Fptfinal Report PDF

FIELD PRACTICAL TRAINING FINAL REPORT
AT
EAST COAST OILS AND FATS LTD METL GROUP
KURASINI
DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA
BY
HAULE MUSA.I
2014
Field practical training report East coast oils and fats ltd Haule Musa I (2014)
ABSTRACT
Field practical training (FPT) is aimed at giving the students
the opportunity to appreciate scientifically and technological

application of food production in real life. It is the link between
theory and practical.
In my field practical training I joined the company EAST
COAST OILS AND FATS LIMITED, Mohamed Enterprises

Tanzania Limited (MeTL) from 23rd February, 2015 to 24th April,
2015. I have acquired the greatest experience through
practical training as the learning was almost practically in real

life situation. It is the application of engineering, food science
and technology in industries, the practice and the firsthand
knowledge and understanding of interpersonal relationship in
industrial environment.
I had the introduction of the company and its administration

system and made familiar with it. I worked in the vegetable oil
processing plant, of which it had two plants; Physical Refinery

Plant and Dry Fractionation Plant. In these plants there is
refinery process of the edible oil, processing the crude palm oil
shipped from Malaysia and makes it into an edible state for
consumption.
The by-product of the fractionation process (stearin) is being

transformed to the edible state in the margarine manufacturing
plant and as the raw material for soap production. All these
process are carried out by the company. For the period I
worked in the company I had an opportunity to get a wide

exposure towards industrial operations especially in my field of
study. I can transform the theoretical aspects that were taught
in class into practical.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I convey my deepest sense of gratitude to Almighty God and
all who helped me in bringing out this report of the work that I
did during the period of my training successfully.
I would like to express a special appreciation to East Coast

Oils and Fats Ltd staffs in Kurasini-Dar es Salaam for providing
me an opportunity to have the Field Practical Training in their
organization, their assistance and cooperation has made the
success of this training. Special thanks to Mr. Manouj. K and
Mr. Patel (Head of department), Mr. Erick (Human Resource

manager) with Mr. Daniel. A, Mr. Tengeza, Mr. Mark. O, Mr.
Josephat, Mr. Johnson, and Mr. Albert (Trainers-production
operation) and Mr. Mhina (quality control and assurance).
I would like also to thank the SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF

AGRICULTURE, College of agriculture, Department of food
technology, nutrition and consumer sciences, Morogoro
Tanzania for providing this opportunity in the Field Practical
Training as a part of curriculum.
Finally I would like to dedicate my gratitude thanks to my
beloved daddy (Mr. Mwl. Haule Ibrahim. J), my mom (Mrs.

Haule. Halima. I), brother (Mr. Dr. Haule. Daniel.I), my sisters
(Ms. Haule. Eunice. I and Ms. Haule. Cristabellah. I) and my
beloved friends for their hand to hand support. This report is
the product of their motivation and support.
May heavenly God bless them all!
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DECLARATION
I, Musa I. Haule, I declare that the report has been
prepared by myself to fulfill the curricular requirement of
the Bachelor of science in food science and technology
as offered by SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF

AGRICULTURE(SUA) College of agriculture, Department
of food technology nutrition and consumer sciences
Morogoro, Tanzania.
This is a record of the original work done by myself under
the supervision of Mr. Daniel Amulike.
Register no: FST/J/2016/0309

