International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Constructal theory of droplet impact geometry

A. Bejan a, D. Gobin b,*

a
Duke University, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Durham, NC 27708-0300, USA
b
FAST UMR 7608 (CNRS Univ. Paris VI and XI), Bat. 502, 91405 Orsay, France

Received 5 July 2005; received in revised form 5 January 2006

Available online 29 March 2006

Abstract

In this paper we rely on the constructal law of maximization of ow access in order to construct a theory of geometry generation
(selection, evolution) during molten droplet impact. We show that immediately after impact the liquid spreads inviscidly as a ring with
a radial velocity that scales with the initial impact velocity. If the initial droplet is small and slow enough, the splat comes to rest (dies)
viscously, as a disc. If the droplet is large and fast enough, the ring splashes and is continued outward by needles that grow radially until
they are arrested by viscous eects. We optimized the number of needles such that the total splash time is minimum. The theoretical
dimensionless group that governs the selection of geometry (G) is the ratio of two lengths, the nal radius of the disc that dies viscously,
divided by the radius of the still inviscid ring that just wrinkles. Splats form when G 6 O(1) and splashes are favored when G P O(1).
Experimental measurements reported in the literature conrm several of the features of the constructal development of splat vs. splash
ow architecture.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Constructal theory; Geometry generation; Selection; Evolution; Molten droplet; Splashing; Splat; Spray coating; Fingering; Forensic medicine;
Blood splatter

1. Introduction both types of droplet impact behavior are observed there

One of the puzzles regarding molten droplet behavior
when impacting a dry smooth solid surface is why some-
times droplets spread as discs when they hit a solid wall,
and why sometimes they splash by shooting liquid as jets,
ngers and smaller droplets in selected directions. The
question of ow morphologyto understand the genera-
tion of shape and structure and to predict itis enor-
mously important. There are many applications where
droplet impact behavior spells success or failure, especially
in new technologies based on using small scale droplets for
spray coating with molten metal, spray painting and print-
ing, forensic medicine (blood splatter), injection systems
and thin-lm coatings. This question is important funda-
mentally as well, because without a pure theory for why
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gobin@fast.u-psud.fr (D. Gobin).
is no hope for the development of predictive numerical
tools, and for robust correlations to guide future design
and sizing of manufacturing processes.
The experimental and theoretical progress on droplet
impact behavior was reviewed extensively in a recent paper
by Haferl et al. [1], among others, and because of this it is
not reviewed again here. The main thread of this new body
of knowledge is that the two types of post-impact behavior
(disc vs. splash) have been observed and documented exten-
sively. Attempts have been made to report these observa-
tions on ow regime maps involving the dimensionless
groups revealed by dimensionless analyses invoking the
Buckingham p-theorem, for example, the Reynolds number
(Re), Weber number (We) and Ohnesorge number (Oh)
all such numbers being based on the properties of the
spherical liquid droplet before impact (see Nomenclature).
Observations show that the ow-map boundary between
droplets that splash and droplets that do not splash can be
described by correlations of the type OhmRep = constant,

