0 11 3'0 1 .._!.._:-0"
ft 24'-0 11
1 1 0 11
- 11'
1'
-
O" 24'-0'' 1'-0"
FOOTWAY CYCLE CARR I AGE WAY , , 3'- "
2 2
TRACK 1-"-i I ~
k q :J :J :{ jiD[ 1: r~) ~
ij .1
0 _]' -0"
~ --- - -
;.,.,;..
--
-.
----., ..
--~-
.
.
---~
< ~. 4l? ,
Fig. 2.52 View of the
New Galecopper Bridge,
Holland
t!J 't
--fl-- -1>- - - -o- --~--a -
n
1
M
II
J I :,l.
- - - ...IJ---o- - -- - o- --8- 0
fl 'l
The bridge was designed skew in plan. The torsiona!Jy weak construc-
tion, with its large width, required special considerations in design . How-
eYer, rhe sa ,ing in the deck area is more than 20% .
fitt. 2.54 Model of rhe At first the new bridge, with a clear span of 8-1-6ft (258 m) and a total
Obcrkasselcr Bridge,
J)usscldori, Germany
length of 2920 ft (890 m), will have a temporary or emergency function
while the existing bridge, built s hortly after the last war with only a
27 ft 3 in (8.3 1 m) roadway, is demolished.
It will consist of three steel girder cells and a 11 5 ft (35.1 m) wide
orthotropic plate deck carrying four lanes of traffic, two streetcar tracJ..s,
two bicycle paths and two sidewalks. It will be suspended by four
symmetrically arranged cables from a single tower (Fig. 2.55).0n the left
bank the forces from the cables will be transmitted to the ground through
four dead-end piers.
Trus cable-stayed bridge OYer the Danube Ri, er in l'\mi Sad111 consists
of spans 2 X 197 + 11 51 + 2 X 197 ft (2 X 62 + 35 1 + 2 X 62 m).
The bridge deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form ''ith
three cells to separate a proper place for p) lon connection and cable
anchorage. The deck incorporates two 32ft (9.75 m) ,,;de roadways and
two sidewalks 5 ft (1.5 m) ,,;de. The orthotropic steel deck is reinforced
by box-type ribs, and cross-beams arc spaced at 9ft 10 in (3m) intervals.
T\1'1<: \I. STFFI. llRII H ii:S 89
246 I :j
t~T
~I
the cable heights from the deck arc 113ft 10 in (35m), 146ft 7 in (45 m)
and 179ft 5 in (55 m). Each cable consists offour strands spaced at 2ft 6
in (0.8 m). The number of wires in each strand varies from 240 to 312,
each having a diameter of~ in (7 mm).
Section A _A
-...
m
A
r
A
Section 8_ 8
Fig. 2.56 'Sloboda'
Bridge, general
arrangement
sr- --.8
before dropping down to an anchorage in the center of the steel box
girder. On the river side, two cables are fixed in the median of the deck
141 ft (43 m) from the pylon, and eight more are anchored at the
centerline another 141 ft (43 m) from there. At that point, the anchor
block pierces the steel box girder deck and secures a plane of six cables
beneath it. They pass over the ends of three struts, projecting down at
141 ft (43 m) intervals, before anchoring in the lower flange of the box at
the northern end of the span. Two single-member struts flank a longer
V-shaped 49 ft (15 m) center strut.
TYPICAl. STEEL BRIDGES 91
Both the Batman in Tasmania and the Czech bridge are unique among
cable-stayed bridges. Lying in the plane of the resultant of the cable-stay
forces, the single inclined tower of each bridge supports almost the entire
river span. The tower not only dominates each structure but also adds
great character.
It is not an easy matter to assess which tower configuration is the better,
structurally or economically, for each has its advantages and disadvantages.
Also these two bridges are the only ones of their kind in existence.
12' 12'
....
'
~ 68'.10"
~'::7"1
t
-
11 ' . 6" ~ 41 ' . 4"
64'. 4"
I 11 ' . 6" :I
..
The cable-stayed system may be used either for combined highway and
railroad bridges or for railroad bridges only. This technique may be
applied to new structures or to strengthen existing bridges, and has
proved particularly useful where headroom is restricted. The following
three bridges serve as good illustrations of this.
...
j
"''
~
0
~
i'
"'
~
';'
47>
in the inrensiry of stresses under the existing and proposed future train
loadings, which would practically overstress all members of the truss.
The proposed solution consisted of prestressing the truss members by
means of stay cables connected to the top of the tower which was designed
to rest on the center pier (Fig. 2.64). This solution proved practical and
permitted introduction of substantially hea\ icr trains by comparison with
the original loadings for "hich the bridge was designed.
This railroad skew type bridge was built having two spans, the first one
from prestressed concrete, and the second one as a steel girder')(). Both
spans are supported by stay cables over single towers (Fig. 2.65).
This railroad bridge may be considered as the first srrucrure incorporat-
ing a cable-stayed prestressed concrete girder. The rowers arc built from
the reinforced concrete. A rypical cross-section of the steel part of the
bridge is shown in Fig. 2.66.
This 688ft (210m) long Expo 1967 structure, spanning the StLawrence
River between lie St Helene, is of an original design 91 92 (Fig. 2.67).
The bridge consists of two simply supported spans, each suspended at
midspan from their sides by cables anchored to twin concrete towers sited
in mid-river. Each span is made up of two longitudinal box girders
supporting floor beams designed to be composite with the concrete deck.
The longitudinal girders are supported at midspan by a transverse box
girder anchored to suspension cables. The spans have expansion bearings
at the abutments, while at the pier they rest on fixed bearings and bear
24' 2 I -6 11
Il
against buffers which take the horizontal components of the forces acting
on the cables.
This cable-supported girder bridge is 94ft (28.7 m) wide and is sup-
ported by two concrete towers that rise 92ft (28.1 m) above the roadway.
The bridge is 92 ft wide from curb to curb and accommodates auto-
mobiles, pedestrians and rapid transit trains, which run over its center
line (Fig. 2.68).
~..---
<t
'!! ~~
28' 10.5' 13'-3" 13'.3" -'-- t--- t-1
I
I
III 18.45' 18.45'
N
~
Ar I Section A _A
II
Section B _ B
~
-~4-
Fig. 2.69 Belgrade
Bridge, general I
arrangement
and Funen 94- 97 . The structure will be 11 miles ( 17.6 km) long. Some of
the alternatives included combined road and rail bridges. Three of
the original and successful designs are shown below.
The St Louis firm of Sverdrup and Parcel from the USA was one of four
firms awarded the first prize for a combined road and rail bridge (Fig. 2. 70).
TYPICAL STEFL BRIDGES I0I
1 I -311
96 -o _ _s'-9"-~
I
--------1---- -"-'39_'_-9'--"----tl-l~_'_::Q"_j
fig. 2. 70 Project by Sverdrup and Parcel and Associates, USA, first
prize
For the main navigation span two towers support stayed girder deck
units. Roadways are carried at the top level of the deep deck trusses with
two rail tracks fitted at the lower level as wide apart as the deck allows.
This is a combined road and rail bridge, having the main span as a cable-
stayed truss (Fig. 2. 71 ). All cables in side spans are connected to the piers,
increasing the stiffness of the railway bridge.
In this combined road and rail bridge the inclined legs of the piers shorten
the main span. They also provide fixity and decrease deflections. The
same applies for both side spans (Fig. 2.72).
102 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~~~~~;~~!
- - - -----~-J ~ ~ ~~ ."~ ~'<'~<(,.}~/
.~_-_0'_'- -+ 46 I -0 11 46 I -0 11
(a)
(b)
(d)
2. PIPELH\E BRIDGE
This pipeline bridge carries two pipelines, each of diameter 31 1/z in (0.8
m). The continuous structure has two spans of 147ft (45 m) and 189ft
(57.5 m) and a single pylon 243 ft (74 m) high (Fig. 2.75).
TYPICI\1. STEEL BRIDCiES 105
3.8 3.8'
n Railing
I
\ .
0 0-
Lights ..,
0
I I u
"'~
I e
I Slope
-.,0 1 ) I I "j -I I 1 ( r Fig. 2.74 Pipeline and
-.,0 1
pedestrian bridge at
6 v r
-~
~- -!...
Heilbronn, general
14. 6' arrangement
I
I
-l-'-"+-~---__:_1_::8::._9' ___ ~,+.l-A--~~~4 8::._'_ ~B ~lioo A_A
Section B _ B
l /Girder
~
1
A
(a l i
Pottrossed
-------!.
Coble
I j
~ -~ -~Pontoon
I I \ I I
li . . .
Fig. 2.76 (a) The
I 1/
';~;>m''' J!I!1Jn; >nn;,-;'}Phv;;;;;~J;;;;; _.,>,
principle for a
prestressed cable support
for a pontoon; (b) (b)
prestressed cable
supports for a bridge over
the Ganges River, India
When one pontoon is under a load ~ which is greater than the actual
load for the bridge P, and at this position the bridge is stiffened by a
prestressed anchor cable, then after deloading the cable is prestressed in
tension. Under this loading the pontoon is effectively supported by a
prestressed cable acting as stiff support. This principle was applied in
1912, during the construction of a pontoon bridge supporting a deck of
rigid girders over the Ganges River, in Calcutta, lndia99 (Fig. 2.76 (b)).
The bridge has three spans with a total length of 1407 ft (4 29 m) and a
width of 98 ft (30 m). The bridge supports were built of eight
cylindrically shaped pontoons, each one 226 ft (69 m) long and with a
diameter of 15 ft 6 in (4.7 m). The pontoons were anchored to the
bottom of the river by prestressed cables.
It should be noted that the same principle of using post-stressed
anchor cables may be applied to achieve stiffness during construction of
oil rigs at sea.
(a l
In this scheme the reactions of the truss are transferred onto the
hollow steel rings, which are anchored by post-stressed cables 400 ft
(120 m) deep under the water elevation to the bottom. The ring has an
external diameter of 131 ft (40 m) and a 65 ft 6 in (20 m) internal
diameter at the wall thickness of~ in (14 mm). There are a total of 12
floating supports stiffened by post-stressed anchor cables. The initial
tension will be completed at high tide.
I !ypicarl~
:~;; :;: :i :'i' ;';)
Drilled_ in anchor
Fig. 2. 78 Proposed
floating bridge for long
ELEVATION water crossings
wind and wave forces. The vertical anchor cables are deployed in a circle
to give equal stability in all directions. Their tension may be monitored
and adjusted through access galleries in the pontoons. A sufficient
number of cables is provided to permit the removal and replacement of
individual pairs of cables without endangering the stability of the system.
References
17. Reutter, K., 'Konstruktion und Fertigung der Seilkammer fi.ir die
Stahlhochstrasse Ludwigshafen', Schweiss. Schneid., No. 9, 418-
420, 1968.
18. Freudenberg, G., 'Die Stahlhochstrasse uber den neuen Haupt-
bahnhof in Ludwigshafen/Rhein', Stahlbau, No. 9, 257-267,
September, 1970; No. 10, 306-314, October, 1970.
19. Tamms, F. and Beyer, E., Kniebriicke Dusseldorf; Beton-Verlag
GmbH, Dusseldorf, 1970.
20. Anonymous, Neubau Kniebriicke, Teil 1, Strombriicke, Landes-
hauptstadt Dusseldorf, 1967.
21. Anonymous, 'Record Span is Cable-Stayed', Engng. News Rec.,
34, 20 November, 1969.
22. Sanson, R., 'Saint-Nazaire-Saint Brevin Bridge over the Loire
Estuary (France)',Acier-Stahl-Steel, No.5, 161-167, 1976.
23. Fuchs, W., 'Die Loire-Bri.icke bei Saint-Nazaire', Bauingenieur,
53, 19-20, 1977.
24. Schwab, R. and Homann, H., 'Der Bau der Kohlbrandbri.icke',
Die Bautechnik, Heft 5, 145-156, May, 1975.
25. Rabe, J. and Baumer, H., 'Die Gri.indungen und Pfeiler der
Ki.:ihlbrandbri.icke', Die Bautechnik, Heft 6, 181-197, June, 1975.
26. Boue, P. and Hohne, K.]., 'Der Stromi.iberbau der Kohlbrand-
bri.icke', Der Stahlbau, No. 6, 161-174, 1975; No. 7, 203-211,
1975.
27. Anonymous, 'Structures in the USSR', IABSE Structures C-4178,
4-5, May, 1978.
28. S. Komatsu, Y. Torii and S. Okada, 'Cable-stayed Bridge "Rokko
Ohhashi" at Kobe Gapan)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 3, 101-106,
1977.
29. Anonymous, 'Zarate-Erazo Largo Highway-Railway system
(Argentina)', IABSE Periodica, Structures C-3/78, 14-15, February,
1978.
30. Brodin, S., 'New Tji.:irn Bridge across the Ackeri.:ifjord (Sweden)',
IABSE Structures, C-21182, 40-41, May, 1982.
31. Kohmann, R. and Koger, E., 'Die neue Tji.:irnbri.icke, Konstruk-
tion, Static and Montage der Stahlkonstructionen', Bauingenieur, 57,
379-388, 1982.
32. Clements, L., 'The Kessock Bridge Design and Build Contract, and
Proposals for Managing Similar Contracts', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, Part
1, 76, 23-34, February, 1984.
33. Knox, H. S. G., Homberg, H. and Deason, P.M., 'Kessock
Bridge: Design by Contractor', Proc. lnst. civ. Engrs, Part 1, 76, 35-
50, February, 1984.
34. Kealey, T. R., 'Mississippi River Bridge, Luling (Louisianna,
U.S.A.)', IABSE Structures C-20182, 4-5, February, 1982.
110 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
towers was then packed with concrete, the jacks were removed, and the
cables were embedded in concrete to protect them from oxidation
(Fig. 3.2).
The twisted cables are of high tensile steel, each made in one piece
and conveniently transported rolled up in drums. They have the ad-
vantage of being easy to unwind and place.
ll6 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
This 5~ mile (8.85 km) long bridge, completed in 1962 and spanning
Lake 1'vlaracaibo in Venezuela, is one of the world:s outstanding pre-
stressed concrete structures5- 8 . It includes five 775 ft (236 m) main
spans soaring 148 ft (45.1 m) above the lake's navigation channels and
fil! .LI \'1e" u l Benton supported by inclined cables (Fig. 3.4).
Ctl} Bndge, \\ a'ohJnj:IOn,
LS\
'111'1< \1. (.(), CRI.TI.IIRIJ)(.I .S 117
illodJor I
46' -6"
The most interesting feature of this bridge is that the whole super-
structure is prefabricated and made only of reinforced concrete. The
main girders are built from precast reinforced concrete members sus-
pended by the cable stays. The reinforced concrete towers are 138 ft
(42.06 m) high. They are fixed into the piers and have lateral beams to
support the superstructure.
The most complicated joints are the connections of the steel cables to
the main girders. This is because these joints should satisfy the condi-
tions during erection and the possibility of the regulation of the separate
strands of the cables.
In cross-section, the roadway is 28 ft (6.30 m) wide and the two
sidewalks on each side are 5 ft (1.52 m) each (Fig. 3.7).
Safe connections between the main girders and the cross-beams have
been achieved by making a joint between the front side of the cross-beam
and by making the side of the main girder a conical-shaped wedge. Only
a nominal amount of reinforcement is used in the deck except where the
cables are attached to the deck.
An examination of the dynamic behavior of the bridge revealed that
the structure had a high stiffness. I n spite of the shallow depth of the
main girder, which is only -rim of the span, the deflection does not exceed
-r/ro of the span. The deflection of the main girder is mainly the result of
the cable stretch under live loading, and is only slightly due to its own
deflection.
The structural design of the bridge system has been checked on a
to scale model.
120 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
472' -4"
+ 904'-2" - --~
l __
The three main spans of this structure, erected in 1966, are carried by
inclined cables and ha\"e span s of 66_., 689 and _.60 ft (202, 210 and
HO m) 131"' (Fig. 3.8).
The length and sequence of the spans were established by the location
of the piers which were built in spots allowed by the local topography,
the area being densely built and occupied by railroad yards, roads,
industrial plants and the Polcevera Creek.
The structural scheme of the viaduct is basically the same as that used
foig. 3.11 \'ic'' of !he in the main spans of Maracaibo Bridge. The viaduct comprises a series
PoJcc,em Creek
Viaduct, hal}
TYPIC\!. CO:'\CRFTF BRIDGES 121
59'
~rloooool
I 50'-5"
122 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9S'-2"
hlooooooor
1"'"-- - - - - - . 1 . .0 I -6"
_ _ _ _ _ _ 7~4" - - - - - - -- :
Fig. 3. 11 Ansa de Ia
Magliana Viaduct, general
arrangement
I' I'IC-\1 . CO,CRETE BRIDGI.S 123
~7'-2"
L
1: 32' -8"
t: l ;...,
~
'
_1] [t
18'-2"1 82 11
~1
39' .- -l
126 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
.- -r
In
49' - 2"
.
4
.....
1\ ~
ro
0
- l
~
~r"'
-
. N
r
- 24 t -J"
42 . -6"
--
TYPICAL COI'\CRETE BRIDGES 127
This bridge has a main span of875 ft 9 in (267m) and two flanking spans
of 311ft 7 in (94.9 m) each 22 (Fig. 3.16).
The deck is formed from twin box girders connected by the deck slab
and transverse diaphragms at the piers and cable anchorages. The main
cantilevers, which are supported by two forestay cables from the towers,
are continuous not only with the side span but also with the first approach
span on each side (Fig. 3 .17).
128 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
I
fo'ig. 3.16 View of the
River Waal Bridge, Tiel,
Holland
~.-L
I
875' -9"
---
T
0
101 1
1.! '
I + 69' + 16'2"~ "'
Jr
16 ' -2"
"'
-'
::L
~r=
r
Jr lC
~
32 I 8" 25' -7"
2.5'-7"
83 ' -10"
+
The lower backstay cables support the side spans at their mid-points
and the upper backstays are anchored over the first shore pier, so that
their function is to stabilize the tops of the towers from which the other
points are effectively suspended. Because of this, the forestays and
backstays, although of the same total size, are divided in different
proportions, and it is necessary to divert some tendons from upper to
lower stays in the tower saddles. Multiple strand cables are used for the
permanent stays and longitudinal stressing of the box girders, multiple
wire for transverse stressing of the deck and diaphragms and high tensile
bars for the temporary stays and vertical stressing of the box girders.
In this bridge the main span 688.8 ft (210 m) long is supported assym-
metrically from a single diamond-shaped tower 23 (Fig. 3.18).
The deck in cross-section is a torsion resisting trapezoidal box supported
essentially on a single central cable plane. The permanent stays are
parallel wire cables anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing
anchorages. Dead-end anchors are used at the deck with jacking at the
Fig. 3.18 River Foyle
tower through stressing rods. Each stay consists of two cables to provide Bridge, general
space for the anchorages and this arrangement conveniently allows for arrangement
29'-5 11
V--j
130 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
a central footway on the bridge. The deck is anchored at the main pier
so that the tower is not stressed by expansion movement of the deck.
Each of the two adjacent piers to which the backstays are anchored acts
as a flexible strut and tie.
Under the proposed method of construction, the tower will be cast on
the site up to deck level and the approach spans cantilevered 114.8 ft
(35.0 m) into the main span at each end.
Because dead load accounts for about 95% of the total load which the
cables, tower and deck itself are designed to carry, economy will be
achieved by using high-strength concrete for the deck to reduce dead
load to a minimum.
River downstream from Rouen and has a central span of 1050 ft (320m)
(Fig. 3.21).
In cross-section the prestressed segmented concrete deck consists of a
single-cell trapezoidal box girder, with interior stiffening struts. Webs
are vertically prestressed to resist shear stresses, in addition to transverse
prestressing in the top and bottom flanges. Inclined stiffeners are
prestressed longitudinally, near the center of the main span.
Each tower of the Brotonne Bridge was made of a single reinforced
132 C\BLF-ST \YFD BRID(;I:S
60'-cl" J
10'-0" 1
80 -6
11
~ ~l At l!lltA
. I
t:D_ ~~
'
':...
.. ... ...
~ ~
A: a:
~ '
.124-8"
Coin ~ec. A_A
"' "'
0"'~U)
15'-o'soc. _a
N N
N N Tower Section
lr ,
concrete pylon, 230 ft (70 m) high, fixed in the deck and exposed to wind
up to a height of 394 ft (120m) above ground level. The slenderness of
the tower is very impressive.
The suspension of the Brotonne Bridge is achieved by 21 stay cables
per tower, placed in a fan layout, anchored at both ends in the deck and
tower. The stay cables cross the tower on saddles which form a fixing
T) I' I(. \I . CO!'\CRI:TF. IIRII)GI.S 133
The total length of this cable-stayed bridge is 918 ft (280 m) and the
central span is 318ft (97 m) 31
The deck cross-section consists of a reinforced concrete slab 4 7 ft 7 in
(14.6 m) wide "~th a thickness 1 ft 2 in to 1 ft 10 in (0.36 to 0.55 m). The
total ''~dth of the deck includes two roadways each 16 ft 5 in (5 m) wide,
two bicycle tracks each 5 ft (1.5 m) '~de and one sidewalk 6 ft 7 in (2 m)
\\~de (Fig. 3.23).
This bridge has two pylons, each having two legs. Harp disposed
cables, on two planes, are spaced at 20 ft (6 m) intervals at the deck level.
Both pylons are made of reinforced concrete frames, 118 ft (36 m) high.
Each leg has a cross-section of 5 ft 3 in X 7 ft 2 in (1.6 X 2.2 m) at the
bottom and 4 X 4 ft (1.2 X 1.2 m) at the top (Fig. 3.24).
134 C \OLE-ST \\'1-J) BRIDGE.:;
4 1113' .o
83' .. 0 ..
o
,~-or41 II
21'.. 21 ' -0'
ii
18' - 0'
.I 13: o .I -~~- +1---~-a_-_o_-
-_o_- .... -1
B
r
.
0
Secllon A - A
.,
--
N
..
b
N
Section B - B
Fig. 3.22 13rmonn
Bridge, general
arrangement
172'
(2701 m) portion of the high level approach and the main span of the
bridge were built by the precast segmental concrete technique.
In cross-section, the deck consists of single-cell precast concrete
segmental box girder units 12ft (3.65 m) long, 14ft (4.27 m) deep and
95 ft 3 in (29 m) wide. The cross-section is a monolithic unit and
contains transverse post-tensioning in the top and bottom flanges as well
as in the web.
The segments for the precast section of the bridge are being cast
under factory-type conditions and each segment weighs approximately
170 tons.
The twin 40ft (12.2 m) roadway allows for two lanes of traffic and an
emergency 10 ft (3 m) shoulder in each direction.
The Skyway design features a single pylon and a single plane of cable
stays. The pylon is basically rectangular, \\<ith a constant transverse
dimension of 11 ft (3.35 m) and a tapering longitudinal dimension of 23
ft (7 m) at the top. The pylon has an interior void area to allow for a
service elevator. Each single-shaft pylon is rigidly connected to the box
girder superstructure. The superstructure is supported by 2 1 cables on
either side of the pylon at a spacing of24 ft (7.31 m) on center for 2280 ft
(695 m) of the 4000 ft (1219.5 m) main span unit (Fig. 3.26).
The single plane of stays is continuous over the pylon and anchored on
blocks at the middle of the segmental steel pipe covering the stays to
protect them, and this pipe is painted with reflective epox')' to reduce the
maintenance needs.
The new bridge is designed to withstand hurricane winds of velocity
240 mph. The two main cast- in-place elliptical piers were designed to
T\ PIC \1 . CO:'\CRETE BRID(;ES 137
95'- 3"
I'
f-ig. 3.26 Sunshine
Skyway Bridge, general
arrangement
The proposed Dame Point Bridge over the St Johns River in Florida
concrete alternative to one cable-stayed steel bridge will have a 1300 ft
(396 m) cennal span and side spans of 650 ft (198 m) (Fig. 3.27)35- 38 .
105' -10"
.,...
0
The Main Bridge, near Hoechst, was built in 1971 over the River
J\llain 39-H. This is the world's largest prestressed concrete bridge
carrying highway and railway traffic.
The bridge is a prestressed segmental cable-stayed structure, carrying
two three-lane roadways, separated by a railway track and pipeline. It is a
skew bridge having a central span of 486 ft (148 m), with a northern
approach span of 86ft (26m) and southern approach spans of 55, 84, 95
and 129 ft (16.9, 25.65, 29.00, 39.35 m) (Fig. 3.29).
;::.
!H
- __,_,
34_ - --'!-l11
{b 39'
~
T
0
f
f ig. 3.32 M25 O vcrhridgc,
gen eral arrangement
r----sa-;-- - 50'
---------~-~- ---------------r----
so 1
45 1 f~tL __I -10 11
----.2%
Fig. 3.33 Project by
Dyckerhoff and
\\idmann, second ---t--
prize 146'
TYPICAL CO:'\CRETE BRIDGES 143
93'
I 93'
13'-4"
Fig. 3.34 Pipe Bridge,
15'-10" general arrangement
References
4.1 Introduction
(1) The roadway slab is made of concrete, instead of the usual steel
orthotropic deck, to reduce costs.
(2) By using precast slabs for the deck, the redistribution of compression
forces onto the steel girders due to shrinkage and creep is
minimized, and forming costs are reduced.