Signature of the student
..
Date://
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1. Company Profile
Mohamed Enterprises Tanzania Limited Group of
companies (MeTL)
MeTL Group is a leading economic force in Tanzania with
major investments and successful operating companies
in all key business sectors. The Group employs more
than 24,000 people across the country and has diverse
interests in trading, agriculture, manufacturing, energy
and petroleum, financial services, mobile telephony,
infrastructure and real estate, transport and logistics and
distribution.
1.2 Background
The MeTL Group began as a small trading business and
its growth is largely attributable to strong vision,
experience, knowledge and skills derived from over forty
years of experience in Tanzanias industrial and
commercial sectors. Private industry in the country is a
huge and positive force for growth and development and
for realizing the benefits of globalization.
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The MeTL Group plays a lead role in this endeavor and is
in a unique position to offer assistance and advice to all
those who wish to invest profitably in the future of
Tanzania. Underpinning its success, the MeTL Group has
carefully charted its course by defining a development
plan that underpins its mission statement:
1.3 Mission
MeTL Group resolves to achieve a dominant presence in
its core business areas, in an ethical and socially
responsible manner, by manufacturing and supplying
quality products and services that provide value-for-
money to buyers and consumers at large.
Each of the Groups operations emanates from this all-
encompassing mission statement: organizational change,
innovation, corporate governance, business process re-
engineering and sustainable development are each
deeply interwoven into our operational tapestry.
We are also committed to a number of social activities
geared towards the emancipation of disadvantaged and
poverty-stricken people in the less developed regions of
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Tanzania. The Group supports several causes through
the MeTL Foundation and our registered NGO, Singida
Yetu.
Over the last four years, we have spent more than USD 2
million in developing schools, providing water supply
interventions to create income generation, scholarships,
invested in health care and enhanced sports programs.
The MeTL Group is keenly focused on environmental
protection initiatives, and, as a result, has developed a
carbon credit program based around its bio-energy
business, with partners in European high-carbon
emission countries.
1.4 Vision
A visionary organization, the MeTL Group continues to
pave the path to industrial development in Tanzania, by
continually striving for excellence and ethically sound
growth. Today we contribute three and a half percent of
the GDP of the country and aim to be a USD five billion
Group by 2015.
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1.5 East Coast Oils and Fats Ltd (ECOFL)
East Coast Oils and Fats is a state of the art facility for
the manufacture of edible oils, soaps and fats and is the
largest plant of its kind in East and Central Africa. East
Coasts advanced and modern manufacturing facility
allows us to consistently have a competitive edge in the
market in terms of quality and delivery. Our close
proximity to Dar es Salaams port facilities provides us
with a direct advantage reflected down the line in product
pricing to consumers at large.
The East Coast plant consists of a physical refinery, a
dry-fractionation plant and a soap manufacturing facility
all with outstanding capacity. East Coast also implements
the use of natural gas from Songo Songo to run the plant,
in line with modern environmentally conscious
manufacturing.
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The facility highlights include:
1. 600 tons per day of refining capacity, including
bleaching and deodorization.
2. 750 tons per day of fractioning capacity beginning
with refined palm oil.
3. Chemical refining capacity of 300 tons of soft oils
daily.
4. A manufacturing line for toilet soap with a capacity
of 600 tons a month.
5. Four manufacturing lines for laundry soap with an
aggregate capacity of 9,000 tons per month of
finished soap.
6. A railway siding within the plant premises ensuring
savings on delivery costs.
East Coast has been in production since October 2006, a
mere 18 months after project conceptualization. We cater
to the needs of 60% of the Tanzanian market
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1.5.1 Products made by the company
i. Edible oil
ii. Toilet Soaps
Figure 1.1. Products made in ECOFL (Edible oil and
soaps)
Figure 1.2. East Coast Oils and Fats Limited
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction to palm oil
The oil palm tree (Elaeis Guineensis) originated from the
rain forest of West Africa in a belt from Angola to Senegal
in the late 19th century. Since its introduction in Malaysia
in the early 20th century until in the sixties it has brought a
great impact on the economy of the country. For so many
years the economy of Malaysia relied on rubber for its
wealth and prosperity. In the 1960s,research and
development oil breeding began to expand after
Malaysias Department Agriculture established an
exchange program with Western African and thus
embarked on an intensive agricultural diversification
program, and the crop that has achieved the most
notable success since then is palm oil. Within a relatively
short period, Malaysia became the worlds largest
commercial producer and exporter of palm oil in 1966.
Hence now the country is now less dependent on the
fortunes of rubber as a plantation crop.
In Tanzania palm oil is only popular to the west part of the
country, particularly in Kigoma region, where local
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farmers have cultivated this palm oil for the production of
edible oil since the early 1920s. More recently, additional
uses for this crop have developed, such as local soap
production using palm oil. Oil palm production in
Tanzania is carried out primarily by smallholder farmers
living in Kigoma Region (Kigoma Rural District), as well
as in Mbeya Region (mostly Kyela District) and some
parts of Tanga Region.
2.2 Edible oil processing
Processing can remove the components of edible oils
which may have negative effects on taste, stability,
appearance or nutritional value. To the extent possible,
processing should preserve tocopherols and prevent
chemical changes in the triacyglycerols.
In the present context, the term edible oil processing
covers the range of industrial processes that start with the
isolation of triglyceride oils and fats from raw materials of
biological origin. This range includes those refining
processes that convert the crude oil into high quality oil
products that are fit for human consumption and also the
oil modification processes that ensure that the physical
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properties of the fats and oils meet market requirements
at minimal cost.
2.3 Palm Oil processing
The Palm Oil has to be extracted and this requires the
use of a system that is familiar to process plant
engineers. It firstly involves separating a grading process
where the good fruits are separated from the bad (which
are then discarded) since they are lower quality. The
good fruits are then placed in a large conveyer system
which leads to a splitter which is true to its name because
it literally splits the palm fruits into smaller pieces.
The split fruit is then carried by a conveyer system and it
falls into large cages which are placed in a sterilizer to be
heated at a high pressure in a similar way to a familiar
steam cooker. The cages containing the sterilized fruits
are then taken by a rail carriage transporter to be emptied
using a tipper and conveyed to a rotating threshing drum
to separate the fruit from the husks and to go through
screw conveyers to enter Digesters and then a presser
will press the oil out or rather the CPO (crude palm oil)
and the oil will eventually end up in a clarifier and then be
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dried using a Vacuum Type Oil Dryer to minimize the
water content in the palm oil.
It is a common practice for trucks to transport the CPO
from a mill to refineries for further processing. At the
receiving bay of the Palm Oil Refinery Truck unloading
station the custody transfer process takes place. This
means that the buyer is able to monitor the volume and
water content of the delivery to ensure that it meets his
specifications. This can be done manually or
automatically using online quality monitors attached to
the outlet pipes of the truck during delivery. The results
might have an impact on the price per load since higher
quality CPO is more useful to buyers.
The CPO is then further refined by processes such as
fractionation and separation. The impurities are removed
and the palm oil is further filtered and bleached. The
refining process also removes odors.
Solid stearin and liquid olein fractions can be produced
and then it is ready for the basis raw material that is used
in many familiar palm oil products.
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2.4 Production of fruit oil
What is a Palm Oil?
Palm oil is an important and versatile vegetable oil which
is used as a raw material for both food and non-food
industries.
Figure 2.1. Palm fruit
Oil palms are highly efficient oil producers, with each fruit
containing about 50% oil. Palm oil and palm kernel oil are
entirely GM free.
Obtained from the fruit (both the flesh and the kernel) of
the oil palm tree, it contributes to the economic
development of the producing countries and to the diets
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of millions of people around the world. In fact palm oil can
be found in a huge percentage of every day
supermarket products.
Oil palms can grow 20 meters tall with leaves up to 5
meters long. They bear clusters of fruit all year long, with
each fully matured cluster weighing up to 50kg.
Vegetable oil production around the world totals over 144
million tones per year, of which over 47 million tones is
palm oil. Along with soy oil, palm oil makes up 60% of
world production.
2.5 Palm trees growing countries
Palm can be cultivated only in tropical areas of Asia,
Africa and South America. Global demand for edible
vegetable oils has grown strongly in recent decades and
palm oil production has expanded rapidly to meet that
demand.
From the 1990s to the present time, the area under palm
oil cultivation had increased by about 43%. Today,
seventeen countries produce palm oil, though Malaysia
and Indonesia account for 85% of global palm oil
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production, where 4.5 million people earn a living from
palm oil. The top five producing nations are: Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Columbia and Nigeria
About one quarter of palm oil production worldwide is
used domestically, three quarters is exported. Asia, the
European Union and Africa are the main importers of
palm oil.
2.6 Extraction.
Palm oil is extracted from fresh fruit bunches (FFB) by
mechanical process, where a mill commonly handles 60
to 100mt per hour of FFB. The modern palm oil mill of
today is based predominantly on concepts developed in
the early 50s (Mongana Report). An average size FFB
weighs about 20-30kg and contains 1500-2000 fruits
(Figure1). The FFBs are harvested according to
harvesting cycles, and delivered to the mills on the same
day. The quality of crude palm oil is dependent on the
care taken after harvesting, particularly on the handling of
the FFBs.
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Figure 2.2 Threshing of palm fruits bunches
A palm oil mill produces crude palm oil and kernels, as
primary products and biomass as secondary product. The
capacity of mills varies between 60- 100 tons FFB/h. A
typical mill has many operation units as shown in Figure
2. The oil winning process, in summary, involves the
reception of fresh fruit bunches from the plantations,
sterilizing and threshing of the bunches to free the palm
fruit, mashing the fruit and pressing out the crude palm
oil. The crude oil is further treated to purify and dry it for
storage and export. For the kernel line, there are steps
such as nut/fiber separation, nut conditioning and
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cracking, cracked mixture separation, and kernel drying,
storage. The dried kernels are often sold to palm kernel
crushers for extraction of crude palm kernel oil
2.7 PALM OIL PROCESSING-THE UNIT
OPERATION
Chart 2.1. Palm oil processing-The unit operations
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2.7.1 Bunch reception
Fresh fruit arrives from the field as bunches or loose fruit.
The fresh fruit is normally emptied into wooden boxes
suitable for weighing on a scale so that quantities of fruit
arriving at the processing site may be checked. Large
installations use weighbridges to weigh materials in
trucks.
The quality standard achieved is initially dependent on
the quality of bunches arriving at the mill. The mill cannot
improve upon this quality but can prevent or minimize
further deterioration.
The field factors that affect the composition and final
quality of palm oil are genetic, age of the tree, agronomic,
environmental, harvesting technique, handling and
transport. Many of these factors are beyond the control of
a small-scale processor. Perhaps some control may be
exercised over harvesting technique as well as post-
harvest transport and handling.
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2.7.2 Sterilization of bunches
Sterilization or cooking means the use of high-
temperature wet-heat treatment of loose fruit. Cooking
normally uses hot water; sterilization uses pressurized
steam. The cooking action serves several purposes. Heat
treatment destroys oil-splitting enzymes and arrests
hydrolysis and autoxidation.
a. For large-scale installations, where bunches
are cooked whole, the wet heat weakens the
fruit stem and makes it easy to remove the fruit
from bunches on shaking or tumbling in the
threshing machine.
b. Heat helps to solidify proteins in which the oil-
bearing cells are microscopically dispersed.
The protein solidification (coagulation) allows
the oil-bearing cells to come together and flow
more easily on application of pressure.
c. Fruit cooking weakens the pulp structure,
softening it and making it easier to detach the
fibrous material and its contents during the
digestion process. The high heat is enough to
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partially disrupt the oil-containing cells in the
mesocarp and permits oil to be released more
readily.
d. The moisture introduced by the steam acts
chemically to break down gums and resins.
The gums and resins cause the oil to foam
during frying. Some of the gums and resins are
soluble in water. Others can be made soluble in
water, when broken down by wet steam
(hydrolysis), so that they can be removed
during oil clarification. Starches present in the
fruit are hydrolyzed and removed in this way.
e. When high-pressure steam is used for
sterilization, the heat causes the moisture in
the nuts to expand. When the pressure is
reduced the contraction of the nut leads to the
detachment of the kernel from the shell wall,
thus loosening the kernels within their shells.
The detachment of the kernel from the shell
wall greatly facilitates later nut cracking
operations. From the foregoing, it is obvious
that sterilization (cooking) is one of the most
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important operations in oil processing, ensuring
