Geology 101 January 15, 2016

Earth as a system
Climate system
Plate tectonic system
Geodynamo system

Overview of geologic time

Plate tectonics
Continent vs. ocean

Earth as a System of Interacting Components

Earth system all parts of Earth and the interactions of the parts:
climate system
plate tectonic system
geodynamo system
Earth is an open system
exchanges mass and energy with the rest of the cosmos

Climate System
Atmosphere gaseous envelope around Earth extending to about 100 km
Hydrosphere oceans, lakes, rivers, and groundwater
Cryosphere polar ice caps, glaciers, surface ice and snow
Biosphere all organic matter related to life near Earths surface

Plate Tectonic System

Lithosphere rocky outer shell of the solid Earth (~100 km depth)
Asthenosphere weak layer of mantle which accommodates plate movements
Deep mantle interior of Earth between core and asthenosphere which convects

Geodynamo System
Outer core liquid shell of molten iron; source of Earths magnetic field
Inner core primarily solid iron

Sample Exam Question:

In which of the following subsystems is the Earth's magnetic field generated?
A. climate system
B. hydrologic system
C. geodynamo system
D. plate tectonic system

Plate Tectonics
Mt. Everest 29,035 ft (8850 m)
Tectonics = from Greek tekton meaning builder
 Plate Tectonics: An all-encompassing theory The unifying concept of the Earth sciences
~ 12 large lithospheric plates (~ 100 km thick), which move relative to each other
Earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains, occur at plate boundaries Interiors of plates are
stable, by comparison
Plate Tectonics Creating Oceans and Continents Describes the movements of plates
and forces acting between them First suggested based on evidence from geology and
paleontology on land Fully embraced after evidence from geophysics in oceans
Plates Group of rocks all moving in the same direction Can have both oceanic and
continental crust or just one kind

Three types of Plate Boundaries

Transform
Divergent
Convergent

January 20, 2016

Early Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift

First proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 based on his observation of drifting sheets of
ice
Large-scale horizontal movements of the outer portions of the Earth are responsible for
major topographical features such as mountains and ocean basins

Geographic Fit of the Continents

One of the first pieces of evidence used to argue for Continental drift
Suggested that all continents were once together in a single supercontinent called Pangea
(Greek for all lands)
Geology and Paleontology Matches on Opposite Sides of the Atlantic

The Rejection and Acceptance of Continental Drift

Rejected by most geologists
New data after WWII led to the plate tectonic revolution in 1960s
Now embraced by essentially everybody
Todays geology textbooks radically different than those 50 years ago
Evidence from the Oceans: Seafloor Spreading
Sonar surveying
Seafloor bathymetry
Oceanic rifts
Harry Hess & Robert Dietz (1960s)
Oceanic vs. Continental Crust (Lithosphere)
Continental crust:
Lighter (~2.8 g/cm3)
Weaker
 Does not easily recycle in the mantle
Long-lived
Oceanic crust:
Denser (~3 g/cm3)
Stronger
It recycles in the mantle
Short-lived
Divergent Boundaries
New (oceanic) lithosphere is created at mid-ocean ridges
Upwelling mantle
Seismically active (shallow earthquakes)
Volcanic activity
Rifting (stretching) caused by tensional forces

Divergent Plate Boundary

Iceland is a volcanic island
Mid-ocean ridge exposed on land(!)
New oceanic crust is forming where we can see it

Convergent Boundaries Subduction Zones

Three types:
oceanocean Japan
oceancontinent Andes
continentcontinent Himalaya
The most complex type

Convergent plate boundary: Ocean-ocean

Subduction of oceanic plates forms a deep-sea trench
Water from subducted plate causes melting and generates volcanoes at surface
Subducting plate cold, rigid, generates deep earthquakes in subduction zones

ContinentContinent Convergence
In oceancontinent boundaries, convergence is taken up by subduction
In continentcontinent boundaries, convergence is accommodated by deformation of the
crust without subduction
Both plates are too buoyant to be subducted