Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Assalamualaikum w.b.t,
Alhamdulillah all praises be to Allah, the most Merciful and beneficent for
bestowing me with the good health and strength, Salawat and Salam to our Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W, the Companion and all believers who follow His path. First and
foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to express my very sincere appreciation
and thankful to my honorable project supervisor, Assistant Professor Dr. Fadly Jashi
Darsivan bin Ridhuan Siradj for his valuable guidance, encouragement and constructive
suggestions during the planning and development of this project. Without him this
project would not be as it is.
i
ABSTRACT
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF TABLES vi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
2.1 Introduction 9
iii
2.2.3 Main components of the air spring 12
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 21
4.1 Introduction 31
iv
4.3.1 Empirical Model of air spring 39
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
5.1 Overview 46
REFERENCES 49
APPENDICES 51
v
LIST OF TABLES Page
vi
LIST OF FIGURES Page
Figure 1.4.2 Air spring model (a) and its equivalent model (b) 8
vii
Figure 4.2.3 Spring 1 Force vs. Displacement graph (20mm/min) 33
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
mm millimeter
N Newton
kN Kilo Newton
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
whereas it can be described as the system that comprise of suspension springs, stabilizers
and vibration dampers. Suspension system has been developed during past years with the
first type of the suspension known as leaf springs before the coil springs typed gradually
being introduced. Suspension system must complete several numbers of tasks which are
essential for the overall function of the chassis. These purposes are not only for the ride
comfort ability, but definitely for the overall safety of the vehicle. The main goals of
having a suspension system in a vehicle aside from improving the ride comfort are to
maximize the friction force between the road surface and wheels as well as providing a
stable steering and good handling. Plus, Heiing, B. & Ersoy, M. (2010) stated that this
system was intended to mitigate impacts from the road surface. Absolutely the road
conditions are far from perfect for a smooth ride. Bumps and potholes on the roads
prompt the wheel to move up and down vertically. In order to control and reduce this, a
device known as shock absorber (damper) plays its roles by went through a process called
as dampening. Shock absorbers reduce the vibratory motion and slow it down by turning
the kinetic energy of vertical movement into heat energy and being dissipated through
1
Additionally, the suspension system makes a quite contribution in helping
vehicles wheel maintain the contact with the roadway as evenly as possible. This is a
prerequisite for an effective force transfer between the tires and the road surface, which is
essential for road gripping, transfer of power, and braking, all of which are important for
Basically, there are two important components of suspension which are steel
springs and dampers. Steel springs can be categorized into three types; leaf springs, bar
springs and helical compression springs (coil springs). Three types of the steel springs can
Fig. 1.1.1: Leaf springs, Coil springs and bar springs [source: auto.howstuffworks.com]
Leaf springs were the first type springs used in vehicle suspension as mentioned
earlier. Multi-layer leaf springs offer a relatively inexpensive, yet great robust and reliable
solution. Today, the combination of conventional leaf springs and a rigid axle can only be
found on a small number of passenger vehicles (mainly SUVs). For commercial vehicles,
however, leaf springs over other types of springs is that leaf spring not only act as a
2
spring element, but they can also be used as a connecting element between the chassis and
the axle and can even control the axle kinematics with respect to the chassis.
Meanwhile, bar spring or simply torsion bar is described as a straight elastic bar
with a rectangular or circular cross section that is weighted mainly by a torsion and
moment. Torsion bar springs and twisted beams are usually functioned as suspension
springs in passenger cars and vans. They can be used in combination with lateral,
Coil springs definitely represent the best idea of spring design for the vertical
suspension of a passenger vehicle. Over time, helical springs almost completely replaced
leaf springs as the main vertical springing component used in modern vehicles. Unlike the
leaf springs, coil spring solely functioning as springing components. Other components
suspension. It can be said that suspension is a device that overcomes any unwanted spring
motion by slowing down or dampening the vibratory motions. In other words, it turns the
kinetic energy of the suspension up and down movement into heat energy that can be
released or dissipated through pressurized hydraulic fluid. Generally, shock absorber can
be indicated as an oil pump mounted in between car body frame and the wheels. The
3
upper part of the shock absorber is connected to the frame which can be modeled as
sprung mass. Meanwhile, the lower part of the shock absorber is connected to the axle,
nearby the wheels and can be modeled as unsprung mass. Figure 1.1.2 shows the
While in Figure 1.1.3, the suspension can be modeled in term of sprung and unsprung
mass.