(3) The roadway spans longitudinally between floor beams; tensile
stresses onto compression stresses from the overall system.
(4) The deck in the center of the main span is not prestressed, although
the overall compression is decreasing there. For crack control, the
reinforcement is increased and lapped in cast-in-place joints.
(5) Greater resistance against rotation to the torsionally weak bridge
deck system is achieved by anchoring the stay cables to the outside
main girders and converging them at the tower top, thereby creating
stiff space truss.
This structure is the first cable-stayed bridge built in the uSA in 19723
(Fig. 4.1).
The cable-stayed portion of this bridge is 750ft (22H m) in length with a
main span of 450ft (137m).
The stay system in the form of radial cables in two planes consists of
three cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower. The
cross-section consists of two main box girders, 6ft (1.83 m) deep, spaced
34ft 3 in ( 10.4 3m). The reinforced concrete deck slab is supported by floor
beams, stringers and main girders (Fig. 4.2). The steel towers are of
rectangular box section and fixed at their bases to the concrete pedestals.
The bridge which crosses the Ohio River at East Huntington has a main
superstructure consisting of two spans of 900 ft (274m) and 608 ft (185
m) and a single tower (Fig. 4.3t
The bridge was designed for two lanes and in cross-section the
composite deck consists of a high strength concrete slab supported by
two main girders and transverse steel floor beams.
The length of the precast segments in the stayed part of the bridge is
44ft 10 in (13.7 m), and floor beams are spaced at 9ft (2.74 m) intervals
on center. The deck slab, steel floor beams and main girders are built
monolithically (Fig. 4. 4). The height of the pylon above the deck is 179 ft
5 in (55 m).
Cable stays consisting of parallel ~in (6.35 mm) diameter wires are
anchored at both the pylon and deck and are of the Hi-Am type. The
original design incorporated an orthotropic type steel box girder.
22' 22'
15 ' t 1 5'
0
16'-6"
Ill
20'-0' I
21'-'3'
7'-3' 7'-3. 7- ~
I
I
~
I .l
lt
(I
~
~.
.e
~
): 1
IHt-- --llkl
Annacis Bridge crosses the south arm of the F raser River ncar
Vancouver, British Columbiab-8 . Completed in 1987, it is the longest
span cable-stayed bridge in the world (Fig. 4.7), measuring 3052 ft
(930.5 m), with a central span of 1525 ft (465 m) between the towers.
The deck is designed to carry six lanes of traffic but initially will carry
only four. The width of the bridge is 105ft (32m) and the superstructure
consists of two steel plate girders 6 ft 11 in (2.10 m) deep set 91 ft 10 in
(28 m) apart, supporting steel floor beams spaced at 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m)
intervals on center.
The steel members, connected to the 10 in (265 mm) precast concrete
deck by studs, act compositely with it. Precast concrete panels, 44 ft 5 in
(13.545 m) long and 13 ft 3 in (4.03 m) wide, span between the floor
beams. They are connected to each other at the steel members and at the
crown by cast-in-place strips. The panel sits on a neoprene strip that
provides uniform support during construction and leaves a 1.8 in (45
mm) wide gap under the panel filled with concrete during the pouring of
the in-fill strip (Detail 1, Fig. 4.8 (b)).
The bridge has two towers 506 ft (154 m) high and the bents are
reinforced-concrete structures with provision for ductile behavior in
earthquake situations. The legs are of a hollow rectangular cross-section
tapering from 24ft 7 in (7.50 m) by 13ft 9 in (4.20 m) at the base to 17ft
1 in (5.20 m) by 13 ft 9 in (4.20 m) at deck level, from which point the
cross-section remains unchanged.
(a)
r;
6.6' 1
41.6' ~~ymm
ID
0
"'
Main girder 1 4 .7'5'spacing
6.6' deep
50mm concrete
overlay
Neoprene strip
415mm
(b) Floorbeam flanQe
t. Towor
(c)
(d)
The cross-beams are also hollow in section. The depth of the lower
beam is 3 2 ft 10 in (10 m) and of the upper 26 ft 3 in (8 m). The walls of
the tower legs and cross-beams are 2ft (600 mm) thick. The cranked H-
shape was selected to eliminate compound cable angles and associated
eccentricities at each cable anchorage; the modified fan configuration of
cables permits space to anchor each cable separately at the tower and
replacement of any cable. Despite their considerably larger weight and
foundation size, concrete towers were more economical than steel
towers.
154 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
References
5.1 Introduction
Among pedestrian bridges erected up until now and used for crossing
road traffic, cable-stayed systems have found a wide application.
The superstructure of a typical pedestrian bridge usually has three
parts: an upward sloping stretch, a central part, and a downward sloping
stretch. The sloping parts may consist of ramps, stairs or escalators.
These may be in line with the bridge proper, curved or at an angle to it.
Further, they may have a uniform slope, or one that varies all the way.
The latter is the case with pedestrian bridges that take the shape of a flat
arch, and here the central horizontal part is omitted. The arched pedes-
trian bridge is usually pleasing in appearance in view of its architectural
form, but has the disadvantage that its users are taken to a point at the
crown of the bridge which is higher than the minimum clear headroom
that is necessary for the traffic below.
Pedestrian overpasses necessarily being observed by a large number of
people, there is therefore a natural tendency to build these structures so
as to blend with the surroundings. A variety of such solutions, applying
the cable-stayed system, are reviewed below.
This unusual, asymmetric, graceful pedestrian bridge was one of the most
interesting steel structures to be seen at the Brussels World Fair of
1958 12 . It connected the Fair's general exhibition area with the
West German section. After the close of the exhibition, the bridge was
dismantled andre-erected at Duisburg (Fig. 5.1).
156 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig 5. 1 Vie" of
pctbtrian bridge,
Dui-;hurg, German~
r----
I
.118 '-_3"_______ -....J--_
_____lj).. '-=3."___j
The tower has a curved hollow cross-section, namely two circular arcs
of a different diameter connected by two straight plates. In the transverse
direction, the lower portion of the tower is bent toward the walkway so
that the load passes through the center of gravity of the support. The
tower tapers almost to a point on both sides of the bend. Therefore, the
semicircular plates had to be conical in shape.
I
225'
303'-7" + 78'-7"
j
~-------=
t q
..;;__ ts ----L
a~2J
Fig. 5.-1 The Schiller
Street llridgc, Stuttgart,
general arrangement
The cables are of a special type. This is the only example of a German
cable-stayed bridge with parallel-wire cables. This type of cable was
adopted on account of the more favorable modulus of elasticity,than for
twisted-wire cables and also because it was possible to achieve a shorter
anchorage length for this type of cable than with the system usually
employed. The cables consist of 0.236 in (5.67 mm) diameter steel wires
which, after being bundled, were provided with a wrapping of a wire
TYPICAL PEDESTRIA!\ BRIDGES 159
This bridge was erected in 1963, as a single box structure with its tower
extended upward so as to harmonize with the towers of the highway
bridge 5 (Fig. 5.5).
It has a steel central span of 178 ft (54.3 m) and reinforced concrete
approach ramps of 56ft and 68ft (17.1 m and 20.8 m).
The stay system is of the fan type, presenting a novel appearance,
considering the purpose of this footbridge, and yet perfectly rational
from a technical viewpoint. The girder is suspended from a single tower
located along the central longitudinal axi'> of the bridge. The girder has a
trapezoidal cross-section, variable depth and width, and incorporates an
orthotropic deck.
The 94ft (28.6 m) high tower has a triangular cross-section tapering at
the top and supporting cables. The tower support is fixed, and the box
girder has its bearings on the cantilevers connected to the tower.
"
T
/I
L 219' -9" I
..,.... 219'-9"
J
...,
"'
41'-4"
58 '-9"
....
N
"'
N
:C:::::::::::::' I :::==
6'
:;;
l
-..... -.....
"' 0
~ fig. 5.II River Barwon
Footbridge, general
arrangement
164 CABLI:.-STAYED BRI DGES
ln this bridge the solid prestressed deck sccrion is cast in place together
with the s ubstructure and the single central tower assembled from two
precast units stressed down to the deck girder. The parallel wire stay
cables are anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing anchorages
using dead-end anchorages in the deck and jacking at the tower to which
all cables are rigidly anchored (Fig. 5. 13).
The unusual cable arrangement certainly was chosen only for aesthetic
reasons since there is no structural advantage: equalizing the length of
the cables is of no benefit when the inclinations arc so diflercnt.
During the planning s tage extensive dynamic and static testing of a
one-fifth scale model of this bridge was carried out. A method of reducing
the deflection responses of the model was developed permitting the im-
provement of the dynamic characteristics of the prototype structure. The
116 I -911
lf i
116' -9" -'
f.---
l
15 I -9 11
N
co
r~ --
~_____22~~6'' _ _
413' -3'\
_j__ _ 1 60-'-=2"_--1
~I
r- 13 I - ~-~ -----------1
general arrangement
q>
0
-7
--
-7
'
,...
a:>
,,
29' -5" 59" 59' 65' -6"
I
2 13. - 2"
-ITI 11 I I 0
II Fig. 5 .I S Bundesallee
r 3. -3" I 3 '- 3" Footbridge, general
arrangement
spans of 65 fi 7 in (20 m). The girders were connected to each other wirh
high strength non-shrink grout (Fig. 5. 17).
The superstructure is supported by two rowers, each of which consic;t:,
of four high tapering precast reinforced square columns. The cross-
section of each column \'aries from 35 X 35 in (0.9 X 0.9 m) at the base
to 22 X 22 in (0.56 X 0.56 m) at the top. Each tower cable is composed
of four galvanized Dywidag bars, If
in (35 mm) in diameter.
10'-4"---j 3S'
Columns
26.2' 35.75'
B
r "1
B
c
r ""1
c
CJ Fig. 5.19 Rother
Bridge, general
arrangement
---=~~c=ii=--==~=
.l
---rll~:~,~~-
1. 52"-d 142'-8" 177'- 2" I
18'-2'
I 126'-3"
Straight branch
8'-10 11
6 1-7
11
,1'-l~~r
In 1978, the largest footbridge was finished over the old Yodo River in
Japan 21 . This cable-stayed bridge has two spans of 287 ft (87.5 m) and
133 ft (40 m), and serves both pedestrians and cyclists (Fig. 5.21).
In cross-section, this bridge has a hexagonally-shaped box girder. The
orthotropic-type deck consists of a ~ in (8 mm) steel plate, stiffened by
flat open ribs spaced at distances of 1 ft 2l in. The deck is covered by an
asphalt pavement of depth 1 ~ in (20 m;h).
All metal work has been hot dipped galvanized and special precautions
were taken during erection to apply a spread of mastic compound to fill
all the cavities between the timber and the metal connections. Bolts and
ring connections were used for all structural joints.
Prior to shipment to the construction site, a complete assembly of the
bridge was undertaken at the fabrication plant, where the completed
construction also received one coat of scaler.
References
Structural Details
_jA -i
Fig. 6.1 Cross-sections of
a typical steel tower,
North Bridge, Dusseldorf SECTION C-C SECT I ON D-D
6.2 Towers
1. GENERAL
The towers have to carry heavy loads, usually several thousands of tons.
Therefore, box sections with a large kern width are best to provide safety
against buckling with the minimum amount of material. Box sections can
be kept slender without unnecessary wasting of the material.
In the case of portal or A-shape towers, the legs are separated from the
stiffening girders. However, when the towers are located along the
longitudinal centre line of the bridge, they are usually connected to the
main central box girder.
Most towers of modern cable-stayed bridges consist of a single rect-
angular box built with thick steel plates which are joined by either
welding or riveting (Fig. 6.1).
Towers may be built of metal or of reinforced or prestressed concrete.
The advantage of metal towers lies in their faster fabrication and erection.
However, for large cable-stayed bridges, the towers can be built more
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 177
\
ELEVATION
economically with concrete than with steel, and the saving can be as high
as 40% of the tower cost.
A different type of cross-section of the tower was used for the Knie
Bridge with two boxes arranged in T -form (Fig. 6.2).
The longitudinal box was made up with thick steel plates in order to
locate the center of gravity of the whole cross-section as close as possible
towards the bridge deck. This had to be done to keep the bracket moment
at the hanging points as low as possible.
The transverse box stiffens the relatively slender main box and prevents
the optical illusion of a tapering of the outer edges, whereby the tower legs
appear to diverge. The transverse box also permits installation of an
elevator for inspection of the cable saddles.
SECTION B-B
SECTION C-C
I
0
N
"'.JI
f "'./1
i)i:.:
_,
I
f"-
+ 2..
I
0
SECTION D-D
~D
1' 7'Y.co"
SECTION B-B
1. COMPOSITION
A cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes, structural
strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire strands.
A strand, with the exception of a parallel wire strand, is an assembly of
wires formed helically around a center wire in one or more symmetrical
layers and is produced in the USA in accordance with ASTM Standard
A-586 Specifications 1 . A strand may be used either as an individual load-
carrying member, where radius or curvature is not a major requirement,
or as a component in the manufacture of structural rope.
A~ 181
3 I -411 41 -1 J/(4 II
I I
'I :1\
m Iii !I
~~v-~~--~1- ~ - -- - --
"'
I - f-- ---if' :~--1 t - - - 1----
e---
" - ~
/
" illl
~-811
I
I'ig. 6.7 Hinged tower
bearings, Ji.ilicher Street
Bridge, Dusseldorf
cable-stayed bridges.
The three types of strand configuration are
'~
\:.
(3) the locked coil strand .
The first two types are composed of round wires and the difference lies
in their construction. In the first, the wires are formed helically around a
center wire in one or more layers, and in the second, all wires are parallel.
The normal size range of helical structural strands produced in the
USA isH in ( 12 I 00 mm) diameter with a range of breaking strengths
of I 5- 925 tons for Class A zinc coating.
It should be noted that in the structural design, it is imponant to choose
the strand so as to obtain the correct modulus of elasticity for the cables.
.
STRUCfURAL DETArLS
.
.~:. ~~.
...........
:.::~
....................
~,.
;
:.lt...
,.
....
~.
,.:
.......
~ ~
.
..........
1.
.1..
..:::~
.-:1.
is 90% for the locked-coil cable, and about 70% for the spiral cable, while
the modulus of elasticity is also higher for the locked-coil cable. After
only a few load repetitions in the range of live load stresses it reached
11150 tons/in 2 (18.27x 109 kg/ m 2 ), which is almost exactly half-way
between the value for the spiral cable and that for solid structural steel.
In spite of the increased stiffness of the locked-coil cable, the flexibility
required at curves is maintained because of its spiral construction. More-
over, locked-coil cables are largely insensitive to bearing pressure because
the individual layers of profile wires support each other through their
faces and not just by point contact, as in spiral cables (Fig. 6.10).
The locked-coil strand as used in Germany is also a helical type strand.
The center portion is composed of a number of round wires, then several
layers of wedge or keystone shaped wires and fina lly several layers of Z-
or S-shaped wires. The construction of typical locked-coil wire rope is
presented in more detail in Table 6.1. This type of rope does nor contain
strands.
184 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
5. PRESTRETCHING
The total elongation or stretch of a structural strand is the result of several
component deformations, one of which is called constructional stretch.
This is caused by the lengthening of the strand lay (pitch length of the
wire helix) due to subsequent adjustment of the wires in a strand into a
denser cross-section under load. This constructional stretch of the stay is
permanent.
Prestretching is accomplished by the manufacturer by subjecting the
strand to a predetermined load for a sufficient length of time to permit
adjustment of the component parts to that load. The prestretch load should
not exceed 55% of the rated breaking strength of the strand according to
the ASTM A-586 Specifications4 . Prestretching enables the designer to
predict the elastic behavior of the strand after erection in the structure
because it eliminates the constructional stretch of the cable 5 .
The displacement of the end of the free hanging cable under an axial
load depends not only on the cross-sectional area and the modulus of
elasticity of the cable but to a certain extent on the cable sag, as proved by
Ernst 7 .
Let us consider an inclined cable, connected by a hinge at the lower
support and with one movable bearing as the upper support (Fig. 6.11).
Due to the action of the force F, the cable takes the shape of a chain line,
where L > land L is the length of the chain line between supports. IfF
became infinite the cable would be straight. The end C moves to the
position cl and the expansion is
!).f =L- I
By increasing the load to
(6.1)
where
and
From the above, we obtain
E!Ee
E.=~'-----..::_ (6.2)
' Ef+Ee
To find Ei, 111 should be determined. The comparison between the
catenary and parabola indicates negligible difference. Therefore, the
catenary may be satisfactorily approximated over this length by a parabola
(Fig. 6.12).
H
F --
cos c(
I= L/cos r:t.
Condition Ms = M 9 yields
I+~ (.fn:)
2
L1 =
3 I
By neglecting the high-order terms, we obtain
~ (f~)
2
111 = L 1 -l =
3 I
By designating
(6.5)
and
d/11
(6.6)
dF
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 189
Generally,
a Fl l dF
E=-=-=-~
1: A 11.! A d 11.!
By substituting for dFjd 11.1 its value from (6.6), we obtain
12lF3 12F3
EJ = Ait 3 cos 2 ex- AlL2
By designating
g/A = y
we have
(6.7)
By introducing (6.7) into (6.2) we obtain the expression for the ideal
modulus E;:
(6.8)
where
E; Young's modulus of cable having sag
=
Ee Young's modulus of straight cable
=
}' = specific weight of the cable
L = horizontal length of the cable
a= tensile stress in the cable
Then
Therefore,
(6.9)
30
28 ~ t:-...
26
\\ I"\" ~
\
""'\. !'-.."'"""'"
\
2~
"'
""
Vi 22
\ \
<!l
-'
10$2 20
\ \
7.1
" \ \.
""'
5.7
w 18 "'z
Vl
::;)
16
\ '\. lr
;;;
\.~
-'
::;)
0
0 1~ \ Vl
::E
\ Vl
w
""'
>- 12 a:
z 4.3 >-
w
-'
<!
2: 10
\ \ Vl
-'
w
~
w
::;)
0
w 8
\ >-
Vl
6 '\.
~ " !'....
"-.... 2.8
SPAN
800
l IN
...............
1200
FT
....___
1600 -- 2000
1.4
Assuming numerical values for the span Land stresses CJ, it is possible
to determine from formula (6. 9) different values of the ideal modulus E;,
shown in the diagram (Fig. 6.14).
Static calculations for the live load are based on an idealized modulus
of elasticity E; which decreases as the length of cable increases. If the load
on the sloping cable is increased, its sag is reduced and its ends move
away from each other. Solely from this elongation of the chord, an
apparent Young's modulus can be derived which increases with increasing
load. This effect, together with the elastic deformation of the cable, can
be used to calculate an idealized modulus of elasticity which is then
introduced into the static calculations.
In Fig. 6.14, this modulus is diagrammatically shown on the ordinate
as a function of the cable stress, and the horizontal distance between the
tower and the anchor of the stay cable is shown on the abscissa. For very
long bridges the loss of E; can be as large as 40%.
The economical limit for cable lengths for inclined cable systems is
therefore between 658 and 987ft (200m and 301m). Nonetheless, longer
lengths of cables could be subdivided by intermediate supports to avoid
this disadvantageous effect, but it is debatable how far such a design
could be made to look attractive.
It is certain, however, that even with longer cables, the inclined cable
bridge could still successfully compete with the conventional suspension
bridge.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 191
l. FATIGUE TESTS
German specifications require that the allowable working load for steel-
wire ropes shall be taken as 42% of their calculated breaking load. The
effective safety factor against fracture or yielding is then 2. 4 or 1. 5 respec-
192 CABLE-STA YEO BRIDGES
~ ''.l
~~v- '"""-"'""'"' '""'
w
--'
;;; 40
~~3 ALLOVo'0 =4~%. f B
0 f---- f - - -
z
w
136
I' 35, ~ f---.
f-
I I I I rr35
I I I <0
0
.
w I I
f- I
:0::
- 20
' I I
I
>-- J14
--'
:0
I
I :
0
.._1 0 '
I
'
I
I
l I
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25
Fig. 6.15 Fatigue tests of MILLIONS OF LOAD CYCLES
cables
40
II
~~
I
120
large length of wire, was considerably lower than for short single-wire
specimens-the difference being as high as 35%. Therefore, tests with
single wires or small cables do not give the true picture for the actual large
structure.
The first fatigue tests of such large cables were made at the Otto-Graf
Institute of the University of Stuttgart. Later a new device which was
developed at the EMP A in Zurich was employed, using prestressed steel
beams.
The protection of the cables against corrosion is done more and more
frequently by a wrapping with glass fibre tissue drenched in polyethylene
or polyurethane, the voids between the wires being also filled with a resin.
Good protection against corrosion should be considered of great im-
portance, even if the cables can be replaced, as can be done in the case of
cable-stayed bridges with many separate stays.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 195
6. 7 Corrosion protection
(6.13)
For the Usk River Bridge in Great Britain 3 in (76 mm) diameter
locked-coil ropes were used, bent over a saddle of96 in (2.44 m) diameter.
Therefore, the ratio of saddle to rope diameter is 32.
To improve the cable performance and increase its bearing capacity,
construction of the cable supports is of great importance. The surfaces of
the saddles should have a suitable curvature, to achieve gradual transition
from the state of transverse compression to the state of the free hanging
cables. It is also recommended that the upper cover of the support is made
somewhat shorter than the lower support. This is necessary to eliminate
the concentration of the transverse shear forces between the compressed
and free part of the cable. It is also recommended that a soft pad is used
under the bent cable, and that polished gutters are provided for the
bearing surface.
198 CABLE-STA YEO BRIDGES
1'.:1 [1
I
I
I
/' I
I
~---- --
I
I
I
I I
' ~
~ --
I ---~
1. FIXED SUPPORTS
Different solutions have been used for the construction of fixed supports
at towers. For the Stromsund Bridge, the tension cables terminate on the
top of the tower and their attachments are shown in Fig. 6.19.
The cable sockets at this point are provided with eyes attached to the
ribs of the tower-head bearings by pins. Thus, while the cables cannot
slide, they are free to pivot vertically. This relative fixing of the cables
increases the stiffness of the system.
A different type of fixed cable connection at the top of a saddle, in
three levels, is shown in Fig. 6.20.
Figure 6.21 shows a combined type of cable connection: the bottom
cable is immovable, but the middle and upper are connected to the rocker
type saddle.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 199
7 CABLES 3Ys"
/ "
7 CABLES zYecl>
..,._/
SECTION A-A
Fig. 6.21 Combined cable
connections
9" I 1 II
~T
Fig. 6.22 Cable con- 1"
nection to the fixed saddle, t---~~----~.r-
Severin Bridge SECTION A-A
ELEVATION
This solution requires a large amount of welding and special care to avoid
temperature stresses. The many ropes of the Bonn Bridge were anchored
in a similar way.
In the case of many stay cables of the fan type, Leonhardt 10 suggested
as the best solution the use of a wide semicircular saddle of concrete,
covered with a steel plate (Fig. 6.16).
The cables are spread transversely into one or two layers only. For some
of the cables, sliding due to the differential forces between main span and
side span will have to be prevented by bolt pressure or other means. This
solution is especially favorable on top of an A-shaped tower for very large
spans.
6'-7 11
00
'
I
1 I 311 1 I 3 It
3 I 1 11
5'- 4 Y.a."
6'12." OIA.STEEL
R0.LLR.S
SECT I ON
}. Slt\GLE-STRAJ'\0 1\t\CIIORAGES
Stay cables constitute the main load carrying elements, therefore the
details of their structural connections to the stiffening girders, the towers
and substructure are very important. These cable connections should
provide full transfer of loads, protection against weather, initial
tensionjng and adjustments, as well as access for inspection.
A socket widely used for the anchoring of parallel-wire strands 11 is
shown in Fig. 6.27. The wires are led through holes in a licking plate at
the end of the socket and have the bottom heads providing the resistance
against slippage of wires. The cavity inside the socket is filled with hot
zinc alloys. To improve the fatigue resistance of the anchor a cold casing
material is used. To indicate a high amplitude socket it is called HiAm
(Fig. 6.28).
The parallel steel wires are encased in a polyethylene pipe and the
space between wires and pipe is grouted for corrosion protection after
erection of the structure. The anchorage socket is filled with steel balls
and an epox'Y and zinc dust binder. In the Freyssinet type socket the
strand is anchored to an anchor plate (Fig. 6.29).
This wedge anchor is used during erection and after application of
204 C \BI.I.-S'I \) 11> IIRJD(,J.'>
dead load the anchor tube is filled with epo.Ky resin. Under live load the
additional cable force will be trans form ed by shear from the cable strand
to the tube.
l(b l
I I
~
I I
I( cl I
~ (J
Fig. 6.30 Cross-
sections of stiffening : (d) I
girders \\ith direc1 cable
conncc1ion~
c::::l.....__ __..c;J
(e)
I I
I tt l i
l =~=r====~=r::::J I
f.'ig. 6.31 C ross
lI' (O I sections of stiffening
gi rders with indirect
cable connections
In the case of box-type stiffening girders, the cables pass between the
two webs of the girders and are anchored by their cable sockets against a
cast-steel anchor body.
The anchor body is arranged so that hydraulic jacks can be positioned
to produce the required initial tension in the cables. This permits re-
tensioning at any time (Fig. 6.32).
