Open-circuit voltages (OCV) of various type cells:

Re-Chargeable cells:
Lead Acid: 2.10V/cell to 1.95
NiMH and NiCd: 1.20 V/cell
Li Ion: 3.60 V/cell
Non-re-chargeable (primary) cells:
Alkaline: 1.50 V/cell
Silver-oxide: 1.60 V/cell

Lead Acid Batteries: These are general voltage ranges per cell (for 6 cells)
Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 2.10 V (12.6V) (12 hr. after charging)
Open-circuit at full discharge: 1.95 V (11.7V)
Loaded at full discharge: 1.75 V (10.5V)
Continuous-preservation (float) charging:
2.23 V (13.38V) for gelled electrolyte;
2.25 V (13.5V) for AGM (absorbed glass mat) and
2.32 V (13.92) for flooded cells
1. All voltages are at 20 C (68 F), and must be adjusted for temperature changes. The open-
circuit voltage cannot be adjusted with a simple temperature coefficient because it is non-linear
(coefficient varies with temperature).
2. Float voltage recommendations vary among manufacturers.
3. Precise float voltage (0.05 V) is critical to longevity; insufficient voltage (causes sulfation)
is almost as detrimental as excessive voltage (causing corrosion and electrolyte loss)

Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 2.5 V (15V) for no more than 2 hours. Battery
temperature must be absolutely monitored.
Gassing threshold: 2.4 V (14.4V).

References:
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/charging_the_lead_acid_battery
http://centurionenergy.net/lead-acid-battery-basics
http://www.uuhome.de/william.darden/carfaq16.htm

A fully charged lead acid battery will be at 12.6v at 70 F, this is the open circuit voltage
(OCV), measured after charging and after sitting unused for about 12 hours. If the battery is not
fully charged, then the voltage measured after resting 12 hours will be less than the OCV. If the
battery is being charged, the voltage will float higher than the OCV. If there is a load on the
battery the voltage will go below OCV. The OCV is an important measure of the health and
state of the battery. To get an accurate reading of the battery, it must be disconnected and left
to sit for about a day. This also applies if you are using a hydrometer to measure the specific
gravity. If you need to get a quick reading while charging, you can disconnect the battery and
wait a few seconds before attaching the volt meter. If the battery is above 13.2V then you can
assume it is near a full charge.
 Charging A Lead Acid Battery
A lead acid battery should be charged in three stages: Stage 1 constant-current charge, Stage 2
topping charge and Stage 3 float charge. Stage 1 applies the bulk of the charge and takes up
roughly half of the required charge time. Stage 2 continues at a lower charge current and
provides saturation. Stage 3 (float charge) compensates for the loss caused by self-discharge.
The figure shown below illustrates these three stages.

During Stage 1, the charger is set to the stage 2 voltage, but the charger is also set to a constant
current of 1.0 amps. This means the voltage cannot go over the set stage 2 voltage, but it drops
below that limit to maintain the current at a constant 1.0 amps. The voltage should slowly
increase during stage 1 until it reaches the set voltage limit. At this point the battery is about
70% charged. This takes 5-8 hours.

The switch to stage 2 happens automatically simply by the voltage reaching the voltage limit.
The remaining 30 percent charging happens during the slower stage 2 charging. It takes another
710 hours. During this time the current decreases as the battery charges. This topping charge is
essential for the well-being of the battery and can be compared to a little rest after a good meal.
If deprived, the battery will eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge and the
performance will decrease due
to sulfation (vide infra).

The correct setting of the

voltage limit (stage 2 charge
voltage) is critical and ranges
from 2.30 to 2.45V per cell
(13.8 to 14.7 V). Setting the
voltage limit is a compromise,
and battery experts refer to this
as dancing on the head of a
needle. On one hand, the
battery wants to be fully
charged to get maximum
capacity and avoid sulfation.
On the other hand, an over-
saturated condition causes grid
corrosion on the positive plate
and induces gassing (vide
infra).

To make dancing on the head

of a needle more difficult, the
battery voltage shifts with
temperature. Warmer
surroundings require slightly
lower voltage thresholds and a cold ambient prefers a higher level. Chargers exposed to
temperature fluctuations should include temperature sensors to adjust the charge voltage for
optimum charge efficiency. If this is not possible, it is better to choose a lower voltage for safety
reasons. The following Table compares the advantages and limitations of various set Stage 2
voltage settings.
Stage 2
Voltages

Whereas the voltage settings in the Stage 2 Table above apply to most typical lead acid batteries,
some types of batteries require higher voltage settings. The Stage 2 voltage limit should be set
according to the manufacturers specifications.

Formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the battery is reaching full state-
of-charge (hydrogen on negative plate and oxygen on positive plate).

Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the Stage 2 topping
voltage for more than 48 hours and must be reduced to stage 3 (the float voltage level). This is
especially critical for sealed systems because these systems are less able to tolerate overcharge
than the flooded type. Charging beyond what the battery can take turns the redundant energy into
heat, and the battery begins to gas. The recommended float voltage of most low-pressure lead
acid batteries is 2.25 to 2.27V/cell (13.5 to 13.62V). Manufacturers recommend lowering the
float charge at ambient temperatures above 29C (85F).

Not all chargers feature float charge. If your charger stays on stage 2 topping charge and does
not drop below 2.30V/cell (13.8V), remove the charge after 48 hours of charge to avoid over-
charging, corrosion, and gassing.

Long Term Storage: Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A stage 2
topping charge should be applied every six months to prevent the voltage from dropping below
2.10V/cell (12.6V). With AGM, these requirements can be somewhat relaxed.

Measuring the State of Charge and the Charge Capacity

State of Charge: This is measured as a percentage of the maximum open circuit voltage
OCT (rest) a battery is able to maintain. Measuring the OCV while in storage is the easiest
method of measuring the state of charge (also called the charge level) of a battery. A voltage of
2.10V/cell (12.6V) at room temperature reveals a charge of at least 90 percent. Such a battery is
in good condition and needs only a brief topping charge
prior to use. If the voltage drops below 2.10V/cell
(12.6V), the battery must be charged to prevent
sulfation. The table on the right shows the approximate
state of charge for at-rest voltages measured for a
battery in storage.

Observe the storage temperature when measuring the open circuit voltage. A cool battery lowers
the voltage slightly and a warm one increases it. Using OCV to estimate state-of-charge works
best when the battery has rested for a few hours, because a charge or discharge agitates the
battery and distorts the voltage.

Specific Gravity: An alternative Measure of the State-of-Charge: A hydrometer

can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge. Specific
gravity is used as an indicator of the state of charge of a cell or battery. However, specific gravity
measurements cannot determine a battery's charge capacity. During discharge, the specific
gravity decreases linearly with the ampere-hours discharged as indicated in the illustration
below.
Average Open circuit voltage
Approximate specific 2V 6V 8V 12V
state-of-charge gravity
100% 1.265 2.10 6.32 8.43 12.65
75% 1.225 2.08 6.22 8. 30 12.45
50% 1.190 2.04 6.12 8.16 12.24
25% 1.155 2.01 6.03 8.04 12.06
0% 1.120 1.98 5.95 7.72 11.89

A "Fully Charged Battery":

If a battery shows an OCV (rest) less than 12.6 V after an additional toping charge, or long term
float charging, then the battery is said to be at a100% state-of-charge, but it simply won't hold
as much charge as a healthy battery.

The state-of-charge (measured in %) is NOT the same as the amount of charge (Ah) in a
battery. A "fully charged battery" is a battery that won't take any more charge. The OCV of a
fully charged, healthy battery will be 12.6 V, but less than 12.6V for a damaged battery because
the damaged battery will hold a lower amount of charge.

Capacity (Amp Hours)

The amount of charge in a battery is the number of electrons the battery is holding ready to do
work for you. It is generally measured in terms of coulombs or AmpHours (Ah). (3600
coulombs = 1 Ah, and 1 coulomb is 6.24 x 1018 electrons).

The amount of charge in fully charged battery (100% charge) is called the Charge Capacity of
that battery, and is typically shown as AmpHours (Ah) on the side of the battery. Although
measuring the state-of-charge (%) is easy to do with a volt meter (vidi supra), the Charge
Capacity (Ah) requires a special measuring device called a "charge counter".

The charge counted is used to discharge the battery, and it has a circuit that counts the electric
charge that flows out of the battery. This is not current (amps) nor is it voltage. It is charge,
measured as coulombs, AmpHours, or number of electrons. If you measure the AmpHours of a
fully charged battery, you should see the same Ah value that is printed on the battery. A
decrease in Ah of a fully charged battery is the most sensitive way to detect the decline of a
battery's health.

Battery Problems
(I) Sulfation:
This is the most common battery problem. Any time a battery is used, the charge level drops and
sulfur/lead/oxides (sulfates) are formed. This is a natural part of the electrochemistry of the
process. The sulfurfates stick to the cell plate and, in theory, is returned to sulfuric acid in the
electrolyte solution during re-charging. However, over time the sulfates harden (crystalize) and
stick very hard to the cell plates. This reduces the charge capacity of the cell.

