Water Treatment Technologies

WATER TREATMENT
Overview of the Water Treatment Process

Preliminary Treatment
Presedimentation
Aeration
Primary Sedimentation
Sedimentation and flotation zones
Adsorption
Ion Exchange
Coagulation and Flocculation
Filtration
Membrane Processes / Electro-dialysis
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis
Softening
Treatment
Groundwater types and treatment
Surface water treatment
Disinfection
Preliminary Treatment
Preliminary treatment is any physical, chemical or mechanical process used on water before it undergoes the
main treatment process.
The purpose of preliminary treatment processes is to remove any materials which will interfere with further
treatment.
Pretreatment may include screening, presedimentation, chemical addition, flow measurement, and aeration.
SCREENING
The screens are used to remove rocks, sticks, leaves, and other debris.
Very small screens can be used to screen out algae in the water.
All objects are removed by physical size separation
Screens on the outside of intakes are often cleaned by flushing water from the treatment plant backwards
There are two primary types of screens - bar screens and wire-mesh screens.
A bar screen is used to remove large debris. The spaces between the bars are two to four inches wide.
A wire-mesh screen is used to remove smaller debris. The gaps are about half an inch wide.
Water must be flowing slowly in order to pass through a wire-mesh screen - velocities should be no greater
than 3.5 inches per second.
Priodeep Chowdhury, Lecturer, Dept. of CEE, Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply
PRESEDIMENTATION
Presedimentation is to settle out sand, grit, and gravel which will settle rapidly out of the water without the
addition of chemicals at the beginning of the treatment process.
Presedimentation depends on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation.
Presedimentation will reduce the load on the coagulation/flocculation basin and on the sedimentation
chamber, as well as reducing the volume of coagulant chemicals required to treat the water.
Presedimentation basins are useful because raw water entering the plant from a reservoir is usually more
uniform in quality than water entering the plant without such a holding basin
Here in pretreatment, the purpose of sedimentation is to make the chemical treatment phase of the water
treatment process more efficient by removing sediment from the raw water.
In presedimentation basin, activated carbon may be added to the basin for taste, odor, and color problems,
and some chemicals to control the growth of algae.
Aeration removes carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide from the water. It also oxidizes the iron and
manganese.
MONITORING
Flow Measurement: to adjust chemical feed rates, calculate detention times, and monitor the amount of
water being treated.
It is also monitored for a variety of characteristics including pH, turbidity, total alkalinity, temperature, and
coliform bacteria.
The pH and total alkalinity of the water will influence the amount of alkali to be added and can also
influence the flocculation conditions
The level of turbidity will influence the amount of polymer (coagulant) added to the water.
Temperature is also measured since cold water does not floc as well as warm water and requires the
addition of more polymer
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered below the suspension
velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due to gravity.
The process is also known as settling or clarification
Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are removed as scum
The efficiency or performance of the process is controlled by: detention time, temperature, tank design, and
condition of the equipment.
Notes:
sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity water of less than 10 NTU
In this case, coagulation and flocculation are used to produce pinpoint (very small) floc which is
removed from the water in the filters.
Primary Sedimentation: Location in the Treatment Process
The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and precedes filtration.
This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the coagulation/flocculation step) and removes the
resulting floc from the water.
sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the suspended particles in the
water before the water reaches the filters,
Sedimentation at this stage in the treatment process should remove 90% of the suspended particles from the
water, including bacteria.
The purpose of sedimentation here is to decrease the concentration of suspended particles in the water,
reducing the load on the filters.
Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment process, where it is known as presedimentation.
Types of sedimentation basins
Rectangular basins: have a variety of advantages - predictability, cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance.
In addition, rectangular basins are the least likely to short-circuit, especially if the length is at least twice the
width. A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large amount of land area required.
Double-deck rectangular basins: This type of basin conserves land area - has higher operation and
maintenance costs.
Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are known as clarifiers. This type of basin is
likely to have short-circuiting problems.
Solids-contact clarifiers , also known as upflow solids-contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket
clarifiers combine coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation within a single basin. found in packaged
plants and in cold climates where sedimentation must occur indoors
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION ZONES

All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge zone, and the outlet
zone.
In a clarifier, water typically enters the basin from the center rather than from one end and flows out to
outlets located around the edges of the basin. But the four zones can still be found within the clarifier
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION ZONES INLET ZONE
Purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are:

to distribute the water and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin.
inlet devices act to prevent turbulence of the water.
The incoming flow must be evenly distributed across the width of the basin to prevent short-circuiting.
Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in which water bypasses the normal flow path through the
basin and reaches the outlet in less than the normal detention time.
If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will break up due to agitation of the
water.
Types of Inlets
1. The stilling wall, also known as a perforated baffle wall , spans the entire basin from top to bottom and
from side to side. Water leaves the inlet and enters the settling zone of the sedimentation basin by flowing
through the holes evenly spaced across the stilling wall.
2. The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the holes evenly spaced
across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in front of the channel. The combination
of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute the incoming water
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION SETTLING ZONE
Water enters the settling zone where water velocity is greatly reduced.
The bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the largest volume of the sedimentation
basin.
For optimal performance, the settling zone requires a slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube settlers and
lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.
Tube settlers and lamella plates
Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates. Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and
drifts back down into the lower portions of the sedimentation basin.
Clarified water passes through the tubes or between the plates and then flows out of the basin.
Why Tube settlers and lamella plates:
To increase the settling efficiency and speed in sedimentation basins. Each tube or plate functions as a
miniature sedimentation basin, greatly increasing the settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful
in plants where site area is limited, or to increase the capacity of shallow basins.
Adding inclined settling surface technology to an existing clarifier can increase water treatment flow by as much
as 75%.
Fig.: Horizontal Parallel Plate Clarifiers
Fig.: Vertical Parallel Plate Clarifiers.
Fig.: Traditional Circular Clarifiers (Settling Zone)
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION OUTLET ZONE
Outlet Zone is designed to:

Prevent short-circuiting of water in the basin.
Ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and enters the filter.
Control the water level in the basin.
Ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has the minimum amount of floc suspended in
it.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent.
This baffle prevents floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters.
The weirs serve to skim the water evenly off the tank.
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION SLUDGE ZONE
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin.
Velocity should be very slow to prevent resuspension of sludge.
The tank bottom should slope toward the drains
Sludge removal by (automated equipment or manually at least twice per year).
The best time of cleaning when water demand is low, (April and October).
Many plants have at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated while one basin
is being cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from enough, the effective volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the
efficiency of sedimentation.
Sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may become septic (anaerobically).
Septic sludge may result in taste and odor problems or may float to the top of the water and become scum or
resuspended to be carried over to the filters.
DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK
Surface Loading or Overflow Velocity

The discharge per unit area Q/ BL is known as overflow velocity. Normal velocities range from between 500-
750 lit/hr/m2 of plan area for sedimentation tanks using coagulants.
Detention Time
Detention time (t) of settling tank may be defined as the average theoretical time required for the water to flow
through the tank. It is the time that would be required for the flow of water to fill the water if there will be no
overflow. Hence it is the ratio of Volume of the basin to the rate of flow through the basin.
For Rectangular tank:
Detention Time (t) = Volume of Tank / Rate of flow = BLH / Q
Where,
H= Water depth or Height; L= Length of Tank
B= Width; Q= Discharge
Detention time usually ranges between 4 to 8 hours for plain sedimentation; it is 2 to 4 hrs., as coagulant get
used.
Short Circuiting
For the efficient removal of sediment in sedimentation tank, it is necessary that flow through period uniformly
distributed throughout the tank. If current permit a substantial portion of water to pass directly through the tank
without being detained for intended time, the flow is said to be short circuited.
Inlet & Out let Zone

Inlet & Outlet zone near the entrance and exit should be designed which may reduce the short-circuiting
tendencies and in such a way distribute the flow uniformly. The size and shape of particle also affect the settling
rate. The greater is the specific gravity more readily the particle will settle.
Displacement Efficiency
The actual average time, which a batch of water takes in passing through a settling tank is called the flowing
through period it is always less than the detention period. Which is the corresponding theoretical time. The
ratio of the flowing through period to detention time is called displacement efficiency
Therefore, Displacement efficiency= Flow through period / Detention Period
It generally varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal sedimentation tank.
Basin Dimension
The surface area of the tank is determined on the basis of overflow rate or surface loading rate
3 3 2
Surface Area A= Rate of flow (m /day) / Surface loading rate (m /m /day)
The length to width ratio of rectangle tank should preferably be 3:1 to 5:1 Width of tank should not exceed
12 m. The depth is kept between 3 to 6 m. For a circular tank the diameter is limited to 60 m
C/s area is such that to provide a horizontal velocity of flow of 0.2 to 0.4 m/min, normally about 0.3 m/min.
Bottom slope is taken as 1 % in rectangular tank to about 8% in circular tank
Maximum velocity to prevent scour

It is very essential that once the particle has settled and reach the sludge zone it should not be scoured or
lifted up by velocity of flow of water over the bed.
1/2
Vd= ( 8 *(Ss-1)* d/f)
Where;
= 0.04 for uni-granular sand and 0.06 or more for non uniform sand.
f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor
= 0.025 to 0.03 for settling velocity.
d = diameter of particle
Ss = Specific Gravity of particles
Sludge Removal
The particles settled in the basin constitute the sludge which can be removed either manually or mechanically.
In manual process the tank has to be put out of service, drained and sludge has to be dug out from the bottom
manually. This method is used when the quantity of matter is small. However when quantity is large,
mechanical or hydraulic methods are used for sludge removal.
Problem-1:
Design a suitable sedimentation tank for a town whose daily demand is 12 million lit per day. Tank is fitted
with a mechanical scrapper for sludge removal. Assume detention period as 5 hrs. And velocity of flow as 20
cm/sec.
Solution:
Quantity of water to be treated = 12 x 10 6 lit/ day = 12 x 10 3 m3 /day =12 x 10 3 / 24 = 500 m3/hr
Capacity of tank = Q x detention time
= 500 x 5= 2500 m3
Velocity of flow = 20 cm /min = 0.2 m/min

The length of the tank required = Velocity of flow x Detention time
= 0.2 x 5 x 60
= 60 m
The c/s area of the tank required = Volume of tank / Length of the tank = 2500/ 60 = 41.66 m2
Assume water depth of 3.5 m
Width of tank required = 41.66 / 3.5

= 11.9 m => 12 m
Using free board of 0.5 m the overall depth = 3.5 + 0.5 = 4.0 m
So provide a tank of 60 x 12 x 4 m
Surface loading rate = Q / (L x B) = 12 x 103/60 x 12 = 16.66 m3/m2/day (Within limits) <O.K.>
Problem-2:
Design a sedimentation tank for a water works which supplies 1.6 MLD to the town. The sedimentation
period is 4 hrs. The velocity of flow is 0.15 m/min and the depth of water in the tank is 4.0 m. Assume an
allowance for sludge as 80 cm. Also find the overflow rate.
Solution:
Quantity of water to be treated = 1.6 x 10 6 lit/day= 66.66 m3/hr.