0017-9310/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.02.001
 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419
Nomenclature
A nger cross-sectional area, m2
D droplet diameter, m
g gravitational acceleration, m/s2
G geometry selection number, Eqs. (39) and (40)
K constant, We1/2Re1/4 at the transition between
disc growth and splashing
L needle length, m
m exponent
n number of needles, or ngers
Oh Ohnesorge number, We1/2/Re
p exponent
P pressure, Pa
r radial dimension, m
Re Reynolds number, VD/m
S ring cross-sectional area, m2
t time, s
u radial velocity scale, m/s
Ua radial velocity of the liquid in the ring, m/s
where the half-domain of splashing behavior is occupied by
OhmRep > constant [2]. More recently, Mundo et al. [3]
conducted an extensive experimental program that led to
a correlation of the same type, We1/2Re0.25 = K (which is
the same as Oh Re1.25 = K), where the constant is K =
57.7 for a set of experiments using water, ethanol or
water-sucrose-ethanol droplets impacting a smooth stain-
less steel substrate. More experimental data are provided
by two recent theses [4,5].
Correlations that are tight, robust and conrmed by new
experiments call for a theory to explain their origin, and to
predict them. Mundo et al. [3] proposed such a theory,
which was based on a global accounting for the conserva-
tion of liquid energy and mass during droplet impact. Their
analysis generated an expression for the boundary between
splashing and no splashing, which next to Oh and Re con-
tained two additional parameters: the contact angle and the
dimensionless ratio Dmax/D, where D is the original droplet
diameter and Dmax is the maximal diameter of a liquid
spreading as a disc. Mundo et al.s formula passes through
the Oh(Re) data that mark the splashing/no splashing
boundary, but deviates from the data when Re < 200 and
Re > 2000. Furthermore, the Mundo et al. formula does
not have the power-law structure of the empirical correla-
tion We1/2Re0.25 = K, in which one should note that there
are two empirical constants that were determined by opti-
mizing the curve tting of the data: K and the exponent
0.25.
In this paper we report a purely theoretical argument
that anticipates not only the observed transition between
splashing and no splashing, but traces the entire scenario
of droplet impact behavior to the action of the constructal
law [6,7]: the ow geometry that is selected evolves in time
such that it maximizes the spreading of the liquid, and
2413
V droplet initial velocity, m/s
We Weber number, qDV2/r
Greek symbols
d viscous penetration thickness, m
m kinematic viscosity, m2/s
q liquid density, kg/m3
r surface tension, N/m
s viscous shear stress, Pa
Subscripts
max maximum
min minimum
opt optimum
1 viscous end of disk-shaped development
2 start of needle formation
3 viscous end of needle growth
accelerates the arrival of equilibrium. The predictive pro-
gress made by invoking the constructal law is reviewed in
[6,7], and is not reviewed again here. In this paper, we show
that everythingthe time and length scales of the liquid
ow before and after splashingresults from the invoca-
tion of this principle, including the power-law boundary
We (Re) and its two constants K and 0.25 (the theoretical
value of the latter turns out to be 1/4, analytically). Most
remarkable is the fact that the analysis reported in this
paper was formulated not to derive Mundo et al.s cor-
relation (the discovery of the correlation was one of the
surprises of this work), rather the objective was to see
whether the principle of maximization of ow access antic-
ipates the splashing phenomenon as successfully as it did
other natural ow architectures such as turbulent structure,
Benard convection and dendritic solidication [6,7], and,
more recently, the architecture of the human lung [8], the
hydraulic jump phenomenon [9] and the speed and fre-
quencies (stride, apping) of all ying, running and swim-
ming animals [10].
From the outset, we admit that the complexity of the
splashing droplet phenomenon forces us to formulate the
discussion in terms of scale analysis [11]. Furthermore,
complexity makes it necessary to dene unambiguously
the various scales of the phenomenon, which change from
time to time. We have done this carefully in the following
analysis, and we draw the readers attention to the deni-
tion of the subsequent time scales (t1, t2, t3) and on the sce-
nario that emerges.
2. Scale analysis of ring-shaped ow
Consider a spherical liquid droplet of diameter D, vis-
cosity l and density q, which impacts a solid wall. The
2414 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419

r  Vt 5
This means that the splat radius moves outward with a
speed of the same order as the speed of impact,
r
u V 6
t
Let S be the cross-sectional area of the splat (in the
plane of Fig. 2) at the time t, such that the conservation
of droplet liquid volume requires
D3  rS 7
At this stage we do not know whether the splat is a at disc
or a ring: the shape of the splat will be determined next.
The linear momentum of the droplet before impact is
Fig. 1. Droplet parameters before and during spreading on the wall.
(qD3)V. The linear momentum of the splat liquid is (qSr)Ua
where Ua is the S-averaged radial velocity with which the
splat liquid moves. The conservation of liquid linear
droplet velocity V is perpendicular to the wall at r = 0, as
momentum requires:
shown in Fig. 1. The liquid droplet becomes a splat that
spreads on the wall. We are interested in the scales (length, D3 V  rSU a . 8
time) and the morphology of the splat. This means that the Eqs. (7) and (8) require
following scenario refers to times longer than the initial
time interval of splat deformation (t  D/V), during which Ua  V 9
the droplet touches the wall and is deformed. According to Eq. (6), V is the velocity of the splat radius.
Let t = 0 mark the moment when the splat is born on Therefore, Eq. (9) states that all the splat liquid moves
the wall. This movement is indicated by the deformed radially with the same speed as the splat radius, and from
droplet shown in the lower part of Fig. 1. The stagnation this follows the conclusion that the splat liquid must be
of the liquid causes an instantaneous excess pressure on located close to its rim. This is why in Fig. 2 the splat liquid
the order of is shown as a ring of radius r and cross-section S.
1 The length scale of the ring cross-section is S1/2. This
P  qV 2 1 statement is equivalent to the assumption that the contact
2
angle between the liquidair surface and the solid surface is
This pressure drives the splat liquid to the distance r, which
not innitesimally small, i.e. that the shape of the ring
is the instantaneous radius of the splat. We assume that
cross-section S is not slender. This assumption covers most
immediately after t = 0 the splat is symmetric about the
of the known liquidairsolid contacts, which in the pres-
r = 0 axis, and its ow is inviscid. The momentum equation
ent scale analysis are represented by cross-sectional shapes
in the r direction is
  (S) that have a single length scale (S1/2), not two, a width
ou ou oP
q u  2
ot or or
where u is the liquid velocity component in the r direction.
From kinematics, the radial velocity scale is
r
u 3
t
According to the method of scale analysis [11] the momen-
tum Eq. (2) expresses the competition between three scales:
u u P
q ; qu ; . 20
t r r
In view of Eq. (3), the rst two scales are both of order
qr/t2. In conclusion, the momentum Eq. (2) requires the
following balance of two scales:
r P
q  4
t2 r
Combining Eqs. (4) and (1), and neglecting (at this stage)
factors of order 1, we conclude that the splat radius in-
creases linearly in time, Fig. 2. Ring-shaped spreading of the liquid.
 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419 2415

