INLAND AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

Chapter 1. Considerations in the Selection of Sites for

Aquaculture
J. Kvri
Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations
Rome, Italy

1. INTRODUCTION
2. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SITE SELECTION
3. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
The success of an aquaculture project depends to a large extent on the proper selection of the
site to be developed into a fish farm or hatchery. A substantial number of papers have been
published in the past on the subject of site selection for both freshwater and brackishwater
farms. In compiling this paper, the author has made an attempt to summarize all the factors to
be considered and the investigations to be carried out for the selection of sites for aquaculture
projects.

2. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SITE SELECTION

2.1 Ecological factors

2.2 Biological and operational factors
2.3 Economic and social factors

In order to select a suitable site for aquaculture, the following factors have to be considered on
the site (Pillay, 1977).

2.1 Ecological factors

2.1.1 Water supply
2.1.2 Water quality
2.1.3 Climate
2.1.4 Hydrological characteristics
2.1.5 Soil characteristics
2.1.6 Land

2.1.1 Water supply

An assured water supply of sufficient quantity and adequate quality is the most important factor
to be considered when deciding on the suitability of a fish pond site. Therefore, the
investigations for a proper water source should be most thoroughly conducted in site selection.
The statement of the Irrigation Division or other Water Authority for the required amount of water
to the ponds or the hatchery, and any restriction on water supply to the fish farm (for example,
periods of maintenance in an irrigation channel), must be acquired.

The source of water may be an irrigation canal, river, creek, reservoir, lake, spring, rainfall runoff
and dug or deep wells. Water can be supplied via feeder channel, storage tank or pipeline by
gravity or by pumping to the ponds. The most economical method is by gravity. For a pond built
in suitable soil, the minimum supply of water should be 5 l/sec/ ha of pond throughout the year.

If rainfall runoff is to be used, and stored in a reservoir to supply the ponds, a ratio of 10 to 15
ha of catchment area to 1 ha of pond is required if the catchment area is pasture; a slightly
higher ratio is needed for woodland, and less for land under cultivation (Hora, 1962).

The drainage possibility of the ponds should be carefully investigated during the site selection.
Gravity drainage of the ponds is preferable. For draining a pond by gravity, its bottom should be
at a level higher than that which the maximum water table reaches during the harvesting periods
in a normal year.

2.1.2 Water quality

Quality of water is one of the most significant factors to be considered in site selection. It should
be investigated by taking a number of water samples from the proposed water source for
laboratory analyses of physical, chemical, biological and micro-biological properties, including
health hazards. Water test procedures should be in accordance with the relevant Standard
Classification in the country on water quality. From a production point of view, emphasis should
be placed on the following:

(i) physical properties - temperature, colour, odour, turbidity, transparency, suspended solids.

(ii) chemical properties - pH, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, free carbon
dioxide, alkalinity, salinity, dissolved solids, ammonia, all as regards both useful and toxic
qualifies; also whether pollutants of agricultural or industrial origin are present, and if so, to what
extent.

(iii) biological properties - quality and density of plankton. (iv) micro-biological properties -
species and quantity of parasites.
2.1.3 Climate

Important climatological factors to be obtained from the meteorological station nearest to the
site are as follows:

- mean monthly temperature

- mean monthly rainfall
- mean monthly evaporation
- mean monthly humidity
- mean monthly sunshine
- mean monthly wind speed and direction

Obviously, the longer the period of record, the better the data will be.

Information on the pattern of precipitation (maximum in any 24 hours) and incidence of high
winds, heavy storms or cyclones, should be considered. The incidence and amount of damage
caused by storms or earthquakes in the project area should also be noted.

2.1.4 Hydrological characteristics

The most important data needed for site selection can be gathered from such sources as
Irrigation Departments or other Water Authorities. The following are needed:

data for discharge, yield, floods and water elevations of existing water sources (rivers, irrigation
channels, reservoirs, springs, etc.).
2.1.5 Soil characteristics

Field investigations to determine surface and sub-surface soil conditions at the site should be
made as early as possible. Often money can be saved if proper soil explorations are made
before the site is procured. They may reveal soil conditions undesirable for pond construction, in
which case another site may have to be found. Investigations should be carried out in order to
ascertain the suitability of soil both for construction and operation of ponds.

For engineering purposes, the techniques used for soil investigations vary from relatively simple
visual inspection to detailed sub-surface exploration and laboratory tests. Visual inspection of
the site is an essential preliminary step. In order to provide data on sub-surface soils, a test pit
measuring 0.801.50 m with a depth of 1.50 to 2.0 m, depending on the land form and the
elevation of the water table, should be dug in each hectare of the site. Digging of a test pit
permits visual examination of soil and also makes it possible to obtain disturbed and
undisturbed samples of soils encountered in the different layers below ground level.

Soils have characteristics that can easily be determined by sight and feel. Visual examinations
are employed in place of precise laboratory tests to define the basic soil properties. A sandy clay
to clayey loam is the best type of soil both for pond construction and growing natural foods at
the pond bottom. Areas with a layer of organic soil over 0.60 m in thickness are unsuitable for
any kind of fish pond, because it would be difficult to maintain water levels in the ponds due to
high seepage; also, it would be necessary to transport suitable soils for dike construction to the
site, and this will be costly. Big surface stones or rock outcrops may make an area unsuitable for
anything except lined ponds or concrete raceways.
In general, a site will be suitable for construction of fish ponds if soils below the proposed pond
bottoms have a grain-size curve which can be plotted to the left side of the grain-size curve A in
Figure 1, together with a coefficient of permeability less than k = 5 10-6 m/sec. Dikes without
any impervious clay core may be generally built from soils having grain-size curves plotted
between the grain-size curves A and B in Figure 1 or having a coefficient of permeability
between k = 5 10-6 and 1 10-4 m/sec (MI., 1972).

Figure 1. Semilogarithmic grain-size curves of soils

Clay used for impervious core in the dike should have a liquid limit < 80 percent, a plastic limit <
20 percent, and a plasticity index > 30 percent. On the other hand, using the boundary
classification, the following soil groups are suitable for dike construction as follows (IS, 1970).

Stability of dike Permeability cm/sec

GM Reasonably stable; may be used for impervious cores or blankets 10-3 to 10-6

GC Fairly stable; may be used for impervious cores 10-6 to 10-8

SM Fairly stable; may be used for impervious cores or dikes 10-3 to 10-6

SC Fairly stable; use for impervious cores 10-6 to 10-8

ML, MI Poor stability; may be used for dikes with proper control 10-3 to 10-6

CL, CI Stable; impervious cores and blankets 10-6 to 10-8

CH Fair stability with flat slopes; used for cores, blankets and dike sections 10-6 to 10-8

For production purposes, a chemical analysis of the soil should be conducted by using
representative samples from the different layers found in the test pits. In general, the pH,
available nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, organic carbon and nitrate, etc., are
determined by chemical analysis of soil.

2.1.6 Land

It should be confirmed that the proposed land area is suitable. The general conformation of the
land should be with slopes not steeper than 2 percent. If wasteland, unsuitable for agriculture or
other direct use, is selected for a project, the cost of the land will be low. Land elevation and
flood level are important factors in determining the suitability of the area for the construction of a
fish farm or hatchery. The land should be free from deep flooding; the maximum flood level for
the past 10 years should not be higher than the top of the dikes. Observation of the marks left
by flood waters on bridges or other structures at the site, or questioning of local people, may
give information about the expected heights of floods. The shape and size of available land
should be considered: land with a regular shape and extensive enough for future expansion is
ideally suitable for a fish farm. It is very important to know the development plans for the area as
it would be unwise to select a site for a project in a region where future industrial activity may
cause air and water pollution. Similarly, if a site is adjacent to a heavily populated area, the risk
of pollution should be borne in mind. However, some industrial and agricultural wastes may be
utilized in fish farming. In such cases, special investigations should be conducted on their
utilization or required treatment.

Underground utilities crossing the site (oil pipelines, etc.) may render otherwise good sites
unsuitable for a project. Generally, high electric power poles, radio masts and the like are not
allowed in the pond area.

The type and density of vegetation depend partly on the land elevation. Vegetation is also an
indicator of soil types and of the elevation of the water table. The type and density of vegetation,
its size and the root systems of trees largely determine the method of clearing the site and,
therefore, the construction time and cost.

Grassland, abandoned paddy fields, open woodland or land covered with low shrubs and
bushes allow cheaper construction than land with very thick jungle or swampy areas with high
trees. However, in the cyclone belt or in areas where strong winds are frequent, it is very
important to have a wide and high windbreak of thick vegetation against the direction of the
prevailing wind.

2.2 Biological and operational factors

Before a site can be selected for a project, the following should be ascertained:

- species to be cultured
- resources and availability of stocking materials (spawners, fry or fingerlings)
- type of project
(i) small-scale rural project
(ii) large-scale rural project

- system of culture adopted

(i) extensive
(ii) semi-intensive
(iii) intensive

- operational method

(i) monoculture
(ii) polyculture
(iii) integrated

- production target
- estimated size of area required.

2.3 Economic and social factors

The most important economic and social factors are as follows:

- development plans for the project area

- ownership, availability of land and land values, land regulations and rights, as well as any legal
restrictions relating to land

- proximity to all-weather road connections

- availability of electricity, telephone or radio connections, as well as unit power cost

- availability of equipment, services and supplies needed for running the project

- availability of construction materials

- location of markets for the produce and determination of demand

- availability of organic and artificial fertilizers, drugs and chemical materials

- availability of supplementary feeds

- costs of equipment, materials, feeds, etc. needed for running the project

- availability of suitable transport facilities

- availability of ice for marketing

- availability of staff with adequate experience of pond management

- availability of skilled and semi-skilled labourers

- reasonable amenities for permanent staff, for example, schools, shopping facilities, hospital,
etc.

- information on the local financing methods or credits

- political realities

3. REFERENCES
Hora, S.L. and T.V.R. Pillay, 1962. Handbook on fish culture in the Indo-Pacific region. FAO
Fish. Tech. Pap.. (14):204 p.

Indian Standard, 1970. Classification and identification of soils for general engineering
purposes. New Delhi, Indian Standards Institution; (IS:1498-1970):24 p.

Pillay, T.V.R., 1977. Planning of aquaculture development - an introductory guide. Farnham,

Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, 72 p.

Szabvnygyi Hivatal, 1972. Mszaki irnyelvek (MI:15218-53) Vizpits - Foldgtak tervezsi

irnyelvei. (Hungarian Standard (MI:15218-53) Planning Standard of earthfill dams for hydraulic
engineering). Budapest, Szabvnygyi Hivatal; 5 p.

Chapter 2. Hydrological Information for Design and

Operation of Agriculture Systems
Gy. Kovcs and A. Szllsi-Nagy
Research centre for Water Resources Development
Budapest, Hungary

1. TYPE OF INFORMATION NEEDED FOR DESIGN AND OPERATION

2. HYDROLOGICAL FORECASTING FOR OPERATION PURPOSES
3. DETERMINING DESIGN PARAMETERS
4. DETERMINATION OF AREAL PRECIPITATION
5. THE REGIME OF SOIL MOISTURE
6. EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
7. GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS ARISING IN CONNECTION WITH AQUACULTURE
STRUCTURES
1. TYPE OF INFORMATION NEEDED FOR DESIGN AND OPERATION
Water is one of the continuously renewable natural resources of the globe. The large cycle of
the hydrosphere (the natural hydrological cycle) includes the evaporation of water from the
surfaces of the oceans and the continents into the atmosphere, its return to the land-surface in
the form of precipitation, and the surface and subsurface runoff conveying the water back to the
lake basins, seas and oceans. It establishes a connection between the other spheres of the
earth and it is an important component of the human environment (Figure 1). Economic
development has created a second smaller cycle of water inside society. Water is taken out from
natural resources, utilized in various forms and the effluents, having in most cases a modified
quality, are released into the environment. The social cycle of water (water management)
includes also those actions which modify the natural runoff to protect society against the harmful
effects of water, including floods, erosion, and pollution.

Hydrology is a branch of water science describing the transport and storage of water through
the cycles as well as the interactions between the water and its environment. Its task is to
provide water management with information needed for designing and operating aquaculture
structures and systems. These systems modify the natural water regime according to the
requirements of society, to avoid damages and to best utilize the water. Hence all users of
water, aquaculture among them, need hydrological information produced by collecting and
processing hydrological data as well as by analysing the processes described by these data.

Considering the task of hydrology, it is evident that not only the natural processes have to be
analysed, but the modification of the water regime due to human intervention must also be
investigated. Data from both the natural hydrological cycle and the use of water in the social
sphere, therefore, should be collected and evaluated. The description of a water regime
includes not only the determination of the quantities transported and stored, but also the
qualitative properties of water. Hence the hydrological information systems must provide data
about the instantaneous condition of and the expected changes in water quantity and quality.

The information provided can be divided into two groups:

(i) Forecasts, prepared to inform the operators of existing hydraulic systems on the present
condition of hydrological processes already in motion and the expected further development of
these processes in a relatively short period (real time forecasting).

(ii) Information required for planning, designing and constructing aquaculture structures and
systems. This is composed of data on the extreme or average conditions of the hydrological
processes expected to develop in the future without any limitation of time, other than the life
span of the systems (design values).

In both cases forecasts have to be calculated from the hydrological data observed in the past.
The basic difference between the two types of analysis is that in the first case the further
development of a process started already is estimated and the actual time point of the
occurrence of the predicted condition is determined, while the design values are calculated by
using statistical methods and analysing long records without indicating the time of the
development of the average or extreme conditions. Hence hydrological investigations providing
the basis of forecasting, and the determination of design values, together with the utilization of
their results, should be discussed separately.

There is another aspect which can be used to sub-divide the hydrological analysis, i.e., the
character of the processes. From this point of view the analysis, and the application of the
information is basically different depending on where and how the data are gathered:

(i) Transport processes developing in the network of rivers with data measured at sections of the
river, which are used for problems of water conveyance, sediment transport, and transport of
dissolved solids.

(ii) Areally distributed processes maintaining water exchange between the various water
horizons and measured in the form of point values within the catchment such as precipitation,
evapotranspiration, and infiltration.

Figure 1. Natural and social hydrological cycles

Hydrological information needed for planning, design, construction and operation of any
structures and systems of aquaculture is summarized in Table 1, which follows:

Table 1 Hydrological Information needed for Operation and Design of Aquaculture Systems
 Areally distributed processes Linear transport processes in rivers
(vertical water exchange) (horizontal transport)

Information for the operation of quantitative forecast of continuous forecasting of discharge and
aquaculture systems (real time precipitation water level
forecast)

forecast of critical flood forecasting

meteorological conditions (e.g.,
storm forecasting)

danger of accidental pollution

Determination of design data design parameters of climatic mean and variance of both the multi-
for planning and design of data annual averages and the expected
structures and systems extreme values of discharge and water
level

area-depth-distribution of expected development of water quality

precipitation and its relationship with water quantity
and climatic data

areal average of
evapotranspiration

regime of soil moisture

balance of shallow ground-

water

2. HYDROLOGICAL FORECASTING FOR OPERATION PURPOSES

2.1 Forecasting on Headwaters and Small Rivers

2.2 Forecasting the Regime of Large Rivers
Forecasts of flow volumes and water elevation are essential to making the most efficient use of
rivers and in minimizing damage due to floods. On rivers uncontrolled by dams and reservoirs,
the river forecast is the basis of flood warnings, permitting removal of people, livestock and
movable goods from the flood plain, and reinforcement of fixed river structures, such as bridges.
On rivers controlled or partially controlled by dams built for power production, water supply,
irrigation or flood control, reliable river forecasts permit operation of the dams for maximum
benefit. River forecasts are essential to the reconciliation of joint use of reservoir capacity for
water supply and flood control purposes. The flood control capacity in some cases must always
be available to store flood runoff, or in other cases the reservoir must be drawn down in
advance of a flood, to a level which will permit accommodation of the anticipated flood volume.
When a flood occurs the reservoir is restored to its normal supply level. Accurate forecasts are
obviously essential because, if the reservoir is lowered too much and the water supply level
cannot be restored after the flood, the water users may be short of water. Contrarily, if not
lowered enough, more water may have to be discharged than would have been necessary and
flood damage may result.