On the first cable-stayed bridges, the cables were anchored inside a box
girder close to the edge of the bridge (Fig. 6.33). The ropes of each cable
are spread sufficiently to give space for the anchor sockets, which rest on
transversal ribs. The webs of the box girder must be strengthened locally
to resist the large cable forces. The whole anchorage is concealed inside
the box girder. For the Severin Bridge in Cologne, a similar anchorage
was chosen (Fig. 6.34).
At the Knie Bridge, Dusseldorf (Fig. 6.35), the five pairs of cables were
anchored to a transversal bracket in an inclined plane in order to get the
longitudinal main girder, which has only one web, sufficiently behjnd the
edge.
The cantilever moments of these brackets are in equilibrium with a
couple of forces acting transversely over the width of the bridge. The
compressive force is carried by the orthotropic plate of the bridge deck;
206 C \JJLE-ST\YED BRIDGES
ELEVATI ON
Fi~t.
(>.33 Cable anchorage
inside a box girder at
Dusseldorf North Bridge
for the tension force a strong tic had to be provided between the bottom
flanges of the main girders (Fig. 6.36).
This solution gi,cs the Knie Bridge a ''cry slender and light appearance.
However, from a structural point of view, simple ways of hanging such
bridge decks by stay cables had to be developed.
As Leonhardt suggests, a better solution is offered by shorter spaces
between the cables with consequenrly small forces to be anchored, and by
the shapes which he found to be aerodynamically optimum. The sharp edge
can be used to get the cable forces well spread out longitudinally and to
carry the load tra nsversely, if it is made to act as a part of a triangular
hollow box girder (Fig. 6.37).
A ,ertical gusset plate may be joined at the edge to which the cable
socket is bolted, but the change of angle bet" een cable and ded may
cause fatigue difficulties. Adjustment of the length of the cable must be
provided for, in this case by a turnbuckle.
The solution proposed by Leonhardt is to take the cable through the
box girder imide a pipe welded to the longitudinal web, and to let it act by
compression from the rear side (Fig. 6.38). In this way, a large amount of
STRUCTURAL DET AILS 207
CABLE I ANCHORAGE
CABLE ANCHORAGE
SECTION BB
ELEVATION AA
1 tA BlE
1[
2 tAB lE S
Fig. 6.37 Anchoring of Fig. 6.3R Anchoring of
single cable to the triangular single or I\\ in cables to the
edge of a bo~ girder edge of a box girder by
means of~ pipe welded
into the web
--,
32' -I 0" 4 5'- I 1"
SECTION B-B
ELEVATION a._l
Fig. 6.40 Great Belt
Crossing competition.
Project by Fried, Krupp
and Rheinhausen.
Anchorage of cables at
SECTION A-A stiffeni ng rruss
bridge, the concentrated cable forces are transmitted to the central girder
system, as used at the Maxau and the Papineau Bridges (Figs. 6.42 and
6.43 respectively).
In the case of very large cable forces, it is necessary to transmit the
forces from the central girder system onto a stiffening girder. In certain
circumstances, s ubstantial strengthening of the bottom, deck and web
plates will be necessary to ensure that the very large forces are distri-
buted over the full width and depth of the stiffening girder.
210 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
: I
9
I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ _l
-;r
0
.
~
~I
--~
"''
.:;.
;:..'
7'-3'1-L" ...
~
BOOT (IIATERPROOF)
2 PlATES 14' 0 x 1
The web of the main girder is locally thickened to Ii\ in (W mm), due
to the normal and shear forces. On each side of the cable anchorage there
is a main cross-girder to distribute the cable force uniformly to the six
main girders.
When negative bearing loads will occur at the free end bearings of the
bridge, the main girders are connected to the abutment by vertical anchors,
resisting tension and compression. The arrangements of these anchorages
are illustrated by the following examples.
At Stromsund Bridge (Fig. 6.45), the vertical anchors resist c hangeable
' ertical reactions and permit horizontal movements of the stiffening
girder. H owever, the horizontal forces arc transferred per pendicu larly to
the abutments through special spur bearings allowing longitudinal
movements.
The end girder anchorage of the Jiilicher Street Bridge consists of two
anchor plates connected by a pin (Fig. 6.46). Figure 6.+7 shows an anchor
arrangement at the orrh Bridge, Dusseldorf.
At the Papineau Bridge (Fig. 6.48), the outer stay cable, at its shore end,
is tied to the bridge deck structure. The deck, in turn, is linked to anchors,
which are grouted into bedrock. Weight of the heavy abutment structure
also resists overturning.
212 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
6-~~
SECTION 0~4 8R I OG(
~
'I
'I
.
6. 12 Erection methods
The erection procedure depends on the structural system of the bridge, the
site conditions, dimensions of the shop-fabricated bridge units, equip-
ment and other factors characteristic of a particular project.
Stiffening girders and deck are erected either by the cantilever method
or by using a few intermediate temporary supports. For this purpose,
cranes are used moving on the already erected structure, or floating cranes
which may erect whole prefabricated sections.
During erection by the free cantilevering method, temporary guy ropes
are sometimes introduced to restrict the excessive deflections caused when
more panels are added. Figure 6.49 shows a typical erection procedure,
as applied to Stromsund Bridge, using the cantilever method. As erection
proceeds, the stiffening girders are connected to the cables and adjusted to
the proposed elevation. When the appropriate points are reached, the
cables are attached and tensioned by jacking up the saddle bearings.
214 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
.
::
'
\1)
J-611
30"
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Fig. 6.48 Anchorage
assembly at the Papineau
Bridge, Momreal
The bridge was assembled unit by unit from the rear end and was
continually moved forward as construction proceeded, so that with the
last shove the entire bridge was moved into its final position. It should be
noted that the sliding movement was not performed with the aid of rollers,
but on teflon sliding pads.
Erection of the metal towers for cable-stayed bridges does not present
special difficulties. The following methods are used in practice:
(1) For relatively small spans, the towers were raised to the designed
position by hinging them up at the erection joints.
(2) For bridges having greater spans, the towers are erected by using
cranes, erecting the prefabricated members, and connecting them by
riveted or welded joints.
(3) In the case of reinforced concrete towers, having great weight, special
methods of erection are used.
216 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
c~
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
FIRST TEMPORARY SUPPORT.
~
2 - CANT I LEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
SECOND TEMPORARY SUPPORT.
~
3 - CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
,, ' l
4 n
PERMANENT SUPPORT.
5 -CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
BEYOND ANCHOR PO I NTS OF SHORT
CABLES.
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
BEYOND ANCHOR PO I NT OF LONG
CABLES.
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
CENTRE OF gRJDGE. PLACING BALAST
IN POSIT I ON. INSERTING CENTRAL
FITTING SECTION.
12 - PLACING ROADWAY CONCRETE, FINISHING
ROADWAY AND BR I DGEI<ORK.
~I ''~'
I I I !!! I I I I
=
1-A CANTILEVER 3~ BOXES 1-B ERECT TOWER.
2-A
i'''~R
CONNECT Fl RST TEMPORARY
ANCHORAGE (2 STRANDS).
I
,,,,~A
3-A DI SCONECT FIRST ANCHORAGE 3-B ERECT BOX.
ljj~
4-A CONNECT THIRD TEMPORARY 4-B ERECT BOX
ANCHORAGE (4 STRANDS).
,,,~,
5-A CONNECT AND JACK PERMANENT 5-B DISCONNECT TEMPORARY
CABLES. ANCHORAGES.
=;z::l
11 ~:i::I::o:::co:::::r::::I:1:::r:::::Cil9 1 1' 1~11
CONTINUE CANTILEVER ERECTION.
(6.14)
218 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
where
11Ln = elongation of the cable
Ln = the original length of the cable
P = load at the joint
A = cross-sectional area of the cable
E = modulus of elasticity of the cable.
~= Pl (6.17)
(ns-n)EA
The depth of the packing blocks under the anchorages which is equal to
the raising of the cable connection joint during one cycle, when all strands
of the cable stays are post-tensioned by some value of the force, is
L ~ = __!_!___+ Pl Plns
(6.18)
nEA (ns-n)EA n(ns-n)EA
f= !!_:__
2lo
f\N)
-J\;} (6.19)
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 221
where
f = natural frequency in s - l
nc = number of half-waves in the length of the cable
10 = free or flexible length of the cable
N = tension in the cable, assumed to be uniform along the cable
m = q/g = mass of the vibrating cable in kip x s 2 /ft 2 , where q is the
weight of the cable in kip/ft and g is the acceleration of the
gravity force.
The most convenient observations can be made when the whole length
of the cable vibrates, or at nc= 1, and
(6.20)
(6.21)
One check on the calculation of the tension in the cables is that the sum
of all horizontal components of the cable forces at the top of the tower
should be equal to zero. Practice indicates that the deviations from the
actual values are not greater than 1-1.5%.
References
7.1 Introduction
2. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
The design process for a cable-stayed bridge system with accepted
geometrical layout may be divided into the following stages:
(a) A preliminary set of sectional properties is assumed for each member
of the system.
(b) The sectional properties assumed in Stage (a) are analyzed, applying
one of the statical methods of analysis. Stresses and displacements
under the given loads on the system are determined and compared
with the maximum unit stresses and maximum displacement-span
ratios allowed by the specifications.
(c) A new set of sectional properties is chosen to satisfy the requirements
of the specifications. The above stages are repeated until we obtain a
specified relation between the sectional properties assumed in Stage
(a), and those obtained in Stage (c).
Several general methods for the linear structural analysis of a cable-
stayed bridge system are available. We may call those methods that do
not require the use of an electronic computer 'classical methods'.
Using a classical method, we thus have to carry out a structural
analysis of a cable-stayed bridge system by manual computation. One of
the disadvantages is that we must assume linear behavior of our bridge
system. This is because it is highly impractical to attempt a manual
iteration of a system of equations associated with nonlinear behavior.
include the normal modulus and the effect of sag and tension load.
These factors are expressing changeable stiffness of stay cables. Actually,
the stiffness depends on the tensile stress, length of the cable and its
deflection.
The equivalent or ideal modulus of elasticity of the cable as expressed
by Ernst is
(7.1)
where
E = modulus of elasticity of straight cable
l = horizontal length of the cable
y = specific weight of the cable
o = tensile stress in the cable
Different values of the ideal modulus are shown in Fig. 7.1, indicating
the primary influence of stress in the cable. For a stress of o = 14 ksi,
the stay cable stiffness for a horizontal span of 300 ft (91.5 m) is equal,
according to Ernst's formula, to one half of a straight cable, orE= 0.5E0
(where E0 = 29 X 103 ksi). However, for cables with a horizontal span of
E kai
3
29 xiO
0"' kai
3 100
2Bx1o
90
80
27xla3 75
3 70
26 x10 611
3 60
211x10
3 115
24xi0
140
130
120
110
10
90
60
70
60
so
40
30
20 Fig. 7 .I Variation of the
ideal modulus of
10 elasticity of a stay cable
Lft
0 with change oflength and
stress
226 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The dynamic equations were solved with the aid of Newmark's linear
acceleration method 4 . This required the assumption that the velocity and
acceleration at a time level n + 1 can be expressed as a function of the
displacement n + 1, the time interval 1'1t, and the value of the previous
state, n.
The developed theory was programmed in Fortran and run on a
Unival 1108 computer. There were four basic programs required for a
computer analysis and two cable-stayed bridges were analyzed in some
detail, shown in Figs. 7.2 and 7.3. The bridge in Fig. 7.2 had dead load
as concentrated loads at the nodes: 800 kips at 1 and 6, 1600 kips at 2, 5,
7 and 8, 1718 kips at 4 and 185 kips at 3.
(7.3)
where
Eeq = the equivalent modulus of elasticity
E = the cable material modulus of elasticity
H = the horizontal projected length of the cable
W = the weight per unit length of the cable
METHODS OF STRuCTuRAL Al'\ALYSIS 229
The nonlinear behavior of the other members in the structure, due to the
effect of large bending and axial deformation, was considered by
introducing the concept of stability function 7
For dynamic analysis, the mathematical model of the single-load
bearing plane of Nord Bridge, Germany, was considered (Fig. 7.4). This
mathematical model has 22 nodes and 31 individual members. The mass
of the structure was assumed to be lumped at the nodes. Both
translational and rotational degrees of freedom were initially considered.
The model damping coefficients were computed by using the approximate
approach described by Biggs 8 . The method employed in the dynamic
analysis was a step by step integration algorithm, developed by Argyris et
aP, which works in terms of the inertia force vector and its time
derivatives at the beginning and end of a time step. This is an iteration
approach which approximates the displacement by a fifth degree
polynomial with time. An integration step of 0.3 times the smallest
natural period of the system is needed for convergence. The advantages
of the procedure are that they do not involve matrix inversion when a
lumped mass matrix is employed and when the number of degrees of
freedom is large, the capacity of the computer core is insufficient and the
external storage unit must be used, thus greatly increasing the
computation time. I,
,,
.
,,
8 19
References
In the second stage of the loading, which includes final dead load and
live loads, the connections deflect elastically due to the cables' extensions
and displacements of the towers. Resulting deflections of the cable
connections reduce the stiffness and bending moments in the stiffening
girder.
It is obvious that due to the reduction of the rigidity of the stiffening
girder, the additional bending moments caused by the deflection of the
cable connections to the tower will be also smaller. However, the reduc-
tion in the rigidity of the main girder decreases the longitudinal distribu-
tion of the loading on the adjacent connections of the cables and this
results in overloading and greater stretching of the cables.
Experimental investigation 1 of stiffening girders with different stiff-
nesses showed that the change in the cross-section of the girder affects
the bending moments. However, as Fig. 8.1 shows, this influence is
nonlinear.
Change of the moment of inertia of the stiffening girder has no sig-
nificant effect on the stresses in the inclined cables and flexural stresses
in the girders and towers. This fact makes it possible to develop an
approximate method of analysis of inclined cables which neglects the
flexural and longitudinal deformations of the girder.
The influence of the stiffness of the girder on the deflection of the cable
connection to the girder is also insignificant. If the moment of inertia of
the girder is doubled, the deflection of the connection under the maximum
232 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
M KFT
1300 M1
~~
Hz
1200
v
- M3
1100 ~/
1000 1/ /
900 ~v /
~ v/
v
800
~
/; v/
700
600
500 /L I
400
/;1/
3000
//1 I
200
Vii_
II!
Fig. 8.1 Variation of
bending moments in a
100
v
stiffening girder as a
0
0 1x10 4 2x10
4
3x10 4 4x10 4 5x1o"' 6x10 4 7x10 4 8x10
. 9x10 4
function of EI EI x 10 6 KFT f
The height of the tower greatly affects the stiffness of the bridge system.
As the angle of inclination of the cable with respect to the stiffening
girder increases, the stresses in the cables decrease, as does the required
cross-section of the tower. However, as the height of the tower increases,
the length of the cables, and therefore their axial deformations, also
increase, as well as the amount of metal in the cables.
In order to find the optimum amount of material and inclination of the
cables, the following simplified bridge system, hinged at the locations of
the cable connections to the stiffening girder is considered (Fig. 8.2).
The following notation is used:
An = cross-sectional area of the cable in in 2
In = length of the cables in inches
y = specific weight of the cable material in lb/in 3
W = weight of the cable in lb
an = the angle of inclination of the cable
na = In cos an = the horizontal projection of the cable length
n = the corresponding number of the panels
a = length of the panel in inches
E = modulus of elasticity of the cable material in psi I''
I
Fn = force in the cable in lb
f = permissible stress in the cable in psi
Pn = vertical component of the force in the cable in lb
The weight of the cable is
(8.1)
and
na A = Fn
l =--
n COS (Xn n J
(8.2)
,I
,I
W=-,------
c (8.3)
sin (Xn cos (Xn
\7\
T
,.. b
I
.. j
~ DISPLACEMENT OF THE TOWER'S TOP
I
I
I
I
I
I
_ _ _ _ _ _JI
Let us now analyse the relation between the inclination of the cable
and the deflection of the stiffening girder at locations of the cable connec-
tions to the stiffening girder at joint n (Fig. 8.2).
The force in the cable Fn due to the load Pn = 1 at the joint n is
The vertical deflection of the joint n due to the elongation 1110 of the cable
and displacement h of the top of the tower, due to the load Pn at the joint
n (Fig. 8.2 (c)) is
Pnlo cot 2 an
(8.10)
EA 0 cos 2 a0 ,,
Therefore, the total vertical deflection of the joint n under the load P is
2
P"l" Pnlo cot an
11tot = 11vn+11no = EA 2 +EA 2 (8.11)
n sm (/.n 0 cos (/. 0 I
After substituting into expression (8.11) the values !f
,,
,,.:
'
I,'
I I'
II
we obtain
i
~'
(8.12)
6
~+~
1-
0
1-
<J 5
:z
0
1\ I
v
;::: 4
\
u
....
...J
u.
....
0 3
~ ............ L/
"'....
0
"'-
"' 2 I
__..... I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I RECOMMENDED I
The height of the tower as a function of the panel length na, may be
expressed as follows:
h = na tan 25 = 0.465na (8.14)
With three cables at each side of the tower
h = 0.465 x 3a = l.4a (8.15)
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 237
In the case of an equal number of cables at both sides of the tower and
constant panel lengths, the lengths of the flanking spans are determined
by structural considerations. Such an approach provides optimum
238 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
solutions. However, local conditions may affect the length of the flanking
spans and it is sometimes possible to reduce its length. This may result
in a reduction in the number of the cables.
The reduction in the length of the flanking spans somewhat increases
the stiffness of the bridge and therefore the deformations of the upper
cables which are maximally loaded.
The deficiency of the cable-stayed system with reduced flanking spans
consists in the increase of the negative reactions of the end supports,
which reg uire special arrangement. Increasing the length of the flanking
spans over the one required by structural conditions is not suitable be-
cause it affects the performance of the whole structure. In this case, some
cables may be excluded from the action because they will not possess the
necessary reserve in tension under dead load.
Some cable-stayed bridges have only a few stay cables, others have a
large number of stays to support the stiffening girder (Fig. 8.4). For the
comparison of these different arrangements, large spans of at least 800 ft
(240 m) should be considered.
It is evident that using a small number of stay cables leads to large
I'ig. 8.4 Comparison of
bridge systems
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 239
(a) The bending strength of the stiffening girder is increased and it may
support heavier loads.
(b) Concentrated forces at anchorages are reduced.
(c) Bending moments between points of suspension are decreased.
(d) Deck erection by the cantilevering method is simplified.
(e) The replacement of stay cables in the case of deterioration may be
achieved more easily.
240 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(f) The damping capacity of the bridge system is increased with a larger
number of stay cables of different lengths and natural frequencies.
When dealing with several large spans, the cantilever type of a cable-
stayed bridge presents a structurally sound and economical solution.
The Maracaibo Bridge may be considered as a typical example of this
type. General arrangements of this bridge and similar types of structures
are shown in Fig. 8.7.
Another example is presented by a bridge crossing the river Ganges
in India, designed by Leonhardt5, having a large number of stay cables
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 241
524.8' 770.8'
1
278.8' I
I 1- 770.8'
I
Fig. 8. 7 Cantilever type
of cable-stayed bridge
(Fig. 8.8). The towers of such bridges must be stiff to carry the large
cantilever moments to the foundation. For this purpose, A-shaped
tower frames can be recommended. Expansion joints are needed in the ,,
middle of each span, which are usually obtained by a short drop in beams. :l
,,
1
:I,.
8.8 Inclined cable under its own weight .I
;I
For the analysis of the inclined cable, let us consider a cable supported ,,
I
at two points at a different elevation. The cable is uniformly loaded by
its own weight, with intensity of w lb/ft (Fig. 8.9).
~B
H~~~~~~~~~_,,L,-,-,-,~
RA
y = _1 (ecx+e-cx_ 2 ) (8.20)
2C
where
C = w/H
This is the equation of a catenary. Therefore, a cable under its own
weight hangs in a catenary.
If the sag ratio fJ= h/l is small, all of the formulae for the catenary may
be replaced, with sufficient accuracy, by the formulae for parabolic
cables. Long cable stays may have relatively great sag under their own
weight. Therefore, it is important to investigate the influence of such
sag on the elongation of the cable stay.
Let us consider the inclined cable AB of span l subjected to the action
of the initial tensile force N 0 and its own weight, having projection equal
to the w (Fig. 8.1 0). Assume that under deformation, the cable elongates
along its initial direction. The length of the cable at the initial uniform
loading w is
I w2 P cos 3 a
Lo = --+----;;-- (8.21)
cos a 24 F6
Under change of the loading, the horizontal component of cable tension
becomes F 1 , and span increases by an amount~.
~
2 3
w z3 cos a ( 1 1)
~L = L 1 -L 0 = --+ ---
cos a 24 Pi P6
(8.23)
~ w 2 P cos 3 a P 2 - P 2
= --+ 0 1
cos a 24 P6Pi
The elastic elongation of the cable having cross-sectional area A and a
modulus of elasticity E may be expressed by the formula
~L ~
~
(Pcos-Pa _l_)
1 0 _1_
cos a EA
(8.24)
(8.25)
(8.26)
The same value may be found by considering the ratio of the exact and
approximate values of the elongation of the cable in the direction of AB.
By expressing this ratio by forces P= N cos a, we may obtain
(8.29)
244 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Assuming that the cable performs as a simple bar under tension, we use
fan= Nt/A
we obtain
22 2
~-l y 1 Ecos 11.(N1 +N0 )N1
(8.31)
~1 - + 24/ 3 N6
Let us assume the following values for the steel cable:
y = 0.285 ib(in3 E = 24.5 x 106 psi
The ratio Nt/N0 of bridges with relatively large spans usually does not
exceed 1.1-1.3. If we take, with safety, N 1/N0 = 1.5, we obtain
~I ~1 = 1+ 0.0675 X 2.5 X 1.5 = 1.253
At the more realistic allowable stress fan= 70 000 psi, we have
Considering that the angle 11. is usually greater than 20, then even at
!an= 40 000 psi,
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 245
~~~1 = 1.224
And at.fau=70 000 psi
8. 9 Bridge systems
would yield hardly any saving in weight and the only part of the design
that could be intluenced to any appreciable extent by such analysis is the
dimensioning of the bottom flange plates. For this reason, the numerical
analysis of the torsion is often neglected. For practical purposes, it is
sufficient to base the design on the values obtained from the influence
lines of the plane system, using the maximum live load acting on a main
girder.
q q
11111111111111 q 1111111111111
illllllli!ll!lilil!llllllllll!ll
3a 3a 3a 3a
12.
~~m~l~~q(f~~
~
Fig. 8.12 North Bridge,
Dusseldorf. Structural
;,71111
f V!Zzzz[mzzza tYIIIJ
l
system
SECT I ON A-A
,,,
:.
!
mitted by the upper cables to those parts of the stiffening girder which are
above the fixed bearings (Fig. 8.13). The remaining cables connected to the
stiffening girder are much more flexible, and therefore there is no
appreciable transfer of force along them from the loaded cables to the
top of the tower.
Under the action of concentrated loads on the middle span, the force
in the loaded cable acting on the tower causes tension in the upper cables.
However, under loading in the flanking span, the upper cable is subjected
to compressive forces, which result in a decrease in the initial tension in
these cables.
When cables are attached to a tower with movable supports, the forces
from the loaded cables do not transfer to the more rigid upper cable. In
this case the load on the stiffening girder is distributed over two
connections only.
When the bridge system is loaded by a uniformly distributed load over
the whole length or by a symmetrically distributed loading, the perfor-
25 0 CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
mance of the system changes. In this case, each cable is acting under the
corresponding load and is in equilibrium with the symmetrically posi-
tioned cable on the opposite side of the tower. The deflection of the
cable connection to the girder is minimal, being caused by the elastic
stretching of the cables and the flexural deformations of the girder at
both sides of the tower. Due to this type of load distribution, the type of
cable connection to the tower does affect the performance of the whole
bndge system.
The rigidity of the tower and the way it is fixed to the pier or to the
stiffening girder do not practically influence the behavior of the bridge
system under any loading position. This may be explained by the rela-
tively great height of the tower, which means that its deformation with a
rigid anchorage is similar to that with a hinged support, and part of the
horizontal forces acting on the tower may be neglected.
When the cables are arranged parallel to each other, the forces from
one connection to another can transfer only by bending of the section
~ A ~ SYSTEM I.
"'~
""'
.......-:: ~ t: t---..,.__ .....- ~ ~8 ~ f--.. SYSTEM Ill.
rn mfr
~
nfr
.._
I~ ::= ~ ~ ~
1"\; ~
~
.... ' ,~
~.
-
_,
~~ -:7
.JfT. - ..:.-.. -
.:.: p
"""
-,
~ r-
~
......
1'\. /
~
'~ v
Fig. 8.14 Deflections of
the bridge system ~~7"""":::,~
'./ ::::...~"
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 251
of the tower between them. This may cause substantial bending moments
in the towers. For this reason, with the harp system it is more convenient
to attach only one of the cables, and to connect the remaining ones by
using movable bearings. The most effective scheme may be to use fixed
connections of the upper cable as mostly affecting the performance of the
stiffening girder.
The deflections of the typical cable-stayed bridge system as well as
the influence lines for cable forces and types of cable connections are
shown in Fig. 8.14. The minimum deflections, and therefore the mini-
mum bending moments in the stiffening girder under the radial system,
are obtained with all cable-tower connections fixed (System I I) (Fig. 8.14).