Volume of tank or capacity of tank = Q x detention time
= 66.66 x 4= 266.64 m 3
The velocity of horizontal flow= 0.15 m/min
The required length of the tank= Velocity of flow x detention time = 0.15 x 4 x 60 =36 m
Cross-Sectional area of the tank= Capacity/Length= 266.64 (m 3) / 36 (m) = 7.4 m 2
Depth of tank= 4.0 m
Therefore width of the tank = Cross Sectional area / depth of water
Here total depth of water including sludge= 4.0 m
Sludge depth= 0.8 m
Therefore Water depth= 4-0.8 = 3.2 m
Therefore width of tank = 7.4/3.2 m = 2.31= 2.4 m
Provide a free board of 0.5 m the size of the tank= 36 x 2.4 x 4.5 m
Overflow rate= Q/(L x B) = (1.6 x 10 6 ) / (36 x 2.4 x 24) lit/hr./m 2= 771.6 lit/hr./m2 or 18.51
m3/m2/day
AERATION
Aeration is the process of bringing water and air into close contact.
Aeration is the process to remove dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and to
oxidize dissolved metals such as iron. It can also be used to remove volatile organic chemicals (VOC).
It happened by:
Exposing drops or thin sheets of water to the air or
Introducing small bubbles of air and letting them rise through the water.
The aeration is accomplished the desired results by:
Sweeping or scrubbing action caused by the turbulence of water and air mixing together
Oxidizing certain metals and gases
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AFFECTED BY AERATION
The constituents that are commonly affected by aeration are:
Volatile organic chemicals, such as benzene, found in gasoline, or trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene,
and perchloroethylene, examples of solvents are used in dry cleaning or industrial processes.
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide (rotten-egg odor)
Methane (flammable)
Iron (will stain clothes and fixtures)
Manganese (black stains)
Various chemicals causing taste and odor
Chemical Substances Affected By Aeration: CO2
Surface waters have a low CO2 content ( 0 to 2 mg/l).

Deep lake or reservoir can have high CO2 content due to the respiration of microscopic animals and lack of
abundant plant growth at the lake bottom.
Aerators remove CO2 by the physical scrubbing or sweeping action caused by turbulence.
aeration can reduce the CO2 content to 4.5 mg CO2 /l
Concentrations of CO2 in groundwater are usually higher than in surface water.
Water from a deep well normally contains less than 50 mg/l, but a shallow well can have a much higher
level, up to 50 to 300 mg/l.
CO2 REMOVAL
The most appropriate treatment for carbon dioxide may be aeration, addition of an alkali, or a
combination of the two.
CO2 gas dissolves easily in water, resulting in carbonic acid:
H2O + CO2 <===> H2CO3
CO2 is neutralized through the addition of an alkali (basic, ionic salt), such as lime (Ca(OH)2) or soda
ash (Na2CO3).
Lime reacts with carbon dioxide, removing the carbon dioxide from the water as shown below:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 <===> CaCO3 + H2O
CO2 above 5 to 15 mg/l in raw water can cause three operating problems:
It increases the acidity of the water, making it corrosive by forming a weak acid, H 2CO3.
It tends to keep iron in solution, thus making iron removal more difficult.
It reacts with lime added to soften water, causing an increase in the amount of lime needed for the
softening reaction.
H2 S
A poisonous gas (Brief exposures--less than 30 minutes in concentrations as low as 0.03 percent by volume
in the air) - rotten-egg odor
H2S occurs mainly in groundwater supplies.
It may be caused by the action of iron or sulphur reducing bacteria in the well.
Occasional disinfection of the well can reduce the bacteria producing the H2S
H2S in a water supply will disagreeably alter the taste of coffee, tea, and ice.
H2S is corrosive to piping, tanks, water heaters, and copper alloys that it contacts.
Operational problems:
Disinfection of the water can become less effective because of the chlorine demand exerted by the
hydrogen sulfide.
H2S + Cl2 + O2- S + H2O + 2Cl-
H2S + 4Cl2 + 4 H2O H2SO4 + 8 HCl
There could be corrosion of the piping systems and the water tanks.
H2S REMOVAL BY AERATION METHOD
Hydrogen sulfide is physically removed by agitating the water via bubbling or cascading and then
separating or "stripping" the hydrogen sulfide in a container.
H2S + O2 = water (H2O) + elemental sulfur
Aeration is most effective when hydrogen H2S are lower than 2.0 mg/l.
At higher concentrations, this method may not remove the entire offensive odor unless the air is used to
oxidize hydrogen sulfide chemically into solid sulfur, which is then filtered.
In a typical aeration system, ambient air is introduced into the water using an air compressor or blower.
Well-designed aeration tanks maintain a pocket of air in the upper third or upper half of the tank.
If the tank does not maintain an air pocket, sulfur odor may return.
When sulfur levels exceed 10 mg/l, larger aeration tanks, repressurization systems, chlorination systems, or
a combination may be needed.
METHANE
Methane gas can be found in groundwater.

It may be formed by the decomposition of organic matter.
It can be found in water from aquifers that are near natural-gas deposits.
Methane is a colorless gas that is highly flammable and explosive.
When mixed with water, methane will make the water taste like garlic.
The gas is only slightly soluble in water and therefore is easily removed by the aeration of the water.
IRON & MANGANESE REMOVAL
Iron and manganese minerals are found in soil and rock.

Iron and manganese can dissolve into groundwater as it percolates through the soil and rock.
Iron in the ferrous form and manganese in the manganous form are objectionable.
More than 0.3 mg/l of iron will cause yellow to reddish-brown stains of plumbing fixtures or almost
anything that it contacts.
If the concentration exceeds 1 mg/l, the taste of the water will be metallic and the water may be turbid.
Manganese even at levels as low as 0.1 mg/l, will cause blackish staining of fixtures and anything else it
contacts.
If the water contains both iron and manganese, staining could vary from dark brown to black.
Consumer complaints are laundry is stained and that the water is red or dirty.
Iron and manganese should not be aerated unless filtration is provided.
Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates.
In the aeration process, the water is saturated with oxygen to promote the following reactions:
The oxidation products, ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide, are insoluble.
After aeration, they are removed by clarification or filtration.
Occasionally, strong chemical oxidants such as chlorine (Cl2 or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) may be
used following aeration to ensure complete oxidation.
TASTE, ODOR & DISSOLVED OXYGEN REMOVAL
TASTE AND ODOR

Aeration is effective in removing tastes and odors that are caused by volatile materials
Volatile materials (e.g Methane and hydrogen sulfide) have low boiling point and will vaporize very
easily.
Many taste and odor problems in surface water could be caused by oils and by-products that algae
produce.
Since oils are much less volatile than gases, aeration is only partially effective.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Oxygen is injected into water through aeration to remove the flat taste.
The amount of oxygen that the water can hold is dependent on the temp.
The colder the water, the more oxygen the water can hold.
Water that contains excessive amounts of oxygen can become very corrosive.
Excessive oxygen can cause air binding of filters.
TYPES OF AERATORS
Aerators fall into two general categories.

Introduce air into the water or water into the air.
The water-to-air method is designed to produce small drops of water that fall through the air
The air-to-water method creates small bubbles of air that are injected into the water stream.
All aerators are designed to create a greater amount of contact between the air and water to enhance the
transfer of the gases.
WATER INTO AIR
Cascade Aerators
Consists of a series of steps that the water flows over.
Aeration is accomplished in the splash zones.
The aeration action is similar to a flowing stream.
Splash areas are created by placing blocks across the incline.
Cascade aerators used to oxidize iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.
The oldest and most common type of aerators.
Cone Aerators
Are used primarily to oxidize iron and manganese prior to filtration.
The water pumped to the top of the cones and then allowed to cascade down through the aerator.
WATER INTO AIR
Slat and Coke Aerators

Similar to the cascade and cone types.
They usually consist of three-to-five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them.
The trays are filled with fist-sized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials.
The primary purpose of the materials is provide additional surface contact area between the air and
water.
Draft Aerators: the air is induced by a blower.

Types:
External blowers mounted at the bottom of the tower to induce air from the bottom of the tower.
Water is pumped to the top and allowed to cascade down through the rising air.
The other, an induced-draft aerator, has a top-mounted blower forcing air from bottom vents up through
the unit to the top.
Both types are effective in oxidizing iron and manganese before filtration.
AIR INTO WATER