All potential users of rivers can benefit from reliable river forecasts. Efficient operation of multi-
purpose reservoirs and issuance of flood warnings, navigation and pollution control benefits can
accrue. On some rivers bearing heavy pollution loads, regulation agencies have insisted on
many industries and municipalities developing storage facilities to enable them to discharge
wastes into rivers only when flows are great enough to give safe dilutions of the effluent.
Forecasts of likely flows a day or two in advance permit scheduling of effluent discharge to
minimize storage requirements and still keep pollution concentrations below a safe level.

Hydrological forecasting is, by definition, the prediction of the occurrence of a hydrological event
specified both with respect to its quantitive measure and its actual time of occurrence. The
following classification is made according to the purpose of a forecast:

Quantity Quality

Forecast of extreme situations Flood, low-flow, ice, droughts Sudden pollution

Continuous real-time forecast of possible future states General purpose, for operation and control

On headwater tributaries and drainage areas smaller than a few thousand square kilometres,
precipitation observations and predictions must be used to produce river forecasts early enough
to be of value for reservoir operation, flood warnings, etc. On the other hand, for larger rivers
with longer lag times, forecasts can often be based to a large extent on observed upstream
flows.

2.1 Forecasting on Headwaters and Small Rivers

For small drainage areas there are two main steps in the preparation of river forecasts. The first
is to predict the volume of runoff by means of rainfall runoff correlations, and the second to
forecast the distribution in time of the runoff volume. Rainfall runoff correlations can be derived
from past records of storms and resulting river flows in a basin, either graphically or analytically.
Such correlations permit forecasts of runoff volume from: (i) depth of storm rainfall over the
watershed, (ii) a seasonal factor, (iii) an index of pre-storm moisture conditions in the basin, and
sometimes (iv) storm duration.

Having determined the volume of rain and/or snowmelt which will run off, the timing of this runoff
volume, and the peak flow that will result, must also be predicted. The unit hydrograph for the
stream location in question is used to give the distribution of the runoff with time.

Different methods are used in preparing the unit hydrograph, such as:

- direct techniques (matrix method, use of orthogonal expansion, Fourier-series, etc.)

- conceptual models (linear channels and reservoirs, Nash-cascade, soil-moisture accounting

models, etc.)

For some purposes, such as reservoir operation, the unit hydrograph may be used to give a
complete forecast of the rise and fall of a stream following a storm. For other purposes, such as
flood warnings, and rapid forecasts to determine whether a given flood is likely to yield critical
inflow rates to a reservoir, the important factors may be simply maximum stage and flow and the
time at which they will occur.

It is possible to combine the rainfall-runoff correlations and the unit hydrograph peak values into
a forecast graph which will give a rapid prediction of peak flow or stage. This is derived from the
rainfall (or snowmelt) volume, the antecedent precipitation, a seasonal factor and the storm
duration.

The trend in river forecasting is toward the use of physical parameters directly rather than
through empirical correlations and index techniques. This has been made possible by the
application of high-speed computers for rapid solution of more complex predictive equations.

2.2 Forecasting the Regime of Large Rivers

Forecasts for large rivers and the lower reaches of principal tributaries generally make use of
the dependable and consistent relationships between factors involved in stream-flow routing.
The technique employed in a particular case depends upon whether the complete hydrograph is
to be forecast or only the peak stage or discharge. On larger rivers the time between the end of
the rainfall or snowmelt event and the occurrence of the peak of the resulting hydrograph at the
point of interest is often measured in days, rather than hours as in headwater forecasting.

One of the simplest techniques in river forecasting makes use of the peak stage relation. This
relation is easily constructed by plotting from past flood records the peak stages at the upstream
station against the corresponding peak stages at the downstream station. The success of such
a relation in providing an accurate estimate of the peak water level at a downstream station is
dependent upon two assumptions: (i) the volume of inflow between the upstream and
downstream station is small in comparison with the flow at the upstream station or is a constant
proportion of that flow; and (ii) the peak of the local inflow always bears the same time relation
to the peak of the flow at the upstream station.
A complementary relation is the time-of-travel curve which, as the name implies, provides an
estimate of the time for the peak stage to travel from the upstream to the downstream station.
The time of travel may vary directly with the stage throughout the range of stage or it may begin
to increase more rapidly or less rapidly after a certain stage is reached depending upon the
stream channel and valley characteristics.

Headwater hydrographs derived from rainfall-runoff correlations and unit hydrographs can be
translated to downstream points on the main river by the techniques of streamflow routing.
These techniques are essentially simplifications of the gradually varying unsteady flow
equations.

3. DETERMINING DESIGN PARAMETERS

3.1 Reservoir Design

3.2 Wind Effects

An important application of hydrometeorology is the provision of criteria for the design of various
water control structures, such as dams and storage reservoirs, storm sewers, bridges and
irrigation systems. In order to determine the design values statistical techniques are used.

Hydrology and meteorology are concerned with natural phenomena, and the analysis of
problems arising from these phenomena are dependent upon observations of their magnitude,
duration and location. There will be little likelihood of obtaining successive measurements of the
same event. Using statistical methods, a multiplicity of data can be reduced to manageable form
and so enable the relevant data to be distinguished from the irrelevant. Statistical methods are
particularly useful in checking the validity of a hypothesis involving complex natural phenomena.
Having formulated an hypothesis, a statistical analysis of whether the observations fit that
hypothesis would show whether or not there are good reasons to doubt it. Statistical analysis
deals with probabilities and cannot provide conclusive proofs.

The procedures for estimating design values can be grouped as follows:

(i) Frequency analysis of flood flow records or frequency analysis of precipitation records and
relating of precipitation to runoff from the catchment using the unit hydrograph or some other
method.

(ii) Transposition of storms.

(iii) Transposition of depth-area-duration relationships.

(iv) Probable maximum precipitation (PMP) method.

(v) Regional methods.

(vi) Empirical methods.

Determination of both probable maximum storm and standard project storm depends on the
idea of storm transposition. The purpose of storm transposition is to increase the storm
experience of a basin by considering not only storms which occurred in that basin, but also
those which released their heaviest rainfall on adjacent areas that are meteorologically 'similar'.
There are two difficult problems in storm transposition. The first is to define the region of
meteorological similarity over which a particular storm can be transposed. The second concerns
the permissible change in orientation of the storm rainfall pattern to yield critical runoff rates and
volumes.

3.1 Reservoir Design

One of the design problems which is common to most uses of water is the degree to which the
seasonal and annual fluctuations of streamflow can be modified by storage to correspond with
the demand requirements; that is, the problem of gearing the supply to the demand by means of
storage reservoirs. A reservoir design requires solutions to many problems.

The storage capacity of a reservoir may be required for one or several of the following uses:
irrigation, municipal and industrial water supplies, power, flood control, sediment storage,
navigation, recreation, and fish and wild-life habitat. However, in a given drainage basin the
amount of storage available to serve one or a combination of these uses may be limited by
economic considerations or by physical limitations such as topography, foundation strength for
supporting a dam, and water supply. Economic factors involve such items as incremental costs
of additional capacity, cost of right-of-way, cost of transportation facilities and many other factors
peculiar to a particular reservoir location. Field surveys will provide data on reservoir capacity
and reservoir area related to elevation of the water surface at the dam site. These non-
hydrologic data are necessary for relating available supply to probable demands for the water.

The first hydrologic problem is to determine the supply of water that will be available for the
proposed project. The best information on supply would be obtained from long-term flow records
at the reservoir site. Records from a station a short distance upstream or downstream from the
point in question would also be valuable. If adequate data are not available, the existing record
can be extended or streamflow data synthesized.

An important consideration in determining reservoir capacity is the minimum annual runoff. The
available storage determines the magnitude of demand that can be met during a period of low
runoff. It is desirable, therefore, that the record or estimate of stream-flow volume embraces at
least one dry period, which may encompass from one month to several years. Most reservoirs
operate on an annual cycle, with each year's runoff, modified by storage, capable of meeting the
demand. Some reservoirs are operated so that storage is carried over for several years to be
certain of meeting a specific minimum demand even during a most severe drought.

In addition to deficient precipitation, drought may be associated with increased

evapotranspiration losses. During such periods the flow in many drainage basins is from
groundwater so that the flow in the stream is closely related to groundwater depletion. If the
groundwater should drop below the bed of the stream, then the flow of the stream will cease
except for surface runoff from snowmelt or intense local precipitation.

At high latitudes, minimum flows commonly occur during the months associated with long
periods of freeze-up. The precipitation is held in storage in the form of ice and snow and the
moisture in the soil layers may be frozen. In these regions temperatures are well below freezing
over large areas, therefore runoff conditions also exhibit a fair degree of uniformity. This enables
more than usually reliable comparisons to be made between adjacent streams and hence
estimates of low flows at ungauged sites may be made more readily.

3.2 Wind Effects

On lakes and reservoirs, both wind and differences in atmospheric pressure can cause changes
in water levels which may seriously affect human safety, design and operation of dams, dikes,
breakwaters, water intakes, and other lake structures, and the flow of outlet rivers. The wind
exerts a horizontal stress on the water, raising the level from normal at the leeward shore and
lowering the level on the windward shore. This is called a set-up effect which lasts as long as
the force continues to be applied by the wind and is sometimes known as a wind tide. However,
if the wind dies down quickly, or changes direction, an oscillatory motion takes place with
alternate high and low levels being observed at both ends of the lake, with a periodicity
characteristic of the dimensions of the water body. The oscillations are known as seiches.

The calculation of the magnitude of the initial set-up may be an important factor in assessing the
amount of freeboard allowance required on dams, dikes, embankments or other retaining
structures. It should be noted that set-up is greatest on long, shallow lakes and least on small,
deep water bodies.

The transport by lake currents of water and materials in suspension and solution may have
practical implications. Pollution from municipalities along lake shores and from ships on a lake
will move with the currents. Under unfavourable conditions such pollution may enter water
intakes. Currents also cause erosion of the shoreline. For these and other reasons, it is often
necessary to know something of the currents in a lake or reservoir and the factors which cause
them. The theory of currents in an infinite water body, applicable to the oceans, is also useful in
dealing with lakes.

Wind-induced currents in a lake are closely interlinked with seiche and set-up effects because
there must be currents to permit motion of large masses of water. When the wind which
produces a set-up dies down, a current will flow from leeward to windward to restore the lake to
its natural level. However, the current will continue due to its inertial energy and result in the
temporary piling up of water at what was the windward end while set-up winds prevailed. This
produces the seiche oscillations previously discussed. These oscillations are thus accompanied
by currents, sometimes very strong ones.

Littoral drift is the transport, primarily by waves and coastal currents, of beach material along the
shores of large lakes and reservoirs. As waves approach a coastline in a direction determined
by the direction of the wind which generated them, they are refracted, since the portion of the
wave first reaching shallow water slows down first. This tends to change the wave direction to
one more parallel to the bottom contours and thus to the shoreline. However, this is rarely
completely achieved and the breakers still retain a component of velocity along the shore, and
shore currents are established. These currents can move eroded material along the shore.

4. DETERMINATION OF AREAL PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is the input to the continental branch of the hydrological cycle. Its best known forms
are rain and snow, although there are areas where the amount of water reaching the surface in
other forms (e.g. dew, fog, etc.) is not negligible either.

The amount of precipitation is measured by various standardized rain gauges, which might be
supplemented with recording and telemetering devices. Without going into the detailed analysis
of the reliability of gauge-readings, it is necessary to mention that there are systematic errors
(due to evaporation, splashing, aerodynamic effects, wetting the instrument), apart from the
random ones caused by erroneous readings or by the defects of instruments. The observed
amount of precipitation is, as a rule, generally smaller than the true value.

In spite of the systematic errors of rain gauges the determination of the depth and intensity of
precipitation at the observation points (point values) is more reliable than the measurements of
other hydrological processes (e.g., river discharge or evaporation). More serious uncertainties
are involved when the areal average of the precipitation is calculated, than those disturbing the
basic data.

The information required for any hydrological study dealing with either surface run-off or
groundwater regime is the total amount of precipitation reaching the ground surface of the
catchment within the time interval investigated. The observation of precipitation provides,
however, only point-values (the sample caught by one gauge having an orifice of 200 cm). The
most important task of the hydrological analysis of precipitation data is, therefore, to calculate
areal averages from gauge readings by constructing area-depth-distribution maps (Figure 2)
and to consider the change of precipitation between the measuring level and the ground
surface.

Considering the problems explained, the actual input of continental hydrological systems should
be improved by ensuring a double transformation of the measured precipitation data. The most
efficient increase of the accuracy of hydrological computation can be achieved by:

(i) Calculating the average of the areal precipitation from point values (investigating also the
structural character of the field of precipitation); and

(ii) reducing the measured values by considering the losses from precipitation between the
measuring level and the terrain (characterization of interception).

5. THE REGIME OF SOIL MOISTURE

The soil moisture zone is the heart of the continental branch of the hydrological cycle, because
its structure and instantaneous condition determine the ratio of surface to subsurface runoff and
even a considerable amount of evapotranspiration is also covered from the water stored below
the terrain and above the water table.

The lower boundary of the soil moisture zone is the water table, which is a theoretical surface,
where the total pressure prevailing in the water phase of the porous medium is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. The excess pressure, which is the difference between total and
atmospheric pressures, is, therefore, equal to zero. Hence the basic physical difference
between soil moisture and groundwater is that the former is under suction because the pressure
prevailing in the water above the water table is smaller than the atmospheric pressure.
It is necessary to consider that the water content of a porous medium is a function of the suction
of the soil moisture. Hence both the storage capacity (soil moisture retention curve) and the
transport capacity (unsaturated hydraulic conductivity) must be investigated depending on the
suction distribution in the soil moisture zone. The field measurements should provide, therefore,
information not only on the vertical distribution of moisture content, but the suction value must
be measured at several points along the vertical profile. From this double observation both the
change of the stored amount of water and the direction of the propagation of the moisture can
be determined.

Figure 2. Area - depth - distribution map

In practice the information required most frequently for solving engineering problems includes
the infiltration through the surface and the water exchange between soil moisture and
groundwater (groundwater accretion). The former is needed to calculate surface runoff, which is
the difference between precipitation reaching the terrain and infiltration. Ground-water accretion
provides information on the vertical recharge and drainage of groundwater systems. Therefore
both infiltration and groundwater accretion require the simulation of the complete soil moisture
system (Figure 3) .
The detailed analysis of the regime of soil moisture has two main parts:

(i) The theoretical investigation should give methods to determine the interrelationships between
suction and water content (soil moisture) retention curve or pF curve) as well as between
suction and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. Substituting these basic relationships into the
transport equation (Richards equation) and combining the condition of continuity and the
resistivity against the movement in unsaturated porous media in this way, the regime of the soil-
moisture zone can be simulated. The model is suitable to determine any practical information
required for hydrological studies such as infiltration, groundwater accretion, and instantaneous
condition in and transport through the soil moisture zone.