With the fixed connections of the bottom (System I) and middle cables
(System III) cables of the radial system perform similarly to the system
with parallel cables with fixed middle cables (System II).
The reduced participation of cables with fixed connections to the
towers in the performance of the whole bridge system is confirmed also
by comparison of the influence lines for both systems.
I. LINEAR ANALYSIS
Cable-stayed bridge systems are generally many times statically in-
determinate. A statically determinate basic system may be formed by
different methods. The deflections of the basic system under applied
loads may be determined by applying the classical theory of structures
or so-called first-order theory, by neglecting the deformation of the
system when formulating the equilibrium conditions.
For a statically determined basic system, the resulting equations are
linear in the loads and in the internal forces and linear superposition is
valid for the internal forces caused by different loads or load groups.
If Hooke's law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition applies
also to the displacements, and therefore to the determination of the
stresses of cable-stayed bridge systems.
2. GENERAL DATA
The analysis of cable-stayed multiply statically indeterminate bridge
systems is relatively complicated. For this reason it is useful to have
simple and convenient methods providing fast determination of the
dimensions and cross-sections of the elements 7 For this purpose we
consider two typical cable-stayed bridge systems with continuous
stiffening girders, as shown in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16.
252 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
0.214t
r 1 I o. 415ll
0 .--:77 ~~.13BL_.fi ~
1 2 3 4 5 6
I t7 s , 10 l1.n
1
r--.r---.b=+O. 60 l
v "" i'
' r-
v=-0.21 t
- v~n-~ 'l'J
FA1
FA4
FA5
v~-'- r--re-,=+~31t
nJ
FA2
F.
0
FA6 1--
I...., t-
v ~I'- i'
nlJ35t
r-r-
FA3 n. =-0. 00564 L2
M3
r-1-"' .__v
Ms .0. =-0. 0054 7l'
M4 I _Lj_j_
0.018 l ~
~1 M5
I I I
0.~3~t ~ ,\
IDJJ. .
r--r--
M1-2 M6
ll
0.0492L -
~ _l...d.....- ~ ~~=+0. 00802 ~
r-
n11
1 t7 ~~0.00854L2
o.~5jOt
Figures 8.15 and 8.16 show typical influence lines and their areas.
All influence lines for cable forces, except FA 3 in Fig. 8.15, have in the
main span ordinates of practically the same sign. The influence line of
the stay cable A3 has a relatively small negative area, which is about
3-4% of the positive area of the influence line.
For the cable stay AS (Fig. 8.16), the negative area is about 9% of the
positive area, and for A6, about 10%. The remaining two cable stays
have only positive areas of the corresponding influence lines. It may
therefore be reasonable, to determine approximately the cable-stay
forces in the main span, to assume that the live load acts on the main
span only. Also the forces in these cable stays from the dead load will be
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 253
0~
A
0
B
I
1
2
2
0
N3, N2 , N1 \
o. 01512 B 1 3
-- ,..i, 1,--/ /
0. 011 2
o.oos1'
-0.0051
0
2
,.
~ -,L7'
'v
,
I I
--
____,
I
I
'L-::\ ~
' ,
I
{
0.01012
0.00512
-
-0.0112 0~ ./..-
1..-F.: --......: ~:
-
Y'v-~ I~"
-0.015
0. 333l o. 401
0. 4001 0. 431
0. 4441 0.4SL
l L
determined assuming that this loading is located along the main span.
This is because the areas of the influence lines at the side spans are
relatively small or large, but have different signs.
With increase of the middle panel, the locations having the maximum
moment do not change, but the bending moment increases from M =
0.007gP to M=0.0125gP, or about 78%.
If the middle panel is decreased, the bending moment in the middle
of the span also decreases. And the maximum moment is located in the
adjoining panel and is given by M=O.lOSgP. Therefore, this bending
moment is substantially greater than in the case of panels of the same
length. For the case shown in Fig. 8.18, the distribution of the moments
is similar.
If the middle panel is reduced, the maximum moment will be some-
what reduced-by about 4-5% in comparison with the moment diagram
for the case of equal panels.
For the preliminary design it is possible for a cable system with five
equal panels (Fig. 8.17) to use the formula
Mmax ;::::; 0.007gz2 (8.32)
and for one with seven panels (Fig. 4.16)
Mmax ;::::; 0.006gz2 (8.33)
If we consider q as total load (dead and live), then from formulae
(8.32) and (8.33) we may obtain the approximate value of the maximum
bending moment in the stiffening girder under vertical loads. The cable-
stay forces depend on factors such as length of the span, number and
size of panels, if they are of unequal lengths, and angles of inclination
of the cables.
It is possible to exclude the influence of the angles of inclination if
we determine first the vertical components of the cable forces which, as
the analysis shows, depend slightly on the angles of inclination or the
height of the tower.
Figure 8.19 illustrates the influences of the panel lengths on the
vertical components of the cable-stay forces. The average values of these
components may be expressed by a straight line with the equation
v
LEGEND:
0 n= 5 panels
1. 0
n
s.!.n
- 7
~
n ~
....__ c
c
0
pane 1 s
~
the panel length and ~
vertical component of the 0.5 s.!.
cable force n 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 255
where
2 the distances from the towers to the points of the attachments of
=
the cables.
v = vertical component of the cable stay force.
Knowing the vertical components of the stay forces, it is easy to find
the forces as follows :
_ v _ l.SOq/(1-1.062)
F;- -.---- --~~.----~ (8.35)
sm !X; n sm lt;
If the bridge system has five panels (Fig. 8.17), it is possible to find
forces for each cable:
0.237ql 0.174q/
Fl = --.--- F2=-.-
sm rx 1 sm r:x2
(8.36)
Fo = F1 cos rx1+F2 cos r:x 2 = (0.237 + 0.174)_f!}__
cos r:x 0 tan rx 1 tan r:x 2 cos r:x0
By analogy, for seven panels
0.182q/ 0.146q/ 0.117q/
Fl = - . - - F2 = --.--- F3 = - . - -
sm rx 1 sm r:x2 sm rx 3
(8.37)
Fo = (0.182 + 0.146 + 0.117)_f!}__
tan rx 1 tan r:x2 tan rx 3 cos rxo
These formulae allow determination, to the first approximation, of the
forces in the elements of a cable-stayed bridge system under vertical
loadings.
....
5. DETERMINATION OF THE CABLE FORCES IN THE MAIN SPAN
A symmetrical single-span cable-stayed system with a uniformly distrib-
uted load acting along the whole span (Fig. 8.20) is six times statically
indeterminate. The cable forces in the six cable stays could be considered l:I
as redundants. Due to symmetry of the system and loading, the sym- I
metrically positioned cables have equal forces.
The unknown redundants may be determined by using the method of
superposition
X1611 +Xzc512+X3613+~1p = 0
Xlc52l+Xzc522+X3c523+~2p =0 (8.38)
(8.39)
In this formula the first term indicates the bending deformation of the
stiffening girder along the span, and the second the axial deformations
of the cables and towers. Practice shows that the first term is substantially
larger than the second, therefore we may write
j M 2 dx
511 = Jz ----kJ- e11 (8.40)
J1 M 21 dx=3a
2 2 . 2 2b . 2
1 sm 1X 1 +a 11 sm IX 1 (8.41)
Therefore
(8.42)
5 _ Jz M 1M 2 dx (8.40)
12 - EI el2
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 257
+ (a 2 sin a 2 )b 2 J
a 1 sin a 1
Since b2 = l- 2a 2 , we obtain
J, M M
1 2 dx = [a 1 a 2 l-tai-a 1 a~] sin a 1 sin a 2 (8.44)
Therefore
(8.45)
,,.
By analogy, it is possible to determine the remaining coefficients of the
equations (8.38).
r
+ b2) sm 2 IY.2
0
~ a22(2
3a2
u22 = EI 822
(8.46)
qlai qai qP a 1
-------- (8.4 7)
I2EI 24EI 24EI
25 8 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(8.48)
By analogy, we obtain
(8.49)
(8.50)
X1b11 +Xzb12+X3b13+~ 1 x = 0
X1b21 +Xzbzz+X3b23+~2x =0 (8.53)
X1b31 +X2b32+X3b33+~3x =0
The coefficients of the unknowns are the same as in eqs. (8.38), and
they may therefore be determined according to formulae (8.46).
The free terms of the equations are
~ 11 = L: S 1 sat
~ 21 = L S 2 sctt (8.54)
~ 31 = L: S 3 sat
where
ct = the coefficient of the linear deformation of the element
t = the increase of the temperature in F.
both directions. Then, if there are hinges for supports, the system
shown in Fig. 8.21(a) is statically determinate, but that shown in Fig.
8.21(b) is twice statically indeterminate. If, in the system shown in
Fig. 8.2l(b), the stiffening girder has no hinges at the tower, the degree
of statical indeterminancy is increased by two.
Let us consider the system shown in Fig. 8.21 (a) but with the stiffening
girders rigidly connected to the towers (Fig. 8.22). For this system the
basic equations of equilibrium are
X1b11 +X2 b 12 +Ll1P = 0
(8.57)
X1b21 +X2 b 22 +Ll 2 P = 0
There, due to symmetry
(j _ (j
11 - 22 -
_ ~ 5i 1/1 ~
'-- E1Al + '--
fMEIdx 2
(8.58)
The above equation is valid for the cables, parts of the stiffening
girder under compression and the tower in the case of a constant cross-
section. If the cross-section of the tower varies, then the term expressing
the deformation of the tower under compression should be expressed in
the form of the integral
5 2 dx
f EAx
distributed from the top of the tower to the Section A. The integrals are
valid for the bent elements or for the sections of the girder AB and AC
as well as over the top part of the tower.
By analogy, we may obtain
(j
12 -
_ (j _
21 -
~ 5 1 52/1
'-- EA1 +
f M 1 M 2 dx
EI (8.59)
In this formula, the sum and integral are valid only along one element-
the upper part of the tower. In the remaining elements the forces and
moments are equal to zero due to forces X 1 and X 2 . The shape of the
influence line for the cable force X 1 is shown in Fig. 8.22.
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 261
1. STIFFENING GIRDER
The problem of the determination of the approximate own weight of
girders for the preliminary design is not yet properly developed. Techni-
cal literature provides very scarce information on this subject. However,
on the basis of the analysis performed in the previous section it is possible
to obtain very approximate values of the weight of the structure using
formulae (8.32) and (8.33) indicating the maximum bending moments in
the five- and seven-panel bridge systems.
Taking account of the change of temperature, the expression for the
maximum bending moment may be used as follows 7
M = 0.005(1/'g+p+q)F (8.60)
where
g = the theoretical weight of the stiffening girder per linear foot of the
span
p = the uniformly distributed weight of the deck per linear foot of the
span
q = the uniformly distributed live loading carried by a single girder per
linear foot of the span
1/J = the construction coefficient of the stiffening girder.
If we denote by /g the allowable flexural stress, the required section
modulus of the girder is
O.OOS(v,g+p+q)F
w= (8.61)
/g
The section modulus of the stiffening girder may be expressed by its
cross-sectional area. In the case when the cross-section of the girder con-
sists of an I or a box section, and assuming the equal areas of the top and :!
bottom chords (Fig. 8.23), it is possible to write approximately :t,,,,,
:t
Ac(h/2) _ A ~ A h
2 2
_ bh (8.62)
I
w- 6 + h/2 - w 6 +
Assuming that the cross-sectional areas of a single chord and web are
equal, Ac=Aw, therefore A= 3Aw and, from (8.62),iit follows that
(8.63)
and, substituting for W into the above expression from (8.61), we obtain
p+q
(8.67)
gs = [g/I.25lrI/J-l
This formula was obtained without taking into consideration the axial
force acting in the stiffening girder. However, in the middle panel there
is no axial force, and at the sections where large axial forces may originate,
the bending moments, as a rule, are relatively small. Therefore, formula
(8.67) may be used as the first approximation, using the construction co-
efficient 1/1= 1.4.
Formula (8.67) was developed for the five-panel system. In the case of
seven panels, the corresponding formula is
p+q
(8.68)
gs = /g/1.07/}1/J-1
Comparison offormulas (8.67) and (8.68) indicates that for the larger
spans it is more economical to divide the span into a greater number of
panels. The above formulas may provide a satisfactory solution only for
spans in the range of 900-1300 ft (270-400 m).
Larger spans should be divided into nine, eleven and even greater
numbers of panels, to obtain a relatively light stiffening girder.
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 263
2. CABLES
Using the formulas expressing the weight of the stiffening girders, it is
possible to determine the approximate weight of the cables. The loadings
of the cables depend on the number of cables. When reducing the number
of cables, their loadings increase. Therefore, it may be assumed that the
weight of the cables depends to some extent on the number of cables.
On the basis of the above assumptions, the weight of the cables for a
five-panel bridge is determined by using formulas (8.36):
0.237(g+p+q)l
Fl = .
sm 1)(
1
(8.69)
0.174(g+ p+ q)l
F2 = .
sm 1)(2
.
:l(,
.,
Assuming the allowable stress as fc and the specific weight as y, we '.,
.,11
obtain the weights of the cables 'I
,,!
Q = F 1 11 y 0.047(g+ p+q}Py
.,
I
1
fc cos 1)( 1 sin 1)( 1 cos 1)( 1 fc
(8.70)
0.0696(g+ p+q)Py
~=------
sin 1)( 2 cos 1)( 2 fc
I
h= 7= 0.143/
then
tan 1)( 1 = 0.713 tan 1)( 2 = 0.357
Q(l = 35 30' 1)(2 = 19 40'
and
sin 1)(
1
cos 1)( 1 = 0.463 sin 1)( 2 cos 1)( 2 = 0.312
Therefore
2
Ql = 0.102(g+p+q)yl
!c
(8.71)
~ = 0.223(g+ p+q)y/
2
!c
264 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
After distributing the weight of the four cables uniformly along the
span, we obtain the theoretical weight per unit length of the span,
0.65(g+ p+q)yl
gc = Jc (8. 72)
1. BASIC CONCEPTS
Several general basic methods may be employed to carry out the approxi-
mate structural analysis of a cable-stayed bridge. For linear analysis the
'slope~deflection' or any force or energy method could provide us with
the conditions required to determine the unknown redundants and thus to
solve the problem. The same applies for non-linear analysis, except that
...,
the solution of the virtual work, continuity or energy equations becomes ,,
in this case more cumbersome and numerical iteration methods have to I,
'
be employed.
.,
Compared with suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges display a i~
,,,,
different structural behavior. The loads acting on the stiffening girder of
a cable-stayed bridge are transferred to the cables at connections, whereas, (
in the case of a suspension bridge, transverse forces due to the action of 'i
suspension rods are applied along the cables.
The analysis of a cable-stayed bridge may be divided into two parts.
In the first part, bending moments, axial and shear forces and deflections
'
I
due to dead and live loads are determined. In the second part, the post- .l
tensioning forces in the cables required to reduce to specified values the
stresses and strains determined in stage one are calculated.
The analysis discussed is limited to the case of a two-dimensional cable-
stayed bridge system.
:i
.I
~:
:I
2. ANALYSIS BY CLASSICAL METHODS I
The effect of the axial force in the beam sections due to the inclined cables
must be considered in the final analysis. The extent to which the axial
force may influence the design of the beam sections depends on the cable
arrangement.
If we choose the continuous stiffening girder on elastic supports as a
basic system and the cable forces are taken as redundants, then the
amount of the calculation doubles by comparison with the previous cases.
The beam-an-elastic-supports analogy (Fig. 8.25), has been suggested
by Smiths. Intended by its author as a computer method, it may also be
used as a classical method. Smith shows how to determine the equivalent
spring constant for any specific cable-stayed bridge system. For the case
of movable cable-to-tower connections, that is, when cables are free to
slide along their supports, if the shortening of the tower is neglected, the
elastic support spring constant K, the vertical force needed to develop a
unit displacement (Fig. 8.26), may be obtained as follows:
IfF is the internal force in the cable, then from Fig. 8.26,
FL
!1L = (l)x sin a= EA (8.80)
K = Fsin a (8.81)
but from (8.80) we have
EA
F= ysin a (8.82) :;
,,
I
f(TYI liTh
:I
"'
:1
I I I I I ,.~t
1 Fig. 8.25 Beam-on-elastic-
supports analogy
,,:r"
~ ~r----- 1 I
X sinCX.
After substituting (8.82) into (8.81), the value of the elastic sprmg
constant is
EA
K = ysin 2 r:x (8.83)
X = Mn-Mn~t
(8.84)
" a sin r:x
1. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION
As tested designs indicate, the change of stresses, considering the in-
fluence of deformations on cable-stayed systems, does not exceed a few
percent 10 This is mainly because the cable-stayed superstructure per-
forms as a truss system, and the bending moments in the stiffening girder
depend only on the magnitude of deflection of the stiffening girder at the
locations of cable attachments to the girder.
The relatively small influence of the deformation of the whole system
on the magnitudes of the computed forces in the members of the super-
structure justifies the application of approximate methods of analysis.
The simplest solution of the problem is by using the method of suc-
cessive approximations. Having determined the forces as a result of the
initial design, we subsequently find the deformed state of the system
which includes the following:
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 271
I
BRIDGE SYMMETRY
I
llllllllllllklllllllll
I
the displacements of the top of the tower vp and up, and the corres-
ponding joint of the stiffening girder Vv and Uv (Fig. 8.29).
These deformations change the angle of inclination of the cable with
respect to the chord of the girder and consequently lead to the redistri-
bution of the stresses in the girder.
The stress S in the cable becomes S + /:>.S, and the corresponding
vertical and horizontal components change into V + /:>. V and H + !l.H,
where /:>. V, /:>.Hand /:>.S may have positive or negative values.
The first step in the design is the determination of the influence on
the bridge system of the additional components /:>. V and !l.H, and also of
the additional bending moments due to the forces V and H which result
from the deviation of the girder axis from the initial position. The sum
of the additional vertical forces should satisfy the condition 2: V = 0.
By loading the influence lines by these additional vertical forces, we
obtain the corrections !l.M, /:>.N and /:>.S to the first approximation for
the bending moments and normal forces in the stiffening girder and
stresses in the stays, and are able to determine the resultant additional
deformations of the system.
272 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
References
1. Kireenko, B. 1., Cable-Stayed Bridges, Kiev, 196 7 (in Russian).
2. Anonymous, 'Rheinbrucke Bonn Nord', Tiefbau 29-40, 1968.
3. Gimsing, N.]., 'Multispan Stayed Girder Bridges,' Proc. ASCE
Struct. Div., 1989-2003, October, 1976.
4. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 194-210, 1983.
5. Leonhardt, F. and Zellner, W., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges-Report on
Latest Developments', Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
Toronto, 1970.
6. Beyer, E., Nordbrucke Diisseldorj; Landeshauptstadt, Dusseldorf,
1958.
7. Kachurin, V. K., Bragin, A. V. and Erunov, B. G., Design of
Suspension and Cable-Stayed Bridges, Moscow, 1971 (in Russian).
8. Smith, B. S., 'The Single Plane Cable-Stayed Girder Bridge: A
Method of Analysis Suitable for Computer Use', Proc. Ins/. civ.
Engrs, 37, 183-194, July, 1967.
9. Troitsky, M. S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation of Cable-Stayed
Bridges, Report No. 1, Sir George Williams University, October,
1969, pp. 22-26.
10. Feige, A., 'Stahlbri.ickenbau', Stahlbau, Handbuch for Studium und
Praxis, Band 2, Stahlbau-Verlags-GMBH, Koln, 1964.
Chapter 9
11
12
13
14
15
:;
!
,,
,,'!'I
16
~I
i:
17
.;I,,
,,
18
,,:r
19
20
21 24
22 25
26
23
~
18
2Q ;
forces due to a uniform distributed load of 1 kips per linear foot along the
stiffening girder.
To obtain moment envelopes, each third line (columns 2-67) is scanned
and all positive terms are accumulated successively in a column vector
AMAP. The same is done for the negative terms which are added and
stored in AMAN.
The next operation is to multiply AMAP by (L x LL )/5 and the first
column of AMA by DL/1000 and to add the results. This gives the final
AMAP, that is the ordinates of the bending moments at bar ends due to
the most critical combination of dead and live loads. The same procedure
is employed for AMAN and also for axial and shear forces.
The total computer time required to calculate and print the envelopes
is 15 s.
The computer program has been written in USASI FORTRAN
language for the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 3300 computer. This
machine has 80k words of core storage (one word is equal to twenty-four
bits) which represents a memory roughly equivalent to 320k bits on the
IBM 360 series. The computer has full floating points and character
hardware, eight disk drives with a total capacity of about 65 million
characters, 5 tape units, 1 printer, 2 terminals, l card reader, one punch,
one plotter and a multiplexor connected to the TWX network.
After erection, the cable-stayed bridge is under the action of dead load
only. The bending moments and deflections of the stiffening girder may
be reduced by post-tensioning the cables. A procedure which permits the
reduction of the maximum bending moment due to dead load may be
programmed on a digital computer.
The released structure will be chosen as shown in Fig. 9.5.
a2.2X2+a2.3X3++a2.12X12 = A2.1+A2.2X1
a3,2X2+a3,3X3+ .. +a3,12X12 = A3,1+A3,2X1
(9.4)
where
[a]= (9.6)
From (9.5)
(9.11)
Relation (9.2) may be rewritten as
il',,
!'
M,(C 0 -1) = M; X 1 +(M,)*{X} (9.12)
'I
where (.I,,
(9.13) i
2.6 The bending moments, axial and shear forces due to a unit load
applied along cable I are calculated:
3.2
and 17 are then multiplied by C0 and stored in vector AJ.
Matrix JD is assembled from the first eleven rows and row 17 of
:I
,,
\,I
matrix DJ.
3.3 The post-tensioning forces in cables are determined from j
1
X= JD- *AJ
(4) Final bending moments, axial and shear forces, reactions and dis- il
placements due to post-tensioning are calculated from
!Il I
La
~~ = -A,-----E---,--,--;;2:-ll-=- (9.19a)
a s1n ua
e_ Le
fe- A e E Sln
. 2 8e (9.19b)
(a)
INFLEXIBLE LEVER
(b) (c)
where His the height of the tower and AT its cross-sectional area.
The rotation of the tower lowers the connections D and E by BD x
and -BE x , respectively. These additional deflection terms must be
added to eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c). Also, there are the increases Vaf'd and
Vef~ in the deflections at D and E respectively, due to the flexibility of
the springs. Therefore, in eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c), the coefficient .faa must
be modified to faa+ fa and lee to lee+J~.
As the tower shortens, the anchorage of the cables connected to D and
E drops by a further amount of ( Va+ Ve)fT. Therefore, the coefficients
of Vd and Ve must be further modified by the addition of jT, the tower
flexibility, to each of eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c).
Due to the angular rotation of the tower, the equation obtained by
taking moments for the tower about its hinge is
(9.21)
284 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Ji,b he 0 ~b
(9.24)
feb ifee+f~+fy) -BE ~0
0 -BE 0 0
The upper left-hand part of the coefficient matrix would be the flexi-
bility matrix for the structure if the tower were fixed against rotation.
The additional right-hand column and bottom row arise from the rota-
tion and stability of the tower, respectively. Since the unknowns include
a displacement, as well as forces, the method falls into a 'mixed' category.
Let us consider the following bridge systems:
tion of the tower in proportion to its distance from the base of the tower,
and all points are affected equally by the shortening of the tower. Thus the
coefficient of the matrix is
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 285
(9.26) ,,
J db- AGE :'
If the support at A resists longitudinal forces, then the axial compo-
nent from the cable must be divided into a tensile component along AD
and a compressive one along DB. The size of each component is inversely
proportional to the length along which it acts. In this case, the shortening
of DB will be
Lad Vd cot edLdb
(9.27)
Lab AGE
and the coefficient must be modified by adding ..
il
2 (I
!Yb = Lad Ldb cot ed (9.28)
Lab AGE
If a multi-cable system is used, as in Fig. 9.8, the drop of G and D will
be given by
(V9 cot 89 + Vd cot 8d) cot 89 L 9b
AGE
and
(V9 cot 89 L 9b+ Vd cot 8dLdb) cot ed
AGE
respectively. The coefficients of both V 9 and Vd must be modified in
each of the equations for compatibility at G and D.
286 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.30)
To account for the bending of the tower, the coefficients of Vi, Vk> V9
and Vh in eq. (9.30) must be added to the appropriate coefficients in the
row of the coefficient matrix representing compatibility at J. The co-
efficients in the G, K and H rows must be modified also in a similar way.
4. CANTILEVERED TOWER
In case the tower is cantilevered from the top of the pier, a hinged rota-
tion of the tower is prevented. Therefore, the row and column of the
modified flexibility matrix, representing the equilibrium of the tower
and deflection of the girder resulting from its rotation, respectively, may
be omitted.
:)
:I
I
.,
II
t!