These are not common types used in water treatment.
The air is injected into the water through a series of nozzles submerged in the water.
It is more commonly used in wastewater treatment for the aeration of activated sludge.
Pressure Aerators
Uses a pressure vessel.
The water to be treated is sprayed into the high-pressure air, allowing the water to quickly pick up dissolved
oxygen.
A pressure aerator commonly used in pressure filtration is a porous stone installed in a pipeline before
filtration.
The air is injected into the stone and allowed to stream into the water as a fine bubble, causing the iron to be
readily oxidized.
The higher the pressure, the more readily the transfer of the oxygen to the water.
More O2 is available, more readily the oxidation of the Fe or Mn.
Air Stripping
Can be quite effective in removing volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from water.
A major concern is that VOCs may be carcinogens.
Air stripping capable of removing up to 90 percent of the most highly volatile VOCs.
Water flow over cascade aerators or in specially designed air-stripping towers.
Water is allowed to flow down over a support medium or packing contained in the tower, while air is being
pumped into the bottom of the tower.
ACTIVATED CARBON AS ABSORBENT
non-polar and cheap, highly porous, amorphous solid consisting of microcrystallites with a graphite lattice
Usually prepared in small pellets or a powder.
Its main drawbacks (it is reacts with oxygen at moderate temp. (Over 300 C).
Manufactured from carbonaceous material, including coal, peat, wood, or nutshells (e.g., coconut).
The manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization and activation.
The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to separate by-products, including tars and other
hydrocarbons from the raw material, as well as to drive off any gases generated.
The process is completed by heating the material over 400 C in an oxygen-free atmosphere that cannot
support combustion.
The carbonized particles are then "activated" by exposing them to an oxidizing agent, usually steam or
carbon dioxide at high temperature.
This agent burns off the pore blocking structures created during the carbonization phase and so, they develop
a porous, three-dimensional graphite lattice structure.
The size of the pores developed during activation is a function of the time that they spend in this stage.
Longer exposure times result in larger pore sizes.
The most popular aqueous phase carbons are bituminous based because of their hardness, abrasion
resistance, pore size distribution, low cost
Activated carbon is used for adsorption of organic substances and non-polar adsorbates and it is also usually
used for waste gas (and waste water) treatment.
It is the most widely used adsorbent??? most of its chemical (eg. surface groups) and physical properties
(eg. pore size distribution and surface area) can be tuned according to what is needed.
ION EXCHANGE
The ion exchange process percolates water through bead-like spherical resin materials (ion-exchange resins).
Ions in the water are exchanged for other ions fixed to the beads.
The two most common ion-exchange methods are softening and deionization.
Ion exchange materials are insoluble substances containing loosely held ions which are able to be exchanged
with other ions in solutions which come in contact with them.
Exchanges take place without any physical alteration to the ion exchange material.
Ion exchangers are insoluble acids or bases which have salts which are also insoluble, and this enables them
to exchange either positively charged ions (cation exchangers) or negatively charged ones (anion
exchangers).
Many natural substances such as proteins, cellulose, living cells and soil particles exhibit ion exchange
properties which play an important role in the way the function in nature.
Ion exchange uses a resin that removes charged inorganic contaminants like arsenic, chromium, nitrate,
radium, uranium, and fluoride.
It works best with particle-free water and can be scaled to fit any size treatment facility.
Ion exchange is most often used to remove hardness (cation resin) or nitrate (anion resin).
In both instances, it can be regenerated with salt water.
The use of ion exchange to remove radionuclides (an atom with an unstable nucleus) is complicated by the
fact that these materials accumulate in the resin and occur at high levels in the regenerant, greatly
complicating operations.
Activated carbon is generally preferred for removing organic contaminants, whereas ion exchanges often
best for removing inorganic soluble molecules
Types of Ion Exchange Resin
Strong Acid Cation Resins

Behaving like strong acid
highly ionized in both the acid (R-SO3H) and salt (R-SO3Na) form.
Metal salt can be converted to the corresponding acid.

They can be used for entire range of pH and are utilized for water softening (calcium and magnesium
removal).
The regeneration takes place by contact with a strong acid solution (hydrochloric or sulphuric)
Weak Acid Cation Resins

Carboxylic acid (COOH) acts as the ionizable group in weak acid cation resins.
They show more affinity for hydrogen ions. This results in the regeneration of the hydrogen form with less
acid than is required for strong acid resins.
Strong Base Anion Resins

They are suitable for entire pH range.
They deionize water in hydroxide (OH) form.
Acidic nature of the water can be removed and pure water can be obtained.
The reaction can be put forward as:
for which sodium hydroxide is used as the regenerant
Weak Base Anion Resins

In weak base resins, intensity of ionization is affected by pH.
They are incapable to split salts but can absorb acids
Types of Ion Exchange Resin
How ion exchange resins work
The resins are prepared as spherical beads 0.5 to 1.0 mm in diameter.
These appear solid even under the microscope, but on a molecular scale the structure is quite open.
This means that a solution passed down a resin bed can flow through the cross-linked polymer, bringing it
into intimate contact with the exchange sites.
Uses
To remove unwanted ions from a solution passed through it (heavy metals from metal wastes - salts from
fruit juices)
To accumulate a valuable mineral from the water which can later be recovered from the resin.
Strong cation resins in the hydrogen form are used for the hydrolysis of starch and sucrose.
Used in the laboratory to remove interfering ions during analysis or to accumulate trace quantities of ions
from dilute solutions.
A cation resin in the hydrogen form can be used to determine the total concentration of ions in a mixture of
salts. The sample passing through a column is converted to the equivalent quantity of acid and the amount
readily found by titration.
Earliest applications of ion exchange was the separation of rare earth elements (Promethium (element 61)
and five new elements in the actinide series).
WATER TREATMENT
The two major types of treatment applied to water are:
Water softening - the replacement of hard ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ by Na+
Demineralization - the complete removal of dissolved minerals.
WATER SOFTENING
Softening is used primarily as a pretreatment method to reduce water hardness prior to reverse osmosis (RO)
processing.
The softeners contain beads that exchange two sodium ions for every calcium or magnesium ion removed
from the "softened" water.
In water softening a cation resin in the sodium form is used to remove hard metal ions (calcium and
magnesium) from the water along with troublesome traces of iron and manganese
These ions are replaced by an equivalent quantity of sodium, so that the total dissolved solids content of the
water remains unchanged as does the pH and anionic content.
At regular time intervals the resin is cleaned. This involves passing influent water back up through the resin.
In water softening the regenerant is a strong solution of sodium chloride.
Example of Water softening
A) Sodium cation exchange:
Ca+2 + 2Na.R = Ca.R + 2Na+
Mg+2 + 2Na.R = Mg.R + 2Na+
B) Regeneration: using strong brine (NaCl)
Mg. R + 2NaCl = 2Na.R + MgCl2
Ca. R + 2NaCl = 2Na.R + CaCl2
Example of Water softening
Demineralisation = Deionization
Complete deionization can be achieved by using two resins.
The water is first passed through a bed of cation exchange resin in hydrogen ion form
During service, cations in the water are taken up by the resin while hydrogen ions are released.
Thus the effluent consists of a very weak mixture of acids.
Then water passes through second anion exchange resin in the hydroxide form.
Here the anions are exchanged for hydroxide ions, which react with the hydrogen ions to form water.
twin bed units will reduce the total solids content to approximately 1-2 mg L-1.
it is usual to pass water leaving the cation unit through a degassing tower.
degassing tower removes the carbonic acid produced from carbon dioxide and bicarbonate in the feed
water and reduces the load on the anion unit.
Without degassing the carbonic acid would be taken up by the anion bed after conversion to carbonate.
Mixed resin
Mixed resin produces water with much lower levels of dissolved material than can be achieved by
distillation.
In laboratories, mixed resin is often used in disposable cartridges. These are only used once, but larger
mixed resin units can be regenerated.
After exhaustion the bed is subjected to an up flow of water.
Anionic resin beads are less dense than the cationic ones and they rise to the top so that the bed is
separated into two layers of resin.
Each is regenerated in situ with the appropriate regenerant then rinsed with clean water.
Cation and anion exchange and regeneration

i) Hydrogen cation exchange:
M+a + aH.R M.Ra + aH+
Examples:
Ca+2 + 2H.R Ca.R2 + 2H+
Na+ + H.R Na.R + H+
Regeneration: using strong acid
Ca. R + H2SO4 2H.R + CaSO4
2Na. R + H2SO4 2H.R + Na2SO4
ii) Hydroxyl anion exchange:
A-b + bR.OH Rb.A + bOH
Examples:
NO3-+ R.OH R.NO3- + OH
-2
CO3 + 2 R.OH R2.CO3-2 + 2OH
Regeneration: using strong base (caustic soda)
R.NO3- + NaOH R.OH + NaNO3
R2.CO3-2 + 2NaOH 2R.OH + Na2CO3
Advantages and disadvantages in the use of Ion-Exchange Resins
The advantages of ion exchange processes are:

Very low running costs.
Very little energy is required,
The regenerant chemicals are cheap and if well maintained resin beds can last for many years before
replacement is needed.
Disadvantages in the use of Ion-Exchange Resins
Calcium sulphate fouling
Using Sulphuric acid as cation resin regenerant will react with calcium in water forming calcium
sulphate precipitates.
This fouls the resin and blocks drain pipes with a build up of scale (hydrochloric acid must be
substituted).
Iron fouling
Aeration allows oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ and consequent precipitation of ferric hydroxide which clogs
resin beads and prevents ion exchange. Iron fouling is the commonest cause of softener failure.
Adsorption of organic matter
The presence of dissolved organic material can become irreversibly adsorbed within the anion beads,
reducing their exchange capacity.
Removal of organics prior to demineralisation is achieved by flocculation with alum or ferric salts
followed by filtration.
Organic contamination from the resin
The resins themselves can be a source of non-ionized organic contamination.
New commercial grade resin often contains organics remaining after manufacture. when removal is
needed, the demineralised water can be passed through an ultra filtration membrane.
Bacterial contamination
Resin beds do not act as filters for the removal of bacteria.
Resin beds can generate a culture media for continued growth.
Resins beds can be decontaminated with disinfectants such as formaldehyde
Heat or oxidising disinfectants as chlorine must not be used as these damage resins.
Chlorine contamination
Chlorine damages resins. It is customary to treat such feeds by passing them through activated carbon
which removes chlorine very efficiently.
Environmental Implications
The waste water for disposal after regeneration contains all the minerals removed from the water plus
salt from the spent regenerants.
Volume of it is equivalent to 1-5% of the treated water throughput.
COAGULATION & FLOCCULATION
WHY THEY ARE USED
All waters, especially surface waters, contain both dissolved and suspended particles. Coagulation and
flocculation processes are used to separate the suspended solids portion from the water.
The suspended particles vary considerably in source, composition charge, particle size, shape, and density.
Correct application of coagulation and flocculation processes and selection of the coagulants depend upon
understanding the interaction between these factors. The small particles are stabilized (kept in suspension) by
the action of physical forces on the particles themselves. One of the forces playing a dominant role in
stabilization results from the surface charge present on the particles. Most solids suspended in water possess a
negative charge and, since they have the same type of surface charge, repel each other when they come close
together. Therefore, they will remain in suspension rather than clump together and settle out of the water.
HOW THE PROCESSES WORK
Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome the forces stabilizing the
suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth of floc. If step one is incomplete, the following step
will be unsuccessful.
COAGULATION
The first step destabilizes the particles charges. Coagulants with charges opposite those of the suspended solids
are added to the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non -settlable solids such as clay and
color-producing organic substances. Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of
sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and called microflocs, are not visible
to the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the
particles charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion. More
coagulant may need to be added. A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote
particle collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but
insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing will
occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.
FLOCCULATION
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation occurs. Flocculation, a gentle
mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. The
microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing. Collisions of the
microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to
build through additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or with
organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may
be added during this step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate.
Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the sedimentation process. Design
contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.
Operational Considerations
Flocculation requires careful attention to the mixing velocity and amount of mix energy. To prevent the floc
from tearing apart or shearing, the mixing velocity and energy input are usually tapered off as the size of the
floc increases. Once flocs are torn apart, it is difficult to get them to reform to their optimum size and strength.
The amount of operator control available in flocculation is highly dependent upon the type and design of the
equipment.
COAGULANT SELECTION
The choice of coagulant chemical depends upon the nature of the suspended solid to be removed, the
raw water conditions, the facility design, and the cost of the amount of chemical necessary to produce
the desired result.
Final selection of the coagulant (or coagulants) should be made following thorough jar testing and plant
scale evaluation.
Considerations must be given to required effluent quality, effect upon downstream treatment process
performance, cost, method and cost of sludge handling and disposal, and net overall cost at the dose
required for effective treatment.
Inorganic Coagulants
Inorganic coagulants such as aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used. When added to the water,
they furnish highly charged ions to neutralize the suspended particles. The inorganic hydroxides formed
produce short polymer chains which enhance microfloc formation. Inorganic coagulants usually offer the lowest
price per pound, are widely available, and, when properly applied, are quite effective in removing most
suspended solids. They are also capable of removing a portion of the organic precursors which may combine
with chlorine to form disinfection by-products. They produce large volumes of floc which can entrap bacteria as
they settle. However, they may alter the pH of the water since they consume alkalinity. When applied in a lime
soda ash softening process, alum and iron salts generate demand for lime and soda ash. They require corrosion-
resistant storage and feed equipment. The large volumes of settled floc must be disposed of in an
environmentally acceptable manner. Coagulation 204 Inorganic Coagulant Reactions Common coagulant
chemicals used are alum, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride, ferrous sulfate, and sodium aluminate. The first four will
lower the alkalinity and pH of the solution while the sodium aluminate will add alkalinity and raise the pH. The
reactions of each follow:
Polymers
Polymers--long-chained, high-molecular-weight, organic chemicals--are becoming more widely used,
especially as coagulant aids together with the regular inorganic coagulants. Anionic (negatively charged)
polymers are often used with metal coagulants. Low-to-medium weight positively charged (cationic) polymers
may be used alone or in combination with the aluminum and iron type coagulants to attract the suspended solids
and neutralize their surface charge. The manufacturer can produce a wide range of products that meet a variety
of source-water conditions by controlling the amount and type of charge and relative molecular weight of the
polymer. Polymers are effective over a wider pH range than inorganic coagulants. They can be applied at lower
doses, and they do not consume alkalinity. They produce smaller volumes of more concentrated, rapidly settling
floc. The floc formed from use of a properly selected polymer will be more resistant to shear, resulting in less
carryover and a cleaner effluent. Polymers are generally several times more expensive in their price per pound
than inorganic coagulants. Selection of the proper polymer for the application requires considerable jar testing
under simulated plant conditions, followed by pilot or plant-scale trials. All polymers must be approved for
potable water use by regulatory agencies.
JAR TEST
Coagulation/flocculation is the process of binding small particles in the water together into larger, heavier
clumps which settle out relatively quickly.
The larger particles are known as floc.
Changing water characteristics require the operator to adjust coagulant dosages at intervals to achieve
optimal coagulation.
Different dosages of coagulants are tested using a jar test, which mimics the conditions found in the
treatment plant.
The first step of the jar test involves adding coagulant to the source water and mixing the water rapidly (as it
would be mixed in the flash mix chamber) to completely dissolve the coagulant in the water.
Then the water is mixed more slowly for a longer time period (as flocculation basin conditions and allowing
the forming floc particles to cluster together).
Finally, the mixer is stopped and the floc is allowed to settle out, as it would in the sedimentation basin.
A major goal of water treatment is turbidity removal.
The jar test is a simulation of the treatment processes that have been developed to accomplish turbidity
removal
Alum, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride are three common coagulants
The best dose will also be a function of pH. The optimum pH for alum coagulation is usually between 5.5
and 6.5.
There is no way to calculate the best dose. It must be determined by trial and error; hence, the jar test.
The reaction chemistry varies according to the pH and alkalinity of the test sample.
Alum coagulation proceeds according to the following equation

if there is enough alkalinity in the water to react with the amount of alum dosed:
Al2(SO4)3 14H2O + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 14H2O + 3SO4-2
If there is insufficient alkalinity, the reaction will proceed according to the equation:
Al2(SO4)3 14H2O 2Al(OH) 3 + 3H2SO4 + 8H2O
An alkalinity test is usually performed before initiating a jar test to determine whether alkalinity supplements
might be required.
JAR TEST PROCEDURE
1. Measure the initial pH, alkalinity, and turbidity of the sample to be tested.
Make any pH adjustment necessary.
Calculate for the maximum alum dose you plan to use, what alkalinity concentration is required to
prevent significant pH reduction.
Compare this required amount to the amount measured in step 1, and supplement the sample with
alkalinity if necessary.
- -2
Al2(SO4)3 14H2O + 6HCO3 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 14H2O + 3SO4
Decide on six dosages of the chemical(s) include coagulants, coagulant aids, and lime
2. Prepare a stock solution of the chemical(s).
3. Collect a two gallon sample of the water to be tested. This should be the raw water.
4. Measure 1,000 mL of raw water and place in a beaker. Repeat for the remaining beakers.
5. Place beakers in the stirring machine.
6. With a measuring pipet, add the correct dosage of lime and then of coagulant solution to each beaker as
rapidly as possible.
7. With the stirring paddles lowered into the beakers, start the stirring machine and operate it for one minute at
a speed of 80 RPM.
8. Reduce the stirring speed to 20 RPM and continue stirring for 30 minutes
9. Stop the stirring apparatus and allow the samples in the beakers to settle for 30 minutes.
10. Determine which coagulant dosage has the best flocculation time and the most floc settled out.
11. Test the turbidity of the water in each beaker using a turbidometer
12. If lime or a coagulant aid is fed at your plant in addition to the primary coagulant, you should repeat the jar
test to determine the optimum dosage of lime or coagulant aid. Use the concentration of coagulant chosen in
steps 10 and 11 and alter the dosage of lime or coagulant aid.
13. Using the procedure outlined in step 11, measure the turbidity of water at three locations in the treatment
plant - influent, top of filter, and filter effluent.
14. Prepare a graph of alum dose vs. remaining turbidity in order to identify the dosage that produced optimum
turbidity removal.
Explanation of Jar Test Example
Water A had low alkalinity and required less coagulant to achieve good coagulation and flocculation than the
higher alkalinity of Water B
Plots of turbidity versus coagulant dose showed a continual decrease in turbidity with an increase in
coagulant dose.
Water A, with FeCl3, showed a decrease followed by an increase (at 40 mg/L) in turbidity.
This dictates that adsorption and charge neutralization is taking place due to the colloids restabilizing and not
coagulating.
Addition of coagulant to the low alkalinity waters lead to a drop in the pH of Water A, which enhanced
adsorption and charge neutralization.
higher coagulant doses are needed with high alkalinity waters where pH remains fairly constant.
Although slightly less alum than FeCl3 was needed to reach an optimum level, the residual turbidity when
using the alum coagulant did not fall below 1 NTU.
This means that even though alum may require a slightly smaller dose, it still may not be able to meet the
desired effluent regulations without the additional help of a filter or polymer.
FILTRATION
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and
unsettled floc.
Electrolytic action
The sand particles of filter media and the impurities in water carry electric charge of opposite nature, therefore
they attract each other and neutralize the charge of each other. After long use the electric charge of filter sand is
exhausted, which is renewed by washing the filter bed.
Filter Material
Sand either coarse or fine, is generally used as filter media. The layers of sand may be supported on gravel,
which permits the filtered water to move freely to the under drains and allow the wash water to move uniformly
upward.
Sand
The filter sand should generally be obtained from rock like quartzite and should have following
properties:
It should be free from dirt and other impurities
It should be of uniform size
It should be hard
If placed in hydrochloric acid for 24 hrs. it should not lose more than 5 % of weight.
Effective size of sand shall be
(a) 0.2 to 0.3 mm for slow sand filters
(b) 0.35 to 0.6 mm for rapid sand filter
Uniformity of Sand
It is specified by the uniformity coefficient which is defined as the ratio between the sieve size in mm
through which 60 % of the sample sand will pass to the effective size of the sand.
Uniformity coefficient for slow sand filter = 2 to 3
1.3 to 1.7 for rapid sand filters
Gravel
The sand beds are supported on the gravel bed. The gravel used should be hard, durable, free from
impurities, properly rounded and should have a density of about 1600 kg/ m 3
The gravel is placed in 5-6 layers having finest size on top.
Other material
Other materials which can be used are anthracite, Garnet, Sand or local material like coconut husks, rice
husks.
Classifications
Filters are mainly classified based upon the rate of filtration as
1. Slow Sand Filter
2. Rapid Sand Filter
(a) Rapid sand gravity filter
(b) Pressure Filter
1. RAPID SAND FILTERS
Use relatively coarse sand and other granular media to remove particles and impurities that have been
trapped in a floc through the use of flocculation chemicals-typically salts of aluminium or iron.
Water and flocs flows through the filter medium under gravity or under pumped pressure
Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal (a hard,
compact variety of mineral coal).
The top layer removes organic compounds
Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles
To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction
(called backflushing or backwashing)
compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to
aid the backwashing process
Fig.: Rapid Sand Filter
Enclosure tank
It is generally rectangular in plan, constructed either of masonry or of concrete, coated with water proof
material. The depth of the tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m. Each unit may have a surface area of 10 to 50 m2. They
are arranged in series. The length to width ratio is kept between 1.25 to 1.35.
Equation of No. of Filter Bed Required