Preventing Sulfation:
The best way to prevent sulfation is to keep a lead-acid battery fully charged because the sulfate
does not form. This can be accomplished three ways. The best solution is to use a charger that is
capable of delivering a continuous "float" charge at the battery manufacturer's recommended
float or maintenance voltage for a fully charged battery.

A second and less desirable method is to periodically recharge the battery when the State-of-
Charge drops to 80% or below. Maintaining a high State-of-Charge tends to prevent irreversible
sulfation. Temperature also matters! Lower temperatures slow down electro chemical reactions
and higher temperatures speed them up. A battery stored at 95 F (35 C) will self-discharge
twice as fast than one stored at 75 F (23.9 C).

Recovering a Sulfated Battery:

Here are three methods to try to recover a badly sulfated battery:

1. Light Sulfation: Check the electrolyte levels and apply a constant current at 2% of the
battery's RC or 1% of the AH capacity rating for 48 to 120 hours at 14.4 VDC or more,
depending on the electrolyte temperature and capacity of the battery. Cycle (discharge to 50%
and recharge) the battery a couple of times and test its capacity. You might have to increase the
voltage in order to break down the hard lead sulfate crystals. If the battery gets above 125 F
(51.7 C) then stop charging and allow the battery to cool down before continuing.

2 Heavy Sulfation: Replace the old electrolyte with distilled, deionized or demineralized water,
let stand for one hour, apply a constant current at four amps at 13.8 VDC until there is no
additional rise in specific gravity, remove the electrolyte, wash the sediment out, replace with
fresh electrolyte (battery acid), and recharge. If the specific gravity exceeds 1.300, then remove
the new electrolyte, wash the sediment out, and start over from the beginning with distilled
water. You might have to increase the voltage in order to break down the hard lead sulfate
crystals. If the battery gets above 125 F (51.7 C) then stop charging and allow the battery to
cool down before continuing. Cycle (discharge to 50% and recharge) the battery a couple of
times and test capacity. The sulfate crystals are more soluble in water than in electrolyte. As
these crystals are dissolved, the sulfate is converted back into sulfuric acid and the specific
gravity rises. This procedure will only work with some batteries.

3. Desulfators: Use a desulfator also known as a pulse charger. A list of some of the desulfator
or pulse charger manufacturers is available at http://www.batteryfaq.org. Much has been said
about pulse charging of lead acid batteries. There are apparent advantages in reducing sulfation.
However, manufacturers and service technicians are divided on the benefits, and the results are
inconclusive.

(II) Over Charged Cells

Over charging occurs when a battery, or a cell within a battery, sees a voltage over the "gassing
voltage" 2.4 V/cell (14.4V). When this happens, chemical reactions occur that were never meant
to occur in a lead acid system. Hydrogen and oxygen gas bubbles are formed (an extremely
explosive mixture). In addition, the electrode plates undergo corrosion. The resulting battery
will not accept a complete charge. The charge capacity declines and the OCV (rest) may be less
than 12.6V. The damage that occurs is not recoverable.

(III) Unbalanced Cells

Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the optimal float charge voltage. In a healthy 12V
battery, there are 6 cells. The float voltage, Vf, is equally distributed between each cell (Vf/6 per
cell). However, a battery with unbalanced cells will not distribute the float voltage equally, and
some cells will be in an over-charging situation while others will be in an undercharging
situation. As a result, some will be gassing and some will be sulfating. A fully charged,
unbalanced 12V battery will show an open circuit voltage (at rest) less than the 12.6 V of a
healthy battery.

Equalizing the Charge in the Cells of a Battery:

An equalization charge can bring all cells back to a similar level. This is done by increasing the
charging voltage to 2.50V/cell (15V) for 2 to 16 hours.

For flooded lead acid batteries, equalization should be done if the specific gravity differences
among the cells is greater than 0.030. The specific gravity should be measured periodically until
the difference at or below 0.030.

For Closed lead acid cells, equalization is more difficult to monitor. Some recommendations
suggest doing an equalization every six months, or after 20 cycles. Others suggest trying
equalization when the OCV (rest) is significantly less than 12.6V. Then, equalization is
continued until OVC (rest) returns to 12.6V or no longer shows an improvement. The battery
temperature should be monitored during equalization, and the process should be stopped if the
battery becomes to hot.