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The Violinist's Sound Palette: Spectral

Centroid, Pitch Flattening and Anomalous Low
Frequencies

Article in Acta Acustica united with Acustica September 2009

DOI: 10.3813/AAA.918221

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ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009) 901 914
DOI 10.3813/AAA.918221

The Violinists Sound Palette:

Spectral Centroid, Pitch Flattening and
Anomalous Low Frequencies

Erwin Schoonderwaldt
KTH-Computer Science and Communication, Dept. of Speech, Music and Hearing, Lindstedtsvgen 24,
100 44 Stockholm, Sweden. schoondw@kth.se

Summary
The string player controls variations in spectral content mainly via bow velocity, bow-bridge distance and bow
force. Many combinations of the bowing parameters inuence the pitch noticeably as well, in particular close
to the upper bow-force limit in the Schelleng diagram. The inuence of the bowing parameters on the spectral
content and pitch were studied systematically by use of a monochord and a bowing machine. Bow force was
found to be by far the most dominant parameter determining the spectral centroid. Bow-bridge distance and bow
velocity serve essentially as indirect control parameters of spectral content by giving the player access to playable
areas with high or low bow forces in the Schelleng diagram. Clear areas of pitch attening could be distinguished
below the upper bow-force limits in the Schelleng diagrams, conrming the role of pitch attening as a practical
bow-force limit in playing. The conditions for anomalous low frequencies (ALF), S-motion and other, higher
types of string motion were analyzed, and it was shown that secondary waves might play an important role in
their creation.
PACS no. 43.75.De

1. Introduction disposal, as indicated in the original Schelleng diagram

The string player controls loudness and timbre of the
(quasi) steady-state parts of the notes primarily through
the coordination of three main bowing parameters; bow
velocity, bow-bridge distance and bow force. In the at-
tacks, bow acceleration enters as a prominent parameter
determining if the string will be set in regular Helmholtz
motion, and if so, how long the pre-Helmholtz transient
will last. In both attacks and steady state the combinations
of the bowing parameters which give satisfactory results,
are strictly constrained [1, 2, 3].
For certain combinations of bowing parameters pitch
may be inuenced considerably. At very high bow forces,
above the normal playing range, the string motion may
even develop into non-Helmholtz periodical vibrations
with abnormally low frequencies.
In a previous study, an empirical evaluation of the upper
and lower bow-force limits in steady-state parts of violin
tones was reported [4]. The playable Helmholtz region in
the Schelleng diagram and the transition areas to raucous
and multiple-slipping regions were explored by the use of
a bowing machine, covering the typical ranges of the bow-
ing parameters in violin playing. Within the playable re-
gion, there is a rich variation in tone quality at the players
Received 4 September 2008,
accepted 22 March 2009.
(Figure 7 in [1]) by the labels sul ponticello, brilliant,
normal and sul tasto.
The main purpose of this study was to establish the re-
lations between the main bowing parameters and a quanti-
tative descriptor of timbre. The timbre of a steady violin
tone is mainly dependent on the degree of rounding of the
Helmholtz corner. It has been shown by Cremer that bow
force has an important inuence on the rounding of the
corner [5, 6, 7], which therefore can be expected to play
an important role for the control of timbre. Further, it was
reported by Guettler et al. [8] that bow velocity also bears a
potential of inuencing the spectrum, and that bow-bridge
distance by itself could be expected to play a minor role.
It is generally agreed that the perception of timbre is
multi-dimensional [9, 10, 11, 12]. In many perception
studies, brightness was identied as one of the main di-
mensions, and shown to be highly correlated with the
spectral centroid [11, 12, 13, 14]. In addition, Caclin [12]
found that spectral centroid was ordered perceptually on
a linear frequency scale. The validity of the spectral cen-
troid as a descriptor of timbre of string instruments has
been armed by studies of the perception of violin sound
[15, 16]. In the current study, spectral centroid was there-
fore chosen as a descriptor of tone quality. Spectral cen-
troid values were mapped as a function of the controlling
bowing parameters in Schelleng diagrams to provide in-
sight in the possibilities of the player to inuence the tim-
bre (brightness) of the produced sound.

S. Hirzel Verlag EAA 901

ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette
Vol. 95 (2009)

Pitch is also dependent on the bowing parameters to

some extent, in particular at large vibration amplitudes and T1 (a)
high bow forces, due to nonlinear eects in the string [17],
and the attening eect [18, 19, 20]. Furthermore, inhar-

String vel.
monicity of the string results in an increase of playing fre-
quency when bowed due to the balance of reactive pow-
ers [21]. Simulations and measurements indicate that pitch
attening is especially prominent at high bow forces and
T1
large bow-bridge distances, and might impose a practical
Time
upper bow-force limit in normal musical performance be-
low the raucous regime [22, 23]. A second purpose of the (b)
0 1/T1 [Hz]
current study was to make an accurate mapping of the vari-

String vel. [dB]

ations of pitch across the Helmholtz regions in the mea- 20
sured Schelleng diagrams.
Other types of string motion than Helmholtz, charac-
40
terized by more or less periodic motion were found be-
yond the maximum bow force [4]. The two most impor-
60
tant types were classied as anomalous low frequencies
(c)
(ALF) and S-motion. ALF is typically caused by a regular 0
6 dB/oct.
triggering mechanism, which succeeds in initiating slip-

Bridge force [dB]