:t
Fig. 9.10 Tower q
cantilevered from base '
and
288 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
F'
c'
'Y
SPRING REPRESENTING VERTICAL
G ANALOGOUS
STRUCTURE
FLEXIBILITY OF TOWERS I NFL EX I BLE LEVERS
il
iii
''
'~
9.3.2 Analysis of the double-plane cable-stayed system
(+')Lbd
and
2
respectively, and the corresponding twists are
and
r r
(b) Due to the flexibility of the cables, the center-line of the girder at
D and E deflects by
and
and
r r
To account for these actions, coefficient hd and fee in eqs. (9.32a) and
(9.32c), respectively, must be modified to
and
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 291
rt/1 dd rt/1 ee
and
2 2
must be modified to
r
where fr is the vertical flexibility of the tower. Hence, the coefficients of
( Va+ V~) and ( Ve + V~) in each of eqs. (9.32a) and(9.32c) must be further
modified by the addition of fr/2 and the coefficients of ( Va- V~) and
(Ve- V~) in each of eqs. (9.32d) and (9.32f) must be increased by fr/r.
(d) Because the rotations of the towers and 'have been introduced
as additional unknowns, two more equations are necessary for solution,
considering the equilibrium of each tower by taking moments about its
hinge at the base
o ~ lv,
ri/Jbd/2 ri/Jbd/2 '"'bb/2 - ri/Jbb/2 ri/Jbe/2 - ri/Jbe/2 0 "'b
ri/Jedf2+JT/r -(ri/Jed/2+/T/r) ri/Jeb/2 -ri/Jeb/2 (ri/J f2+f~/r+fr/r) - (rl/1 eef2+f~/r+ fr/r) -Lbe/r Lb~/r ;; 1/Je
Lbd 0 0 0 -Lbe 0 0 0
0 Lbd 0 0 0 -Lbe 0 0 c/J' 0
.!I
il'
~I
Fig. 9.14 Cable-stayed
bridge with cantilever
towers ,.[
.. ,
:lj',,
2. DOUBLE-PLANE CABLE SYSTEM WITH A TRIANGULAR TOWER ".,
If the two planes of cables are concentrically connected to a single tri-
angular tower, as illustrated in Fig. 9.15(a), then the previously separate
tower rotations and ' will be constrained to a single value . "I
An advantage of this arrangement is the increase in torsional stiffness .I
of the girder, due to the impossibility of any differential rotation of the
towers. The rotational equilibrium of the combined tower is now depen-
dent on the horizontal components from all the cables for which only a
single equation is required. Therefore, eq. (9.33) now becomes
Lbd vd ~d
0 v~ ~b
-Lbc vb ~e
Matrix flexibility
0 Vi, l/ld (9.34)
matrix, corresponding to that in
eq. (9.33) 0 ve l/lb
0 V'e l/Je
Lbd Lbd 0 0 -Lbc -Lbe 0 <P 0
294 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(a) If the legs of the portal are free to twist, the legs are subjected only
to bending, and the portal strut only to twisting, giving a distorted form,
as shown in Fig. 9.16(b). In this case, the longitudinal out-of-plane
deflection {J, at the top of the towers is given by
(9.35)
where
1J,Lbd
H
with a consequent twist of the girder at D equal to
""'"I
'l'e Hr
I
Except for the effects of warping of the portal, the behavior of the :1
structure and its analysis will be the same as that for the double-plane 'I
single-tower structure. Therefore, the system may be represented by I
eq. (9.34) except that the coefficients of Vd and Vein the fourth row of the
matrix, which establish torsional compatibility at D, must be modified
by the addition of
and
respectively.
Similarly, the coefficients of Vd and Ve in the sixth row of the matrix,
which establish torsional compatibility at E, must be modified by the
addition of
and
respectively.
296 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(b) If the supports of the portal are restrained against rotation in the
horizontal plane, the legs and the strut are subjected to both bending and
twisting, giving a distorted configuration as shown in Fig. 9.16(c). It may
be shown by an energy analysis that the resulting twist of the girder at D
is equal to
(9.38)
where
9.3.3 Conclusions
analysis, including the formulation of the matrices and the final computa-
tion of the moments and shears, should be programmed.
i i!
The main structural characteristic of a cable-stayed bridge is the use of 1j
inclined cables, which, by acting as supports for the bridge girder and
replacing the intermediate piers, enable the girder to span a longer
l
:11
distance. However, this introduces high compressive stresses in both the
.,
bridge girder and the towers (Fig. 9.17) and increases bending moment
and deformations in these elements.
Because this increase is nonlinear or not proportional to the compressive
stress, the analysis becomes more complicated. To analyse these stresses,
a computer program has been developed using the reduction method 10 .
In the analysis, the bridge girder and the towers are divided into intervals
by joints, with the length of intervals taken at random in the calculation.
While the stiffness and the slope within each interval are assumed as
constant, the interval must be kept sufficiently small to make this assump-
tion valid. Experience has indicated that subdividing each span into about
five or six intervals yielded satisfactory results. All supports and cable
connections must be joints.
Fig. 9 .I H Interval of
girder or tower
1 .
+ E ,(3eL2 cos {3-L 3 tan {3-6aL sm {3)Q,
6 1
1
+ 6EI' (6e 2 L cos {3 + 3eL 2 sin {3- L 3 tan2 {3- 3eL2 tan {3
+ 6L cos {3)Nn (9.40a)
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 299
wn+l =
1
wn+L</Jn+ ZEI'(- L 2 - 2eL sm
. f3 )Mn
I
M = bending moment I
N = horizontal force .I
Q = vertical force
E = modulus of elasticity
..
:I
.1
;,
In eqs. (9.40), axial stress deformation, eccentricity of horizontal force :l,/
and slope of the element have been taken into consideration. However, ..
the effect of shear deformation is neglected.
It should be noted that N and Q in the preceding equations are the
sums of the horizontal and vertical components of the axial and shear
forces acting on the cross-section, as shown in Fig. 9.18. Along with the
bending moment M, they are assumed to act at the system axis of the
section. Because the slope and the position of the neutral axis may change
from interval to interval, these notations have the advantage of saving the
work of transforming the forces and deformations from one local co-
ordinate system to another local coordinate system as the slope or position
of neutral axis changes.
300 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Un
wn
cPn
yn = (9.41)
Mn
~
Nn
eq. (9.40) can be written as
(9.42)
in which Fn is the field matrix which contains simply the coefficients of
eq. (9.40).
Using the reduction method, calculation can be started from any
arbitrary point of the bridge. For symmetrical or semi-symmetrical
bridges, the calculation may begin from both ends towards the middle of
the bridge. This procedure reduces some operations and is advantageous
if the bridge is exactly symmetrical. For unsymmetrical bridges, however,
such a method may complicate the programming procedures and increase
the number of redundants. Because the present program deals with both
symmetrical and unsymmetrical bridges, the calculation will proceed
from the extreme left end to the right end of the girder and, separately,
from the top to the bottom of the towers.
Three of the six quantities at the extreme left end of the girder are
unknown. They are u, Q and cjJ if the girder is simply supported, and M,
Q and N if the girder is fixed. The three deformations, u, w and cjJ at the
top of each tower are also unknown. Other redundants will appear auto-
matically as the calculation proceeds. They are the reactions at supports,
cable forces and the quantities ~M, ~Q and ~Nat the junctions of girder
and tower, if these exist.
External loads are assumed to exist at the joints only and all linear
loadings will be summed up to form point loads at these joints. Because
the intervals are small, this, however, does not affect the accuracy of the
result.
For convenience of expression, external load is defined to include all
vertical and horizontal loads, moments, settlement of supports, change in
temperature and forced distortions.
Putting all redundants into one column matrix, X, the state vector at
any point of the bridge can be expressed as
(9.43)
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 301
For the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(a), the resultant horizontal com-
ponent of the cable forces must vanish. Therefore the following equations
may be applied:
I!.L = 11Lieft + 11Lright = 0 (9.47a)
S 1 cos cx1+S, cos ex,= 0 (9.47b)
And for the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(b), the equations are eq. (9.47a) and
(9.47c)
Putting all load terms onto one column matrix, A 0 , the system of
equations for the solution of the redundants can be expressed as
AX= A 0 (9.48a)
in which A contains only elements picked from matrices Z;, and A 0 only
those corresponding elements from matrices L;.
Because matrix A, which depends only on the physical characteristics
of the bridge, is independent of A 0 or external loads, it will be calculated
only once. Term A 0 must be calculated for every loading condition and
influence line. If A is inverted, giving B =A -I, the redundants are simply
X= BA 0 (9.48b)
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 303
(9.49b) "1
.l
;,
a 3 = effect of non-uniform stress distribution in girder or tower due to :l,/
the influence of T K.
..
Because the live load which gives the maximum values of Mi or Ni does
not necessarily result in the maximum value off,., either the three influence
lines for Mi, Ni and T K must be evaluated simultaneously, or an influence
line in the form of eq. (9. 49a) be evaluated in order to obtain the maximum
and the minimum/... The latter is the simpler procedure.
Combined influence lines in the form of eq. (9.49a) can be calculated by
simple superposition. Instead of the unit deformations or distortion,
!J.cpi, IJ.ui and !J.lc = 1 a combined distortion
(9.49c)
304 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
is applied. The resulting deflection curve of the bridge is the influence line
offr.
Many other combined influence lines can be obtained in the same way.
The differential cable tension on a cable saddle, the relative movement of
the bearing plates at supports, etc., are examples for which combined
influence lines are necessary.
In order to simplify the evaluation of stresses and deformation due to
uniform loads, the area included by the influence lines should be esti-
mated. This can be done by subdividing each interval into equal or
unequal parts and integrating the area numerically by means of the
trapezoidal rule. The positive and negative parts are then summed to
form the maximum and minimum. Influence lines may also be modified
according to the corresponding specifications to include the effect of
impact and wind.
1. CABLES
In the analysis, all cables are treated as straight members and represented
geometrically by their chords. The actual shape of a cable hanging freely
under its own weight and tensioned at both ends is a catenary. However,
the catenary is usually replaced by a quadratic parabola to avoid tedious
where
G = the total weight of the cable
L = the length of the chord
H = the horizontal component of cable tension T.
The third and subsequent terms in the bracket are very small compared
to the first and second terms, so that they can be neglected. Then, the
differentiation of eq. (5.50) yields
(9.51)
lfEc and Ac are the modulus of elasticity and cross-sectional area of the
cable, respectively, the elongation of the cable due to the change of His
approximately
ds s
(9.52)
dH ECAC cos (J.
dL
(9.53)
dH
On the right-hand side of this equation, the first term, which is linear,
represents the elastic elongation of the cable and the second term, which ..
1
is nonlinear and inversely proportional to H 3 , expresses the change in .l
chord length due to the change in shape of the parabola as H changes. :,
J
Therefore, a modified stiffness of cable should be used in the analysis. I
'
Using the chord length as the length of cable, eq. (9.53) gives
(9.54a)
in which
(9.54b)
with
(9.55b)
r 1 = l+G 2 cos 5 r:t.EcAc(H1 +Hz)fl2HiH~
which is obtained by integrating eq. (9.53).
For linear analyses, where cable stiffnesses are kept constant throughout
the whole analysis without any correction, experience showed that
(9.56)
(9.57)
I
{
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/ex
K = (EA)o-(EA)n S (9.58)
(EA)o n-1
in which (EA) 0 is used for the calculation of the matrices A and B, (EA)n
is calculated from eq. (9.53) with H 1 =HvL and H 2 =Sn_ 1 cos r:t., where
sn-1 is the cable force resulted from the (n-l)th iteration.
A second nonlinear effect of cable is caused by the change of the angle r:t.
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 307
due to displacement at both ends (Fig. 9.23). This change in slope, or the
rotation of the chord, is small compared to the original slope. Therefore,
the changes in vertical and horizontal components of the cable forces are
approximately
1'1H = - S sin IY. 1'1a (9.59)
1'1 v = s cos IY. !'11Y. (9.60)
where
II
2. GIRDERS AND TOWERS !
The differential equation
l'!
d4 w d2w
El= - = q+S- (9.64) 'i:
ds4 ds 2
.l,,,i
will be solved iteratively by assuming the last term to be an imaginary load :!',f
which will be calculated in every iteration from the result of the preceding '
iteration, and then added to the external load q. The recursion
(9.65)
4. CONCLUSIONS
The reduction method for the linear and nonlinear analysis of cable-
stayed bridges is convenient for design purposes. The nonlinear effects
are assumed to be imaginary external loads in the calculation which
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 309
results from the relatively simple procedure. The matrix method is very
suitable for using digital computers.
By comparing the results of different iterations, the designer can have a
good understanding how nonlinearity affects the stresses. Usually, this
influence is small for the main girder, where the allowable deflection is
also an important criterion, and is larger for the towers, the stability of
which deserves attention as well.
In many cases, the designer may find the most critical condition govern-
ing the design is not the one due to heavy traffic but rather one during
some erection stage, when the cables are stressed relatively low. In these
cases, it is necessary to use nonlinear analysis for the cable-stayed bridge
system.
9.5.1 Introduction
In order to use only the originally accepted computer program, the new
assumptions were incorporated in the original system.
n
for i = j = 1, ... n
and errors f > 0.1 x 10- 4 are noted. No errors were noted during the
simu.lation, due to the use of 18 digits in the mantissa. Similarly, by
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 311
1. BASIC SYSTEM
Figure 5.26 shows dimensions, stiffness and loading of the bridge system.
As a test case for all simulations, a loading of 2.0 Mp/m on the right side
span was chosen. Beside this, an example for cable prestressing and for
some influence line was calculated. The accuracy was approximately the
same for every computation.
2. SYSTEM NO. I
1
In System No. 1, the tower has a fixed support, and the main girder has a 1
fixed support at the abutment; there is no connection between the tower
and main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the cables to the
l'
'
tower are fixed (Fig. 9.27).
This system completely satisfies the requirements of the program.
Simulations are not necessary. The results agree with an exact calculation
with approximately 7 digits.
3. SYSTEM NO. 2
System No. 2, shown in Fig. 9.28 has the tower with a fixed support, all
bearings of the main girder are movable; there is no connection between
the tower and the main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the
cables to the tower are fixed.
312 CAB LE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
2.0 Mp/m
1111111111111111111111111111111111111
~~i
co
"'
0
0
0
"'
0
0
0
0 ~ co
_,. 0
- 0
0
0
~ :t 10
20
30 40
:c
>-
"'
'-'
"'0
0
oa:
u.J
co
0
</>07
V>>-
#fa
I
:>:z ou
i5 li!- "'u.J
</>
-'
LENGTH
24 32 28 21 30
IN m.
MOMENT
OF INERTIA 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.017 0.020
MAIN IN m4
GI ROER
CROSS
SECTION 0.12 0.12 0.12 0. 13 0.14
IN m2
MODULUS OF
ELASTIC tTY
E = 2.1 x 1 o7 Mp/m2
CROSS
SECTION A = 0 .006/m 2
IN m2
CABLE
MODULUS OF
E = 1.6 x 107 Mp/m2
ELASTIC I TV
Fig. 9.26 Geometry, System No. 2 differs from System No. 1 in that in this case the main
stiffness and loading of
the bridge system
girder has all movable bearings.
The following simulation is used: In supporting point 50, a horizontal
fixed support is assumed, and the girder between points 40 and 50 is
assumed to have a very small axial stiffness (cross-sectional area A is very
small). The simulation can only be done in those parts of the girder where
there is initially no axial force. If both end supports are connected to the
inclined cables, and therefore axial force acts throughout the girder, one
end has to be extended. This imaginary extension includes a piece of
girder with a very small axial stiffness and with a fixed support at the end.
The calculation has been done with different assumed cross-sectional
areas, Ai=A 50 a.
The accuracy attained by the simulation is shown in Table 9.1 (page
314). In addition to the shown numbers a, one calculation was done with
a= 10- 14 . Even then, no instability of the calculation occurred. The
results are in general agreement with an exact calculation with 6 digits.
4. SYSTEM NO. 3
System No. 3, shown in Fig. 9.29, has a tower with fixed support, one
fixed bearing at the girder, and the normal force acting on the tower at the
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 313
~
2 3
4.
50 Fig. 9.27 General
0
~ ~(A)
' ,_
'-----------
-------+ "" Fig. 9.30 General
arrangement of System
No4
intersection of the girder and tower, and attachments of the cables to the
tower are fixed.
This system differs from System No. 1, because at point 20 the reaction
of the main girder is introduced in the tower as a vertical load.
Simulation: In the original System No. 1, the main girder has no
support in point 20. A vertical cable of 1 mm length is assumed to connect
the tower with the main girder at their intersection. The cross-sectional
area of this cable can be assumed very large (e.g. A= 1024 m 2 ); no in-
stability can occur in the calculation. No differences are necessary in the
steps of the simulation, and accuracy is as before.
314 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
5. SYSTEM NO. 4
System No. 4, shown in Fig. 9.30, has a tower with fixed support,
movable bearings at the girder, the normal and transverse force in the
tower from the girder at the tower-girder intersection, and fixed attach-
ments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. 1, because the vertical and
horizontal forces are introduced in the tower at point 20 (bolted connec-
tion between main girder and tower).
Simulation: The absence of a horizontal immovable bearing is simulated
as in System No.2 (a= 10- 14 ). The connection between tower and main
girder is replaced by a vertical and a horizontal cable, each 1 mm in length.
The cross-sectional area of these cables is the same as in System No. 2.
6. SYSTEM NO. 5
System No. 5, shown in Fig. 9.31, has a tower with hinged support, a
fixed bearing at the girder, no connection between the tower and main
girder at their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the
tower.
Simulation: The tower is replaced by a simply supported beam with
cantilever. The cantilever has the same length and the same moment of
inertia as the tower. The simply supported beam has a length of only
1.5 mm and a very small amount of inertia Ji= }60 y.
The calculation was done using different values of y, and the accuracy
attained is shown in Table 9.2.'Besides the numbers shown, one calcula-
tion was done withy= 10- 12 . No instability occurred. There was prac-
tically no difference between the two results which, to 7 digits, generally
agreed with the exact calculation.
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 315
7. SYSTEM NO. 6
System No. 6, shown in Fig. 9.32, has a tower with hinged support,
movable bearings at the girder, a rigid link between tower and girder at
their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. ~ as follows: the tower and the
main girder have a fixed connection at the intersection, the tower has a
hinged end support, and the main girder has movable bearings. At 0:5 m
on both sides of the intersection, the tower and main girder have the cross-
sectional properties J = oo and A= oo.
Simulation: The missing fixed bearing is simulated as in System No.2
and the missing fixed end of the tower is simulated as in System No. 5. In
order to have approximately the same magnitude of the matrix elements
for both simulations, the values ll.= 10- 10 and y= 10- 12 were chosen.
The rigid connection between tower and main girder is replaced by
three short cables of infinite axial stiffness. At a distance a above the
intersection, two cables are attached to the tower. On each side a cable is
leading under an angle of 45 to the fixing point on the main girder. The
third cable is arranged horizontally. The calculation was done for
a=0.5 m and for a=O.l m. There is practically no difference between the
two results. The results are in general agreement with an exact calculation
to 7 digits. Only the influence lines for forces near the intersection point
do not show this accuracy. For example, the influence line for bending
moment which is located 0.5 m to the right of the intersection point,
shows an error of maximum 0.05%. For practical use, however, this value
can be neglected.
316 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~---~- '"'"1ri
END OF
_____
z /
, I
=
A. = A
ro
8. SYSTEM NO. 7
System No.7, shown in Fig. 9.33, has a tower with fixed support, a fixed
bearing at the girder, and no connection between the tower and girder at
their intersection; cables 1 and 4 have fixed attachments to the tower,
while cables 2 and 3 are supported at the tower by movable bearings.
Here, the difference from System No. 1 is that cables 2 and 3 are con-
nected to the tower by a horizontal movable bearing. No shear forces can
be introduced at this point.
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 317
9. SYSTEM NO. 8
System No. 8, shown in Fig. 9.34, has a tower with fixed support, a fixed
bearing at the girder, no connection between the tower and girder at their
intersection, cables 1 and 4 have fixed attachments to the tower, cables 2
and 3 are supported at the tower by the roller.
In this case, the difference from System No. 1 is as follows: cables 2
and 3 cannot be considered separately. There is one cable wrapped over a
roller which is fixed at the tower.
Simulation: Even when the two cables are treated separately, there is
only one common redundant. The rows and columns in the system
matrix corresponding to the two cables are added. This way, the order of
the matrix is reduced by one. The solution is in general agreement with
the exact solution to the first 7 digits.
9.6.1 Introduction
(j
;,.
System No. I System No.2 System No.3 System No.4 System No.5 System No.6 System No.7 System No.8 Ill
r
tTl
I
...,
(JJ
Cable 1 N 122.90 133.75 122.89 122.60 135.02 133.20 126.14 126.76 ;,.
-<
tTl
Cable 2 N 28.05 60.65 28.08 27.08 43.08 47.47 63.70 63.14 t:l
Ill
Cable 3 109.06 109.09 110.29 94.17
N 71.61 88.20 65.24 63.14
s"'
Cl
Cable 4 N 97.25 127.51 97.24 96.50 108.47 107.39 133.64 134.93 tTl
(JJ
(9.69)
!
~"'~
,;,qA
Fig. 9.35 Cable-stayed
bridge with moveable
tower-cable connections
where
A = area of cross-section
Ec = equivalent modulus of elasticity of cable
L = length of movable cable
a = angle of cable inclination
[SM] 111 , = stiffness matrix of movable cable
The error produced by neglecting the nonlinear behavior of the cable-
stayed bridge may, however, reach 12.4%.
(1) For the girder and towers, the axial loads are used to compute the
stiffness functions 23 Sh 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 of the member stiffness matrix, eq.
(9.70):
-EA 0 0 -EA 0 0
L L
12Els GEis 2 -12Efs GEl 5
0 ------u- I
L2
0 --y;r I ---y;r 2
0 GEls --L-
-y;r 2Eis 3
2 0 --u-
-GEls
2
2El S
--L- 4
[SM] = (9.70)
-EA 0 EA
L
0
--r- 0 0
-l2Efs -GEls
I --u- 2
12Eis -GEls
0 --y;r 0 --y;r I --u- 2
0 GEls
-y;r 2
2El S
-r 0 --u-
-GEls
2
41 S
--L- 3
I:X!\CT ,\IETIIODS OF STRGCTCR/\L :\:\:\LYSIS 321
where
[SM] = stiffness matrix of tower or girder member
E = modulus of elasticity
A = area of cross-section
I = moment of inertia of cross-section
L = length of member
(2) For cables, the axial load is employed to determine the modified
modulus of elasticity.
(9. 71)
where
This equivalent modulus E" is used in the cable stiffness matrices, eqs.
(9.69) and (9.72), instead of actual modulus E.:
1 0 0 -1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
E,A 0 0 0 0 0 0
fSM]rc = (9.72)
L -1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
(3) Computer program. A program for the CDC 3300 digital computer
was written in Algol on the basis of the preceding principles. The
program has shown good convergence after six iterations. The general
outline of the program is the following:
i Linear subroutine:
(a) Read structural data and loads.
(b) Assemble the overall stiffness matrix from the appropriate member
stiffness matrix (use three types of member stiffness matrices: type
one for girder and tower members, type two for fixed cables, type
three for movable cables.
322 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(5) Numerical example. An example was worked out for the cable-stayed
bridge shown in Fig. 9.38. The loads considered were 6000 lb per lin. ft.
The final stress resultants including the influence of nonlinearity are
presented in Table 9.4.
A2=
A :
3
Fig. 9.38 Example used
for the calculation of ,.,
stress resultants !. I IOU ft 450ft .1
9. 7.1 Introduction
(9.73)
(9. 74)
(9.75)
The relationship between the displacements at the cable ends, X1 and x/,
is more involved and is dependent on the type of cable saddle used (Fig.
9.40). For a fixed saddle, the cable forces are (Fig. 9.40 (a)):
where
(9.77)
S,
(9.78)
cos a;
S=-
.1
--:....5;
cosa 1
(9.79)
-1
CJiz + Cz(iz' {CtYc}
hz- hz J y,
(9.80)
where I is the unit matrix. Once the redundant forces have been solved,
all the other displacements and internal forces of the structures can be
determined.
326 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The computer program developed can be used for solving plane frame
cable-stayed structures, since it is only necessary to use the appropriate
flexibility coefficients (for the frame member) in eq. (9.73).
Figure 9.41 (a) shows a plane frame cable-stayed bridge. Figure 9.41 (b)
shows a three-dimensional bridge with a bridge deck width b = 40 m,
such that the overall moments of inertia for all transverse sections are the
same. Figure 9.41 (c) shows two different loading cases to be considered:
a full uniformly distributed load and a partial uniformly distributed load
over half of the deck. These loads are equivalent to the line load for the
girder of the plane frame structure. Due to symmetry, only half of the
bridge is analyzed, and the deck is divided into 56 shell elements. The
cable forces and the deflections and bending moments of the mid-span
are compared with the results of the plane frame analysis.
i if t II I J I I I J I I I I J II l 1!! t/m
Icl
Load 1
~:::::::::::::::4i t/m 2
The results for the full uniformly distributed load (load 1) are
symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal center line of the bridge, and
the transverse variations of deflections and moments are quite small.
Therefore, the bridge can be safely analyzed as a plane frame structure
under such loads.
On the other hand, the partial uniformly distributed load (load 2) is
not symmetrical with respect to the center line of the bridge and the
forces and displacements at symmetrical points are now different, with
the discrepancies becoming larger with increasing bridge width.