Fig. 1.1.3: Suspension model as sprung mass and unsprung mass [source:
vibrationacoustics.asmedigitalcollection.org]
4
The suspension eventually works when the wheels hits a bump as it compresses
the suspension and the kinetic energy is stored in the spring and directly after the wheel
pass over the bump, the stored energy earlier wants to flow back and here the damper
plays it roles by dissipating the energy. Additionally, shock absorbers work in two loop
cycles which are the compression cycle and rebound cycle. During compression, the
piston in the shock absorber moves downward compressing the hydraulic fluid in the
chamber beneath the piston. Likewise, the rebound cycle takes place when the piston is
moved upward to top of pressure tube, compressing the working fluid through valves in
the chamber above the piston. Typical passenger cars or lightweight vehicles usually have
Most of the modern shock absorbers are sensitive to velocity. Hence, it can be
concluded that the faster the suspension moves, the more resistance the shock absorber
will behave. So, this makes the shock absorber adjusted to the road conditions and
handling all of the undesired motions that can occur in a moving car, including sway,
Air Suspension
When it comes to improve the ride, comfortability and handling of ones vehicle,
industries have tried everything including the invention of the air suspension. Air
suspension actually nearly serves as conventional shock absorber and can be described as
5
a type of suspension that supports the vehicles on the axles and powered by driven air
pump or compressor (Thiwari, 2009). Instead of having some types of steel spring
including leaf, coil or bar spring arrangement, and air suspension is made up of air spring
where the compressor pumps the air into a flexible bellows or air bag made from high
textile-reinforced rubber.
In this study, the scopes of the project basically to understand the air suspension
For this study, generally there are three main objectives that are expected to be
pressure.
6
1.4 PROJECT OUTCOMES
The study of automotive air suspension is carried out for the reason that it will
stimulates the industry to look more into development of this type of suspension. Besides,
the designated experimental procedures that later on will be explained throughout this
study might help in determining the most important variables that associates with
behavior of air suspension. In this study, the working fluid used in the air spring is simply
compressed air. It will be interesting if there is another study that used another form
working fluid or gases to perform the dampening process aside from compressed air. The
result might be different, but in term of objectives its remain identical which is to reduce
the vibratory motion. By referring to this study, the experimental procedures will be
useful in guiding the further study regarding air suspension. Moreover, this study is
focusing only on passive suspension system. For further research and development of air
suspension, it will be beneficial by having semi-active air suspension since the main idea,
3D CAD Modeling
The 3D CAD from the project also can be modeled using any commercial CAD software.
7
Fig. 1.4.1: 3D CAD modeling of air suspension
In this project, the following 2D model and its equivalent are suppose to be created by
considering both two end plates and the rubber bellow enclose a constant mass of air as
F F
x
P V T M
Equivalent
Pneumatic damper
cylinder
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4.2: Air spring model (a) and its equivalent model (b)
The below plate of air spring is fixed while the upper plate is eligible to move along
vertically axial direction. Force is applied download and the pressure inside the air bag
rose. The product of pressure and effective area of air spring is the spring force.
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERITURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of an overview concept about the automotive air suspension
used in industry. The following includes a brief explanation about the air suspension in
industry, the main components of the air suspension as well as the configuration of the air
suspension system. The information and the review are referred from journals, research
using compressed air in chambers between the wheel and the chassis, replacing steel
springs with a cushion of air. Other than that, air suspension offers lots of advantages in
such ways of reduced weight, adjustable carrying capacity, variable stiffness with almost
noise and other things (Liu, H., and Lee, J. 2011). This lead to the widely usage in many
vehicles industries such as luxury passenger cars, mini-vans and sport utility vehicles
9
Basically, there will be two major variables that should be taken into
consideration when designing a suspension which are damper rate and spring stiffness.
Spring stiffness gives different requirement depending on the condition of the driving.
Hence, while the vehicle is accelerating, braking, change in loads or taking corner, the
stiffness of the spring should be increased so that the dynamic suspension stroke can be
reduced or ride height changes. On the contrary, during the normal riding, the stiffness of
the springs ought to be softer so that the riding will be smoother. Thus, the variable
stiffness is one of the essential properties that need to be achieved in air spring (Liu H.
for Vehicles which consisted of a left and right air spring longitudinally channeled
nearly the length of the vehicle (refer Appendices). Since then, the revolution of the air
suspension is slowly evolved until now. Mercedes Benz has lead in this type of
suspension when Mercedes Benz equipped W112 Chassis series cars, 300SE sedans as
well as Coupes or Cabriolets with the air suspension since 1962. Later on, air suspension
for the model of W109 was improved by having a ride height adjustment feature back
then. Nowadays, the application of air suspension have been implemented in such luxury
cars including the models from Rolls Royce, Lexus, Jeep Grand Cherokee, Cadillac
10
(General Motors), Mercedes-Benz, Land Rover/Range Rover, SsangYong, Audi, Subaru,
Volkswagen, Lincoln and Ford, among others. Most of automotive manufacturers begin
to realize that air suspension has been offering numerous advantages regarding the ride
smoothness, safety and comfort. After the positive feedback using the passive air
suspension, some of the manufacturers put more effort into the air suspension system.