ping after that the normal triggering of the slip has failed.
A simulation study by Guettler [24] showed that the slip-
ping phase might be induced after one or several extra re-
ections of the Helmholtz corner between the bow and the
nut (transverse triggering), or by reected torsional waves,
created when the Helmholtz corner is reected from the
bow (torsional triggering). In the simplest type of ALF,
the Helmholtz corner induces slipping after having been
reected once between the bow and the nut, roughly lead-
ing to period doubling.
S-motion is characterized by large ripple, or secondary
waves, caused by reections between the bow and the
bridge, comparable in amplitude with the Helmholtz cor-
ner, and might be considered as a higher type of mo-
tion as predicted by Raman [25, 26]. Even though ALF
and S-motion appear rather exotic, they are sometimes en-
countered as extended performance techniques [27] and in
sul tasto playing [26]. A third purpose of the study was to
identify playable regions of ALF and analyze waveforms
of ALF and S-motion in order to shed further light on pos-
sible triggering mechanisms.
2. Method
2.1. Recordings
In a previous study examining the string motion [4], a
computer-controlled bowing machine was used to perform
bow strokes with a real violin bow on a wound steel D
string (Prim , medium tone) mounted on a rigid mono-
chord (string length 325 mm). The three main bowing pa-
rameters, relative bow-bridge distance , bow force FB
and bow velocity vB , were accurately controlled. Empir-
ical Schelleng diagrams were obtained at four bow veloc-
ities (5, 10, 15 and 20 cm/s) by systematic sampling of
dierent combinations of and FB . The range (about
1/30 to 1/6) was divided into a grid of 11 logarithmically-
spaced values, and the FB range (493000 mN) was di-
vided into a grid of 24 logarithmically-spaced values.
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency level (octaves)
Figure 1. Ideal Helmholtz motion: (a) String velocity; (b) string-
velocity spectrum, including spectral envelope, and (c) bridge-
force spectrum.
The transverse string velocity was measured using a
small cylindrical magnet (diameter 6 mm) positioned un-
der the bowing point. The induced voltage was amplied
and recorded at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz. For the anal-
yses a small portion (about 1025 fundamental periods) of
the steady-state part of the note was selected. All analyses
in this study are based on such selections of the string-
velocity signals. Further details on the experimental setup
and the acquisition methods can be found in [4].
The string-velocity spectrum was calculated using N =
1024, applying a Hanning window, and averaging across
the selected interval (about 10 nominal periods, extended
with N/2 samples at both sides; hop size about 1/2 funda-
mental period). The eective upper spectrum limit is set by
the nite width of the magnet due to the averaging across
the string length in the magnetic eld. Assuming that the
eld was reasonably homogeneous the eect on the spec-
trum would be a mere 0.8 dB fall-o at 10 kHz, and could
therefore be safely neglected in the following calculation
of the spectral centroid.
2.2. Calculation of spectral centroid
In the previous study [4], the string velocity at the bowing
point was recorded for analysis of the string motion in the
Schelleng diagram. The collected string-velocity signals
were, however, not suited for a direct calculation of the

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40 2.8
(a) String velocity
(a) 2.6 String vel. (comp.)
20 String displacement
2.4
String vel. [dB]

0 2.2

fc [kHz]
2.0
-20
1.8

-40 1.6
1.4
-60
(b) 1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
0 -6 dB/oct. Rel. bowbridge dist, (log)
Modified [dB]

-20 3.6
(b) Sawtooth
Square
3.4 Square (comp.)
-40
3.2
-60

fc [kHz]
3.0
(c)
0 -6 dB/oct.
2.8
Disp. [dB]

-20 2.6

-40 2.4
1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
Rel. bowbridge dist, (log)
-60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency level (octaves) Figure 3. (a) Comparison of spectral centroid versus from si-
multaneous measurements of string velocity (compensated and
Figure 2. Compensation of string-velocity spectrum. (a) String- uncompensated) and string displacement close to the bridge
velocity spectrum, and curves to be subtracted; (b) resulting (vB = 10 cm/s, FB = 419 mN, all shown points represent
compensated spectrum; (c) measured string-displacement spec- Helmholtz motion). (b) Eect of compensation on spectral cen-
trum close to the bridge (vB = 10 cm/s, FB = 419 mN, = troid applied to spectra of synthesized rectangular waves (ideal
1/11). The fundamental frequency (octave 0) was 293 Hz (open Helmholtz motion) at the same values of .
D string). The dashed vertical lines indicate the upper limiting
frequency (10 kHz) in the calculation of the spectral centroid.

The string-velocity spectrum was compensated in two

spectral centroid. The perceptually interesting quantity for
comparisons of timbre is the spectrum of the driving force
on the bridge. As bridge-force signals were not available,
the measured velocity spectra were processed to obtain es-
timates of the bridge-force spectra.
The bridge force of ideal Helmholtz motion is a saw-
tooth signal, corresponding to a spectrum with a mono-
tonically decreasing envelope with slope 6 dB per octave
(see Figure 1c), independent of bow-bridge distance. In
contrast, the string-velocity signal at the bowing point is
a train of rectangular pulses with fundamental period T1
and pulse width T1 (see Figure 1a). The envelope of the
spectrum is sinc-shaped:
 
Env sinc(T1 f ),
with nodes at multiples of 1/T1 (see Figure 1b). In a log-
log representation the envelope shows decaying lobes with
a slope of 6 dB per octave. As expected, the recorded
string velocities were roughly characterized by a sinc-
shaped spectral envelope, with node positions depending
on the pick-up point (bowing position), see Figure 2a.
steps, as shown in Figure 2. In a rst step, the theoreti-
cal sinc-shaped envelope (in dB) was subtracted from the
string-velocity spectrum. When applied to ideal Helmholtz
motion this yields a spectrum with harmonics with unity
amplitude, corresponding to the spectrum of a train of
impulses (derivative of a sawtooth). The subtraction of
the theoretical sinc-shaped envelope was problematic at
the node frequencies, as this corresponds to division by
a very small number in the linear domain. For this reason
the spectrum envelope was clipped by a line with slope
6 dB/octave, positioned at a level of 20 dB below the
fundamental at the rst node frequency (thin dashed line
in Figure 2a). The value of 20 dB was chosen empirically
to limit the eect of subtraction in the vicinity of the nodes,
and thus avoid local artifacts (peaks) in the compensated
(1)
spectrum. The rst node did not always appear exactly at
the expected frequency as deduced from the measured po-
sition of the magnet and was therefore adjusted via an in-
teractive graph.
In a second step the signal was integrated by subtracting
a slope of 6 dB/octave (thick dashed line in Figure 2a) to
obtain a sawtooth spectrum, representative of bridge force.

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Vol. 95 (2009)

(a) 5 cm/s (b) 10 cm/s fc [kHz]

3000 3

1466
2.8
Bow force (rel. 1 mN)

716
2.6
350
2.4
171

2.2
84

2
(c) 15 cm/s (d) 20 cm/s
3000 1.8

1466
1.6
Bow force (rel. 1 mN)

716
1.4
350
1.2
171

1
84

0.8
1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6 1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
Rel. bowbridge dist, Rel. bowbridge dist,

Figure 4. Mapping of the spectral centroid on Schelleng diagrams (both axes in logarithmic scale) at four bow velocities. The thick
lines indicate the tted bow-force limits according to Schellengs equations [4]. The axis represents a range of bow-bridge distances
from very close to the bridge (11 mm = 1/30) to the ngerboard (55 mm = 1/6).