and a thickness. Next, by combining Eqs. (5) and (7) we Here 10 is the order of magnitude of the factor (2p31/2 or
nd that the ring becomes thinner in time, 2p61/2) that appears in the exact solution to the stability
problem [12]. In place of qg, the force that pushes the splat
D3
S 10 liquid against the r-radius free surface is P/r  qr/t2 
tV qV/t. Eq. (16) becomes
Friction works toward slowing the spreading of the  1=2
splat. The thickness of viscous penetration from the wall rt
k  10 17
transversally through the splat is qV

d  mt
1=2
11 The wavelength of rim instability increases as t1/2, whereas
the rim radius increases as t, as shown in Fig. 4. At short
where m is the liquid kinematic viscosity. The splat ow be- times, r is smaller than k, and the splat remains round.
comes viscid, and its spreading stops when viscous diu- At suciently long times, the rim is long and at enough
sion sweeps the entire splat cross-section. This happens to accommodate a ripple of several (n) wavelengths,
when d  S1/2, which in view of Eqs. (10) and (11) becomes
the time scale r  nk 18
 3 1=2 where n is a factor larger than 1, but not much larger, for
D
t1  12 example O(10). The time t2 when Eq. (18) becomes true is
mV estimated from Eqs. (17) and (18)
The splat radius at this time is r
t2  10n2 19
 3 1=2 qV 3
VD
r1  13 When t2 < t1, the splat develops a wavy rim before its
m
motion is arrested by wall friction. This inequality is anal-
or ogous to the comparison of two time scales that was used
r1 to predict ow morphology in Benard convection, lami-
 Re1=2 14
D nar-turbulent transition, and dendritic crystal growth
where Re is the Reynolds number of the original droplet, [6,7]. By using Eqs. (12) and (19), we nd that the splashing
condition t2 < t1 can be written as
VD
Re 15
m We1=2 Re1=4 > 10n K 20
In conclusion, Eq. (14) shows that larger and faster drop- where We is the droplet Weber number,
lets make relatively larger splats.
qDV 2
We 21
3. Splashing and needle-shaped ow r
The splat ring radius at the time t = t2 is
Next, we turn our attention to the eect of surface ten- r2 10n
2

sion, and the stability of the circularly symmetric splat  22

D We
shape. According to Taylors stability theory for a horizon-
tal liquid layer of density q, with its free surface facing If the inviscid splashing criterion (20) holds, then the
downward, and gravity acting downward, the wavelength liquid in the ring continues to ow radially outward in
k that separates two adjacent droplets or jets is (Fig. 3) the form of n ngers. One such nger is sketched in
 1=2
r
k  10 16
qg

Fig. 4. The growth of the ring radius and the wavelength of Taylor
Fig. 3. The wavelength of Taylor instability. instability.
2416 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419

Fig. 5. Needle shape and parameters.