the success of several other phases.
f. However, during sterilization it is important to
ensure evacuation of air from the sterilizer. Air
not only acts as a barrier to heat transfer, but
oil oxidation increases considerably at high
temperatures; hence oxidation risks are high
during sterilization. Over-sterilization can also
lead to poor bleach ability of the resultant oil.
Sterilization is also the chief factor responsible
for the discolouration of palm kernels, leading
to poor bleach ability of the extracted oil and
reduction of the protein value of the press cake.
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Figure 2.3: A conventional sterilizer.
2.7.3 Threshing (removal of fruit from the
bunches)
The fresh fruit bunch consists of fruit embedded in
spikelet growing on a main stem. Manual threshing is
achieved by cutting the fruit-laden spikelet from the bunch
stem with an axe or machete and then separating the fruit
from the spikelet by hand. Children and the elderly in the
village earn income as casual laborers performing this
activity at the factory site.
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In a mechanized system a rotating drum or fixed drum
equipped with rotary beater bars detach the fruit from the
bunch, leaving the spikelet on the stem. Most small-scale
processors do not have the capacity to generate steam
for sterilization. Therefore, the threshed fruits are cooked
in water. Whole bunches which include spikelet absorb a
lot of water in the cooking process. High-pressure steam
is more effective in heating bunches without losing much
water. Therefore, most small-scale operations thresh
bunches before the fruits are cooked, while high-pressure
sterilization systems thresh bunches after heating to
loosen the fruits.
Small-scale operators use the bunch waste (empty
bunches) as cooking fuel. In larger mills the bunch waste
is incinerated and the ash, a rich source of potassium, is
returned to the plantation as fertilizer.
2.7.4 Digestion of the fruit
Digestion is the process of releasing the palm oil in the
fruit through the rupture or breaking down of the oil-
bearing cells. The digester commonly used consists of a
steam-heated cylindrical vessel fitted with a central
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rotating shaft carrying a number of beater (stirring) arms.
Through the action of the rotating beater arms the fruit is
pounded. Pounding, or digesting the fruit at high
temperature, helps to reduce the viscosity of the oil,
destroys the fruits outer covering (exocarp), and
completes the disruption of the oil cells already begun in
the sterilization phase. Unfortunately, for reasons related
to cost and maintenance, most small-scale digesters do
not have the heat insulation and steam injections that
help to maintain their contents at elevated temperatures
during this operation.
2.7.5 Batch presses
In batch operations, material is placed in a heavy metal
cage and a metal plunger is used to press the material.
The main differences in batch press designs are as
follows: a) the method used to move the plunger and
apply the pressure; b) the amount of pressure in the
press; and c) the size of the cage.
The plunger can be moved manually or by a motor. The
motorised method is faster but more expensive. Different
designs use either a screw thread (spindle press) (Fig.
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2.5) or a hydraulic system (hydraulic press) (Fig. 2.4) to
move the plunger. Higher pressures may be attained
using the hydraulic system but care should be taken to
ensure that poisonous hydraulic fluid does not contact the
oil or raw material. Hydraulic fluid can absorb moisture
from the air and lose its effectiveness and the plungers
wear out and need frequent replacement. Spindle press
screw threads are made from hard steel and held by
softer steel nuts so that the nuts wear out faster than the
screw. These are easier and cheaper to replace than the
screw.
The size of the cage varies from 5 kg to 30 kg with an
average size of 15 kg. The pressure should be increased
gradually to allow time for the oil to escape. If the depth of
material is too great, oil will be trapped in the centre. To
prevent this, heavy plates can be inserted into the raw
material. The production rate of batch presses depends
on the size of the cage and the time needed to fill, press
and empty each batch. Hydraulic presses are faster than
spindle screw types and powered presses are faster than
manual types. Some types of manual press require
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considerable effort to operate and do not alleviate
drudgery.
2.7.6 Continuous system
The early centrifuges and hydraulic presses have now
given way to specially designed screw-presses similar to
those used for other oilseeds. These consist of a
cylindrical perforated cage through which runs a closely
fitting screw. Digested fruit is continuously conveyed
through the cage towards an outlet restricted by a cone,
which creates the pressure to expel the oil through the
cage perforations (drilled holes). Oil-bearing cells that are
not ruptured in the digester will remain unopened if a
hydraulic or centrifugal extraction system is employed.
Screw presses, due to the turbulence and kneading
action exerted on the fruit mass in the press cage, can
effectively break open the unopened oil cells and release
more oil. These presses act as an additional digester and
are efficient in oil extraction.
Moderate metal wear occurs during the pressing
operation, creating a source of iron contamination. The
rate of wear depends on the type of press, method of
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pressing, nut-to-fiber ratio, etc. High pressing pressures
are reported to have an adverse effect on the bleach
ability and oxidative conservation of the extracted oil
Figure 2.4 Manual hydraulic press (left) Spindle
press(right)
2.7.7 Clarification and drying of oil
The main point of clarification is to separate the oil from
its entrained impurities. The fluid coming out of the press
is a mixture of palm oil, water, cell debris, fibrous material
and non-oily solids. Because of the non-oily solids the
mixture is very thick (viscous). Hot water is therefore
added to the press output mixture to thin it. The dilution
(addition of water) provides a barrier causing the heavy
solids to fall to the bottom of the container while the
lighter oil droplets flow through the watery mixture to the
top when heat is applied to break the emulsion (oil
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suspended in water with the aid of gums and resins).
Water is added in a ratio of 3:1.
The diluted mixture is passed through a screen to remove
coarse fibre. The screened mixture is boiled from one or
two hours and then allowed to settle by gravity in the
large tank so that the palm oil, being lighter than water,
will separate and rise to the top. The clear oil is decanted
into a reception tank. This clarified oil still contains traces
of water and dirt. To prevent increasing FFA through
autocatalytic hydrolysis of the oil, the moisture content of
the oil must be reduced to 0.15 to 0.25 percent. Re-
heating the decanted oil in a cooking pot and carefully
skimming off the dried oil from any engrained dirt
removes any residual moisture. Continuous clarifiers
consist of three compartments to treat the crude mixture,
dry decanted oil and hold finished oil in an outer shell as
a heat exchanger. The wastewater from the clarifier is
drained off into nearby sludge pits dug for the purpose.
No further treatment of the sludge is undertaken in small
mills. The accumulated sludge is often collected in
buckets and used to kill weeds in the processing area.
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Figure 2.7 Clarifier tank
2.7.8 Oil storage
In large-scale mills the purified and dried oil is transferred
to a tank for storage prior to dispatch from the mill. Since
the rate of oxidation of the oil increases with the
temperature of storage the oil is normally maintained
around 50C, using hot water or low-pressure steam-
heating coils, to prevent solidification and fractionation.
Iron contamination from the storage tank may occur if the
tank is not lined with a suitable protective coating.Small-
scale mills simply pack the dried oil in used petroleum oil
drums or plastic drums and store the drums at ambient
temperature.
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2.7.9 Kernel recovery
The residue from the press consists of a mixture of fibre
and palm nuts. The nuts are separated from the fibre by
hand in the small-scale operations. The sorted fibre is
covered and allowed to heat, using its own internal
exothermic reactions, for about two or three days. The
fibre is then pressed in spindle presses to recover second
grade (technical) oil that is used normally in soap-making.
The nuts are usually dried and sold to other operators
who process them into palm kernel oil. The sorting
operation is usually reserved for the youth and elders in
the village in a deliberate effort to help them earn some
income.
Large-scale mills use the recovered fibre and nutshells to
fire the steam boilers. The super-heated steam is then
used to drive turbines to generate electricity for the mill.
For this reason it makes economic sense to recover the
fibre and to shell the palm nuts. In the large-scale kernel
recovery process, the nuts contained in the press cake
are separated from the fibre in a depericarper. They are
then dried and cracked in centrifugal crackers to release
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the kernels. The kernels are normally separated from the
shells using a combination of winnowing and hydro
cyclones. The kernels are then dried in silos to a moisture
content of about 7 percent before packing.
During the nut cracking process some of the kernels are
broken. The rate of FFA increase is much faster in broken
kernels than in whole kernels. Breakage of kernels should
therefore be kept as low as possible, given other
processing considerations.
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Summary of Unit operations
Sn Unit Purpose
operation
1 Fruit To loosen fruit base from spikelets and to allow
fermentation ripening processes to abate
2 Bunch To facilitate manual removal of fruit
chopping
3 Fruit sorting To remove and sort fruit from spikelets
4 Fruit boiling To sterilize and stop enzymatic spoilage, coagulate
protein and expose microscopic oil cells
5 Fruit To rupture oil-bearing cells to allow oil flow during
digestion extraction while separating fibre from nuts
6 Mash To release fluid palm oil using applied pressure on
pressing ruptured cellular contents
7 Oil To boil mixture of oil and water to remove water-
purification soluble gums and resins in the oil, dry decanted oil
by further heating
8 Fibre-nut To separate de-oiled fibre from palm nuts.
separation
9 Second To recover residual oil for use as soap stock
Pressing
10 Nut drying To sun dry nuts for later cracking
Table 2.1. Unit operation of the Palm Fruit
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2.7.9.1 Stripping
Stripping or threshing involves separating the sterilized
fruits from the bunch stalks. Sterilized FFBs are fed into a
drum stripper and the drum is rotated, causing the fruits
to be detached from the bunch. The bunch stalks are
removed as they do not contain any oil. It is important to
ensure that oil loss in the bunch stalk is kept to a
minimum. The stalks are often disposed by incineration,
giving ash as potash fertilizer, and fuel for boilers. Others
are transported to the plantations for use as fertilisers in
mulching near the palms. The total oil loss absorbed on
the stalks depends on the sterilizing conditions and partly
on the way the stripper is operated. Prolonged
sterilization will increase oil loss in stalks. Irregular
feeding of the stripper may also result in increase of oil
loss in stalks. Stalks which have fruits still attached on
them are called hard bunches, and have to be recycled
back to sterilizers for further cooking. Hard bunches are
detected by visible inspection.
2.7.9.2 Decanters
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Decanters are also used in some mills as an alternative
to separating the suspended solids from crude palm oil in
a clarification tank. Various design of decanters are
available. Their usage is however, hampered by higher
maintenance costs from the wear and tear. An advantage
to the use is the reduction in palm oil mill effluent. Sulong
and Tan (1996) had proposed a membrane filter press for
oil and solids recovery. The cake is discharged as solid
waste for fertilizer production or animal feed, while the oil
is recovered.
2.7.10 Oil Losses during Processing
Oil losses in mills vary from mill to mill, and much
attention is given to the control of oil loss. The main oil
loss are from sterilizer condensate, empty bunches, fruit
loss in unstrapped bunches, press cake fibre, nuts and
sludge. Over-ripe bunches will lose more oil during
sterilization. To minimize this, shorter sterilizer cycles are
used, or better control of bunch ripeness and quality will
help ensure less wastage. A typical oil loss in sterilizer is
estimated to be 0.1% to FFB. Oils recovered from
sterilizer condensate should be used as technical oils, as
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they often contain higher iron content and would reduce
oil stability if mixed with the crude production oil.
How does it work?
Palm oil contains saturated and unsaturated fats, vitamin
E, and beta-carotene. It might have antioxidant effects.
2.7.11 Health benefits of palm oil
Palm oil is used for preventing;
i. vitamin A deficiency,
ii. cancer, brain diseases,
iii. aging; and treating malaria,
iv. high blood pressure,
v. high cholesterol, and
vi. Cyanide poisoning.
vii. Palm oil is used for weight loss and increasing the
bodys metabolism.
viii. As food, palm oil is used for frying.
ix. Industrially, palm oil is used for manufacturing
cosmetics, soaps, toothpastes, waxes, lubricants,
and ink.
2.7.12 Palm oil products
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Semi-solid at room temperature, palm oil and palm kernel
oil are among the worlds most versatile raw materials.
2.7.13 Uses of palm oil
As a result they can be found in one in supermarket
products, ranging from:
i. margarine,
ii. cereals,
iii. crisps,
iv. sweets and baked goods, to
v. soaps, washing powders and cosmetics
Nevertheless you may never have heard of palm
oil since its rarely listed as an ingredient on product
labels, with the term vegetable oil often being used
instead. Palm oil can also be used in animal
feedstuffs and as a bio fuel.
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CHAPTER THREE
PHYSICAL REFINERY PLANT
3.1 Introduction to physical refinery
plant
It is a process used for removal of free fatty acid De-
Acidificationodoriferous impurities by heating the oil under
high vacuum using sparging steam. Due to this, low
boiling component get distilled off under this condition
and low FFA oil is obtained. Strategically Designed,
combination of tower and fatly add scrubber, ensures
practically no carry over of fatty acids into vacuum
system.Goyum Works also have economically designed
Deodorizer and Physical Refining Plant for different Oil
and lower capacities. Physical Refining process is used
to remove Free Fatty Acid, using Steam Distillation
method at high temperature very high vacuum
Physical Refining means removing gum in the oil in the
process of degumming and removing the FFA in process
of deodorizing by steam. It has the following features:
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Less oil loss and high oil refining ratio. No water wasted
in process of production. More FFA is distilled out. More
suitable oil with high acid value and low gum impurity.
Palm oil consists mainly of glycerides and, like other oil in
their crude form, small and variable portions of non-
glyceride components as well. In order to render the oils
to an edible form, some of this non-glyceride needs to be
either removed or acceptable levels.
In terms of solubility study-glycerides are of two broad
types: oil insoluble and oil soluble.The insoluble
impurities consisting of fruit fibres, nut shells and free
moisture mainly, are readily removed. The oil soluble non
glycerides which include free fatty acids, phospholipids,
trace metals, carotenoids, tocopherols, oxidation products
and sterols are more difficult to remove and thus, the oil
needs to undergo various stages of refining.
Not all of the above non-glyceride components are
undesirable. The tocopherols and tocotrienols not only
help to protect the oil from oxidation, which is detrimental
to flavor and keep ability of the finished oil, but also have
nutritional attributes ,- and -carotene, the major
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constituents of carotenoids, are precursors of vitamin A.
The other impurities generally are detrimental of the oils
flavor, odour, color and keep ability and thus influence the
oils usefulness.
The aim of refining is therefore to convert the crude oil to
quality edible oil by removing objectionable impurities to
the desired levels in the most efficient manner. This also
means that, where possible, losses in the desirable
component are kept minimal. The impurities which are
contained in the crude palm oil (CPO) is shown in table
Substances Content
Free Fatty Acid(FFA) 3-5%
Gums (phospholipids, 300 ppm
phosphotides)
Dirty 0.01%
Shell Trace
Moisture and Impurities 0.15%
Trace metal 0.50%
Oxidation Carotenoids Trace
Total Carotenoids 500-1000 mg/ke
Fibres Trace
Table 3.1. Composition of CPO
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General speaking the refining routes of oil is quite
identical. There are two routes are taken to process crude
oil into refined oil; which are chemical (basic) refining and
physical refining. The methods differ basically in the way
the fatty acids are removed from the oil. Physical refining,
which eliminates the need for an effluent plant for the
soap stock, involves subjecting the oil to steam distillation
under higher temperature and vacuum for removal of the
free fatty acids. The physical refining is used to remove
the free fatty acids. The refining of physical plant is
practiced to subject the oil to steam distillation. The
typical refining process is shown in Figure 1.0.
The raw material which is used by physical plant is crude
palm oil (CPO) from the CPO storage tank. CPO is fed at
the flow rate about 35-60 tons/hour. The initial
temperature of CPO is at 40-60 degree centigrade. The
feed is pumped through the heat recovery system, that is
plate heat exchanger to increase the temperature around
60-90 degree centigrade.
After that, there is about 20% of the CPO feed to into the
slurry and mix with the bleaching earth (6-12Kg/tons
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CPO) to form slurry (CPO + Bleaching earth). The
agitator inside the slurry tank will mixed the CPO and
bleaching earth completely. Then, the slurry will go into
bleacher.
At the same time, another 80% of the CPO is pumped
through another plate heat exchanger (PHE) and steam
heater to increase the CPO temperature to 90-130% (it is
desired temperature for the reaction between CPO and
phosphoric acid). Then, the CPO feed is pumped to static
mixers and the phosphoric acid is dosed at 0.35-
0.45Kg/ton. Inside there, the intensive mixing is carried
out with the crude oil for precipitation up the gums. The
precipitation of gums will ease the later filtration process;
avoid the scale formation in the deodorizer and heating
surface. The degumming CPO then will go into bleacher.
Steps involved in the palm oil refining are;
i. Degumming
ii. Bleaching
iii. Filtration
iv. De-acidification / De-aration
v. Deodorization
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vi. Fractionation
3.2 A. DEGUMMING PROCESS.
The process of the degumming is to remove phosphorus
and other compound colloidal compounds that are
present in the crude oil in the form of hydratable
phosphatides and non hydratable phosphatides (NHP).
The purpose of the degumming is to remove phosphorus
and other complex colloidal compounds that are present
in the crude oil in the form of hydrated phosphatides and
non-phosphatides (NHP). Generally the degumming refer
to the several processes that are applied based on the
type of the oil and phosphatide content.
Fats and oils contain complex organo-phosphorus
compounds referred to as phosphatides or more usually,
as gums. They are removed during processing by a
variety of treatments collectively referred to as
degumming. The treatment usually involves hydration
with water, orthophosphoric acid, and polybasic organic
acids either singly or in combination, followed by
centrifuging the precipitated material or by its adsorption
on bleaching earth or filter.
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Degumming Process Degumming is the first stage in the
refining process. It is sued to separate the gums,
phospholipids, and proteins etc, that are insoluble in oil
when hydrated.
3.2.1 The aim of degumming operation
i. The emulsifying action of phospholipids increases
oil losses during alkali refining.
ii. Gums lead brown discoloration of oil after heating
during deodorization.
iii. Salts may be formed with cooper, magnesium,
calcium and iron, accelerating oxidative
degradation of oil.
iv. Certain phospholipids, such as lecithin, find
widespread industrial application.
3.2.2 Types of Gums Need to be Removed
i. Hydratable Phosphotides-easy to remove
ii. Non-Hydratable Phosphotides (NHP) -hard to
remove from oil
iii. NHP removed with hydratables in water
degumming, requires the use of acid to
convert to hydratable for complete removal.
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Generally the degumming refers to several processes
that are applied based on the type of the oil and
phosphotide contents .About 80% 0f CPO enters in the
degumming vessel whereas the phosphoric acid is
dosed. Inside there, the intensive mixing is carried out
with the crude oil for precipitation up the gums. The
degumming CPO then will go into the bleacher.
3.3 BLEACHING PROCESS.
The bleaching of edible oils and fats is a part of the
refining process of crude oils and fats, which removes
contaminants that adversely impact the appearance and
performance of this triglyceride (triacylglycerol)-based
materials. Typically, edible oils and fats, ranging from
soybean and palm oils to edible lard and beef tallow, are
extracted together with impurities in various quantities.
Many of these impurities have to be removed from the oil
to achieve the high quality oil standards necessary for
edible applications. Preceded generally by degumming
and refining (neutralization) processes, bleaching is
required to remove specific detrimental contaminants that
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are not effectively removed by these processes before
the oil progresses through deodorization.
Originally described as a process of mixing oil and clay
adsorbent to remove color, the bleaching operation
effectively removes some of the color, reduces the
contents of chlorophyll, residual soap and gums, trace
metals, oxidation products, and indirectly impacts on
deodorized oil color. While the bleaching process
appears to be a simple mixing of adsorbent and oil
followed by filtration, the chemical and physical reactions
occurring are complex and greatly reliant on process
variables (i.e., moisture levels, temperature, contact time,
and vacuum), oil quality entering the bleacher, the
amount and characteristics of the adsorbent and the type
of equipment employed. The success or efficiency of the
bleaching operation is interdependent on the
effectiveness of upstream processes where contaminants
that have the potential to interfere with the bleaching
mechanisms should be removed. Some consider
bleaching the safety net of the refining process in that it
is the last operation in the oil refining process before
going to deodorization. As the focus of this paper would
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suggest, optimization of the bleaching process is
considerably important both to 1) achieving high quality
refined oil products and 2) the economic viability of the oil
purification process.
Figure 3.2 Bleaching process
In the bleacher, there are 20% slurry and 80%
degummed CPO will mix together and the bleaching
process occur. The practice of the bleaching involves the
addition of bleaching earth to remove any undesirable
impurities (all pigments, trace metals, oxidation products)
from CPO and this improves the initial taste, final flavor
and oxidative stability of product .It also helps to
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overcome problems in subsequent processing by
adsorption of soap traces, pro-oxidant metal ions,
decomposes peroxides, color reduction, and adsorbs
other minor impurities. The temperature inside the
bleacher must be around 100-130 degree centigrade to
get the optimum bleaching process for 30 minutes of
bleaching period. The low pressure steam is purged into
bleacher to agitate the concentrated slurry for a better
bleaching condition.
The BPO from spiral heat exchanger then proceeds to
the next stage where the free fatty acid content and other
color are further reduced and more important, it is
deodorized to produce a product which is stable and
bland in flavor.
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Figure 3.3 Bleacher vessel
3.3 FILTRATION PROCESS.
A filter is a device used mainly to give a clean, free from
bleaching earth particles oil. The temperature must be
maintained at around 80-120C for good filtration
process. In the filter, slurry (which is the mixture of C.P.O
and bleaching earth) passes through filter leaves and
bleaching earth is trapped on the filter leaves. Actually,
bleaching earth must be clear from filter after 45 minutes
in operation to get good filtration. B.P.O from filter is then
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pumped into buffer tank as temporary storage before
further processing.
Usually, a second check filter, trap filter is used in series
with the Niagara filter to double ensure that no bleaching
earth slips occur. The presence of bleaching earth fouls
deodorizer, reduces the oxidative stability of the product
oil and acts as a catalyst for dimerisation and
polymerization activities. So, the blue test is carried out
for each batch of filtration to ensure the perfect filtration
process. This test indicates whether any leaking is
occurring in Niagara filter or trap filter. Hence, any
corrective actions can be taken intermediately.
The BPO comes out from the filter and passes through
another series of heat recovery system, Schmidt plate
heat exchanger and spiral (thermal oil: 250-305 degrees
centigrade) heat exchanger to heat up the BPO from 80-
120 until 250 degrees centigrade.
The BPO from spiral heat exchanger then proceeds to
the next stage where the free fatty acid content and other
color are further reduced and more important, it is
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deodorized to produce a product which is stable and
bland in flavor.
Figure 3.4 Filters
3.2.4 D. DEARATION PROCESS.
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the
removal of oxygen and other dissolved gases from the
feed water to steam-generating boilers. In particular,
dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious
corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the
walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and
forming oxides (rust). Dissolved carbon dioxide combines
with water to form carbonic acid that causes further
corrosion. Most deaerators are designed to remove
oxygen down to levels of 7 ppm by weight (0.005 cm/ L)
or less as well essentially eliminating carbon dioxide.
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Types of deaerators
There are many different horizontal and vertical
deaerators available from a number of manufacturers,
and the actual construction details will vary from one
manufacturer to another. Figures 1 and 2 are
representative schematic diagrams that depict each of
the two major types of dearators.
i. Tray type deaerator
The typical horizontal tray-type deaerator in Figure 1 has
a vertical domed deaeration section mounted above a
horizontal boiler feed water storage vessel. Boiler feed
water enters the vertical deaeration section above the
perforated trays and flows downward through the
perforations. Low-pressure deaeration steam enters
below the perforated trays and flows upward through the
perforations. Some designs use various types of packing
material, rather than perforated trays, to provide good
contact and mixing between the steam and the boiler
feed water.
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The steam strips the dissolved gas from the boiler feed
water and exits via the vent at the top of the domed
section. Some designs may include a vent condenser to
trap and recover any water entrained in the vented gas.
The vent line usually includes a valve and just enough
steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to
provide a small and visible telltale plume of steam.
The deaerated water flows down into the horizontal
storage vessel from where it is pumped to the steam
generating boiler system. Low-pressure heating steam,
which enters the horizontal vessel through a sparger pipe
in the bottom of the vessel, is provided to keep the stored
boiler feed water warm. External insulation of the vessel
is typically provided to minimize heat loss.
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Figure3.5. Tray type dearator
ii. Spray type dearator
As shown in Figure 3.5, the typical spray-type deaerator
is a horizontal vessel which has a preheating section (E)
and a deaeration section (F). The two sections are
separated by a baffle (C). Low-pressure steam enters the
vessel through a sparger in the bottom of the vessel.
The boiler feed water is sprayed into section (E) where it
is preheated by the rising steam from the sparger. The
purpose of the feed water spray nozzle (A) and the
preheat section is to heat the boiler feed water to its
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saturation temperature to facilitate stripping out the
dissolved gases in the following deaeration section.
The preheated feed water then flows into the deaeration
section (F), where it is deaerated by the steam rising from
the sparger system. The gases stripped out of the water
exit via the vent at the top of the vessel. Again, some
designs may include a vent condenser to trap and
recover any water entrained in the vented gas. Also
again, the vent line usually includes a valve and just
enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases
to provide a small and visible telltale plume of steam.
The deaerated boiler feed water is pumped from the
bottom of the vessel to the steam generating boiler
system.
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Figure 3.6. Spray type dearator
3.3 D. DEODORIZATION PROCESS.
Deodorization is actually a stripping process in which a
given amount of a stripping agent (usually steam) is
passed for a given period of time through hot oil at a low