The spectral centroid was calculated as
M
fs k=1 k |X(k)|
fc =  ,
N M
|X(k)|
k=1
where |X(k)| the amplitude (compensated spectrum), k
the frequency bin index, fs the sample frequency, N the
FFT window size, and M the upper limit of the summation
(M < N/2, upper limiting frequency fs M/N). The DC
component (k = 0) was not included and an upper limiting
frequency of 10 kHz was applied (indicated in the spectra
in Figure 2).
In order to evaluate the compensation method, checks
were performed measuring the string displacement close
to the bridge (about 3 mm) using an optical sensor and the
string velocity under the bow simultaneously. The string
displacement close to the bridge is representative of bridge
force, as the latter is determined by the transverse deec-
tion angle of the string at the bridge. The resemblance
between the compensated string-velocity spectrum (Fig-
ure 2b) and the string-displacement spectrum (Figure 2c)
was very good for the rst 4.5 octaves (rst two lobes).
At higher frequencies the compensation caused small ar-
tifacts. In this region the lobes of the spectral envelope of
measured string velocity were wider than those of the the-
oretical envelope, leading to a mismatch. In general the
rst two lobes of the theoretical envelopes coincided well
with those of the measured envelopes. At higher frequen-
cies the energy was low (typically 30 dB or more relative
(2)
to the fundamental), and the mismatch had a negligible in-
uence on the spectral centroid.
In Figure 3a the spectral centroid values of the com-
pensated and uncompensated string-velocity spectrum are
compared to those of string displacement close to the
bridge as a function of . As seen, the compensation ef-
fectively removed the increasing trend of the spectral cen-
troid with decreasing , rendering it comparable with the
centroid of the string displacement. The compensation
method was also tested on synthesized signals correspond-
ing to ideal Helmholtz motion, conrming that the trend in
fc was eectively compensated for (Figure 3b).
For the synthesized signals, the compensated string-
velocity spectrum underestimated fc by at most 200 Hz,
especially at small values of . This can be mainly ex-
plained by the clipping of the compensation envelope
(20 dB at the rst node), reducing compensation eect
at frequencies close to the nodes. In the vicinity of the rst
few nodes this results in underestimated harmonics, which
is reected in the centroid. However, a smaller limiting
value entails the danger of overcompensation at higher

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10
f =2.15 kHz (a) f =2.06 kHz (b) f =1.35 kHz (c)
c c c
0
10
Power [dB]

20
30
40
50
60
10 f =1.38 kHz f =1.64 kHz
c (d) fc=1.49 kHz (e) c (f)
0
10
Power [dB]

20
30
40
50
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency level (octaves) Frequency level (octaves) Frequency level (octaves)

Figure 5. String-velocity spectra (compensated) for six bowing parameter combinations in the Schelleng diagram at vB = 10 cm/s
(Figure 4b). The position in the Schelleng diagram is indicated in the lower-left corner of each panel. Panels (a)-(e) are examples
of Helmholtz motion, (f) represents multiple-slipping motion. To facilitate comparison panels (a), (b), (d) and (e) form a square in
the Schelleng diagram. The spectral centroid values fc are indicated by thick vertical lines. Estimates of the roll-o frequencies are
indicated by the arrows. The theoretical 6 dB-per-octave slope for theoretical Helmholtz motion is indicated by a thin solid line. The
vertical dashed lines indicate the position of the rst node in the sinc-like spectra of the original string-velocity signals. The fundamental
frequency (octave 0) was 293 Hz (open D string).

node positions, leading to larger artifacts, especially for
larger values of .
For the measured spectra, the centroid of the compen-
sated velocity spectra tended to be slightly higher than
that of the displacement spectra. This was due to a lower
contribution of the lower harmonics in the compensated
string-velocity spectra compared to the displacement spec-
tra. The eect could probably be attributed to an inhomo-
geneity of the magnetic eld, which might have lead to a
slight distortion of the signal at large amplitudes of vibra-
tion.
2.3. Pitch estimation
Before each measurement session, the string was tuned to
293 Hz, using Chromatia tuning machine software.1 Dur-
ing the sessions the tuning was monitored at regular in-
tervals using a reference bow stroke (vB = 20 cm/s,
FB = 599 mN at 1/18, indicated in Figure 8d),
which provided stable, periodic Helmholtz motion. The
tuning measurements were used during the analysis stage
for compensation of small uctuations in tuning.
Measurements using high bow forces (>1 N) required
attachment of additional mass to the bow hold of the bow-
ing machine, which made the reference bow stroke di-
cult to execute. In this case the tuning was monitored by
plucking the string, which was done by pulling the string
1 http://www.fmjsoft.com/chromatia.html
with a loop of thin copper wire until it broke. Pitch was
measured in the late stage of decay of the vibration (typi-
cally after about 0.3 s), when the string displacement was
small and the pitch had stabilized. The reference frequen-
cies obtained by plucking were typically 1.0 Hz lower than
those obtained with the reference bow stroke. The dier-
ence can be attributed to an increase in eective tension
of the bowed string due to the amplitude of vibration and
static deection under inuence of bow force and net fric-
tion (see Appendix). The dierence between plucking and
bowing references was compensated for.
Pitch estimation was done using YIN, an autocorre-
lation-based algorithm [28]. In this algorithm the pitch es-
timate is rened to sub-sample resolution using parabolic
interpolation.
3. Results
3.1. Spectral centroid
3.1.1. Schelleng diagrams
A mapping of the spectral centroid fc on four Schelleng
diagrams from [4] (vB =5, 10, 15 and 20 cm/s) is shown in
Figure 4. The tted upper and lower bow-force limits ac-
cording to Schellengs equations are indicated with thick
lines. Within the playable region the spectral centroid var-
ied between 0.8 kHz (large , low bow force) and 3 kHz
(small , high bow force). As seen, the spectral centroid
depended mainly on bow force, whereas the inuence of

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Vol. 95 (2009)

was very weak. Within the playable region the spec-

tral centroid increased continuously with increasing bow Upper limiting freq. level (octaves)
force. The maximum value of fc was typically larger at 2 3 4 5
3.0
higher bow velocities, mainly due to a higher upper bow- (a) 2.15 kHz; 1025 mN
(b) 2.06 kHz; 1025 mN
force limit. 2.5 (d) 1.38 kHz; 350 mN
(e) 1.49 kHz; 350 mN (a, b)
Beyond the upper bow-force limit (raucous motion) the (c) 1.35 kHz; 100 mN
1025 mN

spectral centroid became less predictable, showing a con- 2.0

Sawtooth; 2.62 kHz

siderable scatter due to the various types of aperiodic mo-

fc [kHz]
tions. Below the lower limit the spectral centroid showed 1.5 350 mN
a tendency to increase, especially at lower bow velocities
(5 and 10 cm/s), due to multiple slipping.
1.0 100 mN
A selection of compensated string-velocity spectra at
(d)
vB = 10 cm/s used for the calculation of spectral centroid (e)
0.5
in Figure 4b is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that for all (c)