Following formula is used to get approximately the number of filter unit beds required
N= Q/4.69
Where N is the number of units or beds and Q is quantity of water in m3/ hr. There should be at least 2 units in
each plant.
Filter media
The filtering media consists of sand layer, about 60 to 90 cm in depth and placed over a gravel support. The
effective size of sand varies from 0.35 to 0.6 mm and the uniformity coefficient ranges between 1.3 to 1.7.
Base Material
The filter sand media is supported on the base material consisting of gravel . In addition to supporting the sand,
it distributes the wash water. It total depth varies from 45 to 60 cm. It may be divided into 4 to 5 layers.
Under Drainage System

The under drainage system serves the two purpose.It collects the filter water uniformly over the area of gravel
bed. It provides uniform distribution of backwash water without disturbing or upsetting the gravel bed and filter
media.
Problem 3
A City has population of 50,000 with an average rate of demand of 160 lpcd find area of rapid sand filters.
Also find number of units or beds required.
Solution:
Population= 50,000
Rate of water supply= 160
Maximum daily demand per day= 1.5 x 160 x 50000 = 12 x 10 6 lit /day
Assume rate of filtration = 4500 lit /hr./sq.m
Area of filter beds required= (12 x 10 6 )/ ( 24 x 4500 ) = 111.11 m 2
Number of filter beds can be found out by
(i) Assuming area of one bed/ unit and then finding out the number of beds/ units required.
(ii) By using the following eqn:
N= Q/4.69
Where, N= No of beds, Q= Quantity of water to be filtered in m3 /hr.
Q= 12 MLD= 12 x 10 6 x 10 -3/ 24 = 500 m 3 /hr.
N= Q/4.69 = 500 / 4.69 = 5 units
Area of each unit = 111.11/ 5 = 22.22
Assume L:B ratio as 1.3 ; L= 1.3 B; A= 1.3 B x B = 22.22= 1.3 B x B
B= 4.13 m; Therefore, L= 1.3 x 4.13 = 5.369 m
Provide B= 4.2 m and L= 5.4 m & Provide 6 such units one as stand by.
Efficiency and performance of Rapid Sand Filter
Turbidity
If the influent water does not have turbidity of more than 35 to 40 mg/lit. Since Coagulation and
sedimentation always precedes filtration the turbidity of water applied to filter is always less than 35 to
40 mg/lit.
Bacterial Load
The rapid sand filters are less effective in removal of bacterial load as compare to slow sand filter. They
can remove 80 to 90 % of bacterial load.
Color
Rapid sand filter are very efficient in color removal. The intensity of color can be brought down below 3
on cobalt scale.
Iron & Manganese
Rapid sand filter remove oxidized or oxidizing iron through it is less efficient in removing manganese
Taste & Odor
Unless special treatment such as activated carbon or pre chlorination is provided, rapid sand filters will
not ordinarily remove taste and odor,
Loss of Head & Negative Head

When a cleaned bed is put into operation, the loss of head through it will be small usually 15 to 30 cm. as the
water is filtered through it, impurities arrested by the filter media, due to which the loss of head goes on
increasing. A stage comes when the frictional resistance exceeds the static head above the sand bed, at this
stage, the lower portion of media and the under drainage system are under partial vacuum or negative head. Due
to the formation of negative head, dissolved gases and air are released filling the pores of the filter and the
under drainage system. In rapid sand filter permissible head loss will be 2.5 m to 3.5 m
Advantages
Much higher flow rate than a slow sand filter;
Requires relatively small land area
Less sensitive to changes in raw water quality, e.g. turbidity
requires less quantity of sand
Disadvantages
Requires greater maintenance than a slow sand filter. For this reason, it is not usually classed as an
"appropriate technology,".
Generally ineffective against taste and odour problems.
Produces large volumes of sludge for disposal.
Requires on-going investment in costly flocculation reagents.
treatment of raw water with chemicals is essential
skilled supervision is essential
cost of maintenance is more
it cannot remove bacteria
2. SLOW SAND FILTERS

Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of bank filtration) to the ground, Water purification plant
The filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand with the coarsest sand, along with
some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the top.
Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection
effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months
produces water with a very low available nutrient level and low disinfectant levels
Slow sand filters are not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped
off
A 'large-scale' form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration in a riverbank.
A slow sand filter unit consists of the following parts
Enclosure tank Inlet & Outlet arrangement
Filter media Other
Base Material appurtenances
Under drainage system
Enclosure Tank
It consists of an open water tight rectangular tank made of concrete or masonary. The bed slope is 1 in 100 to 1
in 200 towards the central drain. The depth of tank varies from 2.5 to 4 m. The plan area may vary from 100 to
200 sq.m. depending upon the quantity of water treated.
Filter Media
The filter media consist of sand layers about 90 to 110 cm in depth and placed over a gravel support. The
effective size varies from 0.2 to 0.35 and uniformity coefficient varies from 2 to 3. Finer is the sand better is the
quality of water.
Base Material
The filter media is supported on base size material consisting of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel of different sizes,
placed in layers, generally 3 to 4 layers of 15 to 20 cm depth are used.
Under Drainage System

The base material are supported over the under drainage system which centrally collects the filter water. The
water drainage system consists of a central drain collecting water from a number of lateral drains. The lateral
drains are open jointed pipe drains or perforated pipes of 7.5 to 10 cm dia spaced at 2 to 4 m centre to centre.
Inlet & Outlet

An inlet chamber, is constructed for admitting the effluent from the plain sedimentation tank without disturbing
the sand layer of filter and to distribute it uniformly over filter bed
Other appurtenances
Various appurtenances that are generally installed for efficient working are the device for ,easuring loss of head
through filter media
Controlling depth of water above the filter media.
Maintaining constant rate of flow through filter.
Fig.: Slow Sand Filter
Efficiency of Slow Sand Filters

Bacterial Load
The slow sand filters are highly efficient in removal of bacterial load from water. They remove about 98
to 99 % of bacterial Load from raw water.
Color
The slow sand filters are less efficient in the removal of color of raw water. They remove about 20 to 25
% color of water.
Turbidity
The slow sand filter is not very effective in removing colloidal turbidity. They can remove turbidity to
the extent of about 50 ppm
Advantages
require little or no mechanical power, chemicals or replaceable parts,
require minimal operator training and only periodic maintenance,
Often an appropriate technology for poor and isolated areas.
simple design
Disadvantages
Due to the low filtration rate, slow sand filters require extensive land area for a large municipal system.
Many municipal systems in grown cities installed rapid sand filters, due to increased demand for
drinking water.
Problem-4:
Find the area of slow sand filter required for a town having a population of 15000 with average rate of
demand as 160 lpcd.
Solution:
Maximum daily demand = 15000 x 160 x 1.5 = 3600000 lit
Assume the rate of filtration as 150 lit/hr./m2, the filter area required will be.= 3600000/(150 x 24) =
1000 m 2
Let the size of each unit of 20 x 10 = 200 m 2
Then total number of unit required would be 5
Therefore, Provided one unit as stand by, so provide 6 unit of 20 x 10 m.
Comparison of Slow Sand Filter & Rapid Sand Filter

Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter
2 2
Rate of filtration 100 to 200 lit/ hr./m 3000 to 6000 lit/hr./m
Loss of head 15 cm to 100 cm 30 cm to 3 m
Area Requires Larger Area Requires smaller area
Coagulation Not Required Essential
Effective Size 0.2 to 0.35 mm Effective size 0.35 to 0.6 mm
Filter media
Depth 90 to 110cm Depth 60 to 90 cm
Amount of wash
0.2 to 0.6 % of water filtered 2 to 4 % water filtered
water required
Very efficient in the removal of Less efficient in removal of
Efficiency bacteria less efficient in removal bacteria more efficient in the
of color and turbidity. removal of color & turbidity.
Cost High initial cost Cheap & economical
Cost of maintenance Less More
Skilled Supervision Not essential Essential
Depreciation Cost Relatively low Relatively high,
Fig.: Different filtration processes and size of compounds removed
DISINFECTION
Current Methods of Disinfection
Large-Scale:
Chlorination
Ozone
UV irradiation
Small Scale:
Boiling
Iodine tablets
Filters
Use of Disinfectants as Chemical Oxidants
Oxidation is a chemical reaction where electrons are transferred from one species (the reducer) to another
species (the oxidant)
Disinfectants are used for more than just disinfection in drinking water treatment. While inactivation of
pathogenic organisms is a primary function, disinfectants are also used oxidants in drinking water treatment
for several other functions:
1. Minimization of Disinfection Byproducts formation:

Several strong oxidants, including potassium permanganate and ozone, may be used to control DBP.
2. Prevention of re-growth in the distribution system and maintenance of biological stability;

o Removing nutrients from the water prior to distribution;
o Maintaining a disinfectant residual in the treated water; and
o Combining nutrient removal and disinfectant residual maintenance.
3. Removal of color:
Free chlorine is used for color removal. A low pH is favored. Color is caused by humic compounds,
which have a high potential for DBP formation.
4. Improvement of coagulation and filtration efficiency;

a. Oxidation of organics into more polar forms;
b. Oxidation of metal ions to yield insoluble complexes such as ferric iron complexes;
c. Change in the structure and size of suspended particles.
5. Oxidation is commonly used to remove taste and odor causing compounds.
Because many of these compounds are very resistant to oxidation, advanced oxidation processes
(ozone/hydrogen peroxide, ozone/UV, etc.) and ozone by itself are often used to address taste and odor
problems. The effectiveness of various chemicals to control taste and odors can be site-specific.
6. Removal of Iron & Manganese
Iron (II)
Oxidant Manganese (II) (mg/mg Mn)
(mg/mg Fe)
Chlorine Cl2 0.62 0.77
Chlorine Dioxide, ClO2 1.21 2.45
Ozone, O3 0.43 0.88*
Oxygen, O2 014 0.29
Potassium Permanganate, KMnO4 0.94 1.92
Source: Culp/wesner/Culp, Langlais et al., 1991
Optimum pH manganese oxidation using ozone is 8-8.5 source Reckhow et al.,
7. Prevention of algal growth in sedimentation basins and filters:
Prechlorination will prevent slime formation on filters, pipes, and tanks, and reduce potential taste and odor
problems associated with such slimes.
Factors affecting disinfection effectiveness
Time
pH
Temperature
Concentration of the disinfectant
Concentration of organisms
Nature of the disinfectant
Nature of the organisms to be inactivated
Nature of the suspending medium
C H L O R I N A T I O N
Microorganisms are harmful to human health; there are some that may cause diseases in humans. These
are called pathogens. Pathogens present in water can be transmitted through a drinking water distribution
system, causing waterborne disease in those who consume it.
In order to combat waterborne diseases, different disinfection methods are used to inactivate pathogens.
Along with other water treatment processes such as coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration, chlorination
creates water that is safe for public consumption.
Chlorination is one of many methods that can be used to disinfect water. This method was first used
over a century ago, and is still used today. It is a chemical disinfection method that uses various types of
chlorine or chlorine-containing substances for the oxidation and disinfection of what will be the potable water
source.
The History of Chlorination

Chlorine was first discovered in Sweden in 1744. At that time, people believed that odors from the water
were responsible for transmitting diseases. In 1835, chlorine was used to remove odors from the water, but it
wasn't until 1890 that chlorine was found to be an effective tool for disinfecting; a way to reduce the amount of
disease transmitted through water. With this new find, chlorination began in Great Britain and then expanded to
the United States in 1908 and Canada by 1917. Today, chlorination is the most popular method of disinfection
and is used for water treatment all over the world.
Why do we chlorinate our water?