Land Rover, SsangYong and some of Audi, Volkswagen and Lexus models started to
develop the semi active height adjustable air suspension system whereas the driver can
control the desired height and suitable for riding in rough terrain.
in Figure 2.2.2. In addition to the air-filled spring and damper units mentioned before, a
complete air suspension system also requires a sensor which can detect the instantaneous
height of the vehicles body, an electronic control unit, and a compressor unit including a
compressed air tank and valves which control the flow of air pressure in the four spring
units.
11
Air tank
Solenoid
valves
On the other hand, additional components which are normally required to connect a
separate spring and damper set to one another are no longer needed. The damper tube can
serve as the inner pedestal or as a support for the inner support tube of the air spring, and
the upper part of the air spring can be fastened to the ring or pin joint at the end of the
dampers piston rod. This is one of the advantages posses by air spring where damper and
12
2.2.3 Main components of the air spring
Main components of the air springs are labeled and can be seen in Figure 2.2.3.
The description of each part of the air spring has been summarized in Table 2.2.3.
Parts Description
13
Top Plate Connects the air spring to the vehicle chassis.
First Ply One ply fabric reinforced rubber cords at specific bias angle.
Nowadays, for the passive air suspension, there are several types of the air spring
used in most passenger vehicles. In Figure 2.2.4(a), (b), and (c), the visible difference
between each type of the air spring is solely on the shape of the air bags of the air spring.
14
Fig. 2.2.4 (a): Rolling Lobe air spring type [source: globalspec.com]
Fig. 2.2.4 (b): Tapered sleeve air spring type [source: etrailer.com]
15
Fig. 2.2.4 (c): Convoluted air spring type [source: store.gaugemagazine.com]
For the convoluted air spring, in the middle of the air bellow there is a ring called
girdle hoop which is specially designed and made from Aluminum or reinforced wire,
molded into the unit between the convolutions to provide lateral stability.
The shape of the air bags determines its characteristics. Any air bag that is placed
under extreme pressure may lose it shape. Convoluted air bags usually made of heavy-
duty reinforced rubber and sometimes have multiple convoluted chambers. Most of the
convoluted air bags typically larger than tapered sleeve air bags. It gives them more loads
handling capacity and lifting. Furthermore, due to the shape and size, typical convoluted
air spring can lift greater force at lower pressure. Since the convoluted air spring can
withstand higher load, most of this type of air spring usually found in tow trucks, motor
homes, trailers, and heavy-duty vehicles. In the meantime, Tapered sleeve type has a
smaller diameter of the air bag compared to the convoluted type. These air bags are
16
designed to focus on lift as well as ride control. The internal mount sleeve is covered in
by a bag, made of a flexible heavy-gauge rubber or synthetic rubber composite. The bag
is crimped into the spring mount on one end and swaged onto the opposite end, sealing
the contents inside (Lansing, A., 2013). This type of air bag is well-suited for the
applications where the load are light and the space are limited. Most of the applications
In air suspension system, some of the configuration and installation might not be
same and varies among the vehicle models depends on the manufacturers, but the
underlying principle remains identical. Baxter, E. (2012) visualized that, refer to Figure
2.2.2, during the working of the air suspension, the engine-driven air compressor
compresses and supplies the air to the air tank which stored compressed air for the future
use. In the air spring, the compressed air is supplied from the air tank to the air bags
through the pressurized air lines. Since there is a built-in pressure reservoir present, the
flow of the compressed air is equally controlled with solenoid valves. Once the air bag is
filled with the air, it compresses leads to an increase in pressure inside the air bag and
when the air is prolonged, air will come out of the bellows which make the pressure
decreases. These filled and empties mechanism actually determines the riding height of
the vehicles. To that end, since there is increasing in vibratory load, the riding height is
decreases; the stiffness increases and effective volume are decrease as well. As a result,
the effective areas of the air inside air bag increase and lead to increase in load carrying
17
capacity. Meanwhile, when the vibratory load is reduced, definitely the riding height is
increases, the stiffness will reduce and the effective volume will eventually increase. By
that, the effective areas are decreases and thus the load carrying capacity is also reduced
(Liu H. and Lee J., 2011). In this way, within the effective stroke, the spring height,
effective volume and load carrying capacity achieve a smooth flexible transmission
occurs with the increase or decrease of the vibratory load, together with the efficient
control of amplitude and vibratory load. In addition, through the increasing and
decreasing quantity of air-filling, the spring stiffness and load bearing capacity can be
adjusted. It can also be attached to the auxiliary air chamber to achieve self-control.