cases of Helmholtz motion (panels a-e) the lower harmon- 2 4 6 8 10

ics decreased with 6 dB per octave, in accordance with the-
oretical Helmholtz motion (perfectly sharp corner), up to
a certain roll-o frequency. Beyond the roll-o frequency
there was a sudden decrease of energy of the harmonics,
due to the eect of corner rounding. Comparison of the
panels reveals that the roll-o frequency increased with
increasing bow force, as expected. For multiple slipping
motion (panel f) the energy of the harmonics between
about 8001100 Hz (2.73.8 octaves) was well above the
Helmholtz prediction, which explained the increase of
spectral centroid compared to the adjacent Helmholtz re-
gion (panel d).
The eect of the roll-o frequency can be clearly dis-
tinguished in Figure 6, showing the spectral centroid as
function of upper limiting frequency (represented by the
summation limit M in equation 2). At lower values of up-
per limiting frequency, the slope of all the curves equals
Upper limiting frequency [kHz]
Figure 6. Spectral centroid fc as function of upper limiting fre-
quency (corresponding to summation limit M in equation 2) of
the spectra shown in Figure 5a-e. The curves illustrate the con-
tribution of the dierent parts of the spectra to the centroid. For
an ideal sawtooth (dashed line) the dependence is linear. For the
measured (compensated) spectra the trend at low frequencies is
similar up to the roll-o frequency, beyond which the slope is
less steep. It can be seen that there is a clear correlation between
the roll-o frequency (estimates indicated by the arrows) and
the spectral centroid calculated at a upper limiting frequency of
10 kHz (values indicated in the legend). The roll-o frequency
in its turn is mainly dependent on bow force as indicated in the
gure.
3.0

that of the ideal sawtooth, shown for comparison. Beyond

1466 mN
the roll-o frequencies the slopes are less steep, which 2.5
indicates that the higher harmonics are contributing less 1025 mN
to the spectral centroid. The roll-o frequency is mainly
fc [kHz]

2.0
dependent on bow force, and is clearly related with the
value of fc calculated with the nominal limiting frequency 419 mN
of 10 kHz. The data in Figures 5 and 6 indicate clearly 1.5
that the spectral centroid, as calculated according to equa- 100 mN
tion (2), can be used as a reliable comparative measure
1.0
of (modied) string-velocity spectra, at least within the 58 mN
Helmholtz region. 1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
Rel. bowbridge dist, (log)

3.1.2. Dependence on bowing parameters

The dependence of spectral centroid on bow force and rel-
ative bow-bridge distance is made more explicit in Fig-
ure 7. The curves conrm that there was a clear increase
of spectral centroid with increasing bow force, but no ob-
vious systematic relation between spectral centroid and .
At extremely small values of the spectral centroid was
even observed to drop in some cases.
The dependence of fc on the bowing parameters , FB
and vB was further analyzed using multiple regression
analysis. All cases classied as Helmholtz motion were
included in the analysis (in total 664). Both the dependent
and independent variables were standardized (z-score), so
that the regression coecients could be interpreted as the
Figure 7. Dependence of spectral centroid on and bow force
(vB = 10 cm/s, Helmholtz motion cases only).
relative contribution of the corresponding bowing param-
eter to the spectral centroid [29].
The relation between spectral centroid and bow force
was found to be nonlinear. At low bow forces spectral
centroid increased faster with increasing bow force than
at higher bow forces, where the curve became atter. It
was found that the dependence could be well described by
a power relation fc F , with between 0 and 1. To opti-
mize the linear regression model a curvilinear transforma-
tion was therefore applied to bow force. The exponent was

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Vol. 95 (2009)

(a) 5 cm/s (b) 10 cm/s Pitch [cent]

3000 30

1466
Bow force (rel. 1 mN)

20
716

350
10

171

84 0

(c) 15 cm/s (d) 20 cm/s 10

3000
77 62 52
55 59
1466 20
Bow force (rel. 1 mN)

716
30
350

171
40
84

50
1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6 1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
Rel. bowbridge dist, Rel. bowbridge dist,

Figure 8. Mapping of pitch level on Schelleng diagrams (both axes in logarithmic scale) at four bow velocities (Helmholtz motion cases
only). The thick lines indicate the tted bow-force limits according to Schellengs equations. Practical upper bow-force limits roughly
demarcating a region in which pitch attening exceeds 510 cent are indicated by dashed lines (the discrepancy between the actual
upper bow-force limit and the tted upper limit according to Schellengs equation is discussed in detail in [4]). Cases with pronounced
pitch attening beyond the range of the color scale are indicated by numbers in cents. The location of the reference bow stroke used as
a tuning reference ( = 1/18.1, FB = 599 mN, vB = 20 cm/s) is indicated by a viewnder (panel d).

Table I. Regression coecients (and their 95% condence inter-
vals) obtained from multiple regression analysis of standardized
dependent (fc ) and independent (FB , vB and ) variables. The
coecients indicate the relative contribution of the bowing pa-
rameters to the spectral centroid. The value of the exponent used
for curvilinear transformation of bow force was = 1/3. The
coecient of determination of the regression was R2 = 0.89.
Indep. var. Regression coe.
FB 1.0 (0.97, 1.03)
vB 0.1 (0.14, 0.09)
0.1 (0.07, 0.13)
determined to be about = 1/3, leading to a maximum
value of R2 .
The obtained regression coecients are displayed in Ta-
ble I. The results show clearly that bow force was by far the
most dominant factor determining the value of the spectral
centroid, and that the contributions of vB and were much
smaller. The positive sign of the regression coecient of
indicates that there was a tendency of fc to increase with
increasing bow-bridge distance. Bow velocity was found
to have a negative contribution to the spectral centroid, i.e.,
fc decreased slightly with increasing vB . This inuence
can be discerned when comparing the panels in Figure 4.
The results are in correspondence with expectations from
studies by Cremer [7] and Guettler et al. [8].
3.2. The attening eect
3.2.1. Schelleng diagrams
Figure 8 shows the pitch level (in cent) of Helmholtz-
classied points in the Schelleng diagrams at four bow ve-
locities. Pitch attening can be clearly observed when ap-
proaching the upper bow-force limit. Pitch attening was
more prominent at higher bow velocities, due to the higher
maximum bow-force limit. At vB = 5 cm/s pitch attening
did not exceed 26 cent, whereas at vB = 20 cm/s atten-
ing up to 77 cent (13 Hz) was observed. As suggested by
Schumacher and McIntyre [20, 22] pitch attening might
impose a practical upper bow-force limit below the ac-
tual breakdown of Helmholtz motion. This is indicated by
dashed lines in the Schelleng diagrams, which demarcate
approximate regions in which pitch attening exceeded
510 cent. The practical limit according to this criterion

907
ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette
Vol. 95 (2009)

was found to be approximately parallel to the observed up-

per bow-force limits of the Helmholtz regions,2 but down- 10
shifted a factor 23. The regions where pitch attening oc-
curred were found to be larger at higher bow velocities. 0