A large amount of research and many studies have been conducted to ensure success in new treatment
plants using chlorine as a disinfectant. A leading advantage of chlorination is that it has proven effective against
bacteria and viruses; however, it cannot inactivate all microbes. Some protozoan cysts are resistant to the effects
of chlorine.
In cases where protozoan cysts are not a major concern, chlorination is a good disinfection method to
use because it is inexpensive yet effective in disinfecting many other possibly present contaminants. The
chlorination process is also fairly easy to implement, when compared to other water treatment methods. It is an
effective method in water emergency situations as it can eliminate an overload of pathogens relatively quickly.
An emergency water situation can be anything from a filter breakdown to a mixing of treated and raw water.
How does chlorine inactivate microorganisms?

Chlorine inactivates a microorganism by damaging its cell membrane. Once the cell membrane is
weakened, the chlorine can enter the cell and disrupt cell respiration and DNA activity (two processes that are
necessary for cell survival).
When/How do we chlorinate our waters?
Chlorination can be done at any time/point throughout the water treatment process - there is not one
specific time when chlorine must be added. Each point of chlorine application will subsequently control a
different water contaminant concern, thus offering a complete spectrum of treatment from the time the water
enters the treatment facility to the time it leaves.
Pre-chlorination is when chlorine is applied to the water almost immediately after it enters the treatment
facility.
In the pre-chlorination step, the chlorine is usually added directly to the raw water (the untreated water
entering the treatment facility), or added in the flash mixer (a mixing machine that ensures quick, uniform
dispersion of the chlorine).
Chlorine is added to raw water to eliminate algae and other forms of aquatic life from the water so they
wont cause problems in the later stages of water treatment.
Pre-chlorination in the flash mixer is found to remove tastes and odors, and control biological growth
throughout the water treatment system, thus preventing growth in the sedimentation tanks (where solids are
removed from the water by gravity settling) and the filtration media (the filters through which the water
passes after sitting in the sedimentation tanks).
The addition of chlorine will also oxidize any iron, manganese and/or hydrogen sulphide that are present, so
that they too can be removed in the sedimentation and filtration steps.
Disinfection can also be done just prior to filtration and after sedimentation. This would control the
biological growth, remove iron and manganese, remove taste and odors, control algae growth, and remove the
color from the water. This will not decrease the amount of biological growth in the sedimentation cells.
Chlorination may also be done as the final step in the treatment process, which is when it is usually
done in most treatment plants. The main objective of this chlorine addition is to disinfect the water and maintain
chlorine residuals that will remain in the water as it travels through the distribution system.
Chlorinating filtered water is more economical because a lower CT value is required. This is a
combination of the concentration (C) and contact time (T). The CT concept is discussed later on in this fact
sheet. By the time the water has been through sedimentation and filtration, a lot of the unwanted organisms have
been removed, and as a result, less chlorine and a shorter contact time is required to achieve the same
effectiveness. To support and maintain the chlorine residual, a process called re-chlorination is sometimes done
within the distribution system. This is done to ensure proper chlorine residual levels are maintained throughout
the distribution system.
Chlorine demand, Residual chlorine & breakpoint chlorine
Any type of chlorine that is added to water during the treatment process will result in the formation of
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-), which are the main disinfecting compounds in
chlorinated water. More detail is provided later on in this fact sheet.
A Form of Chlorine + H2O HOCl + OCl-
Of the two, hypochlorous acid is the most effective. The amount of each compound present in the water is
dependent on the pH level of the water prior to addition of chlorine.
At lower pH levels, the hypochlorous acid will dominate.
The combination of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions makes up what is called free chorine.
Free chlorine has a high oxidation potential and is a more effective disinfectant than other forms of chlorine,
such as chloramines.
Oxidation potential is a measure of how readily a compound will react with another. A high oxidation
potential means many different compounds are able to react with the compound. It also means that the
compound will be readily available to react with others.
Combined chlorine is the combination of organic nitrogen compounds and chloramines, which are
produced as a result of the reaction between chlorine and ammonia.
Chloramines are not as effective at disinfecting water as free chlorine due to a lower oxidation potential.
Due to the creation of chloramines instead of free chlorine, ammonia is not desired product in the water
treatment process in the beginning, but may be added at the end of treatment to create chloramines as a
secondary disinfectant, which remains in the system longer than chlorine, ensuring clean drinking water
throughout the distribution system.
The amount of chlorine that is required to disinfect water is dependent on the impurities in the water that
needs to be treated. Many impurities in the water require a large amount of chlorine to react with all the
impurities present.
The chlorine added must first react with all the impurities in the water before chlorine residual is present.
The amount of chlorine that is required to satisfy all the impurities is termed the chlorine demand. This
can also be thought of as the amount of chlorine needed before free chlorine can be produced.
Once the chlorine demand has been met, breakpoint chlorination (the addition of chlorine to water until the
chlorine demand has been satisfied) has occurred.
After the breakpoint, any additional chlorine added will result in a free chlorine residual proportional to the
amount of chlorine added.
Residual chlorine is the difference between the amount of chlorine added and the chlorine demand. Most
water treatment plants will add chlorine beyond the breakpoint.
If ammonium is present in the water at the time of chlorine addition breakpoint chlorination will not occur
until all the ammonium has reacted with the chlorine. Between 10 and 15 times more chlorine than ammonia
is required before free chlorine and breakpoint chlorination can be achieved. Small water treatment plants
frequently only add a fraction of the required chlorine (in relation to ammonium ions) and end up not
properly disinfecting their water supplies.
Fig.: Chlorine Demand Curve

The type of chloramines that are formed is dependent on the pH of the water prior to the addition of
chlorine.
Between the pH levels 4.5 and 8.5, both monochloramine and dichloramine are created in the water.
At a pH of 4.5, dichloramine is the dominant form, and below that trichloramine dominates.
At a pH above 8.5 monochloramine is the dominant form.
Hypochlorous acid reacts with ammonia at its most rapid rate at a pH level around 8.3.
The chlorine to ammonia nitrogen ratio characterizes what kind of residual is produced.
Are there other uses for chlorine?
The main purpose of chlorination is to disinfect water, but it also has many other benefits.
Unlike some of the other disinfection methods like ozonation and ultraviolet radiation, chlorination is able to
provide a residual to reduce the chance of pathogen regrowth in water storage tanks or within the water
distribution system.
At times, distribution systems can be a fair distance from the storage tanks and in dead end sections or where
water is not used pathogens may re-grow if a proper (chlorine) residual is cannot be maintained in the treated
water sent out for consumption. This results in poor water quality as well as slime and biofilms in the
distribution systems that will end up contaminating the clean, treated water being distributed.
Many government environmental bodies have set guidelines or standards for the amount of chlorine residual
that must be present at all points in the system.
In addition to providing residual, adding chlorine to water will also: oxidize iron, manganese, taste and
odor compounds, remove color in the water, destroy hydrogen sulphide, and aid other water treatment
processes, such as sedimentation and filtration. Oxidizing soluble reduced iron and manganese will result in
particle formation as oxidized iron and manganese are not soluble in water.
Is chlorine all the same?