For the semi active air suspension, there is a valve called Height Control Valve
(HCV) mainly functions as kind of brain to the system where it dictate and direct how
much the air is in the air bags. Thus, it makes the air bags set the vehicle body at desired
height. Meanwhile, the ride height sensors are mounted to the frame of the vehicles to
For the arrangement of air spring, manufactures consider the lateral stiffness of the car. If
the arrangement allows, it should be arranged outside the frame as far as possible to
increase the center distance of the spring as well as improving the lateral stiffness of the
18
vehicle. Some may call the air spring suspension arranged in this way as anti-roll
suspension.
However, some buses are basically installed with the air spring in the position of the car
chassis leaf spring. In this way, whether it is a leaf spring or air spring automobiles, the
position of spring placed is unchanged. Some users call this air spring suspension as
Basically for the suspension system, there are two types of riding height
adjustment configuration which are air bag systems or pneumatic systems and hydraulic
suspension systems. One of the significant differences between both hydraulic and air
suspension is air suspension use an enclosed rubber bag with the series of valves
connected together to an air compressor. It acts as both spring and damper at a time to
adjust ride quality and height. Furthermore, the related valves control the amount of air
that can be filled in each air bag to rise and lowered the car.
and shocks instead of air bellow with pressurized air. In term of the spring stiffness,
hydraulic suspensions offer much stiffer ride compared to air suspensions since hydraulic
fluid is not as compressible as air. The process of raising and lowering are faster than air
19
bag. The following Table 2.5 is a summary of the differences between hydraulic
Appearance
20
Theoretically, air suspension is said to be more comfort. So, by doing this study,
the characteristic and behavior of the air suspension can be obtained to prove the theory.
Besides, since the static test will be carried out, the variable characteristic of the air spring
as well as the stiffness can be determined. Liu H. and Lee J. (2011) found that the
polytrophic exponent value actually gives a huge effect to the spring stiffness and the
effective area is the major factor that affects the characteristic curve of the air
suspension.
Despite numerous studies, opinions on the air suspension system and it principles,
focus on the tapered sleeve type of air spring remains limited. As such, this project has to
sleeve air spring. In the next chapter, every steps, activities and tests that have been
carried out are designed to meet the objectives for this study.
21
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
to achieve the objectives of the study. The following includes a brief explanation about
the activities that are going to be done including the experiment on two typical coil
springs to get the spring stiffness. Later on, designing the jig that hold the suspension for
the test is also being done. After that, the experiments being designed with required
parameters. The static testing also later on is carried out in order to obtain required data.
Lastly, the empirical model regarding this type of air suspension is also being generated
respectively.
Flow chart of the activities involved is figured out in order to meet the objectives of the
study. Every activity that appears in the flow chart is an essential one so that the main
objectives can be achieved. Step by step activities are illustrated as shown in Figure 3.2.
22
Literature Review and development
of the methodology
Data collection of
experiment
23
3.3 JIG PREPARATION
As the part of this study, the jig is initially being developed and designed to
hold the air suspension down so that the suspension is constrained to move only in
vertical direction. In addition, all experiments and tests will be done using the Universal
Testing Machine (Shimadzhu 250 kN) located at Structure Testing laboratory (IIUM).
The required measurements are being taken firstly so that during the designing and
fabrication process, there would not be any mismatch-like problems. The first model of
the jig is designed using CATIA V5 based on dimension obtained before. Figure 3.3.1
represents the whole designed model. While Figure 3.3.2 represents upper part of the jig
that is mounted to the upper testing machine and Figure 3.3.3 represents the designed jig
24
Fig. 3.3.2: 3D CAD modeling of the jig
25
3.4 HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRING TESTS
As the part of the suspension, spring plays vital task in overall suspension system.
Aside from helping the vehicles wheel maintain the contact with the roadway, more
importantly, it protect the vehicles occupants from impact as well as unwanted vertical
displacement, pitch and yaw oscillations. In this study, determining the spring stiffness is
one of the essential parts. Thus, two helical springs are being taken to the structure test
laboratory for the stiffness test. Spring 1 has cross section diameter of 10.1 mm
meanwhile Spring 2 has diameter of 12.2 mm. Later on, the experiment has been
designed first. Generally, the tests are carried out with different speed of compression.