(ii) The practical part of the study deals with the observations and the measuring methods
applied to determine the hydrological processes developing between the land-surface and the
water table. The most important components are the vertical distribution of both the moisture
content and tension, the amount of infiltration through the surface and the water exchange
between soil moisture and groundwater.

6. EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evapotranspiration is the main form of drainage from the continental branch of the hydrological
cycle. Among its two components evaporation is basically a physical process of transforming a
liquid into vapour. When this transformation is made by plants (transpiration) the process is
influenced also by biological, biophysical and biochemical factors.

Unfortunately there is no direct method to measure the vapour flux, and indirect observations
provide only point values similar to the measurement of precipitation. For the determination of
the areal average of evapotranspiration the whole system transforming liquid water into vapour
should be investigated (Figure 4). It is divided into two subsystems: (i) the vapour receiving air-
mass; and (ii) the vapour producing terrain. The character of the interface between the two
subsystems where the evapotranspiration actually occurs, and the amount of energy available
here, are important factors in the system. The availability of water and the rate of saturation of
the air may be also limiting factors.

To design and operate hydraulic structures and systems the areal average of actual
evapotranspiration should be determined. For this calculation the amount of water actually
drained from each part of the catchment having different surface-conditions should be
estimated. Hence the investigation of evaporation and evapotranspiration includes the following:

(i) Measurement of evaporation from free water surface by use of evaporation pans. The
determination of the pan-to-lake coefficient considering the oasis effect due to energy advection
must be taken into consideration.

(ii) The main components of evapotranspiration. To determine the best methods suitable for
measuring evapotranspiration, distinction should be made according to the origin of water
evaporated and transpired, i.e., interception, soil moisture, groundwater.

(iii) Methods to estimate actual evapotranspiration. The use of lysimeters, the measurement of
the decrease of stored water and the calculation of evapotranspiration from the deficit of heat
balance are investigated.
 Figure 3. Soil moisture system

Figure 4. Evapotranspiration system

7. GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS ARISING IN CONNECTION WITH
AQUACULTURE STRUCTURES
Groundwater, when it is under natural conditions, should be in balance, i.e., the multi-annual
averages of its recharge and drainage respectively have to be equal. If not balanced,
continuous rising or lowering of the water table would be observable. Any human intervention
disturbing this equilibrium will have far reaching consequences. The exploitation of groundwater
introduces a new drainage activity without changing the natural inputs and, therefore, it causes
the continuing depletion of the groundwater resource. Aquaculture structures which raise the
level of surface waters (e.g., dams or river barrages, canals, fish ponds) change the natural
conditions, initiating artificial recharge or decreasing the natural drainage maintained by
percolation from groundwater reservoirs to rivers. This change causes a rise in the water table
until the development of a new equilibrium.

The design of aquaculture structures requires a forecast of expected changes in the

groundwater regime due to the structures, followed by continuous observation after they are
built. When the aquaculture structure modifies the movement of groundwater only in its close
vicinity, the application of the principles of seepage hydraulics gives sufficient results, while
more complicated groundwater systems have to be simulated to determine the far reaching
effects of large engineering structures. In this case the hydrological processes interconnecting
the groundwater systems with the surface and atmospheric branches of the hydrological cycle
should be considered as boundary conditions.

For the investigation of complicated groundwater systems, it is necessary to include:

(i) The geological structure of aquifers and aquitards using geological mapping, geophysical
prospecting and drilling.

(ii) Hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficient, calculated from the physical parameters of the
layers and measured either in laboratory or in the field.

(iii) The observation of potential-head by using test wells.

(iv) The boundary conditions influencing the development of seepage in the system.

Chapter 3. Hydraulic Aspects in Designing Aquaculture

Systems
Z. Hank
Research Centre for Water resources Development
Budapest, Hungary

1. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF PIPELINES

2. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF OPEN CANALS
3. OUTFLOW UNDER GATES AND MOVABLE WEIRS
4. FLOW OVER WEIRS

1. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF PIPELINES

1.1 Calculation of Head Loss

1.2 Fundamental Equation for Calculating Head Loss in and/or Discharge of Pipelines

Most important notations:

Q (m3/s) = discharge
l (m) = length of the pipeline
d (m) = diameter (inside) of the pipe
A = d2 /4 (m2) - area of the pipe cross-section
v= Q/A (m/s) - mean velocity in the pipe cross-section
g = 9.81 (m/s2) - acceleration due to gravity
= (m2/s) = kinematic viscosity of water at
10C temperature 10 = 1.31 10-6 m2/s
20C temperature 20 = 1.00 10-6 m2/s
(-) = friction factor.

1.1 Calculation of Head Loss

Transport of water in a pipe-line involves head loss. The most important part of head loss is due
to friction which is proportional to the length of the pipeline. The second most important part of
head loss consists of the sum of local head losses caused by changes in direction, changes in
diameter and pipe fittings such as tap, valve, etc. The general form of the equation for head
loss, measured in height of water column is:

(1.1)

where hv (m) = head loss in height of water column, i (-) = resistance coefficient, v2i/2g (m) =
velocity head in height of water column. It is generally calculated by the downstream cross-
section of the head loss producing cross-section. The main part of the head loss is due to
friction, the resistance coefficient of which is:

(1.2)

The friction factor, , may be calculated by the Colebrook-White equation

(1.3)

where

(m) = surface roughness of the pipe material (Table 1)

Re = vd/ (-) = Reynolds Number of the flow.

Table 1 Surface Roughness of the Pipe Material

 Pipe material (m)

Riveted steel (90 to 9) 10-4

Concrete (30 to 3)10-4

Wood stave (20 to 2)10-4

Cast iron 2.510-4

Galvanized iron 1.510-4

Asphalted cast iron 1.210-4

Commercial steel 0.510-4

Wrought iron

Drawn tubing 0.1510-4

Equation (1.3) is represented in Figure 1, originally found by Nikuradze and later completed by
Colebrook and White, in which the friction factor, , is the function of the Reynolds Number, Re,
and the third parameter is the relative surface roughness of the pipe material, /d.
Supposing = 1 m/s mean velocity, d = 100 to 500 mm diameter, = 110-4 m surface
roughness and = 110-6 m2/s kinematic viscosity the region of practical value is:

1105 < Re < 5105 and

0.02< <0.03

The resistance coefficient of local head loss is mainly characterized by the type of fitting causing
it. The numerical values of the various resistance coefficients are determined by experiments.
The empirical relationships and numerical values of the most important causes of local head
loss are summarized below.

a) Elbow pipe
 (1.4)

- sudden change in direction (if = 90, then a = 1).

Figure 1. Friction factor vs. Reynolds Number and relative surface roughness of pipe
material

b) Bend (Table 2)
Table 2 Resistance Coefficient ( b) of Right-Angled Bend ( = 90)

R Re = 1.0105 Re = 1.4105 Re = 1.8105 Re = 2.2105

d Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough

1 0.28 0.52 0.24 0.52 0.23 0.52 0.22 0.52

2 17 31 15 29 13 28 14 28

4 13 25 10 24 09 23 11 23

6 10 23 08 18 07 18 08 18

10 11 23 09 20 09 20 11 20

The roughness of the pipe-wall and relative radius of curvature, R/d, has a similar effect in order
of magnitude on the resistance coefficient, while the variation of Reynolds Number, Re, involves
hardly any change.

If the change of direction is different from a right angle, then

(1.5)

c) Sudden expansion (increase of diameter from d1, to d2) 2

and (1.6)
 (1.7)

d) Sudden contraction (decrease in diameter from d1 to d2; Table 3)

Table 3 Resistance Coefficient ( d) of Sudden Contraction

(d1/d2)2 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

d 0.50 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.15

Calculated by the velocity head of the "2" cross-section in accordance with Equation (L.6).

e) Gradual expansion or diffusor (increase of diameter from d1 to d2) The resistance coefficient
in Equation (1.6).

e=k (1.8)

where

k = l/d1 length of the diffusor and

= function ( , k), = expansion angle of the diffusor, (Figure 2)

f) Gradual contraction (decrease of diameter from d1 to d2)

The resistance coefficient in Equation (1.6)

(1.9)

where

= friction factor and

l = length of the contraction.
g) Entrance (from a still water body to a pipe with diameter d). The resistance coefficient in
Equation (1.6) (from sharp edged to bell mouth) can be estimated as

= 0.5 to 0.04

h) Exit1/ - (from a pipe with diameter d to open air or a still water body)

(1.10)

Previously the head loss has always been calculated by the velocity head of the downstream
1/

cross-section. The exception is the exit head loss which must be calculated by the velocity head
of the upstream cross-section

j) Valve produces head loss when fully opened (in decreasing rate by increasing diameter), but it
is much more important to consider the effect of the closing rate, which is characterized by the
relative increment, a/d (Table 4).

Table 4 Resistance Coefficient of Valve ( j)

a/d

0.95 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

d mm

150 850 215 47 16 7.0 3.3 1.7 1.50 0.68 0.46 0.33

300 680 165 35 12 5.5 2.7 1.3 0.65 0.29 0.15 0.05

900 28 9 4.0 1.8

k) Foot-valve and protecting screen involves a definite head loss at the suction side of a pump
(Table 5)

Table 5 Resistance Coefficient of Foot-Valve and Protecting Screen ( k)

 d mm 40 50 70 100 150 200 300 500 750

k 12 10 8.5 7.0 6.0 5.2 3.7 2.5 1.6

l) Suction shaft of vertical shaft with semi-axial flow pump

For a suction shaft of 3.5 d width and 4 d depth, with a gap of 0.8 d between the bottom and
suction pipe, the resistance coefficient can roughly be estimated by the empirical relationship:

(1.11)

and consequently:

(1.12)

Figure 2. Diagram for calculating resistance coefficient of gradual expansion (diffusor)

Figure 3. Diagram for calculating resistance coefficient of screens

m) Screens1/ (e.g. at the entrance cross-section of a suction shaft) with a flow direction
perpendicular to the screen and horizontal. The general relationship of the resistance coefficient
is:

Similar to the exit head loss, the head loss of the screen must be calculated by the upstream
1/

velocity head

m = kf k 1 (1.13)

where kf is a correction factor for the cross-section shape of the bars and k is a correction factor
for inclination of the screen, while 1 is the basic resistance coefficient of the screen with
rectangular bars, the cross-section of which is s times l (s is perpendicular to flow direction),
with a gap, b, between the bars, and with an inclination of the screen of 70 to the bottom. That
means:

1 = F1 (s, l, b)
as shown in Part A of Figure 3, while kf, is indicated as Part B and k as Part C of the same
figure.

1.2 Fundamental Equation for Calculating Head Loss in and/or Discharge of

Pipelines

As indicated in Equation 1.1 (or 1.6) the head loss and discharge in a pipeline are mutually
interrelated by the velocity head. The general relationship can be rearranged

(1.14)

where

, a constant factor,
Q(m3/s) = discharge,

i (-) = resistance coefficient and

di (m) = diameter of the pipe, while

hv (m) head loss in height of water column, or conversely

(1.15)

Pipelines are regarded as short pipelines if local head losses must not be neglected compared
to friction head loss. As an example see Figure 4, where as well as the manometric head of the
pump, the suction head can also be calculated.

a) Manometric head of the pump is

where

H(m) is the geometric head and

 (m) is the sum of local and friction head losses, which, in the particular case of Figure 4,
consist of:

- screen:

- suction shaft:

- foot-valve:

- friction (1):

- bend (1):

friction (2):

friction (3):

- bend (2):

friction (4):

- valve:

friction (5):

- exit:

As a consequence the manometric head of the pump equals:

where on the right hand side all of the numerical values are known (as di, li, Q, g, ) or can be
calculated (as m, k, 1, b, 2, j, 3 ) according to the previous section.

b) The suction head, Hs, of the pump must be less than the head of vacuum, Hvac = 10 m:

For practical purposes Hs max = 6 to 7 (m)

Pipelines can be regarded as long pipelines if local head losses can be neglected compared to
friction head loss. (l/d > 500 to 1 000). As an example see Figure 5. For calculating discharge or
pipe diameter the basic equation is:

(1.16)

and by rearranging

(1.17)

The denominator in the square root can be replaced by the same group of parameters
corresponding to the "equivalent pipe" as follows:

(1.18)

where
 e = friction factor of the "equivalent pipe",

(m) = the total length of the pipeline, and

de (m) = diameter of the "equivalent pipe". Supposing

1 = 2 = ... = i = ... = e = 0.02 to 0.03 = constant, the "equivalent pipe" diameter amounts to:

(1.19)

and the discharge transported equals:

(1.20)

Figure 4. Sketch of a short pipe-line for calculating manometric and suction head of
pumps
Figure 5. Sketch of a long pipe-line for calculating head-loss in or discharge of a pipe line

The diameter of the pipe cross-section can be calculated by re-arranging Equation (1.20)
 (1.21)

2. WATER CONVEYING CAPACITY OF OPEN CANALS

2.1 Fundamentals for Calculating the Characteristics of Uniform Steady Flow in Open Canals,
the Chzy Formula
2.2 The Velocity Coefficient (Chzy's C)
2.3 Characteristics of the Canal Cross-Section, Permissible Velocity
2.4 Computation of Cross-Section Dimensions or Discharge

Most important notations (beyond those summarized in Section 1) are:

D (m) = water depth,

P (m) = wetted perimeter of the cross-section,
R = A/P (m) = hydraulic radius of the cross-section,
S (-) = slope (energy grade line, water surface or pressure grade line in longitudinal section),
C (m1/2/s) = Chzy (velocity) coefficient.

Before embarking upon any detailed treatment of open channel flow, it is advisable to review the
different conditions of flow. As is known, the flow in open channels may be classified according
to variation with respect to both location and time.

Considering variation with respect to location, distinction is made between:

- uniform flow, in which the cross-section and the mean velocity remain constant along the
stream lines, and

- varied flow, in which the wetted area (A) and/or the mean velocity (v) undergo changes, viz.

= gradually varied flow (changes in A and v are gradual and continuous), and
= suddenly varied flow, where abrupt changes occur in A and v at certain sections.

Considering variation with respect to time, the flow may be classified as:

- steady, in which the characteristics of the flow remain unchanged at the cross-section under
consideration, and

- unsteady, in which the flow characteristics are varying in time at the same point.
Combining the two kinds of classification, the flow in open channels may be:

- uniform steady (e.g. prismatic canal, the water surface parallel to the bottom),
- gradually varied steady (e.g. back-water reaches),
- suddenly varied steady (e.g. at overfalls),
- gradually varied unsteady (e.g. the passage of flood waves),
- suddenly varied unsteady (e.g. surge waves).

Taking into account the aims of the present course the most important flow-types are the
uniform steady flow in open canals (the calculation methods of which will be summarized
below), and the suddenly varied steady flow (the calculation methods of which will be introduced
in Sections 3 and 4).