pressure. Hence, it is mainly a physical process in which
various volatile components are removed. However,
since it is usually carried out at high temperature (>
200C), some chemical, thermal effects may take place
as well.
Combined deodorizing is the latest technology, which
improves oil flexibility significantly. Detailed deodorizing
process in the entire oil refining plant is: Most heat of
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bleached oil is recovered by Heat Exchangers. The
bleached oil is heated to the process temperature by
mineral oil or high pressure steam and then the oil enters
into the Combined Deodorizer. The Deodorizer is a
combined type: The upper is packing structure, which is
used to remove odor components like FFA; the lower is a
plate type used for heat bleaching and making product
quality more consistent. Oil coming from the Deodorizer
is cooled and stored after series of heat exchanger.
Volatile like FFA is collected and stored as by-products.
Deodorization is a vacuum stripping process in which
neutral oil is treated to remove malodorous compound
(volatile compound in general) to obtain fully refined oil.
This process is similar to steam refining of neutral oil
where along with malodorous compound even fatty acids
are also removed. The above process is then known as
steam deodorization. Deodorization Process
Deodorization is actually a combination of two different
effects on oil 1) Stripping 2) Temperature In the pre-
stripping and deodorizing column, deacidification and
deodorization process happen concurrently.
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Deodorization is a high temperature, high vacuum and
steam distillation process.
A deodorizer operates in the following manner
i. Dearates the oil
ii. Heat up the oil
iii. Steam strips the oil and
iv. Cools the oil before it leaves the system.
In the column, the oil is generally heated to approximately
240-280degree centigrade under vacuum. A vacuum of
less than 10 torr is usually maintained by the use of
ejector and boosters. The bleaching of the oil occurs at
this temperature through the thermal destruction of the
carotenoid pigments. The use of direct steam ensures
readily removal of residue free fatty acid, aldehydes and
ketones which are responsible for unacceptable odor and
flavors. The lower molecular weight of vaporized fatty
acids rises up the column and pulls out by the vacuum
system. The fatty acid vapor leaving the deodorizer are
condensed and collected in the fatty acid condenser as
fatty acid. The fatty acid then is cooled in the fatty acid
cooler and discharged to the fatty acid storage tank with
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temperature around 60-80 degree centigrade as palm
fatty acid distillate (PFAD), a byproduct from refinery
process.
The bottom product of pre-stripper and deodorizer is
Refined, Bleached, Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO). The
hot RBDPO (250-280) is pumped through Schmidt PHE
to transfer its heat to incoming BPO with lower
temperature. Then, it passes through another trap filters
to have the final oil polishing (120-140) to prevent the
earth trace from reaching the product tank. After that, the
RBDPO will pass through the RBDPO cooler and plate
heat exchanger to transfer the heat to the CPO feed. The
RBDPO then is pumped to the storage with temperature
50-80 degrees centigrade.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FRACTIONATION
4.1 Historical perspective
In edible oil processing, a fractionation process consists
of a controlled cooling of the oil, thereby inducing a
partial, or fractional, crystallization. The remaining liquid
(olein) is then separated from the solid fraction (Stearin)
by means of a filtration or centrifugation.
This kind of fractionation process has been applied for
almost 150 years. In most literature, Hippolyte Mege-
Mouries is credited with the invention of a patented
method to produce certain fats of animal origin. In fact,
he concocted the production of a sort of margarine fat, by
separating a liquid fraction from ordinary tallow after
gentle cooling. But with only temperature difference as
the driving force, a fractional crystallization of a fat is a
perfectly natural, spontaneous phenomenon. So it was
also observed that in palm (kernel) oil harvested in
tropical regions, small crystals would appear upon cooling
and form a crystal suspension in the wooden barrels
during shipping to chillier Western Europe. These slightly
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denser solids eventually settled, and such fractions could
effectively replace hardened fats in margarines. In a more
evocative twist, we could therefore consider these
wooden shipping drums the very first oil crystallizers, with
just the peaceful ocean waves providing the necessary
agitation to keep the mix in suspension. Moreover, the
natural fractional crystallization of fats when mildly cooled
is echoed in the term winterization, referring to the habit
of leaving large oil tanks quiescent in wintertime to induce
some mild crystallization and obtain a liquid fraction with
improved cold stability, in an economic fashion.
Despite the apparent spontaneity of the process itself, it
took until the years 1960 for the fractionation industry
(and technology) to boom, when the production of palm
oil in South-East Asia heavily increased and export taxes
on processed palm oil were reduced. At that time
however, the boundaries of the technology were mainly
determined by the phase separation. In the early stages
of fractionation technology, the olein and stearin fractions
of oils and fats had to be separated by settling, using only
the force of gravity to bring about a separation between
the heavier solid phase and the lighter liquid phase,
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which left the settled solid phase containing large
quantities of entrained (trapped) liquid oil, almost certainly
more than 75%. In the last decades, the continuous
development of separation techniques, from vacuum belt
filtration to centrifuges and membrane press filters, has
put fractionation on the map as a versatile and economic
modification technique. Although some specific
techniques relying on use of detergents are still applied
for very particular production, actually only two main
fractionation technologies are used in the 21st centurys
edible oil industry:
i. Dry fractionation, also known as crystallization
from the melt, is fractional crystallization in its most
simple form, and the economy of the technology
allows it to be used for production of commodity
fats. Dry fractionation has long been regarded as
an unpredictable, tedious and labour-intensive
process. However, the relatively cheap dry
fractionation technique has evolved to the
modification technology of the 21st century, as
without additives, polluting effluents or post-
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refining involved, the sustainability and safety of
the process is second to none.
ii. Solvent Fractionation, already patented in the
1950s, involves the use of hexane or acetone to
let the high-melting components crystallize in a
very low-viscous organic solvent. This can be
helpful with respect to the selectivity of the
reaction, but mainly offers advantages in the field
of phase separation: much purer solid fractions
can be obtained, even with a vacuum filtration.
Being a more expensive process, it is less
common than dry fractionation and only comes
into the picture when a very high added value of
(at least one of) the resulting fractions makes up
for the high cost.Emphasis is put into Dry
Fractionation
4.2 Introduction
The demand for liquid oil has increased in recent years,
mainly for salad and cooking uses and an important
property for such oils is low cloud point, which is the
temperature at which turbidity appears when the oil is
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cooled under standard conditions. Liquids oils which a
low cloud point are desirable because of the widespread
use of household refrigeration.
In order to cater for a wide range of markets, the
Malaysian refiners start to offer product which are
harder (stearin) and more liquid (olein) than palm oil.
These are accomplished through a simple process of
fractionation which is based on two fundamental
operations:
o Crystallization
o Filtration
Fractionation of palm oil can be described as follow. The
triglycerides found in the oil have different melting points.
At certain temperature, the lower melting point
triglycerides will crystallize into solid separating the oils
into both liquid (olein) and solid (stearin) fraction. The
fraction can then be separated by filtration.
It is worth mentioning that in palm oil fractionation, palm
olein is the premium product and the palm stearin is the
discount product. In Malaysia, fractionation of palm oil
into palm olein and palm stearin is accomplished using
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two types of processes which are Viz Dry and
Detergent Fractionation.
4.3 Fractionation Plant Description
a) Feed Raw Material Refined Bleached deodorized Palm
Oil (RBDPO)
b) Major Product Produced Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm
Olein (Olein)
c) By Product Produced Refined Bleached Deodorized
Stearin (Stearin)
Table 4.1 Fractionation plant description
Fractionation Process Description
The dry fractionation is used to separate the palm olein
and palm stearin from the RBDPO produced by physical
treatment. The RBDPO is passed through the further
fractionation process to get various grade of palm olein
and palm stearin. Usually, there are three types of olein
are produced:
i. Normal grade olein
ii. Super grade olein
iii. Olein with cloud point 7-8 degree centigrade
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4.4 Fractionation of palm oil
Fractionation of palm oil into palm olein and palm stearin
is accomplished using two (2) types of processes;
o Dry fractionation
o Detergent fractionation
A third method, which uses solvent, is no longer
economically feasible for the normal olein-stearin
fractionation.
Figure 3.7 palm oil fractionation process
4.5 Stages in the Dry Fractionation Process
In dry fractionation process there are two (2) main stages
in which the processed oil pass through, namely;
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The Crystallization Stage
The Separation Stage
4.6 CRYSTALLIZATION STAGE
Firstly, the RBDPO feed must pass the quality
specification, color <2.6R and FFA <0.075 is fed into the
heat exchanger. The RBDPO feed is heated up by hot
waters around 75 degree centigrade. After that the oil is
kept homogenized at about 70 degree centigrade in
homogenizes before the start of crystallization. The idea
is to destroy any crystals present and to induce
crystallization in a controlled manner in the crystallizer.
A controlled crystallization of the melt is the backbone of
any dry fractionation process, and the success of this
process relies principally on the phase behaviour of the
constituent triglycerides. Therefore it is probably useful to
dedicate some words to that part of the physical
chemistry of fats and oils that lies at the basis of the
fractionation technology.
It is the fact that a natural oil is a very complex mixture of
different triglycerides (not to mention triglycerides, free
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fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, and uncountable other
minor constituents). The mix of triglycerides does have a
repercussion on the melting behaviour of a fat: it does not
exhibit a sharp melting point, but often displays a steady
softening (or increasing liquid content) with increasing
temperature, until it is completely liquid. The position and
width of this melting range on a temperature scale is
determined by the type of constituting triglycerides and
compositional heterogeneity of the oil:
i. The type of the triglycerides: in a very simple
approach, the longer the fatty acid moieties, the
larger the total molecule and consequently, the
more energy (i.e. higher temperature) will be
required to convert such triglycerides from a
solid to a liquid state. A double bond in the
carbon chain decreases the melting point
dramatically, however, and this is why oils
containing a high proportion of unsaturated
fatty acids are generally liquid.
ii. The broader the spectrums of triglycerides
present in the oil, the broader the melting
range. Some of the triglycerides will only
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solidify (or melt) at 5C, whereas others will still
be hard as candle wax at room temperature.
Another matter to take into consideration is the respective
concentration of each of these triglycerides. This makes
two variables to consider if a certain triglyceride will
remain in the melt or crystallize: the temperature and its
concentration (in fact, just the same principle applies for
sugar in coffee). So, ideal solubility calculations based on
the melting temperature and enthalpy of the pure solute,
as well as the absolute temperature as the principal
variables, can serve as first approach the solubility of a
triglyceride in a solvent. But this premise of ideality is the
real issue in fractional crystallization of oil: these are not
regular solutions, the triglycerides are not dissolved in an
inert solvent; they are dissolved in a melt, i.e. other
triglycerides. Thus, the fact that the solvent and solute
have quite some structural similarity leads to
considerable deviations from the ideal solubility. The
most relevant is the occurrence of intersolubility in a
solid state: the property to form a solid solution in which
the constituting triglycerides neither be separately
determined, nor divided: it behaves as one phase.
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Consequently, such intersolubility of the triglycerides
often presents the largest fundamental problem in several
fractionation processes, as the actual goal of fractionation
is to separate different triglycerides selectively.
It is fair to state that other typical fat crystallization
phenomena such as polymorphism are of secondary
importance compared to intersolubility; typical
fractionation conditions are generally sufficiently
restricted in time and temperature range to only allow one
type of molecular arrangement to form. For palm oil, this
is typically in a -form from start to finish.
Intersolubility is also increased at higher degrees of super
cooling, so if the fractional crystallization is to occur
selectively, the challenge for the process engineer is to
steer clear from such conditions and keep the melt just
deep enough in metastable conditions to create a driving
force for crystallization of the triglycerides of interest, but
not too deep as to prevent formation of solid solutions or
uncontrolled crystal growth. If the crystal growth is well
controlled, the crystal aggregates result in sharply
discrete and dense spherulitic structures, sometimes
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measuring up to several millimetres in diameter, which
are fairly uniform in size and shape.
Figure 4.1 Polarized light microscopic picture of typical
spherulitic crystals developing in palm oil fractions.
To be complete, the influence of minor components is not
one to be captured in one phrase, but overall impurities
such as triglycerides have a negative effect on crystal
growth and filterability of the formed solids. Also product-
wise, it should be kept in mind that dry fractionation is a
rubbish in, rubbish out process, so a feedstock with a lot
of impurities will never result in two clean fractions.
4.6.1 Conducting Fractional Crystallization