The chlorination process involves adding chlorine to water, but the chlorinating product does not
necessarily have to be pure chlorine. Chlorination can also be carried out using chlorine-containing substances.
Depending on the pH conditions required and the available storage options, different chlorine-containing
substances can be used. The three most common types of chlorine used in water treatment are: chlorine gas,
sodium hypochlorite, and calcium hypochlorite.
Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas is greenish yellow in color and very toxic. It is heavier than air and will therefore sink to
the ground if released from its container. It is the toxic effect of chlorine gas that makes it a good disinfectant,
but it is toxic to more than just waterborne pathogens; it is also toxic to humans. It is a respiratory irritant and it
can also irritate skin and mucus membranes. Exposure to high volumes of chlorine gas fumes can cause serious
health problems, including death. However, it is important to realize that chlorine gas, once entering the water,
changes into hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions, and therefore its human toxic properties are not found in
the drinking water we consume.
Chlorine gas is sold as a compressed liquid, which is amber in color. Chlorine, as a liquid, is heavier (more
dense) than water. If the chlorine liquid is released from its container it will quickly return back to its gas state.
Chlorine gas is the least expensive form of chlorine to use. The typical amount of chlorine gas required for
water treatment is 1-16 mg/L of water. Different amounts of chlorine gas are used depending on the quality of
water that needs to be treated. If the water quality is poor, a higher concentration of chlorine gas will be
required to disinfect the water if the contact time cannot be increased.
When chlorine gas (Cl2) is added to the water (H2O), it hydrolyzes rapidly to produce hypochlorous acid
(HOCl) and the hypochlorous acid will then dissociate into hypochlorite ions (OCl -) and hydrogen ions (H+).
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + OCl-
Because hydrogen ions are produced, the water will become more acidic (the pH of the water will
decrease). The amount of dissociation depends on the original pH of the water. If the pH of the water is below a
6.5, nearly no dissociation will occur and the hypochlorous acid will dominate. A pH above 8.5 will see a
complete dissociation of chlorine, and hypochlorite ions will dominate. A pH between 6.5 and 8.5 will see both
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions present in the water. Together, the hypochlorous acid and the
hypochlorite ions are referred to as free chlorine. Hypchlorous acid is the more effective disinfectant, and
therefore, a lower pH is preferred for disinfection.
Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl) is made up of the calcium salts of hypochlorous acid. It is produced by
dissolving chlorine gas (Cl2) into a solution of calcium oxide (CaO) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Calcium
hypochlorite is a white, corrosive solid that comes either in tablet form or as a granular powder. Calcium
hypochlorite is very stable, and when packaged properly, large amounts can be purchased and stored until
needed. The chemical is very corrosive however, and thus requires proper handling when being used to treat
water. Calcium hypochlorite needs to be stored in a dry area and kept away from organic materials. It cannot be
stored near wood, cloth or petrol because the combination of calcium hypochlorite and organic material can
create enough heat for an explosion. It must also be kept away from moisture because the tablets/granular
powder readily adsorb moisture and will form (toxic) chlorine gas as a result. Calcium hypochlorite has a very
strong chlorine odor something that should be kept in mind when placing them in storage.
When treating water, a lesser amount of calcium hypochlorite is needed than if using chlorine gas. Compared to
the 1-16 mg/L required with chlorine gas, only 0.5-5 mg/L of calcium hypochlorite is required. When calcium
hypochlorite is added to water, hypochlorite and calcium ions are produced.
Ca(OCl)2 Ca2+ + 2 OCl-
Instead of decreasing the pH like chlorine gas does, calcium hypochlorite increases the pH of the water
(making the water less acidic). However, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite concentrations are still dependent
on the pH of the water; therefore by decreasing the pH of the water, hypochlorous acid will still be present in
the water. As a result, calcium hypochlorite and chlorine gas both produce the same type of residuals.
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is made up of the sodium salts of hypochlorous acid and is a chlorine-
containing compound that can be used as a disinfectant. It is produced when chlorine gas is dissolved into a
sodium hydroxide solution. It is in liquid form, clear with a light yellow color, and has a strong chlorine smell.
Sodium hypochlorite is extremely corrosive and must be stored in a cool, dark, and dry place. Sodium
hypochlorite will naturally decompose; therefore it cannot be stored for more than one month at a time. Of all
the different types of chlorine available for use, this is the easiest to handle.
The amount of sodium hypochlorite required for water treatment is much less than the other two forms
of chlorine, with 0.2-2 mg of NaOCl / L of water being recommended. Like calcium hypochlorite, sodium
hypochlorite will also produce a hypochlorite ion, but instead of calcium ions, sodium ions are produced.
NaOCl will also increase the pH of the water through the formation of hypochlorite ions. To obtain
hypochlorous acid, which is a more effective disinfectant, the pH of the water should be decreased.
NaOCl Na+ + OCl-
Is chlorine a sure way of eliminating pathogens?

Chlorination has been proven to be very effective against bacteria and viruses. However, it cannot
disinfect all waterborne pathogens. Certain pathogens, namely protozoan cysts, are resistant to the effects of
chlorine. Cryptosporidium and Giardia, two examples of protozoan cysts, have caused great concern due to the
serious illnesses they can cause. Cryptosporidium was the cause of the outbreak in North Battleford in 2001,
and Milwaukee in April 1993. In raw water with high Giardia and Cryptosporidium levels, another method of
disinfection should be considered. For more information on these protozoa, please read their self-titled fact
sheets in the public information section.
Is chlorinating water fool-proof?
There are a number of factors that affect the disinfection process. Of these, the concentration or dosage
of chlorine and the chlorine contact time (the time that chlorine is allowed to react with any impurities in the
water) are the most important factors.
Chlorine needs time to inactivate any microorganisms that may be present in the water being treated for
human consumption. The more time chlorine is in contact with the microorganisms, the more effective the
process will be. The contact time is the time from when the chlorine is first added until the time that the water is
used or consumed.
The same positive relationship is seen when considering the chlorine concentration. The higher the
concentration of chlorine, the more effective the water disinfection process will be. This relationship holds true
because as the concentration increases, the amount of chlorine for disinfection is increased. Unlike the
relationship between chlorine concentration and disinfection effectiveness, the chlorine concentration and the
contact time of chlorine with water show an inverse relationship. As the chlorine concentration increases, the
required water-chlorine contact time ultimately decreases. To determine the level of disinfection (D), a CT
value can be calculated. This value is the product of the chlorine concentration (C) and contact time (T). The
formula is as follows: C*T=D. This concept shows that an increase in chlorine concentration (C) would require
less contact time to achieve the same desired level of disinfection. Another possibility would be an increase in
contact time that would in turn require a lower chlorine concentration in order for the level of disinfection to
stay the same.
The required CT value depends on several factors, including: the type of pathogens in the water, the
turbidity of the water, the pH of the water and the temperature of the water. Turbidity is the suspended matter in
the water and the types of pathogens can range from bacteria like E.coli and Campylobacter to viruses including
Hepatitis A. At lower temperatures, higher turbidity, or higher pH levels, the CT value (i.e. the disinfection
level) will have to be increased, but at lower turbidity, there is less suspended material in the water that will
prevent contact of the disinfectant with the microorganisms, thus requiring a lower CT value. A higher water
temperature and a lower pH level will also allow for a lower CT value.
Impurity reactions
Chlorine can react with a number of different substances. In raw water, there may be a number of
different impurities to react with the added chlorine, resulting in an increase of the chlorine demand. As a result,
more chlorine will need to be added for the same level of inactivation. Some major impurities that may exist in
water include: dissolved iron, hydrogen sulphide, bromine, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, and organic material. In
some cases, the result of chlorine reacting with impurities will increase the quality of the water (by eliminating
the undesired elements), while in other cases; the chlorine-impurity reactions will create undesired side products
that are harmful to human health. Chlorine will first react with inorganic impurities (dissolved iron, bromine,
ammonia, etc.) before reacting with the organic compounds (dissolved organic material, bacteria, viruses, etc).
Iron, which will give water an undesirable metallic taste if present, is one of the inorganic compounds
that will react with hypochlorous acid (the stronger form of free chlorine that is produced after pure chlorine is
added to water). By reacting with hypochlorous acid, the dissolved iron will go from a soluble state to an
insoluble state, as a precipitate is formed as a result of the reaction. The iron precipitate, in its insoluble state,
can be removed by filtration process within the water treatment centre.
2 Fe2+ (liquid) + HOCl + 5H2O 2 Fe(OH)3 (solid) + 5H+ + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid can also react with hydrogen sulphide (H2S), if it is present in the water being treated.
Hydrogen sulfide is an undesirable impurity in water because it gives water an undesired smell. At levels below
1 mg/L hydrogen sulphide generates a musty smell to the water, while at levels above 1 mg/L a rotten egg smell
will prevail. Hydrogen sulphide is also toxic. The hypochlorous acid and H2S reaction gives hydrochloric acid
and sulphur ions as its products.
H2S + HOCl H+ + Cl- + S + H2O
Bromine in the water can result in the production of undesired compounds. Bromine ions can react with
hypochlorous acid to create hypobromous acid. Hypobromous acid also has disinfectant properties and is more
reactive than hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid or hypobromous acid will react with organic material in the
water and create halogenated by-products, such as trihalomethanes.
Br - + HOCl HOBr + Cl-
Ammonia is a compound that may exist in the water. It is a nutrient to aquatic life, but one that will
become toxic in high concentrations. Ammonia is produced as a result of decaying matter and therefore
naturally exists in the water; however, human activity also releases a large amount of ammonia into the water,
which contributes to an increasing level of ammonia that may cause concern. Some human activity sources
include: municipal wastewater treatment plants, agricultural releases, and industrial releases, such as pulp and
paper mills, mines, food processing, and fertilizer production. Reactions between ammonia and chlorine will
produce monochloramines, dichloramines, and trichloramines, which are collectively known as chloramines.
These compounds are beneficial to the water treatment process as they have disinfection capacity, but they are
not as effective as chlorine although chloramines will last longer in the water.
Chlorine also reacts with phenols to produce monochlorophenols, dichlorophenols, or trichlorophenols,
which cause taste and odour problem at low levels. At higher levels, chlorophenols are toxic and affect the
respiration and energy storage process. Chlorophenols are mainly man-made compounds, but can be found
naturally in animal wastes and decomposing organic material.
Are there health concerns with chlorinating water?

Chlorine can be toxic not only for microorganisms, but for humans as well. To humans, chlorine is an
irritant to the eyes, nasal passages and respiratory system. Chlorine gas must be carefully handled because it
may cause acute health effects and can be fatal at concentrations as low as 1000 ppm. However, chlorine gas is
also the least expensive form of chlorine for water treatment, which makes it an attractive choice regardless of
the health threat.
In drinking water, the concentration of chlorine is usually very low and is thus not a concern in acute
exposure. More of a concern is the long term risk of cancer due to chronic exposure to chlorinated water. This is
mainly due to the trihalomethanes and other disinfection by-products, which are by-products of chlorination.
Trihalomethanes are carcinogens, and have been the topic of concern in chlorinated drinking water. Chlorinated
water has been associated with increased risk of bladder, colon and rectal cancer. In the case of bladder cancer,
the risk may be doubled. Although there are concerns about carcinogens in drinking water, Health Canada's
Laboratory Centre for Disease Control says that the benefits of chlorinated water in controlling infectious
diseases outweigh the risks associated with chlorination and would not be enough to justify its discontinuation.
Chlorination by-products
A number of different by-products can be produced from the reactions in the disinfection process. By-
products created from the reactions between inorganic compounds and chlorine are harmless and can be easily
removed from the water by filtration. Other by-products, such as chloramines, are beneficial to the disinfection
process because they also have disinfecting properties. However, there are undesired compounds that may be
produced from chlorine reacting with organic matter. The compounds of most concern right now are
trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). THMs and HAAs are formed by reactions between
chlorine and organic material such as humic acids and fulvic acids (both generated from the decay of organic
matter) to create halogenated organics. A greater level of THM formation has been found in surface water or
groundwater influenced by surface water.
Trihalomethanes are associated with several types of cancer and are considered carcinogenic. The
trihalomethane of most concern is chloroform, also called trichloromethane. It was once used as an anesthetic
during surgery, but is now used in the process of making other chemicals. About 900 ppm of chloroform can
cause dizziness, fatigue, and headaches. Chronic exposure may cause damage to the liver and kidneys. Other
harmful disinfection by-products are: trichloracetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, some haloacetonitriles, and
chlorophenols.
Trichloracetic acid is produced commercially for use as a herbicide and is also produced in drinking
water. This chemical is not classified as a carcinogen for humans, and there is limited information for animals.
Dichloroacetic acid is an irritant, corrosive, and destructive against mucous membranes. This is also not
currently classified as a human carcinogen. Haloacetonitriles were used as pesticides in the past, but are no
longer manufactured. They are produced as a result of a reaction between chlorine, natural organic matter, and
bromide. Chlorophenols cause taste and odor problems. They are toxic, and when present in higher
concentrations, affect the respiration and energy storage process in the body.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chloramine Use
Advantages
Chloramines are not as reactive with organics as free chlorine in forming DBPs.
The monochloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine or chlorine dioxide,
thereby providing better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and
dead end water mains. However excess ammonia in the network may cause biofilming.
Because chloramines do not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less
incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramines.
Chloramines are inexpensive.
Chloramines are easy to make.
Disadvantages
The disinfecting properties of chloramines are not as strong as other disinfectants, such as chlorine,
ozone, and chlorine dioxide.
Chloramines cannot oxidize iron, manganese, and sulfides.
When using chloramine as the secondary disinfectant, it may be necessary to periodically convert to free
chlorine for biofilm control in the water distribution system.
Excess ammonia in the distribution system may lead to nitrification problems, especially in dead ends
and other locations with low disinfectant residual.
Monochloramines are less effective as disinfectants at high pH than at low pH.
Dichloramines have treatment and operation problems.
Chloramines must be made on-site.
Restricted Water Use During Chlorination