Pitch level [cent]

3.2.2. Dependence on bowing parameters 10

Closer inspection of the pitch-level variations in Figure 8 20

revealed that (1) pitch was less attened or even sharpened
at the smallest value of , especially at the two highest bow 30
velocities, and (2) the attening eect varied in a rather =1/21.7
40
irregular manner with . =1/13.5
=1/8.3
The rst observation may be explained by a nonlinear 50
eect in the string: the relatively large amplitudes of string 84 171 350 716 1466
Bow force, F (log, rel. 1 mN)
vibration at small and high vB , as well as the force ex- B

erted by the bow and the net displacement of the bowed

string due to dynamic friction, cause an increase in eec-
tive string tension. This eect is especially prominent in
steel strings with a high Youngs modulus. For the used
string, the pitch rise due to the increase of amplitude at the
smallest value of ( = 1/29.5) relative to the tuning ref-
erence ( = 1/18.1, FB = 599 mN, vB = 20 cm/s) was
calculated to be about +2 and +7 cent at bow velocities of
15 and 20 cm/s, respectively, which is in correspondence
with the observations (see the Appendix for the calcula-
tion of pitch rise).
Considering the second observation, the -axis may be
divided in three intervals, characterized by dierent pitch-
attening behaviour. The dierences become obvious in
Figure 9. Dependence of pitch attening on bow force at three
values of (vB = 10 cm/s). The expected trend of pitch sharp-
ening due to increased eective string tension, calculated for
= 1/13.5, is indicated by the dashed line. Zero pitch level
corresponds to the bowed tuning reference (vB = 20 cm/s, FB =
599 mN, 1/18). The upper bow-force limit corresponds to
the right-most data point in each curve.
5
0
5
Pitch level [cent]

Figure 9, showing pitch level vs. bow force for dierent 10

values of at vB = 10 cm/s. In the rst interval with
small values of (1/25 < < 1/18, represented by
= 1/21.7 in the gure), the apparent onset of pitch at-
tening occurred in the range 7001000 mN, beyond which
pitch attening took place gradually. The second interval
1/15 < < 1/11 (represented by = 1/13.5) was char-
acterized by pitch sharpening below the pitch-attening
onset. As a result the apparent onset of pitch attening
was relatively high and close to the upper bow-force limit
(7001700 mN, depending on bow velocity), and pitch
attening was limited to 20 cent. The third interval with
large values of ( > 1/10, represented by = 1/8.3)
was characterized by a much lower pitch-attening onset,
in combination with a pronounced attening eect up to
77 cent.
The inuence of bow velocity on pitch attening is
shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that the apparent
pitch-attening onset increased with bow velocity, but at
a slower rate than the upper bow-force limit (represented
by the right-most data point in each curve). Flattening was
thus more gradual at higher bow velocities, which resulted
in longer but less steep portions of the curves in Figure 10
above the attening onset.
Both Figures 9 and 10 seem to suggest that there is a cer-
tain force threshold associated with pitch attening, which
was predicted by simulations using a hyperbolic friction
2 Not to be confused with the tted Schelleng limits with predetermined
slope 1/, see [4]
15
20 5 cm/s
10 cm/s
25 15 cm/s
20 cm/s
30
171 350 716 1466 3000
Bow force, FB (rel. 1 mN)
Figure 10. Dependence of pitch attening on bow force at four
bow velocities ( = 1/21.7). The expected trend of pitch sharp-
ening due to increased eective string tension, calculated for
vB = 20 cm/s, is indicated by the dashed line. The zero level is
the same as in Figure 9. The upper bow-force limit corresponds
to the right-most data point in each curve.
curve [19, 23]. However, as the pitch is the result of a bal-
ance between pitch sharpening and pitch attening, it can-
not be ruled out that a small amount of pitch attening is
present at lower bow forces. In this range the pitch eects
are rather small and hard to detect given the experimental
conditions.
3.3. String motion beyond the upper bow-force limit
3.3.1. Anomalous low frequencies
In the previous study [4], clear upper bow-force limits
were found demarcating the breakdown of Helmholtz mo-
tion. Beyond the maximum bow force aperiodic, raucous
motion prevailed. However, also other types of motion

908
Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009)

(a) 10 cm/s
= 1/11.2 (a)

String vel. [a.u.]

3000
F = 1753 mN
B
101.8
Bow force [mN]

vS
2097 147.9 103.9
147.0 148.0 103.8
1466 149.2 108.5
150.9
= 1/8.3 (b)

String vel. [a.u.]

1025
FB = 1753 mN

vS
(b) 15 cm/s
3000 106.2
148.3 149.2 106.1
Bow force [mN]

0 5 10 15 20 25
2097 149.2 151.0 T1 Time [ms]
269.3 151.1 154.3
1466 271.9 154.0
Figure 12. Typical examples of anomalous low frequency (ALF)
272.5
string-velocity waveforms with periods of about (a) twice and (b)
1025
three times the fundamental period T1 (indicated by the vertical
1/15.5 1/11.2 1/8.3 1/5.9
dashed lines). The bow velocity was 10 cm/s; and FB are indi-
cated in the panels. Nominal slip velocity vS (Helmholtz motion)
Figure 11. Overview of stable anomalous low frequencies (ALF) is indicated by dashed lines.
in the Schelleng diagrams at bow velocities (a) 10 and (b)
15 cm/s. The numbers indicate the frequency in Hertz. The
dashed ellipses indicate coherent regions of dierent types of
ALF: period doubling (about 150 Hz), period tripling (about = 1/7
100 Hz), and lowering by 1 semi-tone (about 270 Hz). The upper
String vel. [a.u.]

FB = 2508 mN
bow-force limits are indicated by solid lines. The frequency of
the D string in Helmholtz motion was 293 Hz. [In the Schelleng
v
diagrams shown in Figure 4 in [4], especially at vB = 10 cm/s S

more combinations were classied as ALF than shown here. In

those cases ALF was less stable or aperiodic.]
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
T1 Time [ms]