2.1 Fundamentals for Calculating the Characteristics of Uniform Steady

Flow in Open Canals, the Chzy Formula

In uniform steady flow the slope of the water surface, Sw , is parallel to the slope of the bottom,
S , and to the energy grade line, Se . Consequently the water depth, D, and the mean velocity, v,
are constant. In other words the loss in energy is due to friction (Figure 6). That means the
energy loss. h , over the length, l, equals h, the height difference between cross-sections
"A" and "B", respectively. The work performed by the water body (the cross-section area of
which is A and thickness in flow direction 1 m), due to gravity from cross-section "A" to "B",
equals

G = A (1 m) h (2.1)

in which = g ( specific gravity, = mass density and g = acceleration due to gravity). The
resistance force due to friction is proportional to the square of velocity (turbulent flow), v2, and
the area of contact, P (1 m), and to some kind of friction coefficient, f. So the work performed by
friction over the length, l, equals

F = f v2 p (1m) l 2.2)

making the work performed by the two forces equal (because the flow is uniform and steady,
and therefore is in dynamic equilibrium)

g A (1 m) h = f v2 p (1 m) l

and thus
 (2.3)

At flat slopes ( < 4), the value h/ l = sin a can be changed to the surface slope h/ l = h/l
= tan = S. To replace the term A/P (area of the cross section over wetted perimeter of the
cross-section), the hydraulic radius, R, was introduced by Du Buat as a new concept some 200

years ago, and the term is the velocity coefficient and named as Chzy's C. So the
so called Chzy formula, for computing the mean velocity of uniform, steady, open channel flow,
has been used by hydraulic engineers (sometimes beyond its limit Of validity) in the form

(2.4)

2.2 The Velocity Coefficient (Chzy's C)

The fundamental term in the Chzy formula is the velocity coefficient, C, for which many
investigators have suggested a variety of relationships and determined experimental values.
Some of these are Basin, Strickler-Manning-Lindquist, Kutter and Kutter-Ganguillet, Agroskin
and Pavlovsky. For less sophisticated practical application the formula adopted by Strickler-
Manning-Lindquist may be used:

(2.5)

for water with moderate temperature and with a flow depth, D 6 to 8 m. The values of
roughness coefficient, n, must be substituted according to Table 6.

Taking into account that Chzy's velocity coefficient, C, and the friction factor (used mainly in
pipelines), are related as

(2.6)

the Colebrook-White relationship (Equation 1.3) can be rearranged for calculating the velocity
coefficient of open channel flow (without any restriction concerning type and temperature of fluid
and depth of flow, etc.), as follows:
 (2.7)

The numerical values of roughness elements, , are also compiled in Table 6. (Szesztay)

It should be noted that dimensional homogeneity of Equations (2.5) to (2.7) is very important.

Figure 6. Longitudinal section of open channel flow. Explanation for Chzy formula

Table 6 Values of Roughness Coefficient, n, and Roughness Elements, , in Open Channels and
Flumes

No. Type of channel and description Roughness

 coefficient n element (m)
(s/m1/3)

1 Exceptionally smooth, painted or enamelled surfaces 0.009 110-5

2 Plank planed with great care, accurately jointed; surface finished with 0.010 410-5
neat cement mortar

3 Good cement mortar (1/3 sand) finish, planed planks 0.011 110-4

4 Well jointed unplaned plank, careful concrete work 0.012 510-4

5 Sound plank surface, good brickwork 0.013 110-3

6 Fair concrete lining 0.014 2.510-3

7 Brickwork, or dressed stone lining both of medium quality 0.015 410-3

8 Sound rubble masonry; old (crumbling) brickwork; unfinished, coarse 0.017 110-2
concrete; exceptionally smooth, uniformly finished rock

9 Channels with a thick, consolidated silt layer; such excavated in dense 0.018 1.510-2
loess or gravel covered with a thin silt layer (all in perfect condition)

10 Rubble lining of fair quality (good working condition); canals excavated 0.020 2.310-2
in rock, loess, dense gravel, dense soil, with silt deposits, (average
condition)

11 Canals excavated in dense soil (loess, gravel, loam) with local silt 0.0225 4.510-2
deposits; earth canals in better than average condition

12 Good dry rubble; earth canals with average maintenance; streams 0.025 6.510-2
under very good conditions (clean, straight banks, no scours or
bankslides, unobstructed flow)
13 Earth canals in poorer than average condition 0.0275 1.110-1

14 Earth canals in rather poor condition (e.g. local scours, cobbles, rocks) 0.030 1.510-1
with conspicuous weedy spots, slopes locally slumped; streams with
good channel conditions

15 Canals in poor condition (irregular section, heavy weeds, or sediment 0.035 2.510-1
deposits); streams with fair bed conditions, minor gravel deposits and
little aquatic vegetation

16 Canals in very poor maintenance (great scours and slope slides; reed, 0.040 4.210-1
dense roots, large boulders in the channel, etc.); deteriorated streams
(poorer than above) with heavy stands of aquatic vegetation, extensive
gravel deposits, meandering flow, minor scours and sand bars

2.3 Characteristics of the Canal Cross-Section, Permissible Velocity

In the formula Q = A v, for computation of discharge, an important role is played by the cross-
sectional area, while in the Chzy formula, for calculating mean velocity in the cross-section, the
hydraulic radius is an important feature. The cross-sections of canals and regulated channels of
small water courses are mainly trapezoidal. For bank slopes in trapezoidal canals the values in
Table 7 are suggested.

Table 7 Bank Slopes Suggested in Trapezoidal Canals

Type of channel material Bank slope: = tan

Fine-grained silt 1:3

Silty clay 1:2

Sand, gravel and clay 1:1.5

Stiff clay or stone lining 1:1 to 1:1.5

Rock 2:1 to 10:1

The actual mean velocity in the channel cross-section has to be between the permissible limits.
The acceptable minimum for avoiding siltation is

vp min = 0.2 to 0.6 m/s

depending on the permissible maximum.

The maximum velocities recommended are shown in Table 8.

Table 8 Maximum Velocities Recommended (vp max ) in m/s

Type of channel material Clear water flow Water flow with

clayey sandy-gravel

sediment load

Fine sand (non colloidal) 0.45 0.65 0.45

Sandy loam (non colloidal) 0.50 0.65 0.60

Silt loam (non colloidal) 0.60 0.90 0.60

Alluvial silts (non colloidal) 0.60 1.00 0.60

Dense clay loam 0.70 1.00 0.75

Volcanic tuff 0.70 1.00 0.70

Fine gravel 0.70 1.50 1.10

Stiff clay 1.10 1.50 1.20

Cobbles in loam matric (non colloidal) 1.10 1.50 1.50

Alluvial silts (colloidal) 1.20 1.50 0.90

Cobbles in silt matrix (colloidal) 1.20 1.60 1.50

Coarse gravel (non colloidal) 1.50 1.80 1.90

A typical trapezoidal cross-section of a canal is shown in Figure 7, while Figure 8 illustrates a

compound trapezoidal cross-section mainly applied for regulated small watercourses. The first
one is recommended if the hydraulic characteristics of flow (e.g. D, Q) are more or less
constant. The second one is used if the main parameters vary to a large extent (e.g. Qmin <<
Qmax and Dmin << Dmax etc.).

Figure 7 indicates also two more measures, viz. free-board of lining, s, and freeboard of
embankment, f, the recommended values of which are shown in Table 9.

Figure 7. Simple trapezoidal cross-section

Figure 8. Compound trapezoidal cross-section

Table 9 Free-boards of Lining, s, and Embankment, f, Respectively

Discharge, Q (m3/s) Free-board of

lining, s (m) embankment, f (m)

0.3 0.15 0.40

3 0.20 0.60

10 0.35 0.75

30 0.50 1.00

2.4 Computation of Cross-Section Dimensions or Discharge

The water conveying capacity of an open channel is fundamentally determined by the slope
(bottom, surface, energy grade line). It is advisable to use as a guideline for slope of the canal
the mean slope of the valley (that is the most economical solution). So supposing the slope is
known, the task is either to compute the discharge of a known cross-section or the dimensions
of a cross-section if discharge is known.

The first one is easy to solve because it is only necessary to apply the Chzy formula

(2.8)

in which the numerical values are all known or can be calculated.

If the aim is to design a cross-section for a known discharge capacity the following
considerations apply:

a) The slope, S, should equal (or be slightly less than) the mean slope of the valley;
b) The bank-slope, , of the cross-section should be according to Table 7;
c) The mean velocity should be between the limits of permissible velocities (Table 8);
d) Roughness coefficient, n, or roughness element, , should be according to Table 6);

So the values, known originally or adopted, are as follows:

Q, S, , vpmin and vpmax, n, or

Adopting the continuity equation

Q/vpmin A Q/vpmax ,

while applying the Chzy formula (Equation 2.4) in the form proposed by Strickler-Manning-
Lindquist (Equation 2.5).

Figure 9. Free outflow followed by a shooting tailwater flow

Figure 10. Free outflow followed by an undulating hydraulic jump in the tailwater
 Figure 11. Free outflow followed by a perfect hydraulic jump with surface roller in the
tailwater

This means the most important geometric characteristics of the cross-section, viz. cross-
sectional area. A, and hydraulic radius, R, have to lie between the above limits. Considering that
the characteristics of the hydraulically optimum cross-section may be computed, viz.
 (2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)

the actual water depth may vary between the limits:

If a decision is made concerning actual (or design) water depth, Dd, the other characteristics can
be calculated.

3. OUTFLOW UNDER GATES AND MOVABLE WEIRS

3.1 Various Types of Outflow Under Gates and their Hydraulic Computation
3.2 Hydraulic Computations for Estimating Characteristics of Tailwater Apron and the Hydraulic
Jump

Movable weirs form a large group of hydraulic structures characterized by the fad that, under
the action of the differential head between headwater and tailwater, the discharge is passed
under the structure through a variable cross-section, the magnitude of which depends on the
gate opening. The flow thus resembles flow through an orifice that can be described as
suddenly varied steady (or unsteady) flow. The structure itself can be built flush with the canal
bottom, on a bottom sill or on the crest of a fixed weir. From the foregoing, calculations of the
most simple case will be reviewed.

3.1 Various Types of Outflow Under Gates and their Hydraulic Computation

Three main types of outflow may be classified, viz. free outflow, submerged outflow and outflow
under pressure.
Figures 9 to 11 illustrate three typical forms of free outflow. The ruling characteristics of this type

of outflow is that at cross-section "0-0" the velocity , the critical velocity

between shooting and tranquil flow. The cross-section "0-0" is then followed by shooring flow
(Figure 9), undulating hydraulic jump (Figure 10) or perfect hydraulic jump with surface roller
(Figure 11) . The two last cases have tranquil flow down-stream of the hydraulic jump.

Applying Bernoulli's energy equation the discharge of unit width, q, flowing out of the opening, e,
under the sharp edged movable gate equals

(3.1)

in which is the contraction coefficient and the velocity coefficient of the sharp edged gate
(Figure 14), and D is the water depth in the headwater and e the gate opening.

The range of validity of Equation (3.1) can be limited by the tailwater depth, D2, with respect to
headwater depth, D, viz.

(3.2)

If the relative opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and the relative tailwater depth, D1/D2 is less than
0.44 a simplified relationship can be used:

(3.3)

Figure 12 illustrates a typical submerged outflow under a sharp edged gate which occurs if the
tailwater depth exceeds the upper limit of Equation (3.2). Discharge can only be computed as a
rough estimation because the hydraulic conditions are very unstable. Applying Bernoulli's
energy equation between headwater and cross-section "0-0" in the tailwater, D' has to be taken
as pressure head (water depth) which is hardly possible to determine. It is necessary, therefore,
to apply an approximation for calculating Do. Adopting the momentum (impulse) theorem
between cross-sections "0-0" and "2-2", respectively, the undeterminable D' can be replaced by
the tailwater depth, D2. The resulting equation, serving only for a rough estimation of the
discharge of unit width q is as follows:
 (3.4)

in which D and D2, are water depths in the head and tailwater, respectively, while e is the gate
opening. Then and are the contraction and velocity coefficients, respectively, of the sharp
edged gate (to be adopted as functions of relative gate opening, e/D, (Figure 14).

If the relative opening, e/D is 0.1 or less and if the tailwater depth with respect to headwater
depth, D2/D, is 0.44 or more, a simplified relationship can be used:

(3.5)

If the tailwater depth is increased it reaches a limit where the submerged outflow transforms into
outflow under pressure as shown in Figure 13. The relevant and more or less simplified
relationship for computing discharge of unit width, q, equals

(3.6)

which is the limit of Equation (3.4) if

- either tends to unity,

- or tends to zero,

- or tends to unity.
Figure 12. Submerged outflow (the hydraulic jump with surface roller shifter upstream to
the gate so that the "0-0" cross-section is submerged)

Figure 13. Outflow under pressure

Figure 14. Contraction coefficient, , and velocity coefficient, , vs. relative opening, e/D,
respectively
In practical applications the two latter conditions have to be simultaneously satisfied.

If the relative gate opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and if the tailwater depth with respect to
headwater depth, D2/D, tends to unity, a simple relationship can be used for rough estimation of
discharge per unit width, q, as follows

(3.7)

3.2 Hydraulic Computations for Estimating Characteristics of Tailwater

Apron and the Hydraulic Jump

As indicated in the introduction to this section the outflow under gates can be described in terms
of suddenly varied steady (or unsteady) flow. The sudden variation of water depth and velocity
is dangerous from the point of view of scouring. The hydraulic structure which protects against
this is called the tailwater apron.
Considering the various forms of outflow reviewed in the previous paragraphs, from the point of
view of scouring, the most dangerous one is the free outflow. Following the flow direction
(Figure 11) the headwater depth, D, is large while velocity, v, is small. In the gate opening, e,
and afterwards in the contracted cross-section "0-0" the water depth, e, is low and the velocity,

vo, is much above the critical velocity (between shooting and tranquil flow), or

generally . The flow between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1", respectively, is shooting
and while the depth is increasing from e to D1, the velocity is decreasing from v0 to v1, and in

cross-section "1-1" the actual velocity is more than the critical one, viz. . Then a
hydraulic jump follows, with a sudden variation in both water depth (increase) and velocity
(decrease). In cross-section "2-2" the actual velocity v2, is less than the critical one, so the flow
is tranquil.

Because of the magnitude of velocities and of their sudden variation the canal bottom has to be
protected against scouring by the tailwater apron up to cross-section "2-2". The main task of
hydraulic computations is the determination of the length of the tailwater apron.

The length (in meter units) of tailwater apron consists of three main parts:

- gate opening to cross-section "0-0" (shooting, gradually decreasing water depth and
increasing velocity),

- cross-sections "0-0" to "1-1" (shooting, gradually increasing water depth and decreasing
velocity),

- cross-sections "1-1" to "2-2" (hydraulic jump, sudden increasing water depth and decreasing
velocity).

The horizontal length between gate opening and cross-section "0-0" can be estimated as equal
to gate opening, say:

l0 = e (3.8)

The length between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1" can be calculated by the differential equation
of gradually varied steady flow, applying the Chzy formula in the form proposed by Strickler-
Manning-Lindquist. The resulting relationship (also called distance of hydraulic jump) is as
follows: 1/

It is important to remember that the numerical values of roughness coefficient, n, as shown in

1/

Table 6 are in s/m1/3 units, and so the numerical values of both the various water depths, D1, e,
gravitational acceleration, g, and the discharge of unit width, q, have also to be applied in meter
and second units
 (3.9)

The characteristics of the hydraulic jump can be computed by applying the momentum theorem.
According to this theorem the resultant of the outside hydraulic forces has to be balanced by the
change of momentum. If this dynamic equilibrium is not established the jump moves either
upstream or downstream. Assuming the velocities over the entrance and exit sections (cross-
sections "1-1" and "2-2"), to be uniform and horizontal, only the difference of the horizontal
hydrostatic forces (wall friction neglected) needs to be balanced by the change of momentum.
The resulting equation expresses the relationship between the so called conjugate depths of the
hydraulic jump, as follows:

(3.10/a)

(3.10/b)

The horizontal length between cross-sections "1-1" and "2-2", the length of the hydraulic jump,
may be estimated as

(3.11)

In designing a plane, horizontal tailwater apron the following are the steps to be taken:

a) Known variables are:

discharge of unit width, q,
headwater depth, D, tranquil flow,
tailwater depth, D2, tranquil flow.

b) By applying Equation (3.10/b) the conjugate upstream water depth, D1, of the hydraulic jump
can be calculated (shooting flow) from the tailwater depth, D2 (which is the conjugate
downstream water depth of the hydraulic jump).

c) By rearranging Equation (3.1) the water depth in cross-section "0-0" can be computed as:
 (3.12)

in which the velocity coefficient, , can be taken as unity as a first approximation, and later on
reiterated according to Figure 14. Otherwise, for rough estimation. Equation (3.3) may be
rearranged as

(3.13)

d) By comparing the results obtained in items b) and of) the possible alternatives are

e (or 0.6 e) D1

If e (or 0.6 e) is less than D1 it indicates that a stretch of gradually varied steady shooting flow
exists between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1", respectively. The total length of plane horizontal
tailwater apron then can be computed by summing up the particular lengths of the three
stretches (by applying Equations (3.8), (3.9) and (3.11) above, viz.