Fig. 5. The liquid enters with the velocity V through the Next, we make two additional observations in line with
r = r2 end of the nger. Its bottom layers are slowed down the constructal law of maximization of ow access, or
viscously by the wall, while fresh liquid proceeds (over the acceleration of approach to equilibrium. First, the total
top) to longer radial distances. splash time (t2 + t3) can be minimized by selecting the num-
The farthest reach (L) can be estimated in two ways, as ber of ngers. The optimal number is
follows. Let A be the scale of the nger cross-sectional area,  2=5
and A1/2 the length scale of the nger cross-section. This is We Re1=2
nopt  29
again the wettability assumption invoked above Eq. (10), 4  102
according to which contact angles are not innitesimally with the corresponding minimum splash time
small, and the liquid cross-sectional shape has a single  1=5
length scale (A1/2), not two. The nger control volume is t2 t3 min 5 102 r2 Lmin
 4=5  30
pushed from the left by the impulse qV2A, and from the t1 4 We Re 1=2 r1
right by the wall friction force,
These results are order-of-magnitude accurate because they
qV 2 A  sLA1=2 23 come from expressions (27), (28), which are based on scale
where s  lV/AS1/2. In conclusion, the nal length of the analysis. Eqs. (29) and (30) can also be obtained in an
nger is order-of-magnitude sense by setting the two terms of Eq.
(27) equal to each other. This alternate approach is the
AV intersection of asymptotes method, which has been used sev-
L 24
m eral times in constructal theory to predict natural ow con-
Mass conservation requires nSL  D3, and, after using gurations, e.g., the rst eddy of a turbulent ow, the onset
Eq. (24), the dimensionless nger length becomes of Benard convection, the birth of needles in dendritic crys-
 1=2 tals and the characteristic length scale of cracks in volumet-
L Re rically shrinking solids [6,7].
 25
D n The second observation is that in view of the splash-
formation criterion (20), the splash time is shorter than
The time interval during which the nger grows is
the ring time,
L A
t3   26 t2 t3 min < t1 31
V m
If ngers can form, they will form, because ngers promise
This t3 expression suggests an alternative calculation of L: to bring the liquid to rest faster than the ring-shaped ow.
the nger length is the distance traveled by the V liquid This time minimization criterion is the same as the con-
during the time required by that liquid vein to be pene- structal law of maximization of ow access [6,7].
trated by viscous diusion through its thickness A1/2. That
time is such that A1/2  (mt3)1/2, which leads to Eq. (26) 4. Dimensionless summary of ring and needle ows
and, after invoking mass conservation, to Eq. (25).
To summarize, we determined the nal length and time One of the attributes of theory is that it organizes the
scales of a splat that remains ring shaped until its viscous presentation of the phenomenon in terms of the smallest
death (r1, t1). We also determined the nal length scale and most relevant dimensionless groups. In this paper we
(r2 + L) and total time scale (t2 + t3) of a round splat that have identied several length and time scales. If the post-
splashes into n ngers. Taking the (r1, t1) scales as refer- impact ow of liquid is ring shaped (Fig. 2), then the time
ence, we nd that the ring and splash scales are of the same of the length and time scales when the growth of the ring is
order of magnitude (see Eq. (20)): stopped by viscous diusion are
2
r2 L 10n 1 r1 t1 m
 1=2  1 27  Re1=2  Re1=2 32
r1 We Re 1=2 n D D2
2
t2 t3 10n 1 The time when the ring develops periodic deformations and
 1=2
1=2  1 28
t1 We Re n ngers start to grow is characterized by the scales
 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419 2417