were found, which were classied as anomalous low fre-

quencies (ALF) and S-motion. Especially at bow veloc-
ities of 10 and 15 cm/s more or less coherent regions of
ALF were found, consisting of ALF with about twice and
three times the fundamental period (see Figure 11).
Typical string-velocity signals of ALF with period dou-
bling and tripling are shown in Figure 12. These types
of ALF are most probably caused by transversal trigger-
ing. At its rst arrival at the bow the Helmholtz corner
is reected towards the nut, inducing slipping upon its
second or third return to the bow. The moments when
the Helmholtz corner is reected at the bowing point are
clearly discernible as marked agitations during the stick
phase. In Figure 11 it can be seen that the frequency
within these dierent regions of ALF depended on as
expected. The frequency increased with increasing due
to the change in path length between the nut and the bow.
Another, related type of ALF was found at bow veloc-
ities of 5, 10 and 15 cm/s, for the latter two at high bow
forces and large values of (upper-right corner in the
Schelleng diagrams). This type of ALF was less periodic
and consisted of long inter-slip intervals of about three to
ten times the fundamental period. The inter-slip intervals
were discrete and roughly multiples of the fundamental pe-
riod, distinguishing it from the more random character of
raucous motion. A typical example is shown in Figure 13.
At bow velocities of 15 and 20 cm/s another type of
ALF was found with pitch lowering of only slightly more
Figure 13. An example of ALF with alternating inter-slip inter-
vals of about 4 to 5 times the fundamental period T1 . Nominal
slip velocity vS (Helmholtz motion) is indicated by a dashed line.
than a semi-tone (from 293 to 270275 Hz) around =
1/11, directly adjacent to the Helmholtz region. This type
of ALF could be distinguished from pitch attening by a
clear transition between Helmholtz motion and ALF when
increasing bow force, as shown in Figure 14.3
The triggering mechanism of this type of ALF is less
obvious. Torsional triggering would in this case require
the torsional wave speed to be 12 times higher than the
transversal wave speed. This is unrealistic, as the ratio
cR /cT for a wrapped steel D string as the one used in
this study is expected to lie in the range 23 (cf. Ta-
ble I in [23]).4 A possible alternative explanation could
be that triggering was caused by secondary waves, which
is supported by the observation that the period lengthening
roughly equaled T1 .
3 A similar transition has been observed by Hansen et al. (cf. Figure 13
in [30]).
4Twisting the string (thus changing the shear modulus) before mounting
could possibly inuence the torsional to transversal wave velocity ratio,
as suggested by Kimuras observations that this inuenced the pitch of
anomalous low frequencies [27].