Lpf = e + l1 + l2 (3.14)

If e (or 0.6 e) is more than D1 it indicates that no free outflow exists, and the computation has
to be repeated by assuming submerged outflow. The first step is the calculation of the
necessary gate opening, e. Taking into account that no explicit form exists for Equation (3.4),
either the application of a trial-and-error method is advised for computing gate opening, e
(or e), or Equation (3.5) can be re-arranged for a rough approximation, viz.

(3.15)

Then the necessary length of the tailwater apron may be estimated as

 (3.16)

If the contracted water depth, e, in cross-section "0-0" is much less then the upstream
conjugate water depth, D1, of the hydraulic jump according to the consideration c) above the
distance of the hydraulic jump, l1 may be very large and so the tailwater apron will be very
costly. In that case a depressed tailwater apron can be designed by which l1 can be eliminated.

Applying Equation (3.10a) and substituting e for D1 according to Equation (3.12) or (3.13)
above, a new D2' can be calculated as

(3.17)

and the measure of the depression by which the bottom of the apron has to be sunk below the
bottom of the tailwater canal is

D2 = D2 - D2 (3.18)

while the length of the depressed apron may be estimated as

Ldf = e + 6(D2 - e) (3.19)

4. FLOW OVER WEIRS

4.1 Sharp Crested Weirs

4.2 Weir Section Shaped to fit the Nappe, or Ogee Profile
4.3 Special Weirs
4.4 The Tailwater Apron Following Weirs

Where an obstacle is constructed on the bottom of an open channel, the water surface is raised
and passes over it. Structures of this type are called weirs. Aside from special cases, flow over
weirs may be regarded as steady, i.e. unchanging with respect to time, and suddenly varied, as
in most hydraulic structures.

Weirs are a familiar structure in hydraulic engineering, for they are applied to a wide variety of
barrages, bottom drops, spillways, etc.

Weirs can be classified according to several aspects:

- Width and shape of crest (Figure 15)

- Location of crest in plan (Figure 16)
- Location with respect to canal (Figure 17)
- Type of flow over the weir (Figure 18)

4.1 Sharp Crested Weirs

The most important problem arising in connection with weirs is the relationship between the
discharge over the weir and the characteristics of the weir. Many authors have suggested
various relationships (e.g. Poleni, Weissbach, Boussinesq, Lauck, Pikalow) generally along the
same theoretical lines and with similar results. So it seems satisfactory to introduce only the
relationship of Weissbach (free overfall on sharp crested weir without any side contraction, Fig.
15a)

(4.1)

in which Q (m3/s) is discharge, b (m) is the width of the rectangular canal and that of the weir, g
= 9.81 (m/s2) is the acceleration due to gravity, h (m) is the overfall height (measured about a
distance of 5 h upstream from the crest), v = Q/b (M + h) (m/s) is the mean velocity in the
headwater, M(m) is the height of the weir crest above the headwater bottom, and is a
dimensionless discharge coefficient.

If h/(M+h) tends towards zero (because h is small compared to M) then v2 /2gh also tends
towards zero; so a simplified relationship can be reached as introduced first by Poleni about 250
years ago:

(4.2)

In Equations (4.1) and (4.2) the only remaining problem is the dimensionless discharge
coefficient, , which may be computed by using the relevant one of the following empirical
relationships.
a) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with free jet without side contraction (Figure 15c)
(Basin):

(4.3)

b) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with adhering jet without side contraction (Figure 18b)
(Rehbock):

(4.4)

c) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with depressed jet without side contraction (Figure 18a):
The magnitude of the discharge coefficient depends on the rate of depression and it has to lie
between the limits of Equations (4.3) and (4.4), respectively.

d) Submerged overfall on sharp crested weir without side contraction (Figure 17c) (Basin):

s = ms' in which (4.5)

(4.6)

(4.7)

e) Free overfall on sharp crested weir with free jet and with side contraction (Figure 17a) (The
Swiss Society of Engineers):

(4.81/)

1/
Equations (4.3) to (4.8) are empirical relationships. The numerical values of the symbols have
to be substituted in meter units
Figure 15. Classification of weirs with respect to width and shape of crest: a) sharp
crested weir, b) broad crested bottom sill, c) Ogee-type weir, d) broad crested weir

Figure 16. Classification of weirs with respect to location of crest in plane: a)

perpendicular, b) oblique, c) broken, d) curved, e) lateral, f) circular
Figure 17. Classification of weirs with respect to location in canal: a) side contraction, b)
without side contraction, c) both with bottom contraction
 Figure 18. Classification of weirs with respect to flow over the weir; free overfall with
satisfactory ventilated free jet (see Fig. 4.1, a) and d)): a) free overfall with unsatisfactory
ventilated, depressed jet; b) free overfall with unventilated, adhering jet

4.2 Weir Section Shaped to fit the Nappe, or Ogee Profile

The trajectory of the nappe after springing clear of the weir crest is approximately parabolic. It is
therefore of advantage in hydraulic engineering to adjust the dam cross-section required for
structural reasons to the nappe.

At the downstream edge of a broad crested weir the water depth is critical. That means the
water depth, h1, and the mean velocity, v1, at the cross-section are interrelated by the equation

(4.9)

and so the energy content of this section equals

Because the energy content above the weir crest is characterized by the overfall height or head
on the weir, h, the water depth at the downstream edge cross-section of the broad crested weir
equals

(4.10)

and its centre line is the height of h/3 above the weir crest. This point is the origin of a co-
ordinate system in which the trajectory of the nappe will be calculated (Figure 19).

The shape of the dam profile is obtained simply by determining the co-ordinates of the centre
line of the overfalling nappe and by plotting its thickness perpendicular thereto. In this method of
approximation friction is neglected and the velocity in the origin is considered to be horizontal.
This constant horizontal component of the velocity vector then follows the falling nappe.

The constant horizontal component of the velocity vector equals

(4.11)

while the variable vertical component of the velocity vector can be computed as
 (4.12)

and because the magnitude of the velocity vector equals

(4.13)

the thickness of the nappe is

(4.14)

and it is a function of y.

The co-ordinates of the centre line are interrelated with the equation

(4.15)

and so both the centre line and the upper and lower shape of the nappe can be plotted. The
lower shape of the nappe approximates the dam-section.

It is important to remember that for calculating a hydraulically favourable dam-section a design

discharge, Qd, or weir head, hd, has to be selected (Qmax ,or hmax , respectively). If the actual
discharge (or weir head) is less than the design one the falling of the nappe will be no more
"frictionless" and so the discharge coefficient will be affected.

For weirs with a vertical upstream face and free overfall, Pawlowsky suggested the following
empirical relationships:

and (4.16)
 (4.17)

in which

and (4.18)

(4.19)

The basic discharge coefficient derived by Knapp with due regard to losses is

(4.20)

If instead of free overfall a submerged (or drowned) overfall exists, the discharge coefficient of
free overfall has to be multiplied by the submergence coefficient and so

so = o o (4.21)

The submergence coefficient of Ogee type weirs is tabulated in Table 10 (according to the
notations of Fig. 18c).

Figure 19. Explanation for calculation of nappe trajectory

 Figure 20. Cross sections of rock fill weirs

Table 10 Submergence Coefficient, 0, of Ogee Type Weirs

o o o
 0.00 1 000 0.660 0.930 0.850 0.670

0.20 0.997 0.720 0.890 0.900 0.575

0.50 0.980 0.780 0.820 0.950 0.412

0.63 0.950 0.820 0.756 1 000 0.000

4.3 Special Weirs

Rock fill weirs are often applied as regulating structures e.g. bottom drops in small
watercourses. Various dam sections can be used depending on the construction methods
(Figure 20). The relationship between overfalling discharge and hydraulic characteristics is the
same but the discharge coefficient depends, besides the characteristics of M, a and h, on the
type, the material and the construction method of the weir, and varies from 0.5 to 0.65.

Circular weirs are often used as spillway shafts for maintaining a nearly constant water level in a
reservoir or pond (Figure 16f). The vertical section (Figure 21) of the so called "morning glory"
type illustrates its functioning. The usual relationship can be applied for calculating discharge
but 2 R is substituted for b. Because of the favourable shaping of the entrance section a
relatively high discharge coefficient exists, between 0.5 and 0.8, with a decreasing coefficient as
weir head is increased. This structure can function as a circular weir only up to a certain limit of
weir head, ho , the corresponding discharge, Qo , of which equals the discharge capacity of the
shaft. The discharge capacity of the shaft can be approximated by a "short pipeline" calculation.
If the actual discharge exceeds the discharge capacity of the shaft then the free overfall
transforms into submerged overfall which results in an increased level in the headwater. By
further increasing discharge the structure will be submerged and it will function as a short
pipeline with a favourable "bell mouth" entrance. This indicates how important the determination
of the discharge capacity of the structure is.

The limit of oblique weirs (Figure 16b) is the side weir of Figure 22, the crest of which is parallel
to the main flow direction. The discharge capacity of a side weir is significantly less than that of
a weir with a crest perpendicular to the main flow direction. As illustrated in Figure 22 the weir
head varies along the crest and the maximum is reached at the downstream end of the crest.
The discharge capacity of the side weir can be approximated using this maximum weir head, h,
with a discharge coefficient corresponding to the actual types of weir and overfall, respectively,
but it has to be multiplied by the side coefficient which can be estimated (Pawlowsky and
Engels) as

(4.22)
So the overfall discharge equals

(4.23)

in which as the relevant one of the discharge coefficients, can be applied.

4.4 The Tailwater Apron Following Weirs

The sudden variation in water depth and mean velocity over weirs is similar to that which has
been illustrated in the previous section concerning outflow under gates and movable weirs. The
consequences of these variations are obvious: a siltation process can be foreseen in the
headwater, and a scouring in the tailwater will endanger the stability of the structure if no
appropriate tailwater apron is constructed.

The same considerations can be applied as in designing a tailwater apron to a fixed weir, with
the amendments summarized below.

The shape and the geometric and kinematic characteristics of a nappe (jet) have been
illustrated. These can also be applied in designing the tailwater apron as follows:

a) The distance between the downstream edge of the weir crest and the cross-section "0-0" of
the tailwater apron can be estimated by rearranging Equation (4.15)

(4.24)

b) The water depth of the shooting flow in cross-section "0-0" can be approximated by the
relevant thickness of the nappe and can be calculated by rearranging Equation (4.14)

(4.25)

c) Considerations a), b) and d) of the computations in Section 3 apply with the only difference
that instead of e and e (or 0.6 e) always lo (Equation 4.24) and Do (Equation 4.25), respectively,
should be understood.

Figure 21. Morning glory (vertical section)

Figure 22. Side weir in plan and cross section
 Chapter 4. Input Load Determination and Ecosystem
Modelling
G. Jolnkai
Research centre for Water Resources Development
Budapest, Hungary

1. INPUT LOAD DETERMINATION AND ECOSYSTEM MODELLING IN THE DESIGN AND

CONTROL OF PERFORMANCE OF FISH FARMS
2. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEMS VIEWING
3. INPUT LOAD DETERMINATIONS
4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM MODELS
5. SUMMARIZING REMARKS
6. REFERENCES

1. INPUT LOAD DETERMINATION AND ECOSYSTEM MODELLING IN

THE DESIGN AND CONTROL OF PERFORMANCE OF FISH FARMS
Although the mathematical modelling of aquatic ecosystems is not yet a common tool in the
design and operation of fish farms, the knowledge and quantitative evaluation of a system (the
sources of nutrients and their fate along the food chain) could, even today, provide for a better
understanding of the processes that are taking place. This knowledge and understanding may
be the basis of exercising control over the system that could provide for more efficient
performance, the prediction of emergency situations such as oxygen depletion and algal
blooms, and the saving of fodder costs. These are only a few of the probable advantages. As a
general rule, the description of a system using quantitative terms, and an investigation of the
cause and effect or input-response relationships and interactions (instead of relying only on
qualitative data) will give more possibilities to the operator in controlling this system.

To elucidate these general statements let us examine a common situation. Due to increased
input of nutrients and organic matter, combined with high temperatures, the dissolved oxygen
content of water may drop drastically, resulting in severe effects such as fish kills. If one has a
validated model that describes oxygen depletion as a function of the organic matter present in
the water and sediment, the photosynthetic and respiration activity of algae, the wind velocity,
the temperature and other affecting factors, then one may be able to predict such situations in
advance and take the necessary counter measures of aeration, removal of organic sediment
and decrease of external load. On the contrary, if one only knows by qualitative experience that
such situations may be developing on hot and windless days, but does not know the other
causes and interrelationships in quantitative terms, then one's action may be too early or too
late, or entirely ineffective.

This does not mean, of course, that experience is not of vital importance. Without experiments
and field measurements the best mathematical model will be only a mere game to play.

These notes do not intend to give full details of ecosystem modelling, since this could be the
subject of two or three semesters and not three lessons. They are intended to give a brief
introduction into the basic principle of such system viewing and model developments, on the
basis of which those interested may be able to start to read the relevant literature and to
develop their respective models gradually, using their own measurement data.

2. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEMS

VIEWING
Man, the water user, and the water that is available for the user, form the main components of
an ever continuing interactive cycling process, both in terms of water quality and quantity
(Figure 1). With his uses, man alters the quality and quantity of the water resources and their
allocation which, in turn, alters man's activity. Thus, altered availability of water, in terms of
quantity and quality, both in time and space, will induce man to alter his activities to get better
and more water during periods of former shortage, and also in places where there has not
previously been water.

This refers to any water uses and the same principles of management should be followed
(Figure 2). Having set the objectives, availability and qualitative composition of the water should
be defined, providing a data base. Next comes the planning of water utilization facilities, and
one has to predict their effect both in terms of quality and quantity. Following implementation
and a continuing monitoring, one has to control the performance of the altered system, and this
goes on and on for ever. In the core of all these processes there is, or at least there should be, a
basic tool; a system model that provides simulation and prediction capabilities. On the basis of
this, one is able to tell with some accuracy what will be the result of his planned activities or his
management strategies.
For a regional water management plan and operation, these briefly described processes may
form a very complex system, in the core of which there should be a computer that houses a
complex and ever refined data bank as well as all the models.

Figure 1. Water cycling process

Figure 2. water management system

On a smaller scale, however, such as the planning, operation and maintenance of an

impoundment for aquaculture, objectives are clearly defined by the volume of water needed and
by the quality that is required. Monitoring could be confined to a couple of observation points,
measuring discharge, and a well defined list of water quality parameters selected as a function
of the water use concerned. Inputs and outputs in terms of water and water quality are
measured. But, in addition, selected parameters that describe conditions within the system, the
so-called "state variables", are also measured. Models for design and operation can be
simplified to some extent. For example:

- a rainfall runoff model to predict the inflows

- a storage model to describe the change of water volumes in the impoundment, or to provide a
basis of regulating the outlet, and

- a water quality model that describes the changes of the state variables within the
impoundment.