The experiment for these two springs are carried out in different speed test due to
investigate whether there will be any different in the effect of force versus displacement
graph that later on will be plotted and analyzed. By using Universal Testing Machine
(Shimadzhu 250 kN), Figure 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 show both different springs test that have
been conducted.
26
Fig. 3.4.1: Test for spring 1 using Universal Testing Machine
27
After the experiments were done, the force and displacement data are collected.
Since the maximum stroke has been restricted to only 60 mm, the force data collected
only from 0mm to 60mm range. The force versus displacement graph for each speed test
The main idea of having the static experimental test is to know the static stiffness
of the air suspension. Furthermore, Tapered Sleeve type of air spring is going to be used
and tested throughout the study. Figure 3.5.1 demonstrates the schematic diagram of the
experiment, Figure 3.5.2 shows the pre-setup of components before experiment and
Figure 3.5.3 depicts the experimental setup for the static test.
28
Fig. 3.5.2: Pre-setup of the components
29
Based on the diagrams, the air suspension is placed on the damper testing machine
with the upper fixture fabricated earlier and bottom parts of the suspension is held by the
clamper. The upper part of the testing machine equipped with load cell connecting
measures the air spring force. Regulator regulates the amount of air that pass through
pipeline at certain desired pressure and the pressure gauge measures the inlet air pressure
just before the air enters the air spring. Meanwhile, 3-way manual control valve is used to
control the flow in and out of compressed air into the air spring using a lever manually.
The static test for the air suspension has been performed with initial pressure of 2, 4, 6, 8,
and 10 bar respectively. It also being set that the actuator movement speed is 0.2 mm/s in
order to meet the condition of static test. After that, the static characteristics can be
30
CHAPTER 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
After all the experiments have been carried out, the result obtained will be discussed. First
test involving two helical compression springs (coil spring) was analyzed. The force
versus displacement graph was generated from the data obtained. Then, the static test was
carried out to obtain the static stiffness of the air spring. The data collected are used to
plot force versus displacement graph and static stiffness versus displacement graph. The
After the tests for both springs have been done, the force versus displacement
graphs for each springs have been plotted with different test speeds. Figure 4.2.1, 4.2.2
and 4.2.3 shows the force versus displacement graph for spring 1 with diameter of 10.02
mm.
31
Force(N) Force vs Displacement for 5mm/min
450
400
y = 6.8156x - 2.116
350
300
250
Force
200
150
Linear (Force)
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-50
Displacement (mm)
32
Force(N) Force vs Displacement for 20mm/min
450
400
y = 6.9238x - 0.6238
350
300
250 Force N
200
Linear (Force N)
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-50
Displacement (mm)
Obviously, from the graph plotted for each test speed, when can see that force is almost
linear with the displacement. This shows that the spring 1 has a linear stiffness regardless
the test speed. Figure 4.2.1 shows that for the test speed of 5 mm/min, the maximum force
for the stroke of 60 mm is around 406 N. Means that, to be able to displace the spring to
60mm, the required force is 406 N. The slope from the graph directly gives the spring
constant or the stiffness which is 6.8156 N/mm. In Figure 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, the maximum
force for 60 mm stroke is around 415 N and the stiffness for 10 mm/min and 20 mm/min
are 6.9614 N/mm and 6.9238 N/mm respectively. Clearly from the result obtained, the
spring stiffness did not change much with variable test speed. Table 4.2.1 summarized the
33
Table 4.2.1: Summary of the spring 1 result
In the meantime, Figure 4.2.4, 4.2.5 and 4.2.6 illustrates the graph of force versus
displacement for Spring 2 for each 5mm/min, 10mm/min, and 20mm/min test speed.
y = 7.2831x - 23.671
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Displacement (mm)
-100
34
Force (N) Force vs Displacement for 10mm/min
500
y = 7.3711x - 21.129
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Displacement (mm)
-100
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
35
For the spring 2, from the graph plotted for each test speed, when can see that
force is also almost linear with the displacement. This shows that the spring 2 also has a
linear stiffness regardless the test speed. Figure 4.2.4 shows that for the test speed of 5
mm/min, the maximum force for the stroke of 60 mm is around 432 N. Means that, to be
able to displace the spring to 60mm, the required force is 432 N. This is acceptable since
the inner and outer diameter of the Spring 2 is larger than Spring 1. The stiffness for the
spring is 7.2831 N/mm. On the other hand, in Figure 4.2.5 and 4.2.6, the maximum forces
for 60mm stroke are 438 N and 439 N respectively. Meanwhile, the stiffness for
10mm/min and 20mm/min are 7.3711 N/mm and 7.3997 N/mm respectively. The
conclusion is, the spring stiffness also did not change much with variable test speed for
the Spring 2. Summary of the stiffness for each test speed is illustrated in Table 4.2.2.