Figure 9.42 shows the influence surfaces (b = 40 m) which show that
eccentric loads will induce significantly different responses at sym-
EXACT METHODS OF STRliCTliRAL Al'\ALYSIS 327
I I
-0.3
f 0.0
0.3
!i#llif!/llll.. 1 ob .3o
/~-'i<<f!!M$'z/l
0
f
I I I 1_ 0 3
0.0
0.3
1
W!!fiil11!
79/~'; 2
. r-0.0003
0 0
0 000.3
Fig. 9.42 Typical
(d) Deflection at point B influence surfaces
metrical points on two sides of the bridge. Such transverse behavior will
not be brought out by the single plane frame.
The well known displacement method using the lumped mass technique
is employed here. To simplify the analysis, the cables are treated as
springs, thus implying that they can take up compression as well as
tension.
The example shown in Fig. 9.41 (a), (b) (b = 20 m) is used for free
vibration analysis. In order to understand better the effect of the cables
on the dynamic behavior of the structures, three different sectional areas
and a different cable arrangement (8 cables instead of 4), as shown in
Fig. 9.43, are used for the three-dimensional structure. The mass per
unit length of the bridge is kept constant for all cases.
An examination of the results shows that the cables have a stiffening
effect and tend to raise the frequencies significantly with increasing cable
area, and that for the same total cable area, the number of cables used
has little effect on the frequencies.
328 CABI.E-STWED BRIDGES
The mode shapes of the deck and towers for the case of 0.03 m 2 cables
are plotted in Fig. 9.44, while the mode shapes of the girder and towers
are shown in Fig. 9.45. The torsional modes can be obtained only when
the bridge is treated as a time-dimensional structure.
-- 1 '
..
Fig. 9.44 Mode shapes
of deck and towers
~ (c) Transverse mode 3 ( f )Transverse mode 2
d=-=-h
Mode 1
~7~
Mode 2
The finite element method which has been applied to the static and
dynamic analysis of cable-stayed bridges shows that the plane frame
analysis commonly used in design is insufficient to explain all aspects of
behavior of the cable-stayed bridges.
9.8.1 Introduction
rp-
w I
parison with the dimensions of the cross-section, and that the shear
stresses in the walls are uniformly distributed.
l3
Fig. 9.47 Three span
cable-stayed bridge lf2
1- I ~d a
0
I t X
- dh
I--
~-- --
dh
girder. Cross-seLtion
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 331
l t
TI + Fig.'). 49 Decomposition
of vertical load
V = ('la+"{b) a
c 2h
lxa
_____._
2h
-1 xa
2h
~
V=-~
c 2h
(9.82)
and
(9.83)
we obtain
(9.84)
d6
lo=l2(1-i)
p(z)-(qa+qb) a3
d4qa
Elx 24EB dz 4
From (9.82), it follows that qb= Kq 0 and after substituting this value into
the above equation, we obtain
p(z) 24EB
(9.86)
By designating
),n=bI ~(l+K) J
J[6Bb (9.87)
(9.89)
where
q1 (a) = the general solution of the homogeneous equation, and
q2 (a) = the partial solution of the general equation.
Both solutions will be obtained following the method developed by
Krylov 28 .
(a) It is convenient to express the general solution in hyperbolic
functions as follows :
(9.92)
where
Y1 = cosh a cos a }
Y2 : t<c.osh a s_in a+sinh a cos a)
(9.93)
Y3 - 2 smh a sm a
Y4 =-!:(cosh a sin a-sinh a cos a)
334 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Table 9.S.
(9.95)
q2(rx) = - 4pK
1+ o
ia
Y4 (rx-t) dt = -p- [1- Y1 (rx)]
1+K
= _P_(l-coshrxcosrx) (9.96)
l+K
Therefore, the complete solution is
- 2 Y2 - qa(li.)a2 - 0
y- a - 12EB -
or
(9.99)
we obtain
(9.104)
mq = -2[(l+K)qaG+xr)- Pxr]
(9.105)
= -(1 + K)qaa+ [p-(1 + K)qa]2xT
where xT is the distance of the centre of torsion from the web of a half-
section.
From the vertical forces acting on a half cross-section
(9.106)
I~
L,
I~ ~II
ll
l I l lq
/.cysc~1 !I
I Rf2 R R I
tl ~r, t rI
i= ~" E I
I
M =-Ra
p
Mp=-Ra
I Cmq
I I
I~ k .r
r< Fig. 9.53 Concentrated
torques and angle of twist
of the continuous free body
beam
(9.108)
(9.109)
where
1
'
J
dz 1+K{ C
(l+K) o qadada=-;_- CzY3(A/)- 44[Yt(.A./)-1]
Mp = - pa { 1---;-
2xr (D-1)}
----ys- I (9.111)
338 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The girder undergoes not only bending but also torsion when subjected
to a transverse load which does not pass through the shear centre. The
external torsional moment acting on the girder could be divided into
two components: proper torsional moment mvn and the bending torsional
part mvn, or
(9.112)
Between the torsional moment and twist angle exists the known
relation
and
mvn =
where
GIT = the torsional rigidity of the cross-section
Eiw = the sectorial rigidity of the cross-section.
The differential equation of combined torsion and bending can be
written as follows:
(9.113)
(9.114)
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 339
where 1/t is the particular solution which may be found following the
method of initial parameters used by Vlasov27 .
First the zero of the coordinate z is placed in some arbitrary section of
the girder. It is assumed that all the geometrical and statical factors
involved in the description of torsion of the girder under the law of
sectorial areas have definite values prescribed for this initial section.
Denoting these factors by 1/1 0 , 81/f 0 /8z, M 0 and N 0 respectively, it is also
assumed that the girder is subjected to the action of the initial factors
only, or that the external forces vanish along the beam. Putting z= 0 for
this section, and using the expressions
(9.117)
where
M = bimoment
N = flexural-torsional moment with respect to the shear centre,
we write, from the general equation (9.116),
. 1 82 1/t 1
- GI { K 3 smh {Jz+ K 4 cosh {Jz+ {3 2 z 2
(z)J (9.118)
8
83 1/t 81/f
-Elw 8z3 +Glr 8z
340 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
81/1 1 (0) _ K
8z
- z+ f3K 3
(9.119)
Mo
K1 = 1/Jo+ CIT
No
Kz=-
CIT
(9.120)
1 81/1 1 (0) 1 N 0
K 3 = 73 --a;:---73 CIT
1 81/1 1 (0) . M0 N0 ( 1 . )
1/1 = 1/1 1 + ~ smh [3z- Cfr (cos /3z-1)+ Cfr z- smh f3z
73 73
81/J 81/1 0 1 M0 . N0
-=-cosh f3z--- smh f3z+- (1-cosh f3z) (9.121)
8z 8z f3 CIT CIT
1 81/10 . 1 .
M = -73 CIT 8z smh f3z+Mo cosh f3z+73 No smh [3z
N= N 0
Table 9.6.
~sinh {Jz
M(z) 1 . h
0 _!sinh fh cosh {Jz {ism (z-t)
CIT {3
N(z)
0 0 0
CIT
z = l ot/J = o
oz
342 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-M 0 ; ( 1- cosh {3) +- 1) .
N 0 l ( 1-- smh {3
CIT CIT {3
+ Pe
CIT
[cosh~l (l- t)-1] = 0
From eqs. (9.122) we find
t;+(l- t;) cosh 1{3+(1/{3) sin {3t;-(1/f3) sinh 1{3
+ (1//3) sinh {3(1- t;)-l cosh {3(1- t;)
Mot = -----------------------------------
1{3 sinh 1{3 + 2( 1- cosh 1{3)
(9.123)
1+{3(1-t;) sinh /{3-cosh lf3+cosh /3t;-cosh {3(1-t;)
No; = +--~~~--~~~~~--~~~--~~~
1{3 sinh 1{3 + 2(1- cosh 1{3)
(9.124)
The corresponding angles of twist under the unit torque acting at
the attachments of the cables to the girder will be found by introducing
the values of the initial parameters in Table 9.6.
For the above boundary condition, the following equations are
obtained for the required angles of twist at the connection of the first cable:
1
+ GilT [< t 2 - t d- - sinh {3 (t 2 - t 1 )]
(9.126)
13
(3) For the third cable z = t3
(9.129)
~cl
1Jc1
(9.132)
~c2
1Jc2 = .
Sln rxc2 COS
e c2
2 2
l/ttt=-1Jct
a
l/t 22 = - 1Jc2
a
(9.133)
Mxl = +Xta at
(9.134)
Mx2 = +Xza at
and the angles of twist produced by the torques MP at z=t 1 and z=t 2
are given by the following system of equations:
(1- :T 2
D;
1
}!/t 11 +l/121 + l/124 + l/114) Ita= !/tot p/1 a (1- 2
:T D; l)
(9.135)
( 1-
2
:T D; 1) (l/t 12+ l/t22 + l/t 23+ l/t 13) /1 a= l/to2 P
!1
2
a ( 1- : T D; 1
)
Using matrix algebra, we can write eqs. (9.136) in the condensed form
Ax=f (9.137)
where the matrix is of order 2 x 2:
(9.139)
9. 9 Analysis of towers
9. 9.1 Introduction
The tower must be generally designed to transfer the cable force to the
base and not to obstruct the roadway. It usually has one of the following
geometrical shapes, discussed in Chapter 1 :
346 C~HI.F-SnYF.D BRIDGES
I. TOWER BASE
Generally, a fixed base, connected either to the deck or to the pier, may
be necessary to avoid the more expensive heavy pin bearing, which also
complicates erection. When the tower is finrily anchored at the base to
the tower pedestals, it is free to deflect longitudinally under the de-
formations of the cables when they are fixed to the tower.
Rocker towers, pin-bearing at the base, afford the most economic and
scientific design for bridges of longer span. They eliminate the stresses
from unbalanced cable forces without requiring movable saddle con-
struction. If rocker towers are adopted, they must be secured against
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 347
FIXED
PIN-
BEAR I NG
2. SADDLES
The cables are generally continuous over saddles located inside the
towers. Saddles are either bolted to the supports or provided with
rollers. When fixed saddles are used, the resultant unbalanced horizontal
forces must be calculated and allowed for in the design of the tower,
unless it is of the rocker type.
If the saddles are movable, the eccentricity of the vertical reaction
under various loading conditions must be accounted for. The roller
support for the saddle permits its horizontal movement. The resultant
of the tensions of the cable should pass through the middle of the roller
nest to give an even distribution of stress. The friction of the rollers is
so small that the angle of inclination of the resultant reaction is negligible.
Instead of circular rollers, rockers may be used, so as to furnish a
greater diameter and thereby reduce friction and roller-bearing stress.
Rockers, however, must be secured against excessive motion liable to
cause overturning.
Rollers serve to reduce the bending stresses in the towers due to an
unbalanced horizontal cable pull resulting from special loading con-
ditions and temperature. On the other hand, they are expensive, add
348 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9. 9.3 Loadings
(A) Verticalloads
( 1) Tower weight
(2) Cable reactions which include:
(a) dead load
(b) live load plus temperature change.
Under a normal live load, extending across the width of roadway and
distributed asymmetrically, the tower deflects and may also twist. The
tower deviates from a vertical plane, causing the large vertical loads to
become eccentric, producing bending and twisting moments and
stresses. Consequently, the primary problem is the calculation of tower
stresses due to these deformations. However, it may be necessary also
to estimate the transverse and torsional stiffness of the axially loaded
tower.
The primary stresses in the tower shafts are a result of the vertical
cable reactions and the longitudinal bending moments induced by
changes in the side span cable length due to live load and temperature
changes.
The axial loads on the tower shafts vary from a minimum at the top
to a maximum value at the base resulting essentially from the weight
of the tower proper. The longitudinal bending moments vary from near
zero at the top to different values along the tower, depending on the type
of cable supports or attachments to the tower.
Generally, the following basic cases should be investigated by analysing
the tower:
(a) Maximum vertical load Vmax with the corresponding displacement
of the tower f This case should be considered when the whole bridge
is loaded.
(b) Maximum displacement of the tower !max with the corresponding
vertical load V due to loading in the midspan. This is the critical case
for design of the tower.
(c) In the following analysis 2'\ a typical case is considered of a tower
of constant cross-section, having a fixed base, which is loaded by the
vertical force V and which has displacement/ (Fig. 9.56).
~v
~~r-~~~~~-~H___
x v(x)
I ""
1 f-v(x)
I J
I I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 9.56 Tower. View in "1-- EI CONSTANT
cross-section of the bridge I
and by indicating
(9.143)
we obtain
(9.144)
C . Hx
v(x ) = 1 COS lXX+ C2 Stn lXX+ f -V (9.145)
C2=--1
sin IXh
(Hh
- - f)
V
H =
IXh
V!Xfcos IXh
COSIXh- sin IXh
( 147)
9
.
6 II
max M =- ..,..,-:."::::L".:..;fv::o:--:-:-:::-:::-;:-
slnO<h-o<.h cos~h ,,,,
M(x=h) =- fv sin<Xh
sin o<.h- OCh coso01 ,,,,
maxM
tV\ /
/
,,/I 0
I
I
cx.h = -
Er
h
I
--- !...,............
I
COORDINATES~ (maxM) OF THE max.M
I
0 I
and
1
max M = - JV -,---,------,- (9.152)
sin rxh- rxh cos rxh
LI
(d) Next, the general solution for a tower with varying cross-section
is analysed.
Up to now only the action of the vertical force V and the displacement
of the top of the tower fhave been considered. In addition, the following
factors should be taken into consideration for the calculation of stresses
and deformations of the tower: wind load w in the longitudinal direction
of the bridge, the non-uniform influence of the temperature 11h on the
towers and particularly the eccentricity e of the vertical load V 0 during
erection (Fig. 9.58).
The above influences can be evaluated using the previously developed
differential equation (9.144). In the following, an attempt is made to
find its solution taking account of the varying cross-section of the tower,
which results in varying moments of inertia I and consequently in varying
weight of the tower. In this method, the tower is divided into n sections
(Fig. 9.59).
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 353
Table 9. 7.
vi-t '
l';-1 ~-1 J'J.t
VI
1
---
2
(1-cos ex./.)
11
Elrx;
EI;cx,
d;
x ( 1- cos aJJ
EI;rx;
di
x rx; sin ex);
N = 2:: Vk (9.153)
k=O
These concentrated loads V; induce not only the normal force N but also
the transverse force Q in direct proportion, since
(9.154)
At the beginning of the first section and also at the top of the tower,
the known displacement and the bending moment are
Vo =I (9.155)
The slope of the tower at the top, dv 0 (x)/dx, and the horizontal force H
at the support, may be determined from the boundary conditions. Slope
dv 0 (x )/ dx is determined from eq. (9 .148) at the boundary condition
X= 0.
j
J
"-
...-
":
in,
"'
Apart from transferring cable forces, the tower is under the influence
of wind components acting in the plane of the deck.
The analysis of the tower 31 32 , was carried out by introducing in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge a vertical cut through the top
of the tower, thus separating the two legs from each other (Fig. 9.65).
The common force across this cut is introduced as a further redundant
quantity. The forces acting upon the tower, for the purpose of this
analysis, were split up into two sets of loads, one being symmetric and
the other antisymmetric with respect to the axis of the structure. For all
the symmetrical cases of loading, the common force in the cut is zero
at the top of the tower, therefore only the two-dimensional main struc-
tural system is operative. For all the antisymmetric cases ofloading there
arises in the statically indeterminate two-dimensional subsystem of the
upstream and of the downstream main girder a horizontal displacement
of the top of the tower. This displacement is of equal magnitude in each
of the two systems, but acts in the opposite direction and is cancelled
by the redundant joining force acting at the top. This means, therefore,
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 357
N ( t) My (tm)
-52.30
-52.86
-5374
-54J5
-5462
-6058 Fig. 9.66 Transverse
-6090 forces in the tower under
principal forces
My (tm)
N ( t)
5357
5161
5502
that in all antisymmetric cases of loading, the top of the tower is im-
movably fixed, so that no tension occurs in the retaining cable VI. The
immovability of the top of the tower has the further effect that the
deflection and therefore also the moments in the girders due to anti-
symmetric loading are smaller than those produced by antisymmetric
loadings of the same magnitude.
The bending moments in the towers under the action of the main
girders loaded by the live load are presented in Fig. 9.66, under wind in
the loaded bridge in Fig. 9.67, and for the principal and secondary forces
in Fig. 9.68. The maximum normal forces transferred by the external
358 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
"'
:;
~
,..-
9- "'
:;
"'
-I-
;;,
-"
"'
N
::
- I-
Fig. 9.69 North Bridge at
57.6'
Dusseldorf. Structural ~j
system of the tower
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 359
(a) All the saddle supports were located eccentrically on the tower shafts,
0.79 in (20 mm) to one side within the plane of the system and 1.97 in
(50 mm) asymmetrically in the plane of the portal frame.
(b) The shafts were not quite vertical due to errors in fabrication or
erection. The tops of the shafts were assumed to be 3.94 in (100 mm)
out of plumb in the plane of the system and 1.97 in (50 mm) out of
plumb in the plane of the portal.
Within the plane of the bridge system, the tower shaft is subjected to
bending primarily by the horizontal force acting at the fixed saddle
bearing. This loading and the corresponding deformation of the shaft
could increase only as a result of increased loading and deformation of
the main girder. The girder, however, is less endangered by second-
order flexure than the towers. Therefore, it is reasonable to apply the
load factor v due to the longitudinal loading of the shaft, but not due to
the initial first-order deformation of the shaft.
For second-order analysis, the following cases of loading are con-
sidered: eccentric positioning of the saddle bearing, out-of-plumb
positioning of the shaft, and temperature change. The simplifying
assumption was made that the shaft was firmly held by the fixed middle
cable and was rigidly fixed at the base. In the case of live load, these
assumptions would be too inaccurate when the deformation of the whole
system is considered. Therefore, the actual second-order effect of the
live load on the shaft was calculated and the result was multiplied by v.
In the plane of the portal, the shaft is freely deformed by all the loads.
When v times the load is applied to it, the first-order deformation also
becomes v times as large. Fig. 9.70 Moments,
The influence of v times weight of the shaft and cables is included in transverse and axial forces
and deformations of the
the second-order analysis. Difference in the temperature of both shafts tower under principal and
does not produce any additional forces, and only the actual deformation secondary forces
Q (t) N ( t) DISPLACEMENT
X X
IN mm.
11.2,
I 11.2 -712:7
I 136.986
I
I
I !
123.75S
I
1326!2
!
II= I ~ . 113
c C:::
-2330.6 I-2234
360 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
I I
1 3.0 3.0 -2.0 t-2.0
I I
415'
54.7 I 54.7 5. 6
i 5. 6 1196!7
I
166.21 166.2 1 o. 1 1 10.1
l."ig. 9.71 Moments, due to this effect is included. Tp increase the safety, however, this
I
transverse and axial forces
and deformations of the
deformation was also multiplied by v.
tower under principal and Figure 9. 70 shows the distribution of the moments, transverse forces,
secondary forces including axial forces and the displacements in the cross-section, according to
live load
first -order theory, taking account of the action of the main and secondary
forces.
Figure 9. 71 shows the distribution of the moments, transverse forces,
axial forces, as well as the displacements in the cross-section of the bridge
under the action of the main and secondary forces, including live load.
The longitudinal forces do not act in a clearly defined direction but are
always directed approximately towards the base of the tower (Fig. 9. 72).
Their direction is somewhat altered by the vertical loads at the joint due
to the weight of the shaft and cables, and in the case of principal and
secondary forces, also by the horizontal deflection of the main girder
due to side wind. For practical computation, the support reactions acting
along the inclined cables were resolved into their vertical and horizontal
components, and the vertical components were increased by amounts
corresponding to the loads at the joints due to the weight of the shaft
and cables.
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 361
The stresses in the extreme edges of the shaft were calculated with the
second-order bending moments in both directions and with the corres-
ponding direct forces due to the load multiplied by the load factors
1.71 and 1.50.
In order to determine the reserve strength of the portal with regard
to additional lateral forces, the ultimate load capacity of the towers was
calculated, for the loaded bridge, with the principal and secondary
forces and with an increased value of the wind load.
References
10.1 Introduction
10.3 Planning
In selecting the scale reduction factor for length, the following con-
siderations must be taken into account:
(a) The range of metal shapes commercially available increases as the
size of the model becomes larger.
(b) If the cross-sectional dimensions decrease, the strain gauges are more
difficult to apply.
(c) On a larger scale model, strains and displacements will be recorded
with smaller errors than on a smaller size model.
(d) As the scale-reduction factor for length increases, the manufacturing
tolerances become more difficult to satisfy.
10.3 .2 .Materials
The most suitable materials which may be used for models of cable-
stayed bridges are metals and plastics. These two groups display elastic
strain-stress properties up to their proportionate limits and are relatively
easy to manufacture.
The properties of metals and plastics are well described in the litera-
ture18-20 and the primary criterion to be taken into account is the manu-
facturing process of the various metals (steel, aluminum, copper, brass,
bronze) and plastics.
As experience indicates, steel satisfies all requirements for model
investigation to a greater degree than plastics or other metals. It is
relatively simple to manufacture and to instrument, it has a high heat
dissipation factor; its elastic properties do not change with time and it
satisfies similitude requirements for shear strain, as opposed to plastics
which do not meet this condition.
equal to the degree of static indeterminancy of the system. All other data
may then be obtained from conditions of static equilibrium.
To determine the ordinates of influence lines of axial forces in cables,
the axial strains have to be measured. For the influence lines of bending
moments in a girder, one method is to measure maximum strains due to
bending and to multiply them by 2EI/h such that the bending moments
are obtained.
A second method is to determine Ui> V;, ei> Vi> ei> the vertical, hori-
zontal and rotational displacements at i and j, by employing dial gauges
only. The joint considered in this application is a girder-cable joint. The
procedure may be extended, however, to any type of joint whose dis-
placements are in a vertical plane and may be defined by three parameters.
In order to amplify the readings and thus to reduce the errors, vertical
square bars have been soldered to the top and bottom joint bars
(Fig. 10.1).
In Fig. 10.1, a, band care the readings obtained. To determine the
e
unknown displacements, first will be written as a function of a and b.
DIAL GAUGE 2
/
\
\
\
\ DIAL GAUGE 3
The above expressions for u and v were obtained by solving (10.2) and
(1 0.3).
Expressions (10.4) have been verified graphically and the analytical
procedure was proved to be exact.
Equation (10.6) represents the condition that both the model and the
prototype should be made of the same material. To neglect this condition
is equivalent to neglecting the contribution of shear strain when we com-
pute the magnitude of the elastic displacements.
It may be pointed out here that the contribution of shear strain to the
magnitude of elastic displacements in a mathematical model, when using
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 371
(10.7)
is constant in all directions.
Equation (10.7) represents the condition that the longitudinal and
cross-sectional dimensions of the prototype and of the model have to be
related to the same scale factor KL. This condition is extremely difficult
to satisfy in practice. If the assumption is made that sectional properties
are represented by I and A only, condition (10. 7) may be substituted on
the basis of Buckingham's Pi theorem by
and
where
A = area of cross-section
I = moment of inertia of cross-section
K 1 = scale reduction factor for moment of inertia of cross-section
K A = scale reduction factor for area of cross-section
(1 0.8)
where
Ka = scale reduction factor for linear expansion
K, = temperature of prototype divided by temperature model
(5) Deflection scale factor is equal to the length scale factor, therefore
up Lv
(10.9)
Urn Lm
where
KY = scale reduction factor for deflection.
Condition (10.9) is valid for all cases of nonlinear elastic similitude.
(6) The materials of model and prototype can be different, therefore
(JP EP
-=E-= K(f= KE (10.10)
(Jm m
where
K" = scale reduction factor for unit stress
KE = scale reduction factor for moduli of elasticity
Expression (10.10) indicates that the scale reduction factor for unit
stress is equal to the scale reduction factor for modulus of elasticity.
(7) The ratio of forces in model and prototype depends on both the
length scale factor and the stress scale factor
EPL; _ EmL;
pp pm
or
EP (Lv)z = pv = K Kz = K (10.11)
E L p (I L p
m m m
where
KP = scale reduction factor for concentrated load.
Equation (10.11) may be rearranged more conveniently, by using
(10.10), as
KEKi = Kp
(8) Considering condition (10.11) and replacing with Pp and P111 as
distributed load acting on a surface, we obtain
or (1 0.12)
where
Kq = scale reduction factor for distributed load acting on a surface
K" = scale reduction factor for unit stress
Condition (1 0.12) may be disregarded as the distributed load applied
on the bridge system is given in lb/in and not in lb/in 2 . It may be shown
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 373
Kw = KEKL
where Kw is the scale reduction factor for the distributed load acting on
a bar.
(9) The ratio of densities of the prototype and model materials is
given by the values of the length and stress scale factors
PP LP aP
or (10.13)
Equation (10.13) does not apply in the case of statical loads and may
be disregarded.
Ky = KL (10.14)
KA = KI (10.15)
KEL 2 = Kp (10.16)
Kv = 1 (1 0.17)
KI = Ki (10.18)
KEKL = Kw (10.19)
KM = KpKL (10.20)
K0 = KP (10.21)
KN = Kp (10.22)
Ks = KAKL
KI = KsKL
(10.23)
f,=fe
where P1 is the uniform distributed dead load given by the nonstructural
elements of the bridge system and fis the unit bending stress at extreme
fibers. Suffix e applies to the parameters of the bridge system with known
sectional properties and suffix n to those with sectional properties to be
determined.