Management strategies are also relatively well definable. They consist of two main groups of
activities:

(a) Control of the input and output.

(b) Control exercised within the system.

The first group encompasses such activities as the regulation of inflow and outflow, the control
of pollution sources on the watershed, and the dosage of fodder for fish feeding if a fish pond is
being used. Such alternatives as release of water from the upper or from the lower layers
belong also to this group. Generally speaking, the control of everything in terms of quality and
quantity that gets into the system, or out of the system, belongs here.

In-lake control activities, such as artificial aeration, dredging, removal or planting of

macrophytes, etc. belong in the second group (see Figure 3).

3. INPUT LOAD DETERMINATIONS

The sources of materials that enter a given water body, whether it be an impoundment or a
pond may be grouped into the following categories (Figure 4):

(a) Direct point sources such as an effluent discharge.

(b) Indirect point sources such as effluent discharges on the watershed that is drained into the
water body.

(c) Direct non-point sources such as input from the atmosphere, or via surface or sub-surface
runoff.

(d) Indirect non-point sources such as diffuse sources of materials on the watershed that enter
the given water body via the inflowing stream. For example, fertilizers belong to this group.

Pollutants and other materials not necessarily harmful to aquatic life originating from these
sources may significantly alter the aquatic ecosystem. Some examples are:

- toxic substances may partly or fully kill living things, thus causing severe disturbance, or even
total breakdown, of the system.
- nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen originating from domestic sewage and fertilizers
are important factors in an aquatic ecosystem, having effects throughout the food chain.

- organic matter originating from sewage and from natural sources is decomposed by bacteria
which, in turn, use the dissolved oxygen of the water, thus depleting oxygen levels.

Figure 3. Aquatic ecosystem

Figure 4. Sources of water management

As a generalization, it may be stated that almost any substances that enter the system from the
outside have potential to alter the system.

It follows from the above statements that for the establishment of any control or management
strategies, a knowledge of the inputs has to be gained in terms of both quality and quantity.

As a general rule, all sewage inputs in the catchment should be measured with due regard to
diurnal and seasonal variations, both in terms of discharge and quality. The main concern
should be focused on the determination of pollutant loads entering the system via the inflowing
stream(s). In the case of a smaller impoundment surrounded by dikes, the effects of direct non-
point source input can be neglected.

The most straightforward solution to the problem of pollutant loads entering the system is to
establish a continuous monitoring station directly upstream of the intake consisting of:

- a hydraulic structure such as a weir or venturi flume that enables discharge determination,
equipped with a continuous water level recorder;

- an automatic sampler that takes water samples from the stream at regular intervals, including
rising and falling floods.

If this equipment is installed then mass flux of materials (load) can be defined for any point of
time as

L=QC

where

L = the mass flux (load) of the material concerned in mass per unit of time (i.e. g/sec, kg/day,
tons/year, etc.)

Q = the discharge of the stream (in m3/sec)

C = the concentration value of the material concerned in mass per unit volume dimensions (i.e.
g/m3, mg/l, etc.)

The calculation can be for any period of time as

where T = T2 -T1 is the length of the period of time concerned.

However, what one really needs is a prediction of load conditions. For this, the following
methods can be used:

(i) time series analysis, to be followed only when records of reasonable length such as 4 to 5
years are available
(ii) a rainfall runoff model can be coupled with regression models developed between flow rate
and concentration or flow rate and load values, as indicated in Figure 5.A

(iii) other non-point source runoff models may be calibrated using observation data (Jolnkai,
1983, Novotny, 1980).

Flow versus concentration and flow versus load regressions have other applications too. When
flow records exist but an automatic water sampler is not available (which is frequently the case),
the flow series can be converted into load series (Figure 5.B) if reliable load versus flow
relationships exist. It should be noted that the actual relationship between flow and load varies
according to the parameter being measured or according to many other factors such as
seasonal variations, land use activities, application of agricultural chemicals, etc. Thus, the
relationship is not bivariate but multi-variate and, consequently, should be developed in such a
manner as to allow for seasonal variations and for rising and falling water level differences as
indicated in Figure 5 A and B.

Figure 5. Rainfall-load and flow-load models

Figure 6. Water quality model

Regressions of these types should be developed by plotting all the available flow and load data
pairs on a sheet, then separating data corresponding to different seasons, flood waves, and
base flows. The type of the regression curve should then be selected (i.e. exponential, logistic,
power, logarithmic, linear, etc.). Note that it is desirable to carry out regression analysis using
different theoretical curve, equations and then to select the one that gives the best fit.

There may be an additional problem of input load determination if the main polluting source is
somewhere far upstream on the watershed. In this case the removal of pollutants at the source
may only result in a lessened decrease of input load at the reservoir or pond intake. In such
cases, longitudinal water quality profile studies of the stream in question should be performed,
and the data analysed by a water quality model that describes the transport and transformation
processes along the stream. This problem is briefly outlined in Figure 6.

The corresponding water quality model considers the following:

- transport of the material caused by turbulent dispersion

- transport of the material caused by flow itself (convective transport)

- internal transformation of the material (degradation, settling, uptake by organisms, decay,

scouring from the bottom, etc.)

- external sources of the material.

The corresponding mathematical model is shown in a generalized form in Figure 6.

Actual application of such models is usually made in a much simplified form: for example,
neglecting dispersion terms and considering only longitudinal transport and a decay term of first
order kinetics type, one may end up with an equation as simple as:

Assuming steady state conditions, this under initial conditions C = Co at x = 0 can be integrated
resulting in a simple exponential decay profile of the type

where

C is the concentration of the material (in mass per volume dimensions, i.e. g/m3)

vx is the longitudinal flow velocity in length per time dimension (i.e. m/sec)

K is the decomposition (decay or other loss) rate coefficient in time-1 dimensions (i.e. day-1)

Co is the initial concentration downstream of the pollution source in question, computed as:

where
Cr and Cs = the concentration of the substance in the river upstream and in the effluent
discharge respectively, and

Q and q are river and effluent flow rates respectively.

Note, however, that models could be much more complex in the case of an actual problem,
where the effects of interacting quality components, internal sources and sinks, etc. should be
considered. For more details consult the works of Velz (1970), Tohomann (1972), Jolnkai
(1976), Jolnkai (1979), Chen and Orlob (1972), Jrgensen (1983).

4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM MODELS

These are the models that would describe the response of the system to inputs as discussed
above (see also Figure 3).

The basic theoretical principle behind these models is the same as was discussed before. The
main differences in the case of a smaller pond or lake are that dispersion and convective
transport of the materials can be neglected, thus assuming the principle of a fully mixed reactor
(Chen and Orlob, 1972). Thus, transformations of the substances and their cycling within the
components of the ecosystem should be described as a function of time, and a function of other
(usually time dependent) factors.

Taking a closer look at the ecosystem, one may end up with a schematic representation of the
complex processes such as shown in Figure 7. It should be noted that

- such a systems approach is always an idealisation and simplification of the reality, and

- this simplication should focus on the selection of components (state variables) that are
important in the system in question, and the quantification of which can be assured on the basis
of real measurements.

Before entering into a discussion of somewhat more detailed system interactions, let us
examine the basic principles of model building. Consider an ecosystem that is described by five
state variables A, B, C, D, E, as shown in Figure 8. Assume the following:

- They are represented by their concentration, that is, mass per unit volume of water (or rather
by the concentration of a single element forming part of their mass, for example a nutrient) to
avoid the use of conversion factors for the time being.

- A is the only component that receives an external input in the form of LA.

- A and B are interexchangeable (for example, scouring and settling of a material)

- A will be taken up by C for its growth and C will be a food for D

- Both C and D will decay into E

- E will convert into B

- Components in the water body (A, C and D) will flow out of the system at a rate of Q

- Assuming first order reactions in all of these processes (which is nonsense in reality), the
system processes can be described by the equations shown in Figure 8.

It should be noted that all terms in the equations are in concentration per time dimension.
Consequently, external loads like LA, are expressed as the load value divided by the lake
volume, and outflow rate is expressed as the flow rate divided by the lake volume. For example,
outflow rate in m3/day divided by lake volume in m3 will result in specific outflow rate of day
dimension. In a similar manner, reaction rate coefficients are also expressed in time-
1
dimensions.

Figure 7. Schematic representation of an aquatic ecosystem (after Chen and Orlob)

Figure 8. Fictitious ecosystem representation to explain model building rules
As general rules for checking the mathematical correctness of the model equations one should
keep in mind that:

- all terms in model equations should be in the same dimension

- the number of model differential equations equals the number of state variables

- the number of terms on the right side of these equations equals the number of arrows pointing
towards and away from components on the model diagram of the system (as shown on Figure
8).

Models of this type are usually solved by finite difference approximation methods, such as the
Runge-Kutta approximation.

A somewhat more realistic representation of a lake's ecosystem is presented in Figure 9.

Following the above principles of model building, the basic model system of this scheme would
consist of 16 basic differential equations and a large number of subsidiary models that describe
reaction rates, growth, predation, mortality, etc. , Models of a similar type can be found in the
works of Jrgensen (1983), Chen and Orlob (1972), Park et al,(1975), Kelly (1973) and King
(1973), to mention a few of the extensive works dealing with this subject. At this stage of model
building, modellers have to consult the relevant literature and/or the expert in this field. Instead
of presenting model equations some general considerations are given below:

(i) Material flows of abiotic components (neglecting dispersion and convection, i.e. assuming a
fully mixed reactor) will be described as

Mass transfer = Input-Output + scouring - sedimentation

reaeration - decay or decomposition

chemical transformation biological uptake

respiration

(a) Sedimentation is usually taken into consideration as a simple first order kinetic process
where the settled mass of material is proportional to the material present in the water with a
proportionality factor (k). Scouring (or uptake from the bottom compartments) can also be
considered as a first order relationship, but in some cases effects of wind velocity should also
be considered. In some cases diffusion across the sediment-water interface predominates in the
processes and should be described with diffusion equations similar to the dispersion terms in
Figure 6.

(b) Reaeration across the water surface is usually taken into consideration as a first order
kinetic term, where the reaeration factor K can be related to surface diffusion factors of depth,
wind velocity, etc.

(c) Decay and chemical transformation processes are usually considered as first order kinetic
terms.

(d) Biological uptake and respiration of abiotic substances are usually considered to be
proportional to the growth and respiration of the biota (with constant conversion factors such as
the amount or fraction of phosphorus in the algae biomass).

(ii) Flows of materials in the biotic compartments are usually described by the following four
processes:

(a) Feeding (or nutrient uptake for plants), that is the uptake or ingestion of a material from
another compartment.

(b) Predation (when the flow is considered from the compartment being fed upon, the feeding is
termed predation).

(c) Excretion (plus egestion) is the difference between the material taken into a compartment
and that part of the ingested material applied to growth, respiration and death.
(d) Respiration.

Figure 9. Lake's ecosystem

It should be recognized that there is a physical limitation to the amount of material taken up by
any organism or group of organisms per unit of time. This has been observed experimentally for
uptake of nutrients by algae and has been shown to be true also for feeding animals. The most
widely accepted mathematical form of this limitation is the so-called Michaelis-Menten or Monod
type of kinetics described as

where F is the rate of transfer, a is the rate constant, b is the concentration at which half the
maximum rate occurs (the half saturation constant) and C is the concentration of the material
being eaten or taken up. Thus, the feeding rate of algae, zooplankton, fish and bacteria as a
function of their food supply can be described by the above expression.

To convert this formulation (and some of the above statements) into mathematical terms one
can construct a differential equation, for example for fish, as follows: (King, 1973).

where

F is the concentration of fish (grouped into various categories, such as cold and warm water
 zooplankton feeders, benthic animal feeders, etc.)

KB1 is the biota activity rate adjustment coefficient (assumed to be temperature dependent).

KB1 is found as follows:

where

R is a temperature rate coefficient and T is the temperature in C

FG is the fish growth rate at 20 C

FMAX is the maximum specific fish growth rate at 20 C

ZB is the quantity of zooplankton or benthic animals available for grazing

ZB2 is the half saturation constant for fish grazing on zooplankton or benthic animals. That is,
zooplankton concentration at which the fish in question achieve half of the maximum growth
rate

FM is the fish mortality rate at 20 C

FR is the fish respiration rate at 20 C

HARVEST is the rate of fish removed by fishing.

It should be noted that this equation is only one of the sixteen equations related to Figure 9.
Similar equations can be written for other biotic compartments (zooplankton, algae, etc.) and
abiotic compartments (phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.).

Note also that different factors may have to be considered in other compartments. For example,
algae growth will be limited by light availability (where the self-shading effect also plays a
significant role, and by the availability of phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon. All of these factors
may be represented by monod kinetics. Wind, light and temperature correction factors have to
be applied in many equations.

5. SUMMARIZING REMARKS
The main objectives of these notes are:

- to provide guidelines for the papers to be presented in this course.

- to outline some basic principles of a systems approach to such problems as aquaculture

design, management and operation.

- to illustrate with some simple examples the basic concepts of model building that can be used
as tools for management and control of systems such as impoundments and fish ponds.

6. REFERENCES
Chen, C.W. and G.T. Orlob, 1972, Ecologic simulation for aquatic environments, Walnut Creek,
California, Water Resources Engineers Inc., (WRE 1-0500)

Jolnkai, G., 1976, The role of transversal mixing in the simulation models of water pollution
control. Res. Water Qual. Water Technol. Ser.. Budapest

Jolnkai, G., 1979, Water quality modelling. In Vizminsg szbalyozs a

Krnyezetvdelemben, edited by P. Benedek and P. Litheraty. Budapest, Mlszaki Knyvkiad.
(in Hungarian)

Jolnkai, G., 1983, Modelling non-point source pollution. In Application of ecological modelling
in environmental management, edited by S.E. Jrgensen. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company

Jrgensen, S.E., 1983, Application of ecological modelling in environmental management.

Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company

Kelly, R.A., 1973, Conceptual ecological model of the Delaware estuary. In Systems analysis
and simulation in ecology. Vol. 4, edited by B.C. Patten. Washington, D.C., Resources for the
Future Inc.

King, I.P., 1973, A river basin ecological model. Walnut Creek, California, Water Resources
Engineers Inc.

Novotny, V., 1981, Handbook of non-point pollution. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

Park, A., 1975, A generalized model for simulating lake ecosystems. Publ. Environ. Sci. Div. Oak
Ridge Natl. Lab.. Tenn., (691)

Thomann, R.V., 1972, Systems analysis and water quality management. New York, McGraw-Hill
Velz, C.J., 1970, Applied stream sanitation. New York, John Wiley and Sons Inc. 1970

Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals

and Dams in Aquaculture
Z. Szilvsszy
Research Centre for Water Resources Development
Budapest, Hungary

1. INTRODUCTION - THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

2. SITE EXPLORATIONS
3. LABORATORY TESTS
4. DESIGNING FISH-POND DIKES AND DAMS
5. CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION

1. INTRODUCTION - THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

1.1 Cohesive Soils

Ponds are essential components of most fish and aquaculture farms. Lowlands or valleys less
suited to other agricultural development are usually selected as sites for these ponds and this is
often the decisive consideration in selecting the site for the entire project. The ponds are
normally shallow, cover relatively large areas and are surrounded or impounded in the majority
of cases by low earth dikes or dams. The ponds are usually filled and drained through open
canals; other methods, such as filling through a pipeline, being exceptional.