It should be able to gently cool down a mass of oil (up to
100 ton/batch) and keep the resulting crystal suspension
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as homogeneous as possible. Note that such gentle
cooling means in fact imposing very low super cooling
conditions, and it will result in a formation of fewer and
larger crystals, because the said conditions simply rule
out the existence of a mass of tiny crystals. Fat
crystallization is a fairly exothermic reaction (up to 180 kJ
can be released for every kg of crystals formed), so the
efficiency with which this energy can be removed is an
important design feature. For most industrial crystallizers,
this ranges between 120 and 200 W/m2.K.
The problem with occurrence of excessive inter solubility
at higher degrees of super cooling explains the very need
for a (in terms of temperature) homogenizing crystallizer.
Too steep temperature gradients within the crystallizer
will lead to formation of viscous solid solutions near the
cooling wall (the coldest spot), while oil entrapped in dead
zones or with insufficient heat exchange with a cooling
wall could encounter too high temperatures to crystallize
at an acceptable rate. Note that two extreme
temperatures will not result in an average degree of
crystallization, but in viscous slurry of badly filterable solid
solution-crystals in a matrix of unstable, hazy liquid. At
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these unfortunate occasions, it is comforting to remember
that a dry fractionation process is 100% reversible, and
that upon heating, this mess will revert to the melt again,
ready for another attempt.
In order to preserve the selectivity and to avoid the
temperature gradients within the melt, the cooling rate
under crystallization conditions is quite slow (0.2-3C/h),
depending on the sensitivity of the reaction and the
performance of the crystallizer. Sensitivity of the reaction
might be a little of a subjective term, but it can be quite
elegantly illustrated by Figure 3. This shows a Differential
Scanning Calorimetry profile of palm oil (full line above)
and palm olein (dotted line below).
Profile 4.2 DSC cooling profile (-5C/min) of palm oil and
its derived palm olein fraction.
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Exothermal peaks are shown upwards.
The upward peaks in the profile show at which
temperatures and how much heat of crystallization will be
released upon cooling (here at 5C/min!). For palm oil,
the sharp peak on the right is created by the fast
solidification of predominantly trisaturated triglycerides. It
is largely (and not solely, as some intersolubility will
inevitably occur) this fraction that is crystallized in the first
step or cut in multistage palm oil fractionation. Although
the absolute temperatures in this diagram are not really
relevant for fractionation because of the high cooling rate,
the diagram suggests clearly how simple fractional
crystallization can be: you put the temperature in between
the two peaks and wait for the solidification to take place.
When this first trisaturated fraction is removed, however,
the remaining palm olein shows one large peak, and it is
instantly clear that a slow fractional crystallization of a
distinct fraction is a lot harder to accomplish in this matrix:
there is a lot more material to crystallize in a narrow
temperature region, and intersolubility will have its say.
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The cooling medium removing this heat of crystallization
from crystallizers is typically clean cooling tower water,
sometimes mixed with some propylene glycol to be able
to work at subzero conditions (as in fish oil fractionation).
Cooling by ammonia evaporation can also be considered,
but very often turns out to be too expensive for a classic
installation. The cooling wall itself can be double-jacket,
stainless steel cooling fins (plates) or pipes. Normally, a
cooling surface of at least 4m2 per m3 oil is expected to
assure proper heat transfer for bulk edible oil
fractionation.
In programming the cooling regime, generally three
temperature parameters can be kept in check: the
cooling medium temperature, the oil temperature or
sometimes also T, the temperature difference between
oil and cooling medium. The subtlety of the process then
exists in knowing which cooling rate and cooling modus
to apply at which exact stage in the process, for there is
no art in crash-cooling the lot. This is where the process
technologist can make a true impact on the outcome of
the process, as a difference in cooling regime could lead
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to a different process cycle time, filterability of the slurry
and overall economy of the process.
For a given cooling rate and heat exchange surface, the
appropriate removal of released crystallization heat to the
cooling medium is also function of the agitation and the
viscosity of the bulk. The first being an externally imposed
process feature, the type and intensity of agitation is
indeed a typical design matter and linked with the
concept of the crystallizer. It should be sufficient to
enhance heat transfer and favor crystal initiation and
secondary crystallization, but on the other hand
excessive agitation could damage the structures of the
crystals being formed, which might present problems in
the subsequent filtration stage.
Viscosity on the other hand, is an intrinsic state of the oil
(though to be fully correct, an edible oil crystal
suspension does exhibit some shear-thinning behaviour).
Excessive viscosities will reduce mass and heat transfer
between solid and liquid, hence decreasing the crystal
growth rate, also by limiting molecular diffusion. The flow
properties of the oil are not only a function of solids
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concentration present in the liquid, but are also greatly
influenced by the interactions between the different
crystal entities such as network formation and/or gelly
layers [5]. In normal fractionation conditions, the viscosity
of crystal suspensions just prior to filtration ranges from
300 to 2000 mPa.s depending on the application, though
in palm kernel fatty acid fractionation, viscosities over
50,000 mPa.s are not exceptional.
After that the oil is pumped to the crystallizer. The
crystallization system is a batch type and is equipped with
special crystallizer operating alternatively . These
crystallizers are made up of vertical cylindrical vessel full
of thermal regulated water which submerged barrels
containing the oil to be fractionated: each of these barrels
is fitted with a mechanical agitator. An automatic station
controls the temperature in the various crystallizers.
The crystallization process is carried out to remove the
high melting glycerides which cause oil liquid to become
cloudy and more viscous at low temperature. There three
factors (temperature, time and agitation), have a
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fundamental importance on the formation and character
of the crystal:
1) The lowering of temperature causes, because of
the supersaturating the higher melting component
to separate from a solution.
2) Agitation facilitates the formation of small crystals.
3) Time with a gradual decrease in temperature and
stillness, promotes the formation of longer crystals.
The solution is pumped batch-wise into the crystallizer
according to a pre- established programme. In the
crystallizer, the crystal formation and growth occurs as
the oil agitated and cooled sing chilled water and cool
water filled in the jackets or cooling coils of the
crystallizer. Cooling can be governed by controlling
either the oil or water temperature
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Figure 4.3. A developing oil/crystal suspension.
(The darker wakes indicate spontaneous separation of
the liquid from the bulk upon stirring.)
4.7 THE SEPARATION STAGE (filtration process)
Although the triglyceride separation theoretically is
already established during crystallization, it is clear that
the separation stage itself effectively determines the
product yields as well as the stearin quality. As more
residual olein can be expelled from the solids cake, the
final stearin will be more concentrated in crystals and will
turn out purer and will display higher and steeper
melting. The olein quality is determined entirely by the
amount and selectivity of crystallization in the preceding
stage. In some applications, the formed crystals are often
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not sufficiently stress-resistant and get squeezed through
the filter medium. Obviously, such contamination of
crystals in the olein phase affects the efficiency of the
fractionation process negatively and results in a liquid
phase with inferior cold stable properties. Overall, the
permitted degree of olein dilution in the stearin cake
determines the choice for the applied separation
technology.
The slurry from buffer tank passes through the filtration
process for the physical separation between RBD palm
stearin and RBD palm oil . Presently, the membrane filter
is used for this filtration . Another alternative for this
purpose is by employing drum filter for separation.
The membrane filter is pressure filter where the filter pack
comprising alternatively plates and frames, or a series of
chamber is compressed between one fixed and one
movable cover or bulk head. The filter media are located
between each individual element. Cake will build up in
the hollow space between the element and fall out of the
press when the filter pack is opened. Composition of the
filter is by means of electrically driven hydraulic system
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(75 bars), which controls the entire mechanical parts of
units, head plates, filter plates, plate shifting device with
the built in panel board.
Membrane press filtration, as also used in for example
sludge dewatering systems, is by far the most used
separation technology in dry fractionation nowadays.
Such filters consist of a large steel frames that can easily
hold up to 150 filter plates together, each plate counting
for up to 7m2 of filtration surface and over 100L filter
chamber volume.
Figure 4.4 A filter membrane press used in dry
fractionation
Usually, the filter chambers are first filled with the crystal
suspension, and doing so a large portion of the liquid
olein is already passing through the filter cloths. Then
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watertight membranes (one membrane per chamber)
attached to the internals of the plates are gradually
inflated (with water, liquid oil or air) like internal balloons
to the desired pressures, reducing the chamber volume
and pushing out residual liquid, which is immediately
evacuated via internal channels in the plate towards
collecting tanks. The volume reduction of the chamber
thus literally compacts and dries the cake. Typical final
squeeze pressures are 6 or 15barg, 30 and even 50 barg
membrane press filters are available on the market to
attain higher purity in speciality fat cakes. It is also good
to note that the mass fraction of solids in the filter cake
decays exponentially as a function of the distance to the
filter cloth, and consequently thinner filter chambers and
longer squeezing times can be helpful (yet costly) means
to reduce the entrainment significantly.
The whole filtration plus squeezing operation can vary
from 30 to 90 minutes. After this, the filter plate package
is opened so the solid cakes can just drop by gravity into
a stearin tank underneath the filter to melt.
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Figure 4.5 Hopper and stearin tank, mounted underneath
the membrane press filter.
Figure 4.6 Filter membrane with filter-cloth (left) Filter
membrane without filter-cloth (right)
The separated liquid fraction (olein) is passed through a
line to the olein tank in which it is stored temporary before
filling ready to be transported to the markets. And the
solid fraction (stearin) is collected to the hopper and
stearin tank in which it is melted and passed through lines
to the margarine plant for further processes.
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Figure 4.8 Collected fraction (stearin) in the stearin tank
after filtration.
4.8 Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is the most widely used method of all the
oil modification processes, to reduce the degree of
unsaturated in the fatty acid groups of the glycerides. It is
a catalytic process whereby the number of double bonds
are reduced and by the same time isomerization of th
residual fatty acids is promoted . Liquid oils with
unsaturated triglycerides are thus transformed into fats
containing a higher % age of saturated triglycerides:
Hydrogenation is often called hardening of oils and fats.
Catalytic hydrogenation, which has been known in fat
technology since the beginning of this century, is used
increasingly for the preparation of tailor made fats.
Depend on the condition of the reaction can be shown as
follows:
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4.8.1 Equation for hydrogenation
The complex system consists of three phases: liquid oil,
gaseous hydrogen and solid catalyst. Hence there many
different internal surfaces through which the hydrogen
molecules have to pass until they reach the double bonds
of the unsaturated triglycerides adsorbed on the catalyst
surface. As soon as the unsaturated bonds are saturated,
the triglycerides moves off the catalyst surface, thus
enabling the next unsaturated molecule to be adsorbed
and processed.
The overall hydrogenation rage depends on the quality of
the reactant involved, the degree of refining of the oil to
be hydrogenated, the activity and nature of the catalyst.
In addition reaction parameters such as hydrogen
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pressure, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature,
stirring, etc have an influence. In spite of these numerous
reaction parameters that affecting the quality of the
desired product, fat- technologist have resolved the
operating conditions required for the preparation of tailor
made fats. This process is established mainly to add
value to by byproduct from the refined. The raw material
are from refinery: Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) and
Refined Bleached Deodorized (RBD). Basically, stearin is
the main raw material for this plant.
4.8.2 Hydrogenation Process Description
There various kinds of oils used as the feed of this plant
depends on the market demands, there are DFA, PFAD,
and RBDST, precut and split residue. Firstly, the fatty
acid feed from the storage tank (60-70) degree
centigrade is pumped to the feed preheater. In the feed
pre-heater, the fatty acid feed is heated up by the hot
hydrogenated FA from plant until 140-170 degree
centigrade, before entering the reactor for hydrogenation
process.
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Then the hot feed is transferred to the reactor autoclave
for reaction. The reactor consisted of the nickel catalysts
which play an important role in the reaction as follow:
i. To avoid modifiers, such as sulphur, likely to give
higher trans acid contents.
ii. To Comparatively high temperature to accelerate
reduction of poly-unsaturated without formation of
saturates.
iii. Reduce the hydrogen gas pressure.
iv. Lowering the iodine value to improve stability and
good yield of liquid oil when winterized.
v. To remove materials responsible for clouding and
solidification at low temperatures.
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MARGARINE AND COOKING FATS