Fromf,=fe, we obtain
(10.24)
In eq. (10.26), P' is the uniform distributed dead load given by the
structural elements of the bridge system and P 1 is the uniform distributed
live load.
From P~=dAn and P;=dAe, where dis the density of the stiffening
girder material and A is the area of the girder cross-section, correspond-
ing toM
psn
(10.27)
ps
e
K = (Ks/KL)P:+P;+P~ Kz
s p L (10.28)
e
K = P;+P~ Kz (10.29)
s Pe-P;KL L
The data on the right-hand side is known. Hence, Ks may be calculated.
The next step is to obtain K1 and KA from (10.23).
enables the initial sectional properties for the design of a bridge system
with a given geometry to be obtained, if the sectional properties of a
geometrically similar bridge are known. It was assumed that the bridge
prototype has six lanes and it is supported by two box girders.
Before the design and construction of the model was started, it was
necessary to make decisions with regard to the following factors.
Al = A6 = A7 = Alz
A 2 = A 5 = A 8 = A 11
A 3 = A 4 = A 9 = A 10
where AcA 12 are cross-sectional areas of the cables.
The materials assumed for the prototype were CSA G40.12 steel for
the girder and towers and wire rope bridge strand for the cables. The
modulus of elasticity of the G40.12 steel was taken equal to E= 29 000
ksi and of the cables as equal toE= 18 000 ksi.
To determine the geometry and the cross-sections of the model, first
KA and K 1 are calculated. After substitution of the value of KL = 100
into the expression (10.15), KA = K[= 10 4 and, according to relation
(10.18), KI = KI~ = 108 .
Dividing the sectional properties of the prototype by the above scale
factors, we obtain
378 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
A'; = A'; = A~ = A7 1 = Af =
42
2
= 0.0042 in 2
KA 10
AP3 37
A'3 = A~ = A~ = A70 = ~ = -----;j: = 0.0037 in
2
KA 10
}P 272 X 106 4
J~ = K~ = 108 = 0.0272 in
m A~ 496 . 2
A 0 = KA = 104 = 0.0496 m (10.30)
m AfB 417 . 2
ArB= KA = 104 = 0.0417 m
For statical loads acting in a vertical plane, the above values may be
increased or decreased proportionally. In order to employ commercially
available sections, the above sectional properties, after multiple trials,
were increased by a factor of C= 31.6. Consequently,
= A~ =
2
A7 A'; = A72 = 0.332 in
= A~=
2
Ai = A5 A7 1 = 0.132 in
4
J'FY = 0.86 in
Jn = 0.162 ;~~)
J0 o.84 An= 1.o3o/
(a)
'
(b)
fr\
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 381
10.7.4 Materials
Steel was employed, as this material has the same elasticity and shear
moduli E and Gas the prototype, its manufacturing and instrumentation
is relatively simple and its elastic properties do not change in time.
10.7 .5 Fabrication
I
I
I
I
I I
I -
_.J
BOLTS
SECT I ON A-A
382 CABLE- STAYED BRIDGES
The supports of the bridge model were designed to satisfy the following
two requirements:
(a) All supports except one should be free to move horizontally, t herefore
no constraints inducing interior stresses would be applied on the
model.
(b) The end supports should be capable of taking uplift forces.
-1-------,----- __
l i ____ _.....
II
II
I
jI
I
I
I
I
: I
c~~=:~~~~~:-~==~::
I
' 11 : I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
---1
I
I
I
I
I
-~1~-:..-.:-.::::.:.::::::: --.J
--t------------: --:
---------------- -~--, I
1-+----.-F;pL,J - ,I Ir J
I I
I I
iI
II
II
II
l1
FRONT VI Ell SlOE VIE\1
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 383
KA = Kt (I 0.33b)
KEKi = Kp (10.33c)
K. =I (1 0.33d)
K1= K (10.33e)
KM = KpKL (I 0.33g)
KQ = Kp (1 0.33h)
K,... = KP (10.33i)
Equations (10.33a)- (10.33i) are based on the theory given in Section
10.4. For the model under consideration, all the above conditions were
satisfied and hence, the model may be considered as a 'true model'.
10.7.7 Instmmenlalion
Fig. 10.10 Model A this information, the bending moment at an interior support was
strain-gauge layout
determined. To obtain strains in cables, two strain gauges were applied,
one on each cable.
Seven locations were instrumented, the bridge system being symmetri-
cal and having fourteen redundants (Fig. 10.10). Once the redundants
are established, all other information may be determined from conditions
of static equilibrium.
In the first stage of the investigation, strains were acquired, one at a
time, with a Budd portable digital strain indicator, D-350 and in the
second stage with a DS-366 Data Acquisition System which consists of:
(a) A strain--gauge conditioner to acquire data from strain gauges.
(b) A signal amplifier.
(c) An analog-to-digital converter.
(d) A 4K digital computer.
(e) A teletype console on which strains were printed in J..tin/in for each
channel.
The dial gauge arrangement for determination of deflections is shown
in Fig. 10.11. As an alternative procedure to obtain bending moments
and axial and shear forces from joint displacements, a dial gauge
Fig. 10.11 Dial arrangement, as shown in Fig. 10.12, was employed.
arrangement for
determination of deflec-
The nodal displacements {d} were determined from dial gauge readings
tions. Model A using eqs. (10.1) and (10.4).
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 385
17
To determine influence lines for axial fo rces, bending momems and Fig. 10. 13 Loading
dc,ices. J\ lodcl A: (a)
deflections, a concentrated load was applied at constant intervals on the De,ke -\ (at joints) (b)
model employing special loading devices, as shown in Fig. 10. 13. J)e\iCC 13 (belW\:Cn jOilllS)
(a) (b)
386 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-1.0
-1. 5 -,
~
I
IL ~\
fL ~.
1!/ \
0. 0 ~ - =
~ v
\ ,;?
\ -~
l, if
0. 5 I
'~ 1/
"l
_i\ 1
\\ II
1.0
\\ Jj_
\I\ JL
~ _Ll
L E G E N D
,I
'-
EXP.= 1.210 - - EX PER I MENTAL
Fig. 10.14 lnf1uence
TH. = 1.356
line of axial force in - - - THEORET I CAL
cable 1
1.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0
1\ v I"\ v
ll
_!.
~'\- VJ
J
_/j_
~
& ,, ~
IL
/
1 .0
L E G E N D
-I . 5
0.0 ~ --
1 ~ ~
\ I
\~ I "' ........ ../
'0 I EXP.= 0.234
TH. = 0.247
0.5
, ""'-A
' ..,
- EXP.= 0.50E
TH.= 0.627
I .0
L E G E N D
-- EXPERI~ENTAL
-I. 0
-I. 5
0.0
~ / \ /
,'-- ......
,_,
w \
\ /
EXP.= 0.187
TH. =0.255
\ II'
0. 5
I h
/'
EXP. = 0. 536
TH.=0.611
1.0
L E GE ND
- - EX PER I MENTAL
Fig. 10.17 Influence
- - - THEORET ICAL line of axial force in
1.5 cable 4
388 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-1 . 0
- 1 5
0. 0
~ 4
,_ .r
--
' ,~...
EXP.= 0.147
TH. = 0. 182
' \
L
1/
/
0.5
\
\ ~,
/
EXP.= 0.646
TH. = 0. 662
1. 0
L E G E N D
1.5
-1 . 0
-1 . 5
EXP.=-0.240
TH. =-0.294
v-'
tL ~
If'
0.0
'\ /
~ /j
',\ 17
1\ l~
0.5
'.\ /1
\\ J
\\ 1/
I
'I\ I
1. 0 \\ I
\\ I L E G E N D
'\ ~
Fig. 10.19 Influence
EXP .= 1 .200
TH. = 1. 250
-- EX PER I MENTAL
line of axial force in - - - THEORET I CAL
cable 6 15
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 389
---THEORET I CAL
300. \
\
250.
\
I .~ \
II
200.
150.
li
IP
' 1\
1\
\
100. I \
I \
50. I
I 1\
0. \ 1=:...--
~-
- ..::.:- ~ f-ig. 10.20 Influence
line of bending moment
at intermediate support
-50.
Ic.~
EXP.=-0,0000110
-8.00001 TH. =-0.0000103
I.
I
\
u \
J' \
~
0. 0
II
1\ I ' - -
\
0. 00001 \ I
\ I
\ l/ r1
I I
L E G E N D
f-ig. I 0.21 Influence
- EXPERIMENTAL line of \'ertical deflection
at joint 2
- - - THEORET I CAL
0.00003
390 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-0.00001 ~ EXP.=-0.0000114
1 1\
TH. =-0. 0000110
0.0
L
'1\.,
1
\ j
0. 0000 1 1 I
J\
' \ ....,/
0.0000 2
v EXP.= 0.0000189
TH. = 0.0000163
L E G E N D
Fig. 10.22 Influence
line of vertical deflection --EXPERIMENTAL
at joint 3 ---THEORETICAL
0. 0000 3
j ~.
TH. = -0.0000106
I \
j_ 1
0. 0
1/
' / -
~
1
.I
!/__
0.00001 1 i'/
I I
I
I
I
I //
\ ,_, '1
1/
0.00002
EXP Yo. 0000213
TH. = 0.0000172
LEGEND
Fig. 10.23 Influence
line of vertical deflection -EXPERIMENTAL
at joint 5 ---THEORET I CAL
0.00003
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 391
~ EXP.=-0.0000116
-0.000 01 J \
I~
TH. =-0.0000115
I ~
1/ '\
0. 0
' I
- -
I
I
I
J
0. 0000 1
I
d
I
I
if
\\ !I
\ if
0. 00002
I
I if
\\ I
I
\\ ,''l L E G E N D
Fig. 10.24 Influence
EXP. =0. 0000292
-~ -/ - EXPERIMENTAL line of vertical deflection
0. 00003
TH. =0.0000253
v ---THEORET I CAL
at joint 6
-0.000 01
I I
EXP. =-0.0000071 0
TH. =-0.0000064 3
AA~
1/ \
~I \
0 0
\ /
/""
- .......
\.,, I
,J
0. 0000 1
II 71
~I ,1
\1,, rt
I,
!I
0. 0000 2 ~I ,'f
I /}
"
\ I L E G E N D
EXP.= 0.0000264
\V -EXPERIMENTAL
Fig. 10.25 Influence
- TH. = 0. 0000220
line of vertical deflection
---THEORETICAL at joint 7
0. 00003
392 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-0.00001
EXP, =-0.00000204
TH, =-0.00000183
0.0 v p:,. ~
v ~
"" "" - -/
',
EXP .= 0.00000570
TH. = 0.00000459
0. 00001
0.00002
LEGENO
Fig. 10.26 Influence
line of horizontal
-EXPERIMENTAL
displacement at top of
___ THEORETICAL
tower
0. 00003
Before loading, the model sections and loading rods were calibrated in
order to determine whether the data obtained from the strain-gauge
readings corresponded to the assumptions regarding modulus of elas-
ticity and linearity of stress-strain distribution. Strain and displacement
readings recorded were converted to bending moments and axial forces
employing eqs. (1 0.33g)-(l 0.33i) and then plotted; the experimental
values obtained were compared with the theoretical values calculated on
a mathematical model.
The influence lines of axial forces in cables are represented in Figs.
10.14-10.19, and the influence line ofbending moment at intermediate
support in Fig. 10.20. The influence lines of vertical deflections are
represented in Figs. 10.21-10.25, and the influence line of horizontal
displacement at the top of the tower in Fig. 10.26.
The influence line ordinates of the bending moments are given in
inches and the influence-line ordinates of displacements are given in
in/lb.
Jrr-:7~
506,000 in4
A3 = 105 in 2
-----"-\
I
Joz~2,500,000i.n 4 Joz ~ 2,500,000 in 4 :J D2.,2, 500 1,\QQO i n4
J 01 =2,720,000 in4 :J 01 =2,720,000 in ..
39-t CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Jrs 0.00284 in 4
Jrr 0.00134 in 4
~. 0 .00251 inl - ~
I
3x9" 3x9"
I
IJOl 0. 00690 In
Jo1 0.00750 in 41 :Jo10.00750 in'
I I
I
I 10'0 11
(a)
(b) (c)
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 395
(a)
400
300
Table 10.1.
along each cable of the system. From these data, post-tensioning forces
required in cables to reduce bending moments and displacement due to
dead load are determined as follows.
X1 = X6 = X7 = X 12 }
X2 = Xs = Xs = Xu (10.35)
x3 = x4 = x9 = xlO
then eq. (10.34) may he reduced to
(10.38)
where N {is the final post-tensioning force in cable i and A; is the cross-
sectional area of cable i, then, for a given value of C 0 , the post-tensioning
forces in cables X 1 , X 2 , X 3 may be calculated as follows.
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 399
a11Xz+a12X3 = All+A12Xt
(10.39)
where
(10.40)
and
At
A11 = - N3-N1
A3
A1
A 12 = - N~-N~
A3
(10.41)
Az
Azt = -N3-Nz
A3
A
A 22 = ___2 N~- N~
A3
In eqs. (10.40) and (10.41), N;; N,"and N;~ where i varies from 1 to 12,
are axial forces in cables due to unit loads applied as shown in Figs.
10.34(a-c). Solving the system of eqs. (10.39), X 2 and X 3 may be
expressed as
X2 = B 11 +B 12 X 1}
(10.42)
X 3 = B 21 +B 22 X 1
where
400 CABLE-STAYEO BRIDGES
(10.43)
'"' ~1 ~ 1~
References
11.1 Introduction
The most obvious effect of the wind is due to the action of gusts. The
wind-gust components affect the periodicity of the vortex shedding,
tending to make it less regular and producing weaker excitation over a
wider range of wind speed.
Vortices are formed at the points where the air flow separates from the
surface of a structure. They may break away into the wake at regular
intervals causing a periodic variation of force on the structure.
Excitation due to the periodic formation of vortices in the air-flow in
the wake of the structure is primarily dependent on details of the shape
of the cross-section. If the structure is rigid and the incident flow steady,
the vortex formation would be very precisely periodic at a frequency
proportional to the wind speed.
With a flexible structure, there is a resonant excitation at a critical
wind speed, and the effect of motion of the structure is to modify the
vortex frequency so as to synchronize the excitation with the motion
over a range of wind speeds.
The wind forces which act upon a bridge depend upon the velocity and
direction of the wind and the size, shape, and motion of the bridge. The
occurrence of resonance between these wind forces and the motion of
the bridge depends upon the same factors. The amplitude of oscillation
which may be built up depends upon the intensity of the wind forces, the
energy storage capacity of the structure, the structural damping and the
duration of a wind capable of exciting motion.
The forces exerted on a bridge superstructure by a wind, assuming
steady flow and a fixed structure, are dependent upon the shape and size
of the cross-section of the deck and the angle of attack of
the wind. Even for a fixed structure, the flow may be unsteady, causing a
periodic system of applied forces. If the bridge moves, the forces are
influenced by both the velocities and accelerations of the structure.
For a complex shape, such as the deck of a cable-stayed bridge, the
408 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
h 90
-r----~---L-----------~
0
"'Yv
__.--- V 1To I SPLACEMENT v
(11.3)
If dCL/da is positive, the change in lift tends to oppose the motion, and
can lead to limited but damaging oscillations.
If dCL/da is negative, the change in lift acts in the same sense as the
motion and tends to increase it, leading to oscillations of catastrophic
proportions. In both cases, the steeper the slope, the greater is the rate of
amplification of the oscillations.
If dCL/da is zero, the motion is unaffected by the wind force. According
to Steinman's theory, a desirable cross-section should have dCL/da
equal to zero.
A similar consideration may be applied to torsional oscillations, when
under steady conditions, the lift force is, in general, displaced from the
axis of rotation and causes a torque about this axis. The torque can be
expressed as
(11.4)
where CT is a dimensionless torque coefficient depending on a. Steinman
suggested that a zero slope, dCT/da, or preferably a slight negative slope,
is desirable.
Simple model tests may be used to find static lift graphs, and according
to the Steinman theory, with the requirement that
0.06
When we consider the flow of air around a cylinder at rest, eddies are shed
periodically from the cylinder, forming the Karman vortex trai1 5 (Fig.
11.3).
11.4.2 Flutter
Under pressure of wind, the bridge deck may oscillate in a mode including
both transverse displacements and torsional notation, which is called
flutter. Bleich7 was the first author who pointed out the relation to the
flutter speed of aircraft wings. He distinguished clearly between flutter
and the effect of staggered vortices and expressed the opinion that two
degrees of freedom-bending and torsion-at least are necessary for
oscillations of this kind. Bleich8 developed a simplified practical method
of design against flutter by determining the critical speed of the wind
action.
Since, for a given configuration of the bridge, the aerodynamic force
increases rapidly with the wind speed, while the elastic stiffness is inde-
pendent of the wind, there may exist a critical wind speed at which the
structure becomes unstable. Such instability may cause excessive deforma-
~s, and may lead to the destruction of the bridge.
\ Two pre-calculated tables provide the data from which the response of
the structure to wind action could be, at least approximately, predicted.
The critical velocity may be computed from the formula
412 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(11. 7)
where
w = the flutter frequence
2b = the width of the bridge deck
Kc = wb/ V, the nondimensional ratio
V = the wind velocity
The critical value of Kc is estimated from Bleich's double-entrance
table, computed for ratios w 2 jw 1 from 1.15 to 6.00 and for 11-values
between 0.01 and 0.07, where
w 1 = the known frequency of the first vertical natural mode of vibration
of the system
w2 = the known frequency of the first torsional natural mode of vibration
of the system, and
f1 = sb/m
where
m = w/g = the mass of the bridge per unit length
s = 2npb = the coefficient
p = air density in slugs per cubic foot
In a second table Bleich shows the ratio wjw 1 as a function of Kc and f1
and furnishes the flutter frequency w. Using the values of Kc and w, the
critical velocity Vv may be computed from the formula (11.7).
The effect of damping upon the flutter characteristics in general is
small, and it can be taken into account by multiplying V0 as calculated
from the tables, by 1 + 6, where 6 denotes the logarithmic decrement of
structural damping. This simple rule is sufficiently accurate for values of
6 ::( 0.05. In actual suspension bridges 6 rarely reaches the upper limit
6=0.05.
Since the Tacoma bridge collapse, flutter has been the subject of
several analytical theories which indicate that the magnitudes of the
torsional and bending frequencies should be different from each other in
order to eliminate flutter. The wind speed which causes flutter depends
on the mass and ratio of torsional and vertical bending natural
frequencies. An ideal aerofoil shows positive damping at all speeds in
vertical or torsional oscillations. But a very strong excitation can arise
after the coupling of vertical and torsional motions. The separation of the
torsional natural frequency of the bridge in still air from the vertical
natural frequency has a major effect on the critical speed. A large
spearation calls for a large aerodynamic force to enforce a sustained large
coupled oscillation and structural damping will have little effect. Selberg9
proposed a semi-empirical expression adjusted by test results to estimate
the flutter speed and an exact solution is given by Frandsen 10 . Kloppel
WI:'\D ACTIO:'\ M\D .'\ERODY:'\AMIC STABILITY 413
~ ~
u
...
<I)
0.5
0.4 c:=::::J
E<.> u 0.3 1.0
'-... I I
> >
Q2
0.1
0
=a
Fig. 11.4 Flutter speeds
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
!(Jr different bridge cross-
w Torsiol'l/wBending sectional configurations
11.4.3 Turbulenre
11.5 Vibrations
Vibrations cover the oscillatory motion of the bridge system and its
dynamic conditions. This motion may he of regular form which is
repeated, or it may he irregular or of a random nature. Vibrations are
accompanied by, or are produced by, forces which vary in an oscillatory
414 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.5 .1 Introduction
The problem is to determine the basis speed with the lowest frequencies.
For the determination of the natural frequencies, the energy method is
used and the analysis is based on Ritz's method, under the assumption
that dead load wand moment of inertia I of the stiffening girder have the
same value in the main and side spans. It is furthermore assumed that
each stay is given an initial tension to resist compressive forces.
By the principle of energy conservation, the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies, i.e. the total energy, of a conservative cable-stayed
system is always constant, or
W + U = E = const (11.8)
where
W = the kinetic energy
U = the potential energy
E = the total energy
For free undamped vibration, the maximum kinetic energy W is
developed when the potential energy U is zero, and vice versa, and there-
fore---according to Rayleigh's principle---the maximum value of the two
forms of energy are equal:
(11. 9)
The analysis is based on Ritz's method, as applied to vibrations of sus-
pension bridges 1 ~
The essential feature of this method is the determination of the
characteristic function which causes the kinetic or potential energy </> of
an oscillating system
(11.10)
416 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(11.14)
El
Fig. 11.5 Vertical
displacement of an
elemental length of cable
WI!';D ACTION Al\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 417
(11.16)
/ In the case of rigidly fixed towers, the kinetic energy may be considered
as consisting of two terms :
(11.17)
where
d wl = the kinetic energy of the stiffening girder
d W 2 = the kinetic energy of the cables.
The first term of the right-hand side of eq. (11.17) has the following
form:
(11.18)
(11.19)
where
Pc = the weight of the cable per unit length
IJ(s) = the vertical displacement of the cable element ds
g = acceleration due to gravity.
From Fig. 11.2(b), we have the relation
IJ(s) = 'lc(sfsc) (11.20)
and by substituting this value into eq. (11.19), we obtain
2
dw2 -_ Pc 2 'lc 2
2 wv 2 s (11.21)
g sc
where
sc = the length of the inclined cable
IJc = the maximum deflection of the vibrating stiffening girder at the
cable attachment.
The total kinetic energy of the bridge system is determined by integra-
tion over the entire length of the stiffening girder and by summation of
the terms corresponding to the m pairs of cables attached to the girder,
418 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(11.22)
M = - EldziJ(x) (11.25)
dx 2
the equation for the flexural strain energy of the stiffening gir.der becomes
vl =! I M2dx =! I EI [d21J(x)Jdx
dx 2
(11.26)
2 JL EI 2 JL
where EI is the flexural rigidity of the stiffening girder.
The cables follow the vertical vibrations of the stiffening girder. There-
fore, due to the periodic lengthening and shortening of the cables, the
cable forces also increase and decrease periodically.
The additional portion of the cable force attains its maximum value Xc
at the amplitude IJ(x), and the internal work done by these additional
forces will be
(11.27)
WII\:D >\CTIO:'\ :\1\:D AERODYI\:AMIC STABILITY 419
(11.29)
(11.30)
where r:xc denotes the angle of intersection of the cable and the stiffening
girder.
Finally, the work done by the internal forces in the cables is calculated
with the aid of the equation
m EA 2 2
c !I c sm r:xc
v2 = 1 "
2 L...
c= 1 Sc
(11.31)
and the additional force in the cable can be determined after substituting
(11.34) into (11.33)
(11.35)
where Xc is the cable force due to dead load or due to dead and live loads.
The work done by the internal forces in the cable due to second-order
deformations is given by the expression
c= 1 0
m
c= 1 0 Sc
As the energy equations are now known, the frequency of the vertical
flexural vibrations can be determined by Ritz's method.
By equating sums of the total kinetic energy according to eqs. (11.17),
(11.18) and (11.21) with the total potential energy expressed by eqs.
(11.24), we obtain
or
Wlr\D ACTIO!\: Ar\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 421
Between the torsional and flexural deformations there exists the following
15
relationship, proposed by Goschy 16 (Fig. 11.8):
ry(x) = bl/J(x) (11.40)
where
2b = spacing of the stiffening girders
l/J(x) = the periodic maximum angular rotation of the cross-section of
the bridge at the abscissa x.
Substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.22), we obtain for the kinetic energy of
the torsional vibration the equation
2
WT = w~ ( ( JG t/J
2 g)LAG
2
(x) dx+ b &
3c=1g
I t/J~sc)
= w~WT (11.42)
After substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.37), we obtain for the potential
energy of the torsional vibration, the following equation:
b2 m 2 b2 m X 2 ,/,2
When we consider only the warping resistance, we may use the known
formula for the torsional moment:
Further, it follows from eq. (11.44) for the potential energy of the
stiffening girders, with C T as twisting constant for the cross-section of the
bridge, that
and
AG = 2a x 2b
WT
nT=- (11.47)
2n
let us put the difference of the maximum values of the potential and
kinetic energy as equal to 0, or
max VT-max WT = 0
424 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.7 .4 Floor beams are not rigidly connected to the stiffening girders
11.7.5 Influence of the displacement of the tower and the deflection of the
stiffened girders on the value of the energy
(11.50)
COS /Jc
R A 11
Yfc Sin Pc = LJ.Sc + LJ.
Ah' R
COS Pc
A "
= LJ.Sc + LJ.Sc -
A '
-
COS (Xc
(11.51)
and
dW~ = T
dm 2
(ti +~ )w~ ds
2
(11.53)
(11.54)
W'2 W'
= _2
w~ 2g 3
11
=Petie2 [ ~ (1+L2)+~
e
s' L2
3 e
J (11.55)
and when the number of the cables fixed to the tower is n, then the total
kinetic energy of the cables is
w; = 1 L Petie2[~ (l+L;)+~
L 2]
11
n
(11.56)
e= 1 g 3 3
The bottom cables designated by i are supported on the towers without
sliding. Therefore, the forces in both cables are equal. The attachments of
the cables at a and b move vertically to the positions a' and b'. These move-
ments reduce kinetic energy of the cables i, which may be expressed in the
following form:
426 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
In the case of r equally supported cables the total energy of the cables is
w; = ~
2i=lg
t ~ (tJ?s; +tJi;s;)3 3
(11.58)
When the towers are supported by rockers, the kinetic energy of the towers
should be taken into consideration.