Potential seepage losses from the ponds and the canals connecting thereto, in particular the
supply canal, and the long-term stability and performance of the low dikes surrounding the
ponds and flanking the canals are the main problems encountered by the soils engineer.

In dealing subsequently with methods of exploration, laboratory and field testing, and with the
interpretation of the results obtained and their use in dimensioning and analysis, familiarity with
the conventional soil mechanics practice will be assumed, so that reference will merely be made
thereto, as well as to some excellent handbooks in which the subject is treated exhaustively.
Attention will be concentrated instead on problems due to the particular conditions to which the
earth structures of fish farms are exposed, on the methods of testing which enable us to
recognize any potentially adverse soil properties under these particular conditions and to
indicate the remedial measures.
Seepage losses are liable to occur mainly by underseepage and infiltration from the ponds and
the supply canal, since the embankments are built normally of cohesive soils, placed and
compacted carefully so that they will be practically watertight. The soils to be used in the
embankments must be checked for their susceptibility to long-term changes in permeability
caused by atmospheric factors, such as development of 'stable density', or aggregation of
particles. Leakage losses may be caused by burrowing animals, and after extended times of
operation by the decaying roots of vegetation.

The losses due to underseepage and infiltration into the subsoil can be estimated by the usual
methods, provided that the areal pattern and vertical position (stratification) of any previous
soils, and the permeability coefficient, 'k', thereof are determined with the accuracy required.

When considering seepage losses over longer time ranges, the sediment content of the water
feeding the ponds should also be determined. This will indicate whether in the course of time
natural sealing (colmatation) can be anticipated. This may result also from decaying debris, fish
feed, wastes, algae, etc.

Embankment stability in the 'as-built' condition can be checked by the conventional methods of
soil mechanics. For appraising the long-term performance of the earth structures, the particular
conditions under which these are expected to function must be remembered.

As mentioned before, these low embankments are built normally of cohesive soils, with a
uniform, homogeneous cross section. Rising above the terrain, they receive little or no capillary
moisture from the groundwater, and are, owing to their small cross sectional area and low mass,
more exposed than large earth dams to atmospheric effects, such as repeated drying and
wetting, and, in some areas to cycles of freezing and thawing. Under hot, arid climates, or
during the dry season, virtually the entire embankment body may become desiccated and
shrinkage cracks are liable to develop, which facilitate the entrance of water into the
embankment at times of rain, or upon filling the pond. The soil will swell, but the extent of
swelling at any particular point within the embankment will depend not only on the swelling
potential of the soil, but also on the magnitude of the confining pressure exerted by the
surrounding, mainly overlying soil masses. Repeated cycles of drying and rewetting, thus
shrinking and swelling, will result in the development of a stable density distribution, with higher
densities encountered normally in the interior of the cross section. At any particular point in the
embankment, the actual density will fluctuate about this stable value.

These atmospheric effects trigger, however, other adverse changes as well in the silty-clayey
fraction of cohesive soils. These changes will be evaluated by studying the cohesive
components of the soil, the clay minerals, the clay-water system and the mechanisms which
control their interactions. Because of their fundamental importance in controlling the properties
and response to atmospheric effects of the earth structures involved in fish and aquaculture
farms, the cohesive plastic soils will be dealt with first.

1.1 Cohesive Soils

The soils displaying a certain degree of plasticity are called cohesive, e.g., the Hungarian
Standard Specifications MSZ 4487-58 define a soil as cohesive if the index of plasticity
surpasses the value 15.
Plasticity in cohesive soils is due to the interaction between water and the cohesive plastic
components present in the soil. These plastic components may be classified into microscopic
and submicroscopic clay minerals, with a definite crystal structure (kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite, etc.) and into the amorphous components. The latter are either originally
vitreous volcanic ashes, or clay minerals weathered and decomposed by the lime present in the
soil. Over the extremely large specific surface (up to 800 m2 /g) of the clay minerals, the
unbonded interface atoms produce a strong negative electric field, the role of which surpasses
by several orders of magnitude that of gravity related to the negligible mass of these particles.

The amorphous components are polisilicate and polialuminate hydrates, which have a gel
structure. In the case of weathered clay minerals the amorphous gel may form a thin coat on the
surface, or may be present as a separate phase, once the mineral is totally decomposed. In a
dry, desiccated condition these policompounds form a hard xerogel of considerable strength, but
are capable of absorbing extraordinary amounts of water, swelling and becoming spontaneously
liquid in the process. The gel coat will act as a lubricant reducing the shear strength and causing
even fairly coarse soils to flow.

Non-plastic components are invariably present in cohesive soils. These are mostly mineral
particles with a low surface-to-mass ratio (e.g., sands and gravels), which have an influence on
the plastic properties, such as plasticity, shrinkage, etc., but are not essential elements, in that
their presence is not a prerequisite to the development of clay properties. Still, in desirable
proportions they have a beneficial effect.

The other element involved in plastic soil is water. The fundamental feature is the dipolar nature
of the water molecules, with a positive and a negative pole making them thus behave like
minute magnets.

In the liquid phase these dipoles tend to aggregate into loose tetrahedron-like crystalline
clusters, but owing to thermal movement these are unstable, and are rearranged continually.
The state and size of these aggregations depend on temperature. Water in this state is called a
Newtonian fluid.

Under high pressures (about 2000 atmospheres) water turns into a solid phase even at normal
temperatures, but with a structure differing from that of normal ice. Calculated from the heat of
hydration, some clay minerals were found to bond the first few layers of water molecules with
energies corresponding to 20-25 thousand atmospheres pressure. Such water is necessarily
solid even under the hottest climate and has a specific density of 1.2 to 1.4 g/cm3.

Clay-water interaction is due to the aforementioned negative charges prevailing on the surface
of the clay minerals. These cause forces of attraction, which may be classified as direct, when
the positively charged atoms of the dipolar water molecule are attracted, and indirect, when a
cation is adsorbed and this relays the attractive force toward the water molecules. The cations
control decisively the hydration properties of the clay minerals, since the magnitude of the
attractive force between the clay particles and water, and the range over which this attraction is
effective, depend on the kind and amount of the cations present. The water molecules are
oriented with their positive pole toward the negative clay surface, their negative poles point
outward and attract the positive poles of further water molecules, although with a force
decreasing exponentially with distance. It has been demonstrated experimentally that in some
clays the attractive force is still 4 atmospheres (around 40 m water column) at a distance of 1-
micron (around 3000-4000 water-molecule 'diameters') from the clay surface.
In clay-water systems attractive and repulsive interparticle forces act simultaneously. The
distance between the discrete clay particles, their relative orientation and thus the permeability
and strength, etc., of the clay will depend on the equilibrium between attraction and repulsion, or
the predominance of one or the other.

Repulsion is due to the negative poles of the water molecules oriented outward. This is termed
Coulomb repulsion of the diffuse electric double layer, and varies with the square of distance.

Attraction between the clay particles is due to the van der Waals-London force of mass
attraction, which varies with the fifth, or sixth power of distance. This becomes effective
whenever the clay particles approach each other closer than 1-2 millimicrons (roughly 4-8 water
molecules) and produces usually irreversible changes in the clay structure (e.g., burning brick or
pottery).

These conditions may be visualized by the force versus distance diagram in Figure 1, showing
the attraction, repulsion and the resultant potentials. If the resultant curve displays a
pronounced minimum, then the clay is said to be in a stable condition, the particles are situated
at the distance corresponding thereto and any change can be brought about only by introducing
external energy. In the absence of a minimum the suspension is said to be dispersed, while a
weak minimum is the case of thixotropic gels, where equilibrium is upset already by very low
external energies.

Any change in the clay-water systems is due to a disturbance of the equilibrium, thus to a
change in the attraction or repulsive forces prevailing between the particles. In such cases the
distance between the particles is changed, and the clay shrinks or swells until a new equilibrium
is established.

The attractive forces depend exclusively on the mass of the particles and at a given distance no
spontaneous change is possible. The distance may, however, change under external load,
capillary or seepage pressure, and thus the attractive force may increase suddenly (since it
varies with the fifth, or even sixth power of distance), causing the clay to consolidate, coagulate
and shrink.

The magnitude of the repulsive force is, on the other hand, influenced by the ions absorbed on
the particles, and by the concentration of electrolytes in the water. Any change in these entails
necessarily - even under otherwise identical conditions - a volume change, coagulation or
dispersion of the clay.

The interstices between the particles (the pores) are however filled with water, so that any
volume change due to a change in the external forces or electric charges is only possible if
interstitial water is squeezed from or drawn into the pores. Since the pores are submicroscopic
in size and the non-Newtonian water has, because of the surface forces, a very high viscosity,
the transition into the new equilibrium state is a very slow one, tending asymptotically to the
terminal state. The mechanism outlined in the foregoing is suited to explaining the changes
brought about by atmospheric effects in the condition and properties of cohesive clay soils. Of
these changes those due to a reduction in moisture content (drying) are most important. Using
Kelvin's equation uw = 45 000 log H (uw is the pressure or tension of the pore water in psi, and H
the relative vapour content, in decimals) it will be appreciated that at 30% relative humidity and
20 C temperature the tension in the pore water may be as high as 130 atmospheres, so that
much of the water adsorbed on the particle surfaces will be removed.
Figure 1. Force versus distance diagram
Drying has the following consequences in clay soils:

(i) Air-water interfaces develop in the three-phase soil, and surface tension acts on these. Owing
to the small pore sizes and, in turn, to the short radii of curvature, the resulting capillary
pressure is a very high one and tends to bring the particles together.

(ii) Evaporation removes some of the water enveloping the particles, which reduces the distance
between them.

(iii) Water is evaporated, thus the electrolyte concentration of the remaining pore water is
increased, which may neutralize the repulsive forces between the particles.

As a combined result of the foregoing three processes the clay particles may -depending on the
degree of desiccation - be drawn together sufficiently for the van der Waals attractive forces to
become predominant (see the potential versus distance diagram), resulting in flucculation and
aggregation. As a consequence the grain size distribution becomes coarser (as illustrated in
Figure 2), the cohesive soil becomes more pervious, the specific surface decreases and as a
corrolary thereto the plastic properties are diminished. The resulting reduction of volume or
shrinkage leads to cracking and the increased attractive forces give rise to considerable
apparent strength.

If rewetting by pond filling or rain occurs, the cracks facilitate the entrance of water into the
embankment body. The external parts of the individual blocks formed by the original slope and
the crack faces are saturated, while the moisture penetrates toward their interior by capillary
suction. The saturated parts become virtually impervious to air, so that the air enclosed in the
pores is placed under pressure, the magnitude of which equals the sum of the highest capillary
pressure and, over the underwater parts, the acting hydrostatic pressure. The pressure is
increased also by the heat of hydration, which is prevented from dissipating and may raise
considerably the pressure of the entrapped air. The pressure of the confined air leads to
explosion-like soil failure and is the direct cause of spalling and subsequent liquefaction of
unprotected slopes. If the cracks convey flowing water, then the suddenly liquefying soil will be
scoured at a faster rate than if the cracks are closed by swelling, leading to the development of
gully or tunnel erosion, which has often been identified as the cause of failure in small
embankments.

The mechanism described in the foregoing applies to soils containing clay minerals as the
cohesive component. The presence of amorphous components tends to aggravate the situation,
since these are capable of absorbing considerable amounts of water and thus may induce
extremely high swelling rates.

The susceptibility of soils to such adverse changes in properties, as well as the need and extent
of control measures can be identified on the basis of simple tests conducted parallel to those
commonly performed at soil mechanics laboratories.

2. SITE EXPLORATIONS
Careful site explorations are essential to the soils engineer in the earliest possible stage of any
fish farm project, because sometimes a proposed site will have to be abandoned and another
one selected if early explorations indicate adverse soil conditions.
Site explorations enable the soils engineer to provide answers to the main problems of seepage
and dike stability and to furnish information to the designer of the structures about the
foundation conditions.

2.1 Pond Areas and Canal Traces

As mentioned in the introduction, the accuracy of seepage loss estimations will depend on how
well we succeed in determining the areal pattern and stratification of any pervious soils in the
pond area and along the trace of the filling canal, and the permeability coefficient 'k' of these
soils.

Figure 2. Semi-logarithmic grain-size curve of soils

Efforts must therefore be made to check the surface layer in the area of the proposed pond(s)
and along the trace of the canal for uniformity, to detect any singularities such as beds of
rivulets and abandoned streams, which are always potentially present in alluvial lowland areas.

The plan of explorations should accordingly be prepared on the basis of a thorough field
inspection including preliminary sampling with a manual sampling kit and classifying the
samples visually.1/ Valuable information can be derived further from a careful study of detailed
maps and aerial photographs, if such are, or can be made available at reasonable cost. The aim
should be to locate any areas in which the soil consists of granular materials, such as loose
silts, sands or even coarser gravels.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation: 'Earth Manual'. U.S. Government
1/

Printing Office, Washington

The points of exploration should be determined according to the results of this survey, rather
than by adopting a fixed grid pattern, since a grid pattern will always involve the danger of two
adjacent boreholes straddling a narrow strip of higher permeability.

The soils along the canal traces should be explored also for their hydraulic properties, to
estimate slope inclinations and the allowable (non-scouring) velocity of flow in the canal.

The equipment and techniques of these explorations are those commonly used for shallow work
in soil mechanics. It should be noted, however, that care should be exercised in determining as
accurately as possible the sequence of soil strata down to the first impervious layer. If the first
layer of topsoil is impervious and at least 0.6 to 1.0 m thick, no deeper exploration is needed.
Disturbed samples taken with a hand auger are suited to determine the granulometry and index
properties of the soil, but for permeability testing at the laboratory undisturbed samples are
required, since any remoulding may cause drastic changes in the 'k' value and lead thus to false
conclusions.

Since truly undisturbed samples are difficult to take, field permeability tests should be performed
in the vicinity of each exploratory borehole or shaft by the infiltration method.2/3/

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation: "Earth Manual". U.S. Government
2/

Printing Office, Washington, pp. 717-26.

Szilgyi Gyula, Vgs I.: Field determination of seepage losses from earth irrigation canals
3/

(Hungarian). Vizgyi Kzlemnyek, 1962. No. 1

2.2 Borrow Sites

2.1 Pond Areas and Canal Traces

2.2 Borrow Sites
2.3 Structure Sites

Within economical hauling distance all cohesive soils should be checked for their suitability as
construction material for the dikes. In these potential borrow sites the explorations should be
organized so as to provide information on the extent, depth and occasional stratification of the
deposit.

Where the cohesive material for the dikes can be excavated from the pond area, care should be
taken not to cut into any pervious sublayer, which may cause seepage losses, or underseepage.

It should be remembered that samples of fairly large volume are needed for laboratory
analyses, since each compaction test should be performed on fresh samples. Around 12 kg are
needed for classification and compaction (Proctor) testing. The compaction test can be made
also by reprocessing the same sample, and increasing its water content gradually, but the result
will be slightly higher than with fresh samples.
2.3 Structure Sites

The subsoil in the proposed structure sites should be explored to a depth equal to twice the
larger dimension of the foundation slab in plan. The structures involved in fish-farm projects are
normally small and so are the loads acting on them. For this reason the bearing capacity of the
subsoil and if relevant, the position of the load bearing layer, can be determined with the
accuracy required by a sounding method. The Swedish Weight Sounding Technique as
described by the Swedish Geotechnical Society (1970), is simple and fast, and yields
acceptable results for this purpose.

The Swedish weight penetrometer consists of a screw point, sounding rods, a rotating handle
and weights of 5 kg, 10 kg (2), and 25 kg (3), making a total of 100 kg. During a test the
penetrometer is gradually loaded until the point starts penetrating into the soil. This load is
recorded, just as any further loads, required to continue penetration.