Do not drink the water and avoid all body contact.
Water use should be minimized to assure that chlorine remains in the well during the minimum contact
period.
If strong chlorine odors are detected, ventilate the affected area immediately, and minimize exposure to
the fumes.
Avoid doing laundry, filling fish tanks, watering plants and using water for other purposes where the
chlorine may have an adverse effect.
DECHLORINATION
Dechlorination (removing residual chlorine from disinfected wastewater prior to discharge into the
environment/sensitive aquatic waters or in a treated water to be lowered prior to distribution
The chlorinated water can be dosed with a substance that reacts with or accelerates the rate of decomposition
of the residual chlorine.
Compounds that may perform this function include thiosulfate, hydrogen peroxide, ammonia,
sulfite/bisulfite/sulfur dioxide, and activated carbon;
Hydrogen peroxide is not frequently used because it is dangerous to handle
Only the latter two materials have been widely used for this purpose in water treatment (Snoeyink and
Suidan, 1975).
(1) SO3-2 + HOCl = SO4-2 + Cl- + H+
(2) SO3-2 + NH2Cl+ H20 = SO4-2 + Cl- + NH4+
On a mass basis, 0.9 parts sulfur dioxide (or 1.46 parts NaHSO3 or 1.34 parts Na2S2O5) is required to
dechlorinate 1.0 part residual chlorine.
Advantages of Dechlorination
Protects aquatic life from toxic effects of residual chlorine.
Prevents formation of harmful chlorinated compounds in drinking water through reaction of residual chlorine
with water born organic materials.
Disadvantages of Dechlorination
Chemical dechlorination can be difficult to control when near zero levels of residual chlorine are required.
Significant overdosing of sulfite can lead to sulfate formation, suppressed dissolved oxygen content, and
lower pH of the finished effluent.
OZONATION
Primary purpose of Ozonation
Ozone is used in drinking water treatment for a variety of purposes including:

Disinfection;
Inorganic pollutant oxidation, including iron, manganese, and sulfide;
Organic micropollutant oxidation, including taste and odor compounds, phenolic pollutants, and some
pesticides; and
Organic macropollutant oxidation, including color removal, increasing the biodegradability of organic
compounds, DBP precursor control, and reduction of chlorine demand.
Pathogen Inactivation & Disinfection Efficacy of Ozone
Ozone has a high germicidal effectiveness against a wide range of pathogenic organisms including
bacteria, protozoa, and viruses.
Ozone cannot be used as a secondary disinfectant because the ozone residual decays too rapidly.
Ozone disinfection efficiency is not affected by pH although because of hydroxyl free radicals and rapid
decay, efficiency is the same but more ozone should be applied at high pH to maintain C.
Inactivation of bacteria by ozone is attributed to an oxidation reaction. The first site to be attacked
appears to be the bacterial membrane . Also, ozone disrupts enzymatic activity of bacteria
The first site of action for virus inactivation, particularly its proteins and RNA
aqueous ozone penetrates into the Giardia cysts wall and damages the plasma membranes, additional
penetration of ozone eventually affects the nucleus, and ribosome
Advantages of Ozone Use
Ozone is more effective than chlorine, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide for inactivation of viruses,
Cryptosporidium, and Giardia.
Ozone oxidizes iron, manganese, and sulfides.
Ozone can sometimes enhance the clarification process and turbidity removal.
Ozone controls color, taste, and odors.
One of the most efficient chemical disinfectants, ozone requires a very short contact time.
In the absence of bromide, halogen-substitutes DBPs are not formed.
Upon decomposition, the only residual is dissolved oxygen.
Biocidal activity is not influenced by pH.
Disadvantages of Ozone Use
DBPs are formed, particularly by bromate and bromine-substituted DBPs, in the presence of bromide,
aldehydes, ketones.
The initial cost of ozonation equipment is high.
The generation of ozone requires high energy and should be generated on-site.
Ozone is highly corrosive and toxic.
Biologically activated filters are needed for removing assimilable organic carbon and biodegradable DBPs.
Ozone decays rapidly at high pH and warm temperatures.
Ozone provides no residual.
Ozone requires higher level of maintenance and operator skill
Flow Chart of Water Treatment
Flow Chart of Surface Water Treatment
Flow Chart of Grounwater Treatment
IM P O R TA N T QU E S T IO N S :
1. Name the water treatment methods.
2. Draw the flow chart of water treatment plant.
3. Draw the flow chart of Surface Water & Ground-water Treatment.
4. Write Short Notes on/ Describe the following terms:
I. Presedimentation XIII. Ozonation
II. Screening XIV. Iron & Manganese Removal
III. Primary Sedimentation XV. Rapid Sand Filter, RSF & Slow Sand
IV. Sedimentation Basins Filter, SSF
V. Ion Exchange XVI. Dechlorination
VI. Taste, Odor & Dissolved Oxygen XVII. Aeration
Removal XVIII. Demineralisation = Deionization
VII. Water Softening XIX. Jar Test
VIII. Coagulation XX. Activated Carbon as Absorbent
IX. Flocculation XXI. Chlorine demand, Residual chlorine &
X. Water Disinfection breakpoint chlorine
XI. Chlorination XXII. Restricted water use during chlorination
XII. CO2 , H2S, CH4 Removal
5. Why do we chlorinate our water?

6. How does chlorine inactivate microorganisms?
7. When/How do we chlorinate our waters?
8. Describe Chlorine demand, Residual chlorine & breakpoint chlorine with necessary
graphical explanation.
9. Describe the types of Aerators.
10. Describe the types of Sedimentation Basins.
11. Describe the design prelimineries for Sedimentation Basin.
12. Write down the advantages & disadvantages of Chlorination, Dechlorination & Ozonation.
13. Draw the cross section of RSF & SSF.
14. Write down the advantages & disadvantages of RSF & SSF.
15. Describe the primary purpose of Ozonation.
16. Describe the Pathogen Inactivation & Disinfection Efficacy of Ozone.
17. Explain: Why Jar Test is done? Describe the Jar Test Procedure.
18. Is chlorine a sure way of eliminating pathogens?
19. Are there other uses for chlorine? - Briefly Explain.
20. Write down the advantages & disadvantages of Chloramine use.
21. Describe the Efficiency and performance of Rapid Sand Filter & Slow Sand Filter.
22. Write down the comparison between RSF & SSF.
24. All the mathematical problems.

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WATER TREATMENT

Overview of the Water Treatment Process

Primary Sedimentation: Location in the Treatment Process

Types of sedimentation basins

SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION ZONES

Purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are:

Tube settlers and lamella plates

Why Tube settlers and lamella plates:

Fig.: Vertical Parallel Plate Clarifiers.

Fig.: Traditional Circular Clarifiers (Settling Zone)

Outlet Zone is designed to:

SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION SLUDGE ZONE

DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK

Surface Loading or Overflow Velocity

Inlet & Out let Zone

Maximum velocity to prevent scour

Velocity of flow = 20 cm /min = 0.2 m/min

Width of tank required = 41.66 / 3.5

Quantity of water to be treated = 1.6 x 10 6 lit/day= 66.66 m3/hr.

Chemical Substances Affected By Aeration: CO2

Surface waters have a low CO2 content ( 0 to 2 mg/l).

H2S REMOVAL BY AERATION METHOD

Methane gas can be found in groundwater.

IRON & MANGANESE REMOVAL

Iron and manganese minerals are found in soil and rock.

TASTE, ODOR & DISSOLVED OXYGEN REMOVAL

TASTE AND ODOR

Aerators fall into two general categories.

WATER INTO AIR

WATER INTO AIR

Slat and Coke Aerators

Draft Aerators: the air is induced by a blower.

AIR INTO WATER

ACTIVATED CARBON AS ABSORBENT

Types of Ion Exchange Resin

Strong Acid Cation Resins

Weak Acid Cation Resins

Strong Base Anion Resins

for which sodium hydroxide is used as the regenerant

Weak Base Anion Resins

Cation and anion exchange and regeneration

Advantages and disadvantages in the use of Ion-Exchange Resins

The advantages of ion exchange processes are:

COAGULATION & FLOCCULATION

WHY THEY ARE USED

HOW THE PROCESSES WORK

Alum coagulation proceeds according to the following equation

JAR TEST PROCEDURE

1. RAPID SAND FILTERS

Fig.: Rapid Sand Filter

Equation of No. of Filter Bed Required

Under Drainage System

B= 4.13 m; Therefore, L= 1.3 x 4.13 = 5.369 m

Efficiency and performance of Rapid Sand Filter

Loss of Head & Negative Head

2. SLOW SAND FILTERS

Under Drainage System

Inlet & Outlet

Fig.: Slow Sand Filter

Efficiency of Slow Sand Filters

Comparison of Slow Sand Filter & Rapid Sand Filter

Fig.: Different filtration processes and size of compounds removed

1. Minimization of Disinfection Byproducts formation:

2. Prevention of re-growth in the distribution system and maintenance of biological stability;