2 2
r2 10n t2 m 10n and (41), is a consequence of the constant velocity scale
  33 of the ring and nger uid, V.
D We D2 ReWe
Dividing Eq. (33) by Eq. (32), we nd how the scales of the
5. Experimental conrmation
beginning of splashing (r2, t2) are smaller than the scales of
the ring-shaped droplet at the end of its symmetric growth
The scaling laws uncovered in this paper are now com-
(r1, t1):
pared with a set of experimental results published recently
2
r2 t2 10n [5,13], where the experimental device was designed to
  <1 34 record the shape evolution of droplets falling by gravity
r1 t1 We Re1=2
on solid substrates. Results are presented for millimetric
These conclusions can be rened further by using the nopt droplets (13 mm in diameter) with relatively low velocities
scale of Eq. (29) and introducing it in Eqs. (20) and (34). (14 m/s) and substrates of dierent roughness and wetta-
Accordingly, K  10n is bility. The range of corresponding Reynolds numbers
10 extends from 3500 to 12500, which corresponds to Weber
K We2=5 Re1=5 35 numbers in the range 57254.
4002=5
The rst theoretical result that we compare with exper-
Introducing this K estimate into the splashing criterion iments is the order of magnitude of the radial velocity Ua
t2 < t1, or Eq. (20), we obtain after impact. The analysis [Eq. (9)] shows that the initial
1=5 10 radial velocity is on the order of the impact velocity. The
We1=2 Re1=4 > 2=5
1 36 experimental data available in Ref. [5] and displayed in
400
Table 1 are for two impact velocities, V = 1.2 and 3.6
We may compare this theoretical criterion with the experi- m/s. The tabulated data show that for both sets of experi-
mental correlation [3] ments the ratio Ua/V is nearly constant. This means that
1=5 Eq. (9) is veried, with a proportionality factor of 3.5 (with
We1=2 Re0:25 > K 1=5 37
standard deviation of 10%), which is a factor on the order
1/5
to see that K = 57.7  1, which means that the theoreti- of 1.
cal criterion (36) agrees remarkably well with experimental Another important feature of the experimental data is
data. To this comparison we will return in Table 2. that the ratio Ua/V is independent of the nature of the
Another eect of the optimized number of needles impact surface. This is in accord with the analysis that
becomes visible when we substitute Eq. (20) into Eq. (34): led to Eq. (9), which is based on the observation that the
initial ow is inviscid, hence unrelated to the wall
r2 t2 100=4004=5 1 condition.
   38
r1 t1 We Re1=2 1=5 G A systematic observation of the splat structure evolution
was conducted in Ref. [5], by increasing step by step the
where impact velocity of droplets of the same diameter. The aver-
G We Re1=2
1=5
39 age value of the highest velocity for spreading and the low-
1/2
est velocity for splashing yields a transition velocity, with
Unlike WeRe , the new dimensionless group G has a a typical accuracy of 5%. Several substrates (glass, wax,
physical meaning: G is the ratio of two lengths PVC) and roughnesses ranging from 0.003 to 60 lm were
final radius of disc that dies viscously used in the experiments, and this led to signicant scatter
G 40 in the results.
radius of still inviscid ring that just wrinkles
The values of the corresponding critical values for
This is why G P O(1) is the criterion for the occurrence of We1/2Re1/4 are shown in Table 2. Recall that We and Re
wrinkles on the rim at time t2: the wrinkles grow as needles are based on liquid properties and initial droplet diameter
from t2 to t2 + t3. On the other hand, when G 6 O(1), the and velocity. In spite of the large scatter in the results, this
splat stops owing when it is round, and consequently it table clearly shows the relevance of the group We1/2Re1/4 as
has no future as a shape other than the round disc at rest.
Finally, to compare the scales of the splash just before Table 1
vs. end of splashing, we divide Eq. (30) by Eq. (38): Experimental measurements of the initial spreading velocity Ua: the
tabulated values are for the ratio Ua/V (data from [5])
r2 Lmin t2 t3 min
 5 41 Substrate V = 1.2 m/s V = 3.6 m/s
r2 t2
Smooth wax 3.42 3.30
These ratios of length and time scales are the same constant Smooth glass 3.45 3.21
which is on the order of 1. The size of the splashed droplet Rough wax 3.98 3.49
size is proportional to the size that the splat has at the start Rough glass 3.84 3.21
of asymmetric deformations. The fact that the ratios of PVC 300 3.41 3.69
PVC 100 3.38 3.63
length scales match the ratios of time scales, Eqs. (30)
2418 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419