909
ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH
Vol. 95 (2009)
T1
String vel. [a.u.]
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 14. Transition from Helmholtz motion (292.7 Hz) to ALF
about a semi-tone lower (275.5 Hz) at vB = 20 cm/s, = 1/11.2
and FB 1675 mN. Nominal slip velocity vS (Helmholtz mo-
tion) is indicated by a dashed line.
String vel. [a.u.]
0 5 10
Time [ms]
Figure 15. Typical example of S-motion at vB = 20 cm/s, =
1/5.9 and FB = 1466 mN. Nominal slip velocity vS (Helmholtz
motion) is indicated by a dashed line.
3.3.2. S-motion
A clear column of S-motion was found at = 1/5.9 in
the Schelleng diagram of vB = 20 cm/s, just above the up-
per bow-force limit (see Figure 4d in [4]). A typical exam-
ple of the string-velocity waveform is shown in Figure 15.
The string motion was characterized by a single slip phase
per fundamental period and a strong presence of secondary
waves, which are basic indications of S-motion.
Another indication of S-motion was that the width of
the slip phase at half height (full width at half maximum)
was reduced by a factor two compared to Helmholtz mo-
tion [26]. In addition, there seemed to be an inuence on
pitch. Pitch was less attened or even sharpened compared
to the surrounding notes in the Schelleng diagram (3.5,
2.9 and 17.1 cent at bow forces of 1226, 1466 and
1753 mN, respectively, compared to about 20 cent for the
surrounding Helmholtz notes).
3.3.3. Other observations
The distinction between dierent types of motion beyond
the upper bow-force limit was not always obvious. In
many cases episodes of dierent types of motion alter-
nated, resulting in a grey zone between raucous motion
and ALF.
In some cases strange, quasi-stable waveforms could be
observed between more or less raucous intervals. An ex-
ample is shown in Figure 16a. The large amount of ripple
in combination with the reduced width of the slip phase
at half height by about a factor two suggests that this
910
ACUSTICA Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette
FB=3000 mN (a)
T1
String vel. [a.u.]
vS v
S
25 30 35 FB=1466 mN (b)
String vel. [a.u.]
vS
0 5 10 15 20
Time [ms]
Figure 16. Period shortening at high bow force (vB = 10 cm/s,
= 1/25). (a) At FB = 3000 mN short semi-stable intervals
with a frequency of about 318 Hz were observed. (b) Right below
vS
the maximum bow force (at FB = 1466 mN) small additional
slip phases were observed (indicated by arrows), suggesting that
the triggering mechanism in (a) might be related to secondary
waves. Nominal slip velocity vS (Helmholtz motion) is indicated
by dashed lines.
15 20
might be a case of S-motion. However, the pitch (318 Hz)
was signicantly sharpened, which indicated that release
was triggered before arrival of the Helmholtz corner. The
amount of period shortening was close to 2T1 , suggest-
ing that also in this case triggering might be related to sec-
ondary waves. This is supported by the small additional
slip phases observed at the same combination of vB and
just below the maximum bow force (Figure 16b), which
can be considered as forerunners of the shortened periods.
4. Discussion
4.1. Spectral centroid
The mapping of spectral centroid on the Schelleng dia-
grams showed that bow force was the dominant factor de-
termining the value of the spectral centroid, and that vB
and had less inuence on the spectrum. This conrms
the important inuence of bow force on corner rounding,
as pointed out by Cremer [5, 6, 7]. Surprisingly, regression
analysis revealed a weak tendency of fc to increase with .
However, some caution is needed in drawing a nal con-
clusion, as the compensation method, used for conversion
of string velocity to an estimation of bridge force, may
have introduced an artifact which overestimated the con-
tribution from harmonics close to the node frequencies for
large values.
The observations can be understood by noting that the
bridge force of a bowed string in Helmholtz motion is in
principle independent of the point of excitation (the bow-
ing point), in contrast to other excitation mechanisms such
as plucking or striking. The result contrasts with a popular
belief among string players that bringing the bow closer
to the bridge would itself cause an increase in brightness.
Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette
The actual explanation for this increase lies in a coordi-
nated change of bow force and bow-bridge distance; the
bow force normally needs to be increased as bow-bridge
distance is decreased, in order to stay in the playable re-
gion with some safety margins to the bow-force limits.
Furthermore, the spectral centroid was shown to in-
crease with decreasing bow velocity. This observation,
along with the other results above, are in agreement with
a previous study [8], in which simulations were used to
show that the observed eects were due to corner resharp-
ening at the bow. Also reducing the eective width of the
hair by tilting the bow has been shown to have some eect
on the high-frequency content, although smaller than the
inuence of reducing bow velocity [31].
4.2. Pitch eects
The pitch of a bowed string is dependent on the bowing
parameters via several mechanisms. Pitch sharpening oc-
curs due to string elongation, yielding an increase of eec-
tive string tension due to the transverse displacement, and
due to inharmonicity [21]. The rst is mainly dependent
on the ratio vB /, and the second on the energy distribu-
tion in the spectrum, which was shown above to be gov-
erned by bow force. The force of the bow on the string,
as well as the net displacement of the string in the bowing
direction cause a further increase in string tension. These
mechanisms give moderate pitch sharpening, and their rel-
ative importance are dependent on two properties of the
string, Youngs modulus and bending stiness. In contrast,
the attening eect, caused by hysteresis of the frictional
interaction between the bow and the string, can give sub-
stantial pitch changes, most prominently at high values of
bow force and large bow-bridge distances [19, 20, 21, 23].
The attening eect was clearly observed in the mea-
surements at high bow forces close to the upper bow-
force limit. The 510 cent attening limits, indicated in the
Schelleng diagrams (Figure 8), were found to be approx-
imately parallel to the observed upper bow-force limits.
The eect of pitch sharpening was much less prominent,
but supported by several observations. First, in determin-
ing the tuning of the string, the pitch during late decay of
pizzicato tones was about 1 Hz lower than that of the ref-
erence bow stroke (the start of the plucked tone showed
a rapid decrease in pitch during the initial decay). Sec-
ond, pitch was shown to be signicantly sharpened at high
ratios of vB / (blue columns in Figure 8c and d). Fur-
thermore, Figures 9 and 10 show that there was a weak
increasing trend of pitch with bow velocity and bow force
below the onset of pitch attening.
The dependence of pitch attening on the bowing pa-
rameters and vB as shown in Figures 9 and 10 were in
good qualitative agreement with predictions by Boutillon
(cf. Figures 6 and 7 in [21]). The amount of pitch attening
also corresponded well with observations by Schumacher
[23], who found values of 15 and 30 cent just before
breakdown of Helmholtz motion at bow velocities of 5
and 10 cm/s, respectively, on a D string (perlon) bowed
at = 1/10. The amount of pitch attening based on the
ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009)
reactive power balance rule as calculated by Boutillon [21]
for an A string (12 cent at = 1/11.1 and vB = 10 cm/s,
before breakdown) seems to be somewhat underestimated
in comparison with the values found here.
Simulations with a hyperbolic friction model predict
a threshold for the occurrence of the attening eect
[19, 23]. The measurements showed indeed that pitch was
rather stable over a wide range in bow force, and that the
onset of pitch attening occurred quite suddenly. How-
ever, as the pitch of a bowed string is the net result of a
balance between pitch-sharpening and pitch-attening ef-
fects, it might be the case that a certain amount of pitch
attening is present across the whole range of bowing pa-
rameters, and that a threshold as such does not exist. The
latter description would be more appropriate when includ-
ing a thermal dependence of friction in the model [32].
4.3. Other types of string motion and the role of
secondary waves
Beyond the upper bow-force limit dierent types of more
or less periodic non-Helmholtz motion patterns were ob-
served. Coherent regions of ALF were found in the Schel-
leng diagram with twice or three times period lengthening,
especially at bow velocities of 10 and 15 cm/s. At large
values of and FB , ALF with very long, more or less reg-
ular periods was found. These types of ALF were main-
tained through triggering of the slip phase by transversal
waves. Another peculiar type of ALF was found with a
pitch drop of about a semi-tone. The drop was too small to
be explained by either transversal or torsional triggering
as described in [24], and a possible explanation is that sec-
ondary waves were involved in the triggering mechanism.
Furthermore, cases of S-motion were observed, show-
ing the typical characteristics described in [26]. In addi-
tion, an inuence on pitch was observed; the pitch was
less attened in S-motion compared to the surrounding
Helmholtz waveforms, or even sharpened, possibly due
to the inuence of secondary waves on the friction force.
Also another case of period shortening was observed at
high bow force, which seemed to be related to partial slip
phases induced by secondary waves.
The above observations suggest that secondary waves
might play an important role in the generation of higher
types of string motion. The details of the triggering mech-
anisms could only be resolved by simulations or more so-
phisticated measurement methods than those employed in
the current study. However, it should be noted that exper-
iments with the bowing machine have revealed interesting
variations of waveforms and phenomena not previously
observed in bowed-string simulations. This could simply
be due to that the relevant combinations of bowing param-
eters have not been explored before, or that the observed
phenomena are dependent on irregularities in the friction
characteristics at high bow forces, not included in the cur-
rent simulation models.
911
ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009)
4.4. The Schelleng diagram as a sound palette
A Schelleng diagram which indicates the bow-force limits
along with aspects of tone quality (such as spectral cen-
troid) provides insights in both constraints and freedom of
choice in tone production in string performance. An ex-
ample is given in Figure 17, which shows the use of bow-
ing parameters by two players (P4 and P6) mapped on a
Schelleng diagram, when playing long notes with full bow
strokes at three dynamic levels (f, mf, p). The data were
obtained from a series of measurements using motion cap-
ture techniques [33]. In all six cases but one the players
chose a bow velocity around 15 cm/s, corresponding to a
duration of 4 s of a full bow stroke. The only exception
was the piano condition played by P6 with vB 7 cm/s.
It can be seen that the dynamic level clearly inuenced
the choice of bowing parameters. When going from forte
to piano level, both players moved diagonally through the
Schelleng diagram; the bow force was decreased while the
bow-bridge distance was increased, which resulted in a de-
creased string amplitude (given by the vB / ratio) along
with a duller tone according to the general results illus-
trated in Figure 4.
The two players were consistent in the forte and mezzo-
forte conditions, using almost the same values of bowing
parameters. In the piano condition the strategies diverged.
Player P4 continued to increase the bow-bridge distance
when going from mezzoforte to piano, while maintaining
approximately the same velocity. The bow force was re-
duced to stay away from the upper limit. Player P6 on
the other hand, increased the bow-bridge distance only
slightly, but reduced the velocity to half the value. The bow
force was reduced substantially, approaching the lower
limit. Compared to P4, player P6 relied more on a reduc-
tion in brilliance than a reduction in overall sound level in
order to achieve the perceptual eect of soft playing.
It is interesting to note that the forte condition was
played close to the pitch-attening limit observed in the
current study, suggesting that it may act as an actual upper
bow-force limit in practice. However, it should be noted
that the experimental conditions diered between the two
experiments. Another type of D string was used (Pirastro
Obligato) on a normal violin (not a monochord), and the
string was stopped (G4, not open D4) making an exact
comparison dicult. In the performance experiment, both
the upper bow-force limit and the pitch-attening thresh-
old could be expected to be lower than those measured on
the monochord. Indeed, when listening to the forte tone by
player P6 the audible variations in pitch clearly revealed
the occurrence of pitch attening.
Even though the main bowing parameters used by both
players in the forte condition were in almost exact agree-
ment, there was a clear audible dierence in tone quality,
the tone by player P6 sounding more forced. This might
possibly be related to the inuence of other, secondary
bowing parameters, such as skewness in the bowing di-
rection, in combination with torques and forces exerted on
the bow by the players hand [34]. Further detailed perfor-
mance studies are needed to shed more light on the subtle
912
Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette
3000
P4
P6
1466
Bow force [mN]
716 f
350
mf
171
pp
84
1/30 1/22 1/16 1/11 1/8 1/6
Rel. bowbridge dist,
Figure 17. Use of bowing parameters by two violinists (P4 and
P6), projected on a Schelleng diagram. The task consisted of
playing long notes at three dynamic levels (forte, mezzoforte
and piano). The bow velocity was approximately 15 cm/s, except
for the piano condition by player P6 (vB 7 cm/s). The thick
lines indicate the tted bow-force limits at vB = 15 cm/s [4]. The
dashed grey line gives an estimation of the practical upper bow-
force limit due to pitch attening, as indicated in Figure 8c.
relation between the actions of the player and the resulting
sound.
5. Conclusions
The variations in spectral content accessible by changing
the main bowing parameters in string playing (bow veloc-
ity, bow-bridge distance and bow force) have been stud-
ied by means of a monochord (violin steel D string) and a
bowing machine. The analyses were based on data of the
string velocity at the bowing point, converted to represent
string force at the bridge. Data were obtained at four bow
velocities (5, 10, 15 and 20 cm/s) for 11 values of rela-
tive bow-bridge distance (1/301/6) and 24 values of bow
force (493000 mN), both logarithmically spaced.
The spectral variations, as reected by the spectral cen-
troid, were found to be large, ranging between 800 and
3000 Hz within the playable Helmholtz region of the
Schelleng diagram. The value of the centroid was found to
be controlled almost entirely by bow force. The inuence
of bow-bridge distance was marginal. The measurements
indicated that the spectral centroid increased slightly with
increasing . Further, the spectral centroid was shown to
increase somewhat with decreasing bow velocity.
The results show clearly that, in contrast to a wide-
spread belief, a decrease in does not in itself change the
spectral content. However, small values of and high bow
velocities give access to high bow forces without break-
down of Helmholtz motion, thus providing the necessary
conditions for increasing the high-frequency content sig-
nicantly. Consequently, the player has good reasons to
move diagonally through the Schelleng diagram, chang-
ing the brilliance of the tone along with dynamic level
by coordinating bow force and bow-bridge distance.
Schoonderwaldt: The violinists sound palette ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009)