The horizontal displacement of the tower top at the attachment of the
cables C is, according to eq. (11.52),
If we denote
h 1 = the height of the tower
dm 1 = mass of the tower per unit length
p1 = the distributed weight of the tower
~ = the displacement of the tower,
the reduced kinetic energy of the tower may be determined from the
displacement of the tower as follows:
w~ = w;
Wv
= dmt
2 Jo
rh, ~2 dh (11.59)
(11.60)
and after substitution into eq. (11.59), the total kinetic energy of the j
towers is
W' _
3 -
1
2
f,1... 1!!_ L 2
ctJc2 '!3!_ (11.61)
c= 1 g
(11.62)
with
' 2 a
K = 1
C +IIScSc COS 2
Pc
COS ll.c
\\11'\D \C:TIOI\ \1'\ll \EROD\S \,\IIC: ST\BILITY 427
Since
(11.63)
From eqs. (11.30) and (11.63), the relation between the forces of the
cables rigidly connected and the towers supported by the rockers is
clearly
(11.65)
Due to this relation, and considering the second-order deformations of
the n cables, the potential energy may be calculated as follows:
(11.66)
(11.68)
11.8 Damping
11.8.1 Introduction
wui f 2
U= zg 11 dx (11.71)
1
where
w = the weight per foot of the structure
w =the circular frequency
11 = the amplitude at any point, x, along the span
(11. 73)
and the proportion of the energy lost in one cycle, known as the damping
capacity, is
(11.75)
It is the combined effect of all damping forces which causes any observed
decay in the amplitude. In order to understand the damping action, there-
fore, it is necessary first to consider the character of structural, viscous,
hysteresis, friction and atmospheric damping.
430 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
6 = __!L = !!!_
2wN mw
N being the frequency in cycles per second and w= 2nN being the
circular frequency in radians per second. The quantity 6 is called the
logarithmic decrement, and for viscous damping it is constant for all
amplitudes during a given vibration but is reduced if the frequency w is
increased without changing c or m.
If t = 2rt/ w, the length of one cycle, then N 1 = 1 and eq. (11. 77)
expresses the ratio of two successive amplitudes
-{)
IJ1 I1Jo = e (11.78)
Thus
or (11. 79)
It is difficult to measure accurately the change in amplitude in one cycle
but the change in approximately ten cycles can be measured with
satisfactory precision.
If in eq. (11.77) we putt= 10 x 2njw, this gives the ratio 1J 10 f1Jo = e-los
and 6= lo loge (1] 0 /1] 10 ). Thus the viscous damping force is easily
evaluated by measuring its effect on the amplitude.
The logarithmic decrement is a direct measure of structural damping.
It may be estimated for the structure and reproduced on the model.
A few authors give estimates of structural damping. Steinman 19 gave
an empirical estimate of the logarithmic decrement for structural damping.
Bleich and Teller 20 provided theoretical estimates of damping, together
with the results of a confirmatory series of tests on rolled beams and small
bolted trusses, with a simulated deck. Selberg21 carried out full-scale
tests on eleven bridges, with spans from 230-525 ft (70-160 m). In a
discussion on the paper by Bleich and Teller, he stated that their results
were in agreement with his. Excluding the cases with timber floors, his
tests gave values of the logarithmic decrement varying from 0.04 to 0.19.
These figures are similar to those used by other authors. For example,
Scruton 22 carried out wind tunnel tests on models of the Severn Bridge
with logarithmic decrements due to structural damping from 0 to 0.17.
The final tests used minimum values of0.01 for torsional vibrations and
0.06 for vertical movements.
432 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
+F
+'1,
The area enclosed within the stress-strain curves for a complete, closed
cycle represents force times distance and indicates the energy lost per
cycle. Both the stress and the strain vary directly with the amplitude ofthe
displacement. Therefore, the energy loss is a constant times 17 2 .
For this reason, some authors consider the energy loss arising from
hysteresis as the work done by a damped force which is proportional to the
amplitude and in phase with velocity or as equal to C17 cos wt, and the
work it performs in a cycle is Cn1] 2 , C being a constant, the damping force
per unit amplitude to be determined experimentally.
The damping capacity then is
Cn1J 2 2nC
(11.80)
t/1 = mW 1] /2 - mw 2
2 2
Wll\D ACTIO!\ Al\D AERODY;'\1\MIC STABILITY 433
While eq. (11.80) indicates tjJ to be independent of the amplitude 1'], tests
show that it increases slowly with amplitude and stress. This means that
the damping force actually increases as some fractional power of 11 a little
greater than tjJ.
The friction force is constant and does not depend upon the amplitude or
frequency; the work it does in a cycle may be expressed as some constant
C1 , times 1J. The damping capacity, the proportion of energy of vibration
damped out per cycle, is then
(11.81)
The atmospheric damping forces arise from the relative movement of the
air and the vibrating body and may be viscous or inertial. In the case of a
bridge structure, the flow is essentially turbulent and the forces are mostly
inertial-that is, the force varies as the square of the velocity as stated by
the following equation:
(11.82)
where
p = the mass density of the air, 0.002 38 slugs per cubic foot at sea
level and 60F
V = the velocity in ft/s
C = a constant depending upon the shape and size of the obstruction.
The term p( V 2 /2) is known as the dynamic pressure. Constant C is less
for wide than for narrow members and less for streamlined than for blunt
surfaces.
In still air, the velocity is entirely due to the vibration and is equal to
W1J cos wt. The force is then proportional to w 21] 2, its work is proportional
434 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The oscillations of the cable stays under dynamic wind action are due to
their flexibility and high stresses. These oscillations may be local,
performed only by a few cables, or global, when the whole cable system,
including the stiffening girders and pylons, is in motion.
Local oscillations generally occur in individual long, slender cables.
They develop due to vortex shedding under wind action. High oscillation
amplitudes occur if the wind speed reaches an intensity such that
frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with a natural frequency of one
or more cables in the system. Global oscillations occur in the multi-cable-
stayed system. In the case of the three-span cable-stayed bridge with a
symmetrical layout, the modes of vibration are either symmetrical or
antisymmetrical depending on the layout of the bridge. Generally, at the
first symmetrical mode the main span and side spans oscillate vertically
out of phase and the pylons oscillate horizontally.
For the attainment of aerodynamic stability, it is important to separate
the frequencies of the corresponding vertical and torsional modes. This is
because the critical oscillation occurs when the frequencies of the two
basic modes coincide. It may happen when the difference between the
natural frequencies of the modes is small.
The most important stabilizing factor is the system damping due to
interference between the various natural frequencies of many cables. In a
multi-cable-stayed structure the cables are of different lengths and have
different frequencies under wind action. Therefore, the behavior of the
stays tends to disturb the formation of the first or second mode of
WII'\D ACTIO!'\ AI'\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 435
11.9.1 Introduction
tions, taking into account energy, time, inertia, acceleration, mass, and
moment of inertia, as well as elastic and damping forces. Frequency,
resonance and phase become controlling elements.
If all the properties of an aerodynamical model of the entire bridge are
properly scaled from the prototype, the model moves in the same manner
as the prototype would under the same conditions. Thus, its motion,
distortion, velocity, frequency, acceleration and inertial and elastic forces
represent those of the prototype to appropriate scales.
Model tests are of two kinds:
simple sectional-model test method and that the costly and time-consum-
ing use of a full model for this purpose was not essential.
The conditions for dynamic similarity between model and full-scale
bridge have been discussed by Farquharson26 and Frazer and
Scruton 22 27 .
(1) (11.84)
where
V = the mean wind speed
D = the model width
Nv and N 6 = the bridge natural frequencies in vertical flexure and in
torsion, respectively.
The velocity scale of the test is derived from eq. (11.84) so that
vm vp
NmDm NPDP
and (11.85)
Vm NmDm
where subscripts m and p refer to model and prototype values.
This requirement links the wind velocity, the natural frequency, and the
scale. Since the period is the inverse of the frequency, a term such as
VfNv represents the distance moved by a particle of undisturbed air
during the time for a complete oscillation. This is rendered dimensionless
by dividing by D.
It is further required that the model center of gravity and the axis of
torsional movement correspond to those of the full-scale bridge. Finally,
for correct simulation of coupled torsion and flexure, it is necessary to
have the ratio NvfNe the same for the model and the full-scale bridge.
(2) (11.86)
\\'1:\D \CTIO!'\ Al'\D AERODYJ\"AMIC STABILITY 439
where m and J are the mass per foot span and the mass moment of inertia
per foot span and p is the air density.
This requirement states that the inertia of the model must be correctly
to scale.
(3)
are the damping logarithmic decrements in vertical flexure and in torsion,
res pecti vel y.
This means that the logarithmic decrement corresponding to structural
damping of the model and the prototype must be the same.
(4) For the equivalence of the model and a full scale, the aerodynamic
similarity parameter is the Reynolds number
VD/v
where vis the kinematic viscosity of air. In many circumstances, serious
errors can arise if the model and full-scale values are not comparable.
Although it becomes impractical for bridge tests to even approach full-
scale values of the Reynolds number, it is well established that for sharp-
edged bluff bodies, flow similarity is practically achieved even for quite
large discrepancies between model and full-scale values.
The values of the critical reduced velocity Vc/N0 D, VcfNvD found by the
model tests may be applied to the full-scale ~ridge with the appropriate
values of structural damping given before. Hence, by substituting the
calculated frequency N for the mode of oscillation under consideration
and the dimension D of the full-scale bridge in the critical reduced
velocity, the critical wind speed for the start of oscillations can be found.
At this speed, the overall damping of the bridge is zero, or
(11.87)
440 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
If the model tests show the bridge to be unstable, that is, the value of
either bew or bzw found on the model has a negative value in excess of the
the positive value assumed for the structural damping of the bridge,
attempts to introduce the required stability can be made by suitable
modifications to the aerodynamic shape of the suspended structure. In
some instances, it may be possible to stiffen the structure in order to
increase the natural frequencies, and hence the critical wind speed, so that
the oscillations do not occur within the range of winds expected at the site.
For instability due to buffet, the external shape of the bridge is of
secondary importance compared with its natural frequencies and with the
location and configuration of the obstacle causing the turbulent wake.
The prediction of buffet amplitudes on the full-scale bridge from
sectional-model tests is rather uncertain. A basis for an approximate
assessment has been suggested by Scruton 24 25 .
An ideal section of the bridge is one that produces no lift and small drag.
Therefore, the tendency is to design the structure streamlined so that no
separation occurs. Then flutter, if any, will be of the classical type, whose
critical speed is higher than that of the stall flutter and can be predicted
with good accuracy.
For aerodynamic stability, it is generally beneficial to design the
structure so as to minimize the projected area presented to the wind, so as
to reduce the magnitude of the aerodynamic forces. This follows from the
fact that the aerodynamic forces are proportional to the vorticity strength,
which in turn is proportional to the profile drag. A reduction in projected
frontal area decreases the profile drag, and therefore reduces the effective
aerodynamic force.
The aerodynamic stability of a long span bridge can best be established
by shaping the bridge in such a way that
\\'IKD \C:TIO:'\ \:'\D .\ERODY:'\A,\1IC ST \llll .ITY 441
1-
70.84'
~I Aerodynamically tested
in 1959
442 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
75 1 -0"
I
105 1 -0"
Fig. 11.13 Severn
Bridge. Cross-section
t CABLE
8.2 I 14.9
. I
1
41 1
16.4 1 29 5 I
l
~--------------~75
1
95.12'
I
~-"'_ _'_'-"~'i'_"'_'"-'--~
Fig. 11.17 Cross-
section of the Knie
AS TESTED, GAVE WIND STABILITY Bridge, Dusseldorf
bridge has so far not shown any wind oscillations. This is attributed to the
low elevation of the bridge deck above water level and to turbulence of
wind caused by surrounding buildings.
The study, undertaken to prevent oscillations in case they would occur,
indicatedthat a lining outside the main girder, as shown in Fig. 11.17,
would be sufficient to produce stability. On the basis of this study, a cross-
section was proposed with two triangular hollow boxes along the edges,
between which the deck structure is open. The slope of the soffit plate of
the edge boxes should not exceed an angle of about 35.
This idea was recently applied successfully to the Longs Creek Bridge
in Canada. This structure is a cable-stayed, orthotropic girder bridge,
having a main span of 713 ft 4 in (217 m) and a total length of 1092 ft
(333 m) (Fig. 11.18). When erected, it was observed that the bridge
would vibrate in vertical flexure when the wind velocity normal to the
bridge was in the range 25-30 mph (40-48 kph). Amplitudes as high as 8
in (20 mm) were obtained.
Wind-model investigations 37 indicated that the behavior of the bridge
could be duplicated in the model experiments. Various modifications to
the external shape were examined and the finally adopted one included
soffit plating between the girders and triangular edge fairings which
consist of a horizontal extension of the soffit plating and a sloping web
(Fig. 11.19).
Since being modified, the bridge has been exposed to severe winds and
no motion of the bridge has yet been observed.
Such structures show practically no uplift and no pitching moment
under small angles of wind attack as they correspond to high wind
speeds. Closing the bottom produces onl) a slight improvement. The
wind drag, i.e. its horizontal component, is also very low, only about~ of
that of the old type of suspension bridge, which means a saving in many
respects.
The total depth of such a cable-stayed bridge deck can be as lo" as
6.5- 11.5 ft (2- 3.5 m) for highways and 13 20 ft (4-6 m) for railroad
bridges, depending mainly upon the relationship of live load to dead load
and the ratio between side and main span, but being almost independent
of the length of the main span.
11.11 Conclusions
References
12.1 Introduction
12.4 Pylons
The type of pylon used is based on site conditions, design, aesthetics and
cable geometry. The various types are the A-frame, diamond, delta, and,
for multi-span structures, the A-frame (Maracaibo).
The ratio of pylon height above the bridge deck to center span length
for a three-span structure should preferably be in the range of 0.6-0.2.
For a two-span asymmetrical structure the longer span may be equivalent
to one-half the span of a three-span symmetrical structure.
To optimize the quantity of cable steel required, it is desirable to
increase the ratio of the pylon height to span length to 0.3 for the
radiating type and 0.4 for harp type.
12.5 Analysis
12.6 Cables
where the subscripts i and f represent the initial and final values of
tension during the load increment. Some designers apply the concept of
equivalent stiffness after the formula:
(A E) eq = AE -
AE
B 2 (12.3)
1 + [12T I AE (WL) ]
12.6.3 Prestretching
The cables may be continuous and pass through the pylon, supported on
saddles, or may be terminated at the pylon.
12.7.2 Endfittings
end of a cable are broomed out, cleaned and immersed in a flux solution,
then placed in the basket of the socket, which is then filled with molten
zinc or with epoxy mixtures.
With swaged fittings, the cable end is inserted into a close-tolerance
hole in the end of the fitting which is then placed in a die block of a
hydraulic press. The die block is closed under pressure and the softer
steel of the fitting flows plastically around the harder steel wires.
12.8 Protection
12.9 Camber
12.10 Temperature
12.11 Aerodynamics
12.11.1 General
The critical wind velocity, ~,, associated with vortex shedding should be
considered according to formula:
NaD
5=--- (12.4)
where
S = Strouhal number
~~ =shedding frequency equal to the natural frequency of the
structural member
D = projected dimension of the member
Although vortex shedding causes limited amplitudes of motion, it should
be considered for possible overstressing and fatigue.
Wind tunnel tests are made to determine the wind velocity causing
aerodynamic instability, using either full or sectional bridge models.
For the box section, plate girders and stiffened truss, the ratio of
torsional to flexural frequencies should be greater than 2.
12.12 Fatigue
According to tests at Lehigh University, the fatigue life of the strand was
defined as the number of cycles before the first wire broke and the
loading range had more effect on the fatigue life than the magnitude of
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CABLE-ST.'\ YEO BRIDGES 457
12.13 Fabrication
12.14 Erection
Erection loads should include wind and erection equipment and stresses
from the application of construction loads during erection should not
exceed the allowable stresses.
12.15 Inspection
12.15.1 General
12.15.2 Co-operation
12.15.3 Samples
Samples of material for the cables may be requested by the engineer for
separate testing.
12.15.4 Limitations
12.15.5 Records
12.15.7 Installation
The inspector should determine that cables are installed with striping in
the proper relative position.
References
Fraser, R. A., 438, 448 Lazar, 13., 272, 317, 361, 362, 402, 403
Freudenberg, G., 109, 110 Leckie, F., 362
Fuchs, D., 173 Le Feuvre, 10
Fuchs, W., 109 Leinekugel Ie Cocq, G., 17, 40
Lenglet, C., 145
Gandil, Ill Lentze, K., 40
Gee, A. F., 144, 145, 146, 173 Leonhardt, F., 19, 40, 173, 201, 206,222,
Gere, J. M., 276, 361, 362 240, 272, 441, 448
Gerold, W., 112 Lewenton, G., 173
Gilbert, R., 448 Lewis, R. E., 173
Gimsing, N.J., 31, 32, 41, 240,272 Lipton, T. M., 173
Gisclard, A. V., 14, 17, 40 Little, W. A., 367, 402
Golub, II., 154 Livesley, R. K., 230
Gottschalk, 0., 3 64, 40 I Liischer, C. T., 5, 39
Goschy, 13., 329, 362, 416, 421, 447 Lustgarten, P ., 144
Graham, I I. J., 146
Grant, A., 145 Macher, F.j., 447
Manniche, K., 154
Hadley, I I. !\1., 144 Marquis, P., Ill
I Iagg, G., 113 Mathint,]., 145
I Iajdin, N., 112 Matsumaro, I 1., 173
Hass, B., I 10 McCoy, R. I 1., 36 7, 3 70, 402
I Iatley, T., 9 McCullough, C. B., 447
Haupt, \\'., 23, 40, 70, 110 Mehrtens, G. C., 39
I Iavemann, I I. K., II 0 Merchant, W., 361
I Ieeb, A., I I2 Mignot, Ill
Hess, I 1., 108, 363 Miller, M. A., 361
Hohne, K.]., 109 Montagne, S., 112
Homberg, II., 36, 41, 109, 239,403 Montercia, J ., 173
Homann, II., 109 lv1orandi, R., 121, 144, 145
Hooke, R., 223, 251 Morley, G. \V., 111
Hopper, C.]., 449 Morphy, G., 402
llossdorf, II., 402 Morris, !\'.F., 227, 230
Moser, W. II., 144
Jeffer, R., 144 Motley, T., 9, 39
je\tovic, L.]., 112 Muller, J., 145
Jolm<;on, D., 227, 230 Miiller-13reslau, 303
Jonatowski, J. J., 227, 230
Nansout:y, de, M., 40
Kachurin, \'. K., 272 Navier, C. L. M., 6, 7, 11, 39
Kajita, T., 323, 362 Newmark, N. lVI., 228, 230
Kammuller, K., 144
Karman, Th. von, 410, 441 Okada, S., 109
Kato, T., 173 Ordish, R., 10
Kealey, T. R., 109
Kersten, R., 362 Paez, A., 144
Kinney, Ci. F., 402 Parkinson,]., 146
Kireenko, 13. 1., 144, 272 Pa\lo, E. 1., !54
Klenschmidt, I I. J., I 10 Payne, R.]., 112
Klingenberg, W., I 13, 146 Peste!, E., 362
Kliippel, K., 362, 4I2, 441,447,448 Pippard, A. J. S., 364, 401
Knox, I I. S. G., 109 Prickett, J. E., !54
Koger, E., 109 Podolny, W. Jr, 40, 221
Kohmann, R., 109 Poisson, S. D., 370, 332
Kollmeier, I 1., 362 Ponder, C. A., 449
Kolousek, V., 448 Poyet, 6
Komatsu, S., 109, 173 Preece, 13. \\'., 370, 403
Koutnv, !\1., 113 Protte, \\., 309, 362
Krylm:, A.!'\., 333, 362
Kuesel, T. R., 107, 113 Rabe,]., 109
Kulicki, J. !\I., !54 Rayleigh, Lord, 415, 421
Reimers, K., 173
Landstrom, 13., 39 Reutter, K., 109
I .anghaar, I I. L., 370, 402 Reynolds, 0., 439
462 AUTHOR INDEX
Ritz, W., 415, 420, 447 Teller, L. W., 431, 432, 448
Rocha, M. M., 402, 403 Teng, W. C., 221
Roebling, J. A., 11, 13 Tesar, A., 112
Roll, F., 402 Thiele, F., 413, 447, 448
Rooke, W. G., 111 Thomass, S., 173
Rosecrans, R., 447 Thul, H., 35, 40, 41, 108, 110
Timby, E. K., 401
Saafan, S. A., 277, 361 Tochacek, M, 113
Sabzevari, A., 441 Torii, Y., 109
Samuel, P., 173 Torrejon, J. E., 154
Sanson, R., 109 Torroja, E., 115, 144
Saul, R., 154 Troitsky, M.S., 40, 112, 272, 361, 402, 403
Scalzi, J. B., 221 Tross, W., 309 362
Scanlan, R. H., 441 Troyano, L. F., 173
Schambeck, II., 146 Tussing, F., 108
Scheer,]., 362 Tyrrell, II. G., 40
Schlaich, ]., 113
Schmidt, H., 402 Urban, ]., 111
Schmitz, II., 144
Schottgen, J., 111, 362 Valentin, 111
Schreier, G., 363 Van der Molten, J. L., 173
Schumann, H., 111 Vincent, G. S., 447, 448
Schussler, K., 108 Vitruvious, F., 38, 39, 41
Schwab, R., 109 \1asov, V. Z., 329, 339, 361
Scruton, C., 431, 437, 438, 441, 448 Vogel, G., 108
Selberg, A., 412, 431,441, 447, 448
Simons, H., 144 Wagner, P., 449
Simonsen, 0. F., 111 Waldner, H. E., 154
Simpson, C. V.J., 40 Walsche, D. E., 432, 448
Smith, B.S., 267, 268, 272, 282, 361 Wardlaw, R. L., 449
Sparkes, S. R., 401 Weaver, W. Jr, 276, 361, 362
Steinman, D. B., 40, 112,401,408,409,431, Webster, L. F., 111
446, 447, 448 Wenk, II., 40, 108
Stephenson, R., 364 Wilson, M. C., 173
Streletzkii, N. N., 144 Wind, H., 144
Strouhal, V., 410, 456 Wintergerst, L., 111, 362, 363
St Venant, Barre de, 329, 421 Wittfoht, II., 110
Svenson, II. S., 154 Woodgate, L., 448
abutment, 7R, R4, 85, 86, 92, 94, 9R atmospheric damping, 433
acceleration method, 228 axial
adjustment of cables, 217 deformation, 256
A-frame tower, 24, 58, 66, R9, 117, 125, 165, force, 262, 392
169, 201, 241, 444, 452
aerodvnamics backstay, 123, 127, 129, 140
da~ping, 406 Ballycastle footbridge, Ireland (1967), 171,
f(Jrce, 227,408,410,411,446 172, 173
instability, 440, 456 Barcelona Pedestrian Bridge, Spain, 169, 170
investigation, 56 Barwon River footbridge, Australia, 162, 163
model, 436 Bassin du Commerce footbridge, france,
oscillation, 440 161, 162
shape, 404, 446 Batman Bridge, Tasmania, 92, 93
stability, 62, 67, 239, 404, 408, 434, 440 BBR button head, 193
Aeroelastic bridge model, 436 beam on elastic support, 268
aerofoil, 412 Belgrade railway bridge, 99
aesthetic Benton City Bridge, USA, 116
design, 36 bending
effect, 39 deformation, 256
air flow, 406 moment, 252
Albert Bridge, London (1873), 10 rigidity, 330
allowable stress, 249, 261, 262 stiffness, 332
amplitude stress of wire, 196
stress, 193 bifurcation, 165
vibration, 414 bluff body, 439
anchor socket, 204 box
anchorage, 129 girder, 56, 72, 74, 78, 80, 85, 94, 99, 123,
anchorage of cable, 33, 53, 99, 103, 107, 108, 127, 140, 148, 204,411
133, 193 ribs, 26, 88
angle section, 72, 17 5
inclination of cable, 27 Bonn-l\'ord Bridge, Germany (1967), 74, 77,
twist, 337, 340 78, 200
angular rotation, 2S3, 420, 421, 422 Bonhomme Bridge, 14, 15
angular rotation of cable, 420, 421, 422 Bosporus Bridge, Turkey, +41, +42
analytical model, 223 bracing, 59, 103
'\nnacis Island Bridge, Canada (1987), 151, Bratislava Bridge, Czechoslovakia (1971), 94,
152 95
Ansa de Ia Magliana Viaduct, Italy, (1967), bridge
121, 122 architecture, 36
antisvmmetric oscillation, 406 deck, 452
appa~ent modulus of elasticity, ISS, 186 erection, 103
approximate method of analysis, 265 flatter, 413
Argen River Bridge, Germany, 89, 90 model, 62
464 SUBJECT l:\DEX
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