Table 2 mechanism known is turbulent ow [7]. Indeed, the initial

Experimental ranges of the transition between the spreading and the Reynolds number of the water droplet (VD/m  3000) is
splashing regimes for several liquids and surface roughnesses (data from
[5])
the same as the Reynolds number of the initial radial ow
of the deformed droplet. The value 3000 is two orders of
Liquid D (mm) V (m/s) We1/2Re1/4 G = (WeRe1/2)1/5
magnitude greater than the Reynolds number for the onset
Water 3.44 1.553.15 90220 68.7 of transversal waviness as in the fall of a lm of condensate
Ethanol 2.80 1.261.85 90146 67.3
Ethanol 1.34 1.582.67 69133 5.47.1
[11]. In the case of the splat, Fig. 1, the transversal waviness
Silicone oil 2.30 2.91 128 7 means concentric ripples, however, the value 3000 is high
enough for the radial ow to be turbulent.
A new theory denes the purpose of future experimental
a transition parameter, because the order of magnitude of work. For example, it would be interesting to record in
102 is found for the transition in all the cases. As expected, future experiments not only the nal radius of the disc that
the lower values (6990) are found for the roughest sur- dies viscously, but also the radius of the still inviscid ring at
faces. It is worth noting that the value given in Ref. [3] the time when it just begins to wrinkle. In this way the G
(namely We1/2Re0.25 = 57.7) is the lower bound of this ratio of Eq. (40) could be calculated, and the wrinkling
range. criterion G P O(1) could be tested.
Table 2 also shows the corresponding values of G, which Another feature that deserves further study is the occur-
is the dimensionless transition criterion recommended by rence of turbulence in the ow of Fig. 1. This aspect illus-
the arguments advanced in this paper, Eqs. (36) and (39). trates another contribution of the theory: without theory,
The experimental data collected in the table show that the seven cases shown in Table 3 recommend themselves
the transition is consistently associated with one G value, as members of the same class. It is because of theory that
which is consistent with the transition criterion stated we have the additional insight and incentive to search for
under Eq. (40). turbulent ow features in disc-shaped splats before they
Table 3 shows one more verication of the theory devel- die viscously.
oped in this paper. The data are for a single droplet of ini-
tial velocity V and sphere diameter D, which impacts a 6. Conclusion
surface perpendicularly and forms a splat that comes to
rest as a disc. The observed nal diameter of the disc is In this paper we showed that the sometimes round,
D1,exp. This dimension is compared with the theoretical sometimes crown liquid droplets after impact can be rea-
scale r1 shown in Eq. (13). Table 3 shows very good agree- soned as another manifestation of the constructal law. The
ment between D1,exp and r1 for the rst six cases tested: the owing liquid chooses the conguration that maximizes its
ratio r1/D1,exp is on the order of one for each of the three access, i.e. the architecture that allows it to ow the easiest
liquids. and come to rest the fastest. The choice between round
The seventh case (water) deviates somewhat from this splats and splashing is dictated by the new dimensionless
pattern. The ratio r1/D1,exp is one order of magnitude group G, which physically means a ratio of two length
greater than in the other three cases, meaning that the scales, cf. Eq. (40).
water splat comes to rest as a disc with a radius that is The most important message of this work is that, step by
one tenth of the theoretical scale. This is a sign that the step, the constructal law brings under the tent of construc-
water splat departs from the model on which Eq. (13) is tal theory a sequence of seemingly disconnected phenom-
based. Because D1,exp is smaller than r1, it means that the ena, which until now had only one feature in common:
water splat comes to rest under the action of a mechanism they had deed theory. Next to the examples with which
that is more eective as a transporter of momentum than constructal theory began (turbulence, mud cracks, coales-
the laminar shear ow of Eq. (13). The only more eective cence of solid particles, round blood vessels, river cross-
sections [6,7]), we now see the 23-level hierarchy of the
human lung [8], the hydraulic jump [9], and evolutionary
Table 3 dendritic ow patterns for heat and uid ow [14,15].
Experimental measurements of the nal diameter (D1,exp) of splats that These many examples illustrate the migration that ow
come to rest shaped as a disc, and comparison with the theoretical scale of
geometries exhibit in time, from nonequilibrium ow archi-
Eq. (13) (data from [5])
tectures to the equilibrium ow architectures that corre-
Liquid m r V D D1,exp r1/D1,exp
spond to the existing global constraints [16].
(m2/s) (N/m) (m/s) (mm) (mm)
The list of new applications of the constructal law is
Silicone oil 104 21 0.89 2.84 4.5 1.6
endless and deserves to be explored. Science itself is a ow
Glycerin A 104 63 0.97 2.08 2.7 1.72
Glycerin A 104 63 0.96 2.64 3.9 1.70 architecture, which optimizes itself in time: the list of the
Glycerin B 2 105 64 1.05 1.95 3.4 2.9 unexplained becomes shorter thanks to the big tent oered
Glycerin B 2 105 64 1.98 1.92 4.2 3.14 by the new and successful theory. Only by getting better
Glycerin B 2 105 64 2.75 1.84 5.3 3 (compact, hierarchical, constructal) can observations keep
Water 106 73 0.90 2.71 6.4 10.5
on owing into our nite-size brains. Only by getting better
 A. Bejan, D. Gobin / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 24122419
(compact, hierarchical, constructal) can our brains main-
tain the outow (science, knowledge), in spite of our
nite-size anything (cranium, food, life time).
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the Universities of Paris VI
and Paris XI for inviting AB as a visiting professor at the
FAST Laboratory.
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