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
MARGARINE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Margarine is basically an immersion of water in fat
ressembles butter in appearance,character and
composition.It is made of the mixture of refined bleached
deodorised palm olein(RBD),Stearin and ingredients in
their right propotions as shown ithe table below.
Margarine
Ingredient Table (%) Industrial (%) Pastry (%)
1.Oils/Fats
Palm oil 38.0 48.0 8.0
Palm olein 32.0 - -
Palm stearin 5.6 8.0 72.0
Palm kernel oil 2.4 24.0 -
2.Water 16.0 16.0 16.0
3.Other ingredients
Emulsifier 0.1-0.2 0.5-1.0 1.0
Lecithin 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.5
Beta-carotene/palm 0.003 0.003 0.003

carotene
Flavour
0.02 0.02 0.02
Salt
4.0 max. 4.0 max. 4.0 max.
Table 4.1 Ingredients and their percentage composition
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Figure 4.9 margarine crystallizer
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1. Melting oils or fats
This is normally done at 70C.A homogeneous
melt is ensured by continous stirring in a mixing
vessel.
2. Adding salt and water soluble ingredients
The water soluble ingredients are dissolved in a
small volume of water and then made up to the final
volume (16% by weight of the margarine)
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The mixture is added to the fats blend ( at 50-60) under
continous stirring
3. Incorporating flavor and colour
The fat soluble ingredient are dispersed in a small volume of
fat blend and then mixed into the main body of fat ( at 50-
60) under continuous stirring to homogenous mixture.
4. Pumping mixture through a pre crystallizer
A temperature between 17-22 and a pump of speed
300-700rpm are maintained. With temperature drop,
crystallization occur with increase in viscosity .Only partial
crystallization occur here.
5. Passing crystallized fat through a pin-worker
Time is required for full crystallization and pin worker allow
the margarine to do so under agitation by the rotating pins.
The temperature used depends on the temperature used in
the pre-crystallizer.
6. Collecting margarine from the pin worker
The pin worker completes manufacturing process. The
margarine is parked in different forms depending on the
types, products consistency and consumer preference.
7. Tempering margarine at 5-7 for2 4hours
90
Tempering stabilizes the texture and plasticity of the
product.The conditions used will affect the sensory
properties including colour,flavor,texture and thereby the
product acceptance.
MARGARINE PROCESSING FLOW CHART
Melt oils/fats(70)
Blend oils/fats with aqueous phase and other
ingredients(50-60)
Pre-crystallization using chiller(17-22),(300-700)rpm
Crystallization using pin worker (300-700 )rpm
Packaging
Tempering
Transporting
Chart 4.1 Margarine processing
91
COOKING FAT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The production of cooking fat depends on two main
materials which are;
o Stearin
o Refined Bleached Deodorized Olein (RBD )
RBD is mixed with stearin with higher proportional amount of
RDB so as to increase its melting point.This mixture is
controlled under temperature of 5060 in a pre-mixing
tank aided by continuous stirring with agitator so as to obtain
a homogeneous mixture.
Nitrogen gas is added to the mixture through orifice tubes so
as;
i. To decolorize the mixture
ii. To increase its bulk
92
olein Stearin
Pre Buffer
mixing tank
tank
H N
E itr
C S O
ry a i
st n l
al i
li t f
s a i
93
Filling
er t l
o t
r e
Chart 4.2 Cooking fat process flow chart
94
4.9.1 FILLING (PACKAGING)
Fillers (or filling machines) are used for packaging, mainly for
food/beverage but for other products as well. These are
used to fill either a bottle or a pouch, depending on the
product.
Flow filling machines: designed for liquids, oils, and thin food
products. These fillers are designed when they fill a bottle or
tub that enters the machine, the ejects the open bottle back
onto another conveyor for sealing.
It is the ideal for conductive and non conductive liquids with
no moving parts in contact with the product regardless its
foaminess or viscosity. The system includes automatic
Recipes choice from the Human Machine Interface) that
loads automatically all parameters that are part of the
Format Recipe stored in the main PLC (product pressure,
filling time, machine output, modulation of the Filling
Nozzles, etc.) to start immediately with a new format, without
product waste or previous parameter adjustments, meeting
the best working conditions from the beginning of the new
production. The Automatic Monitoring and Correction of the
dose on the fly in each Filling Station, improving, gradually
95
the accuracy in each Filling Station performance, by
analyzing the consistency and tendency of the latest doses
to generate the next one
Figure 4.10 Filling machine
The olein from the refinery plant that was stored in the olein
tank from the process of dry fractionation is fed to the fillers
through the pipe lines into the plastic bottles of different
shape and sizes accordingly.
96
4.9.2 TRANSPORTATION
The filled bottles and buckets are loaded in the lorries that
are used to transport the oil to the market places or to the
respective customers.
97
CHAPTER FIVE
SOAP PROCESSING
5.1.1 Saponification
Saponification is the primary chemical reaction of soap making. It is an exothermic
(gives off heat) chemical reaction that occurs when fats or oils (fatty acids) come into
contact with lye (a base.) Saponification literally means "turning into soap" from the
root word, "sapo", which is Latin for soap. The by-products of the saponification
reaction are glycerine and soap.
Oils + lye (dispersed into water) = soap + glycerine
Oils and fats each have what is called a saponification value, which is the amount
of lye needed to completely neutralize them into soap with no lye left over. Each oil
has a different value, which is why its important to always run your recipes through a
lye calculator.
The saponification generally takes about 24-48 hours to complete once the lye and
oils have been mixed and the raw soap has been poured into the mold. This process
can be sped up by adding more heat, or slowed down by keeping the process very
cool.
98
5.2 Processing of soap
Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. When dissolved in
water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces. Through the ages soap has been used to
cleanse, to cure skin sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or skin ointment. But today
we generally use soap as a cleanser or perfume.
5.3 History
The exact origins of soap are unknown, though Roman sources claim it dates back
to at least 600 B.C. When Phoenicians prepared it from goats tallow and wood ash.
By the eighth century, soap was common in France, Italy, and Spain, but it was
rarely used in the rest of Europe until as late as the 17th century.
Early soap manufacturers simply boiled a solution of wood ash and animal fat. A
foam substance formed at the top of the pot. When cooled, it hardened into soap.
Around 1790, French soap maker Nicolas Leblanc developed a method of extracting
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) from common table salt(sodium chloride), replacing
the wood ash element of soap. The French chemist Eugene-Michel Chevreul put the
soap-forming process (called in English saponification) into concrete chemical terms
in 1823. In saponification, the animal fat, which is chemically neutral, splits into fatty
acids, which react with alkali carbonates to form soap, leaving glycerine is a by-
product. Soap was made with industrial processes by the end of the 19th century,
though people in rural areas, such as the pioneers in the western United States,
continued to make soap at home.
99
5.4 Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most commonly
used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-
based soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it
is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-based soap, is
commonly used in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern
soapmakers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many
impurities, and it produces as by-product water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable
fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are also used in soap
making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances and
perfumes are added to the soap mixture to cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind
a fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica,
and marble pumice (volcanic ash). Soap made without dye is a dull grey or brown
color, but modern manufacturers color soap to make it more enticing to the
consumer.
100
Figure 5.1 The kettle process of making soap.
5.5 The Manufacturing Process
The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing
companies. This process takes from four to eleven days to complete, and the quality
of each batch is inconsistent due to the variety of oils used. Around 1940, engineers
and scientists developed a more efficient manufacturing process, called the
continuous process. This procedure is employed by large soap manufacturing
companies all around the world today. Exactly as the name states, in the continuous
process soap is produced continuously, rather than one batch at a time. Technicians
have more control of the production in the continuous process, and the steps are
much quicker than in the kettle methodit takes only about six hours to complete a
batch of soap.
101
The Kettle Process
Boiling
i. Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can stand
three stories high and hold several thousand pounds of material. Steam coils
within the kettle heat the batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass
thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and glycerin.
ii. Salting The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The mixture is treated
with salt, causing the soap to rise to the top and the glycerin to settle to the
bottom. The glycerin is extracted from the bottom of the kettle.
iii. Strong change To remove the small amounts of fat that have not saponified, a
strong caustic solution is added to the kettle. This step in the process is called
"strong change." The mass is brought to a boil again, and the last of the fat
turns to soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this time, or
the manufacturer may proceed to the next step.
iv. Pitching The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is boiled
again with added water. The mass eventually separates into two layers. The
top layer is called "neat soap," which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The
lower layer, called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the soap such as
dirt and salt, as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top.
The soap is then cooled. The finishing process is the same as for soap made
102
by the continuous process. Developed around 1940 and used by today's
major soap-making companies.
Figure 5.2 The continuous process of making soap.
The Continuous Process
Splitting
i. The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids and
glycerin. The equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column with the
diameter of a barrel called a hydrolizer. It may be as tall as 80 feet (24 m).
Pumps and meters attached to the column allow precise measurements and
103
control of the process. Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while
at the other end water at high temperature (266F [130C]) and pressure is
introduced. This splits the fat into its two components. The fatty acid and
glycerin are pumped out continuously as more fat and water enter. The fatty
acids are then distilled for purification.
ii. Mixing The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali
to form soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also
mixed in. The hot liquid soap may be then whipped to incorporate air.
iii. Cooling and finishing The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to
harden into a large slab. It may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is
cut into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The
entire continuous process, from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in
several hours.
iv. Milling Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The
milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap.
The cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which
crush and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because
their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the soap emerges
from the mills, it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded
soap is cut into bar size, stamped and wrapped.
104
Byproducts
Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used to make hand
lotion, drugs, and nitroglycerin, the main component of explosives such as dynamite.
105
CHAPTER SIX
FOOD QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCE LABORATORY
Test conducted on food quality control analysis laboratory are:
S/NO TEST Cloud Free Fatty Colour Moisture Fatty Melting