Pitch attening was readily observed, reaching consid- where T the nominal string tension. Likewise, the static
erable magnitude when approaching the upper bow-force displacement due to the friction can be written as
limit in the Schelleng diagram (5080 cent at the highest
xB (L xB ) d FB
bow velocity and at large values of ). Pitch attening im- ystat = ,
poses a practical limit of bow force well below Schellengs L T
upper limit. An estimated upper practical bow-force limit where d the average dynamic friction coecient [7].
of 510 cent attening was found to follow the slope of The total momentary string displacement is obtained by
the upper bow-force limit well, but shifted down a factor superposition of the three triangular displacement compo-
23 in force. The attening limit was also found to be less nents, leading to two or three linear string segments, de-
strongly dependent on bow velocity than the upper bow- pending on the position of the Helmholtz corner, with a
force limit, resulting in larger areas of pitch attening in total length L . The momentary lengthening is obtained by
the Schelleng diagram at higher bow velocities. subtraction of the nominal string length L, and the total ef-
Beyond the upper bow-force limit raucous motion was fective lengthening L is obtained by taking the average
observed, as well as regions with nearly periodic mo- lengthening across one period.
tion. These were identied as anomalous low frequencies The change in tension of the string can be calculated by
(ALF), with doubling or tripling of the periods, and S- Hookes law
motion. Observations of an ALF motion with only a semi- L
tone lowering in pitch and a quasi-periodic motion with T = Y s,
L
period shortening characterized by large ripples indicate
the importance of secondary waves in triggering higher where Y the Youngs modulus and s the cross section of
types of string motion. the string. Using Mersennes law

In summary, the study shows that bow force is the main 1 T
control parameter in setting the high-frequency content in f= , (A1)
2L L
the string spectrum, inuencing the brilliance of the tone.
The maximum usable bow force is limited by pitch atten- where f the fundamental frequency and L the linear den-
ing. The players choice of bow-bridge distance and bow sity of the string, the relation between T and the relative
velocity has essentially an indirect inuence on the bril- change in frequency can be written as
liance, giving access to a suitable bow-force range within  
the Schelleng triangle. T = (f /f )2 1 T, (A2)
or in cent
 
Appendix T = 2c/600 1 T. (A3)
Consequently, the increase in pitch level in cent c can be
A1. Estimation of pitch rise due to string calculated as
deection

T
c = 600 log2 +1 . (A4)
Due to the nite amplitude of vibration the eective length T
of the string is somewhat increased. Furthermore, the
string is statically deected in vertical direction at the bow- The unknowns left in the above equations (T and Y s) are
ing point when a nite bow force is applied, and there is a dependent on the physical properties of the string, and can
net static displacement in the bowing direction due to the be determined experimentally. Y s is a measure of the elas-
nite dynamic friction force. The total lengthening leads ticity of the string and can be determined by measuring
to an increase in eective tension T , and as a result the the change of pitch under inuence of a known change of
pitch of a bowed string is increased by a certain amount. length Ltuning by detuning the string. In the current study
this was done on a monochord, using a guitar tuning ma-
The peak displacement yH of a string in Helmholtz mo-
chine. The elasticity can be calculated as
tion at any point x along the string can be expressed in
terms of the bowing parameters vB and Ltot
Ys = T , (A5)
Ltuning
vB T1 (L x)x
yH (x) = , where Ltot is the total nominal length of the string from
2 L2 the tuning peg to the tailpiece (assuming that the tension
is equally distributed over the dierent parts of the string
where L the string length and T1 the fundamental period
(from Cremer [7], equation 3.17). The peak displacement after having tuned the string). T can be calculated from
due to the application of bow force at the bowing point xB the measured pitch change using equation (A2) or (A3),
can be calculated by and T can be calculated using equation (A1), after having
determined L . The linear density of the string L can be
determined experimentally from the mass of the speaking
xB (L xB ) FB
zstat = , length of the string.
L T

913
 ACTA ACUSTICA UNITED WITH ACUSTICA
Vol. 95 (2009)
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Swedish Science Founda-
tion, contract 621-2001-2537.
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