36
4.3 STATIC EXPRIMENTAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
For static experiment test, from the experiments were conducted, it is expected
that the result that can be drawn from the static test is; the stiffness for the air suspension
definitely varied as it travel in vertical direction. The force versus displacement for static
test showed some variability since it is nonlinear spring. Figure 4.3.1 illustrates force
12000
10000
P ini.=2bar
P ini.=4bar
8000
P ini.=6bar
6000 P ini.=8bar
P ini.=10bar
4000
2000
0
0 0.3 0.7 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Displacement (mm)
37
As such, the result depicts the force (N) versus displacement (mm) graph
represents the compression cycle for the air spring. Consequently, it was found that the
compression of the gas took place quite slowly. The result clearly indicates that the initial
forces for each initial pressure to compress the air spring are higher and greater than coil
springs. This is due to the preloaded pressure created inside the air spring even when the
air spring is not yet being undergone compression cycles, the initial force already there.
Firstly, for the initial inlet pressure of 2 bar, the required force started to displace
the air spring around 24.23 N to be able to displace the air spring and then it significantly
increase up until 2629.03 N for maximum force of full 40 mm displacement. Then, for the
initial pressure of 4 bar, the starting force is 106.345 N and the maximum force is
4187.41 N. It is followed by initial pressure of 6 bar where the starting force to compress
the air spring is 363. 79 N and maximum force required is 6301.37 N. Meanwhile, for 8
bar of initial pressure, it is found that the initial force is 605.691 N and the maximum is
8198.56 N respectively. The last initial inlet pressure tested which is the highest with 10
bar recorded 1200.342 N of starting compressive force and ended with maximum force of
10861.39 N.
38
In the meantime, Figure 4.3.1 also directly indicates the variability of the stiffness
characteristic of the air spring for static condition. Obviously, it can be concluded that the
forces required are non-linear to displacement. Besides, it can be seen that for the first 20
indicates how the stiffness of the air changed due to pressure inside the air bag as it resists
the force on it and act like a spring. It also shows that, the higher pressure needs higher
Hence, from the force-displacement graph plotted before, the right empirical model can
be extracted from the curves. For this study, the model fitting technique is used to find the
appropriate model for each initial pressure of air spring. Basically model fitting technique
is a method of finding a function that is as close as possible to containing all the data
points. Such function is also called a regression curve. (Vas, L., n.np). Thus, Table 4.3.1
gives an overview of the suggested empirical model of air spring for each initial inlet
pressure.
39
Table 4.3.1: Curve functions with coefficient of determination for regression curves
Coefficient of
Initial inlet Curve functions
determination
pressure (bar)
(R2)
For the model fitting, Microsoft Excel 2007 is used to find the respective
regression curves for each initial pressure. For simplicity, polynomial with third order
function is used as it provides enough information and suitable for the curves plotted. For
sure to get a better equation the higher order function can be implied. Moreover, there is a
variable used to monitor the validity of the model which known as coefficient of
percent where It gives you an idea of how many data points fall within the results of the
line formed by the regression equation. The R2 values usually in range of [0, 1] which
indicate how close the data points to be correctly on the polynomial regression curve.
40
Plus, if R2 of ones model is closer to 1, it is reliable and if it is closer to 0, then the other
model should be determined. Most of the R2 values are quite nearly to value 1 which it is
reliable for being accepted as an empirical model. As being tabulated, the best model is
regression curve of 8.0 bar inlet pressure with R2=0.9421; it is followed by curve of 2.0,
4.0, 6.0 bar inlet pressure. The least regression curve indicates 10.0 bar inlet pressure with
R = 0.767. From the table, it is clearly shows that every curve gives a good indication
Nevertheless, from the curve fitting technique, the curve function equation can be
used to find the stiffness of each initial pressure of the air spring. By differentiate the
curve function F=F(x), the stiffness ( = ) for the air spring can be obtained where x is
the distance travelled. Thus, Figure 4.3.2 illustrates the air spring stiffness versus
displacement graph.