Point (CP) Acid (CL) content Acid(FA) Point (MP)
(FFA)%
I. Crude Palm Olein X

(CPO)
II. Bleached Palm X X X X

Olein(BPO)
III. Refined Bleached X X

Deodorized olein (RBD)
IV Palm Fatty Acid X X X X X

Distilates (PFAD)
Table 6.1 food control analysis
I. Free Fatty Acid analysis(FFA)
Materials; Beaker, Pipette, POP, NaOH, FFA sample (Palmitic Acid),
Procedures:
i. Take 10gm of FFA into the beaker
ii. Add few amounts of ethanol in the beaker containing FFA sample
iii. Add 2 drops of POP indicator
iv. Heat the mixture content to the temperature 700c
106
v. Cool the mixture then titrate it against NaOH to obtain the volume of FFA
Calculations
Formulars
From Arrhenius Equation
M1V1(FFA)=M2V2(NaOH)..(1)
Conc.(g/L)= Molarity X Equivalent weight=M X Mr
Assume density of palm olein =0.91.0 and V1=mass of FFA
There fore,M1= ..(2)
Subject equation (2) into equation (1) we get;
X v1=M2V2=
, Assuming V1=mass of FFA
Conc. (g/L) =
Equivalent weight (FFA)=256g/mol
Conc.(FFA%)=
Where M2= Standard Molarity of NaOH
m= volume mass of FFA of a material on test (g)
107
V2= Volume of NaOH (L)
Ie. FFA%= = FFA % = 0.22%
2. Colour Analysis (CL)
Procedures
i. Take the given sample in a clean beaker
ii. Prepare a slide through which a sample is put into Lovibond tintometer scale
iii. Put a small quantity of a sample into a slide
iv. Place a slide with the sample in a lovibond tintometer scale
v. Adjust colour until it reaches similar point
vi. Observe the points and record colour
3.Cloud point( CP)
Procedures
i. Sample of palm oil is taken into a clear test tube
ii. Immerse a sample in a test tube to a crucible containing ice
iii. Place thermometer in a tes tube
iv. Agitate the sample until it reaches to a cloud point
v. Record the cloud point
108
FOOD LABORATORY
Figure 6.1 Food laboratory-quality control apparatus
109
CHAPTER SEVEN
RECOMMENDATION
The University council should see the importance of using modern tools during the
time of learning in practical so as to avoid dullness during industrial practical training
programme
Based on the training challenges during FPT, it is better to be taken into
consideration so as to upgrade the further training programme.
110
7.1 CONCLUSION
In any crude palm oil refining processing unit must involve adequate supervision
,quality control and safe operation.
Quality control satisfy the quality of the product that refined, safe operations ensure
safety during operation of machines. By taking these into consideration it will ensure
quality products to be produced for consumption of the customers.
111
REFERENCES
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main
o http://www.metl.com/crude palm oil refinery
o http://www.macol.org/crude oil processing
o http://www.mewt.org/Food processing machinery
o http://lipidliblary.aocs.org/processing,including training supervisors notes
112
7.4 APPENDICES
CPO (Crude Palm Oil) - Palm oil with impurities and excess matters
BPO (Bleached Palm Oil) - Palm oil undergone bleaching (removal of colour)
RBD - Refined Bleached Deodorized
RBDPO (Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil) Palm oil that has been removed
impurities, colour and odour to the extent required)
MARGARINE Is the process of hardening vegetable oil by bubbling hydrogen
through it at high temperature
PHE- Plate Heat Exchanger
FFA Free Fatty Acid present in the palm oil
PFAD (Palm Fatty Acid Distillate) Is a by-product obtained from palm oil refinery
113

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FIELD PRACTICAL TRAINING FINAL REPORT

EAST COAST OILS AND FATS LTD METL GROUP

DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA

Field practical training (FPT) is aimed at giving the students

the opportunity to appreciate scientifically and technological

theory and practical.

In my field practical training I joined the company EAST

COAST OILS AND FATS LIMITED, Mohamed Enterprises

2015. I have acquired the greatest experience through

practical training as the learning was almost practically in real

I had the introduction of the company and its administration

processing plant, of which it had two plants; Physical Refinery

The by-product of the fractionation process (stearin) is being

process are carried out by the company. For the period I

worked in the company I had an opportunity to get a wide

I convey my deepest sense of gratitude to Almighty God and

I would like to express a special appreciation to East Coast

success of this training. Special thanks to Mr. Manouj. K and

Mr. Patel (Head of department), Mr. Erick (Human Resource

operation) and Mr. Mhina (quality control and assurance).

I would like also to thank the SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF

Finally I would like to dedicate my gratitude thanks to my

beloved daddy (Mr. Mwl. Haule Ibrahim. J), my mom (Mrs.

May heavenly God bless them all!

I, Musa I. Haule, I declare that the report has been

prepared by myself to fulfill the curricular requirement of

the Bachelor of science in food science and technology

as offered by SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF

This is a record of the original work done by myself under

the supervision of Mr. Daniel Amulike.

Register no: FST/J/2016/0309

1.1. Company Profile

Mohamed Enterprises Tanzania Limited Group of

MeTL Group is a leading economic force in Tanzania with

major investments and successful operating companies

in all key business sectors. The Group employs more

than 24,000 people across the country and has diverse

interests in trading, agriculture, manufacturing, energy

and petroleum, financial services, mobile telephony,

infrastructure and real estate, transport and logistics and

The MeTL Group began as a small trading business and

its growth is largely attributable to strong vision,

experience, knowledge and skills derived from over forty

years of experience in Tanzanias industrial and

commercial sectors. Private industry in the country is a

huge and positive force for growth and development and

for realizing the benefits of globalization.

The MeTL Group plays a lead role in this endeavor and is

in a unique position to offer assistance and advice to all

those who wish to invest profitably in the future of

Tanzania. Underpinning its success, the MeTL Group has

carefully charted its course by defining a development

plan that underpins its mission statement:

MeTL Group resolves to achieve a dominant presence in

its core business areas, in an ethical and socially

responsible manner, by manufacturing and supplying

quality products and services that provide value-for-

money to buyers and consumers at large.

Each of the Groups operations emanates from this all-

encompassing mission statement: organizational change,

innovation, corporate governance, business process re-

engineering and sustainable development are each

deeply interwoven into our operational tapestry.