41
Static Stiffness versus displacement
900
800
700
2bar
Air Spring Stiffness (N/mm)
600
4bar
500
6bar
400
8bar
300
10bar
200
100
0
0.1 0.5 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
-100
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4.3.2 shows the result of differentiating force with respect to displacement.
The static stiffness is calculated under different initial inlet pressure. For initial pressure
of 2 bar, the starting force needed to displace the air spring produce the stiffness around
83.672 N/mm. As the air spring traveled, the stiffness is gradually decreased before it
reached the lowest stiffness which is around 17.268 N/mm before it rapidly increased up
to 89.344 N/mm. Meanwhile for the highest initial pressure of 10 bar, the stiffness started
at 226.18 N/mm with the lowest of 19.2928 N/mm before reached 298.18 N/mm of
42
Other than that, overall curves show the quadratic-typed of graph. The last 20 mm
said that the air spring is getting stiffer which good for prevent rolling while vehicles
perform braking or cornering. Besides, the graph clearly indicates that there is a lowest
area for each pressure within the displacement range. This means that at this particular
displacement, the air spring is soft which is good for normal maneuvering. This is
consistent with Liu H. and Lee J. (2011) which claimed that if the air spring stiffness is
low, it has lower natural frequency that can help in reducing vibration.
On one hand, the stiffness of the air spring actually changing based on the
compressed air volume inside the air bellow as well as the diameter of the air bellow
itself. This is proved by Prof. Dr. Gavriloski V., and Jovanova J. (n.p) and Liu H. and Lee
J. (2011) which reported that the changes in the stiffness present when both internal
pressure and air bag size change. Therefore, one of the factors influenced the sensitivity
of the spring stiffness is the effective area of the cross section. Effective area as defined
by Firestone Industrial Company (2003) is the load carrying area of the air spring. Its
diameter is determined by the distance between the centers of the radius of curvature of
the air spring loop. (p. 38).So, the effective area of the air spring can be considered as an
43
average value for the outer diameter of air bellow and piston diameter inside the air bag.
Figure 4.3.3 shows how the effective area is found together with the formula.
Fig. 4.3.3: Finding the effective area of air spring [source: Firestone Industrial Company]
The pressure inside the air bellow consequently affects the outer diameter of the
air bellow. Thus, the higher the pressure inside the air bellow the bigger the diameter will
be. In order to find the effective area for this air spring, the initial pressures and force
required are used to calculate the approximation of the effective area. As such, this is
measured output force of the spring by the measured internal gauge pressure obtains the
correct effective area. In many cases, this is the only practical way to obtain it. (p. 7).
Nevertheless for this study, due to limited fund to acquire a pressure sensor to
measure the actual pressure inside the air bag, it only can be assumed that the effective
area of air spring will be increased as it travels. Higher pressure provides bigger effective
area of the air spring. This behavior indicates that the gas inside air bellow is the
medium which is responsible for the elasticity of the complete setup since it fulfills the
44
most important tasks (spring rate) its properties are predominantly important for the
behavior of the whole suspension system (Bauer, W., 2011). This clearly suggests that as
the sensitivity of the stiffness influenced by effective area as the pressure rise, the
effective diameter will be bigger. From the findings, it also can be concluded that the
variability of the stiffness provided by the air spring gives them an ability to vary load
capacities easily by play around with the gas pressure to compliment the desirable ride.
In general, the process involves in this study is compressed volume with air flow
process whereas the pressure is changes. Basically, the condition applied when the load is
added or removed from above the air spring cover. This is different for dynamic
operation, where the pressure, volume and temperature are instantaneously changing and
undergo polytrophic process as it present the actual compression and expansion curves. In
real life situation, when the load is added or removed, the height control valve operates to
add or remove sufficient air in the air spring to maintain the set air spring overall height.
Consequently it increases or decreases the pressure inside air spring and the amount
needed to provide the required lifting force to match the downward direction force
created by the new load condition, and then equilibrium can be reached again.
45
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
5.1 OVERVIEW
order to deeply understand air suspension characteristics, the static and dynamic
experiments must be implemented on the air spring thoroughly so that it can be applied
on the vehicles respectively. Throughout this study, the following conclusion can be
drawn.
Static stiffness of the air spring ought to be varied along with the pressure and
displacement. This actually matches the theoretical statement that air spring
The empirical model of air spring can be generated by curve fittings whilst it
Air volume and pressure are important factors that largely affect air spring
characteristics.
Air spring static stiffness is sensitive to the effective area of the cross section and
46
The bottom line for this study is that the versatility of an air spring simply provides
more advantage over a coil-type since it has the ability to change suspension setup
The characteristic of the air spring definitely open a new chapter of the
automotive suspension industry. Besides, the nearest future work that can be done is the
study on the dynamic stiffness of the air spring which will be far more complicated and
Other than that, since the stiffness of the air spring depends on pressure inside the
air bag, it is recommended to have a force adjustable for air suspension. This might be
achieved by having another control unit focusing on adjusting the air suspension to meet
the desired ride. Other than that, for this study, the 3-way manual control valve is used.
So, it would be very helpful if the experiment use any proportional or solenoid valve in
the study.
47
Nowadays in industry, for all four air suspensions mounted on each side of front
and rear axles, the air is supplied merely from an air tank. The pressure lines for each air
suspension are also quite long. This is actually leaded to some pressure loss along the way
to reach the air bags. It is recommended that for each one of the air suspension, they have
their own air supply. This is actually made the air suspension more accurate in
determining the height of the vehicle as well as avoiding any pressure loss.
48
REFERENCES
1. L. Hao & L. Jaecheon. 2011. Model Development of Automotive Air Spring Based on
Experimental Research. pp. 585-590.
2. William H. Humphreys. 1901. Pneumatic Spring for Vehicles, Patented No. 673682.
7. Bauer, W. 2011. Hydro pneumatic Suspension systems, chapter 2: Spring and Damping
Characteristics of Hydro pneumatic Suspension Systems. pp. 20-22.
Retrieved on 6/6/2014 from
http://www.springer.com/978-3-642-15146-0
8. S. J. Lee. 2002. Development and analysis of an air spring model. International Journal of
Automotive Technology. No. 4. pp. 471-479.
49
9. Heiing, B. & Ersoy, M. 2010. Chassis Handbook, chapter 3: Chassis components
Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components, Mechatronics, Perspective. pp. 226-264.
10. M. S. M. Sani, M.M. Rahman, M.M.Noor, K. Kadirgama & M. R. M. Rejab. 2008. Study
on Dynamic Characteristics of Automotive Shock Absorber System. Malaysian
Science and Technology Congress, MSTC08, 16-17 Dec 2008, KLCC, Malaysia.
11. Andale. 2012. Coefficient of Determination: What it is and How to Calculate it.
Retrieved on 5/6/2014 from
http://www.statisticshowto.com/what-is-a-coefficient-of-determination/
12. Giuseppe, Q. & Massimo, S. 2001. .Air suspension Dimensionless Analysis and Design
Structure, Vehicle System Dynamics, No. 6. pp. 443-475.
13. Ass. Prof. Dr. Gavriloski, V. & Jovanova, J. (n, n.p). Dynamic behavior of an air spring
element.
Retrieved on 5/6/2014 from
http://www.mech-
ing.com/journal/Archive/2010/4_5/1.Mashini/75_gavriloski.mtm10.pdf
14. Cunningham, R. 2012. What a Negative Spring is and why it makes the Coil-Spring
Nearly Obsolete.
Retrieved on 22/5/2014 from
http://www.pinkbike.com/news/Tech-Tuesday-negative-spring-air-shocks-2012.html
15. Lane, K. 2002. Automotive A-Z: Lane's Complete Dictionary of Automotive Terms.
Veloce Publishing Ltd. p 22.
16. Firestone Industrial Products Company. 2003. Airide Design Guide: Suspension
applications.
Retrieved on 5/6/2014 from
http://www.firestoneip.com/site-resources/fsip/literature/pdf/AirideDG.pdf
50
APPENDICES
51
a) William W Humphrey first air suspension patent (No. 673682), Pneumatic
spring for vehicle
52
b) Force-displacement curve of static for 2 bar initial pressure
500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
53
d) Force-displacement curve of static for 6 bar initial pressure
Force (N)
6 bar pressure force vs displacement
7000
6000
5000
2000
P ini.=6bar
1000
Poly. (P ini.=6bar)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)
54
f) Force-displacement curve of static for 10 bar initial pressure
12000
y = 0.5612x3 - 36.154x2 + 731.85x + 4086.2
R = 0.767
10000
8000
6000 P ini.=10bar
Poly. (P ini.=10bar)
4000
2000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)
200
150
2bar
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
displacement (mm)
55
Stiffness
(N/mm)
4 bar static stiffness vs displacement
400
350
300
250
200 4bar
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
-50
displacement (mm)
600
500
400
300 6bar
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-100
56
j) Static stiffness-displacement curve for 8 bar
Stiffness
(N/mm) 8 bar static stiffness vs displacement
900
800
700
600
500
400 8bar
300
200
100
0
-100 0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)
57