As soon as the rod refuses to penetrate under a load of 100 kg, the penetrometer is rotated by
hand. The penetrometer should not be rotated if the load applied is less than 100 kg. The
penetration resistance is recorded as the number of half-turns required for 20 cm penetration.

If a firm, or hard layer is situated close to the surface (from fill or a thick dry crust), the frictional
resistance along the sounding rods may affect appreciably the penetration resistance
measured. A small diameter borehole of 5 cm should then be drilled through this layer.

Penetration testing should be terminated when a certain penetration resistance or a certain

depth has been reached. A firm bottom is reached when the penetrometer does not sink any
more when rotated, or driven by at least 10 blows of a 3.0 kg sledge hammer. (The two top 25
kg weights can be used instead. These should be dropped from 20 cm height.). If this criterion
has not been satisfied, the penetration test can be terminated when two adjacent 20 cm thick
layers are encountered with increasing penetration resistance exceeding 40 half-turns per 20
cm, and penetration is less than 1 cm per blow after 5 blows with the top two 25 kg weights. If
the penetration is larger than 5 cm per 5 blows, or if the penetration resistance decreases, the
sounding rods should be rotated before driving is continued. The depth of penetration achieved
by driving should be recorded on the plot. High resistance may be caused by a stone, or
boulder. The noise and vibrations in the sounding rods during a test can also be observed to
identify the soil penetrated as clay, sand or stone.

A cohesionless soil is considered to be dense, when the weight sounding resistance is equal to,
or higher than 15 half-turns per 20 cm penetration, and to be loose when it is less. The average
permissible soil pressure m for gravel, sand and silt is given by the formula:

where

m = average permissible soil pressure, MPa

B = width of footing, m
L = length of footing, m
N = bearing capacity factor, MPa/m

Some examples are shown as follows:

Determination of Permissible Soil Pressure

Type of Soil Half-turns/20 cm H (m) Factor D=0 m N MPa/m

D=0 1m 2m m , max (MPa) m

15 0 0.17 0.25 0.29

Gravel 0.60

1-15 2B 0.27 0.40 0.47

0 0.13 0.19 0.22

15 0.50

2B 0.20 0.30 0.35

Sand 0 0.08 0.11 0.13

1-15 0.30

2B 0.12 0.18 0.21

0 0.10 0.15 0.17

Fine sand and coarse silt1/ 15 0.40

2B 0.16 0.24 0.28

0 0.04 0.06 0.08

1-15 2B 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.20

For coarse silt the permissible soil pressure is limited to the values given for a loose state of
1/

compactness

Note:

H is the distance between the footing and the highest ground water level. When the ground
water level is located above the foundation level, H is equal to zero. For values of H between 0
and 2B rectilinear interpolation is recommended.

D is the minimum depth of foundation. For values of D between 0, 1 and 2 m rectilinear

interpolation is recommended.

For determining stratification, auger drilling and the retrieval of disturbed samples are
acceptable and normally no undisturbed cores need be taken.

The samples taken during the foregoing explorations should be preserved, labelled as in
standard practice and taken to the laboratory for testing.

3. LABORATORY TESTS

3.1 Additional Tests for Pike and Dam Materials

3.2 Interpretation of the Results

Permeability tests on the samples collected from the pond area and the canal trace, index tests
on the samples from the structure sites and borrow areas, and compaction (Proctor) tests on the
samples from the borrow areas should be performed following standard soil mechanics
laboratory practice. The standard Proctor test is preferred, since this will more closely
approximate the conditions in low dams and dikes. The shear strength of each compacted
specimen should be determined by measuring the penetration resistance of the Proctor needle.

3.1 Additional Tests for Pike and Dam Materials

Natural moisture content should be determined on every sample, since this value will be needed
in the subsequent tests.

Granulometry should be determined by sieve and hydrometer analysis depending on soil type.
With granular soils the conventional procedure should be adopted. Cohesive soils, which
contain coarser particles as well, such as sandy silts and clays, should be oven dried to
constant weight at 60C, since the cohesive fractions may undergo irreversible changes at
higher temperatures. The dried samples should be crushed carefully and the particles larger
than 0.1 mm removed by sieving.

The granulometry of the fine fractions should be determined by 'wet', i.e., hydrometer, analysis.
Two analyses should be run on each sample, one in the water to which the earth structure will
be exposed, the other in water to which the optimal amount of dispersing agent is added.
Sodium carbonate is recommended as the dispersing agent. Sodium hexa-metaphasphate may
produce higher degrees of dispersion, but sodium carbonate more closely reproduces
conditions likely to occur in practice. The optimal amount should be used, since smaller
amounts produce insufficient dispersion, while overdosage will cause the clay particles to
coagulate.

To find the optimal amount, prepare a 5 percent solution of sodium carbonate in distilled water.
Weigh specimens of 1 g dry weight each into 6 test tubes and add 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 ml
of the dispersant solutions to the successive test tubes. No dispersant is added to the sixth test
tube. Then add 4-5 ml of distilled water to each and work the sample to putty using a glass rod.
Fill up to 10 ml, using the water to flush any material from the glass rod.

Boil the test tubes in a water bath for about 20 minutes and allow them to cool in a stand
arranged in the sequence of increasing dispersant concentration. After 24 hours, the test tube
showing the largest loose sediment volume will indicate the highest degree of dispersion
attainable.

The amount of dispersing agent to be used for the hydrometer analysis is found from the
following table:

Preliminary test Hydrometer analysis

5% solution of NA2CO3 to 25 g soil dry weight add from 25% sodium carbonate solution

Test tube 1 0.2 ml 1.0 ml

2 0.4 2.0

3 0.6 3.0
 4 0.8 4.0

5 1.0 5.0

The hydrometer analyses should thereafter be performed in the conventional way and the two
granulometry curves for each sample should be plotted on the same chart.

By comparing the two curves, conclusions can be reached on the actual condition of the soil,
and on the condition which may result from repeated or extended exposure to water. The
difference between the actual and dispersed granulometries will also indicate the width of the
range within which changes in soil condition and thus in mechanical properties can be
anticipated. If the actual granulometry is close to that in the dispersed condition, no further
disaggregation is likely to occur and the soil is as watertight as can be expected. Conversely, a
wide difference between the two curves implies coagulated, aggregated conditions. At a
reduced specific surface larger void sizes predominate and, therefore, the soil will be pervious
even if a highly cohesive soil could be inferred on the basis of the clay content or index of
plasticity. Some coagulated clay soils may disperse spontaneously under prolonged exposure to
water, which would mean a corresponding loss of stability of the soil.

The CaCO3 content will indicate the extent to which the individual particles are liable to be
weathered, i.e., the crystalline structures are decomposed to amorphous, vitreous gels. This
weathering results in the deterioration of the mechanical properties, such as stability and
permeability, so it is one of the main causes of soil slumping and flowing after extended
exposure to water.

The pH values indicate the water adsorption or hydrophyllic properties of the soil, and the
occurrence and extent of the weathering process mentioned in the foregoing.

The specific surface, together with the surface index calculated therefrom, will provide
information on the type of clay minerals predominating in the soil, or on the crystalline, or
weathered surface of the discrete particles. A high specific surface area may be due to the
presence of a high proportion of clay minerals (montmorillonite, illite), which resemble scales
and have thus extremely large surfaces, or to the weathered condition of the individual particles.
The extent of weathering is, however, known from the foregoing tests, so the high specific
surface area can be attributed positively to one of the two causes mentioned.

Sediment volume is an indication of the volume stability of the soil. Boiling accelerates the soil-
water interaction, so that changes in soil conditions can be determined in a shorter time.

Based on experiences gained with a number of low dikes, the critical void ratio has been
introduced in Hungary, as an index of volume stability. This is determined by the following
procedure:

First, the sample is air dried to constant weight and crushed for sieving on the 0.1 mm mesh
sieve. From the material passing, a sample of 4 g mass is weighed to 0.1 g accuracy and filled
loosely into a 25 cm3 measuring cylinder, which is then filled up to 20 cm3 with water of a
composition similar to that to which the earth structure will be exposed. The sample is allowed
to soak for 48 hours, shaking it vigorously several times during this period. Thereafter the
sample is allowed to settle for approximately 24 hours and the volume of sediment is read on
the scale of the cylinder.

The critical void ratio is found as:

where

V is the sediment volume read on the cylinder, in cm3 units

W is the weight of the air-dry sample placed in the cylinder, in gram units

s is the specific gravity of the soil in g/cm3 units. (This may be entered with the value 2.75
g/cm3 for all practical purposes.)

Some soils will refuse to settle, so that no sediment volume can be determined and the critical
void ratio will be very high.

Secondly, for earth structures, where leaching is liable to occur, the clear fluid is decanted
carefully or syphoned off after the first reading and refilled to the original mark. The sample is
shaken, allowed to rest and settle as before and the reading on the sediment volume is
repeated. After three to four repetitions the growing or decreasing trend of the successive critical
void ratios will indicate the final value, which will characterize the soil after leaching, or basic
exchange processes, have taken place.

In terms of the critical void ratio, the soils are classified into the following groups:

Group A: ec =2.5-3.5 (V =5.7-8 cm3)

Slightly cohesive, pervious under low heads, low swelling potential, high mineral and chemical
stability under environmental exposure. The soil mechanics characteristics determined on the
original sample are likely to remain constant over the service life of the structure.

Group B: ec = 3.5 - 6 (V = 8 - 13.5 cm3)

Swelling soils, susceptible to weathering. Medium to highly cohesive, impervious under virtually
all conditions, high swelling and shrinkage potential. Under atmospheric exposure liable to
weathering, making them more cohesive.

Group C: ec > 6 (including soils which refuse to settle)

Highly swelling soils tending to become liquid spontaneously, flowing even on very flat slopes.
Conventional testing by soil mechanical methods will produce irrelevant results.

Group D: ec < 2.5

Soils usually aggregated as a result of leaching or oxidation, or formed by weathering from
acidic parent rock. Although cohesive, such soils display sand characteristics, high volume
stability, and also permeability. Owing to aggregation, the original deposits are loose, and highly
compressible. The surface roughness and strength of the aggregations lends them a high angle
of internal friction, but cohesion is low. Conventional testing by soil mechanics methods will
produce irrelevant results.

The properties of mixed fractions will be governed by the relative proportion and properties of
the fines of less than 0.1 mm present.

In a sandy-silt soil, where the fraction less than 0.1 mm is over 15 percent by weight and
belongs to Group A or B, the sand will display a rather low angle of internal friction and a
susceptibility to liquefaction, but will be practically impervious. If however, the fines belong to
Group D, then the sand will display higher strength characteristics, but will remain pervious
regardless of the high fines content.

This simple test, together with the normal index tests, will often be found to provide sufficient
information to the designer to enable him to predict the future performance of low dikes and to
decide on the advisability of any protective measure.

The extent of mineral weathering is indicated by the chemical solubility. Of the crystalline silicate
soil components the main SiO2 and Al2O3 compounds dissolve poorly (a few tenths of a percent)
in acids of rather high concentration (e.g. HCl of 10% concentration) or in weak bases (e.g.
NaOH of 27, concentration), whereas these main components of the weathered, vitreous-
amorphous phase can be dissolved in quantities up to several percents, depending on the
degree of weathering. This test will provide quantitative information on the amorphous content
of the soil.

The surface index mentioned previously is defined as the ratio of the specific surface area, Fspec,
to the percentage by weight of the minus 0.002 mm fraction, G0.002, as follows: and has the
following values:

Soil Component I (m2/g)

Quartz flour, glacial till 0.02

Feldspar 0.30

Aplite 0.56
Kaolinite 0.92

Illite 1.20

Montmorillonite 3.0-3.6

The index thus gives guidance as to the type of clay mineral present in the soil and, in
combination with the result of the solubility analysis, to the extent to which the soil is weathered.

3.2 Interpretation of the Results

In terms of the foregoing tests and analyses a soil is considered susceptible to adverse changes
under exposure to atmospheric factors and water if the following criteria are satisfied
simultaneously:

(i) The two granulometric curves are situated close to each other and the minus 0.002 mm
fraction is at least 15% by weight.

(ii) The pH in the 1% NaF solution is higher than 10.5.

(iii) The pH in water is higher than 8.3. The susceptibility to loss of stability by liquefaction
increasing with the pH.

(iv) The specific surface area determined by methylene-blue adsorption is higher than 15 m2/g.
In this connection the results of the pH in NaF and the solubility analysis should also be taken
into consideration, since the polialuminates, as products of weathering, carry a predominantly
positive charge and do not adsorb the methylene blue, which is also positively charged.

(v) The solubility analysis indicates the presence of polisilicate and polisilicic acid gels.

The results of the tests described in the foregoing are entered in the granulometric chart shown
in Figure 2.

The conclusions arrived at from these more elaborate tests will coincide in the vast majority of
cases with those derived from the critical void ratio and will indicate whether and under what
conditions a particular soil can be used as the material for dike construction

4. DESIGNING FISH-POND DIKES AND DAMS

Designing earth structures involves a process of successive approximation requiring several
trials. The starting data available to the soils engineer are normally the height of the structure
(depth of water plus the safety freeboard), the foundation conditions, available construction
materials and occasionally the minimum crest width, if movement of some equipment on the
crest is required. The problem is to design a dike cross section which will produce a safe and
sufficiently watertight structure, and which will result in a project of minimum cost. The first step
consists of finding the steepest slope inclinations which will ensure stability over the service life
of the structure, so that the embankment will be the cheapest to construct. The resulting base
width must then be checked for underseepage and for the danger of piping failure. The
foundations of structures must also be checked for settlement behaviour. In cases where
cohesive, impervious materials are available in limited quantities only, the dike design providing
the water tightness required must also be found.

The depth of water is given by the technological designer, the safety freeboard by the
hydrologist and the designer of the spillway. Freeboard may also be governed by the wave
action to which the dike is likely to be exposed. The wave height is found by taking the direction
and force of the prevailing wind, the fetch length and the depth of water into consideration.

There are a number of formulae in use for estimating wave height. The following two are in the
metric system:

where

hw is the wave height in metres

W is the wind speed in m/sec
B is the pond width in the wind direction (fetch length) in km
H is the water depth in metres

For comparison, a formula used in British units is:

where

hw is the wave height in feet

W is the wind speed in mph
B is the pond width in the wind direction (fetch length) in miles

The results of exploration and the soil properties determined by laboratory tests afford guidance
to the soils engineer in design. It should, however, be emphasized that earth structures are
already exposed to atmospheric influences in the course of construction, and also later during
their whole service life. They must never be considered as static, but as dynamic structures,
taking into account the changes in conditions and character of the factors to which they are
exposed. This kind of philosophy will alone lead to a technically and economically sound
solution, in which allowance can be made for the mutual interactions between the subsoil, the
earth structure and the atmosphere. It should be remembered, moreover, that the number and
variability of the various factors involved prevents us from predicting and estimating all
possibilities and influences in advance.
Thus, in analysing the slopes for their stability, the shear strength determined by laboratory tests
is used. Great care must, however, be exercised in choosing the design value. Reliable mean
values can only be adopted if the soil and subsoil is uniform and, therefore, stability analysis will
yield useful results in these cases alone. If this is not the case, then the results of the stability
analyses should be accepted as rather rough estimates only. An evaluation of local experience
gained with similar structures and a critical examination of the particular pedological and
geological conditions are indispensable under such circumstances.

Another important consideration is that the low dikes and dams normally involved in aquaculture
projects do not warrant expensive tests in a soils laboratory. It should be realized that design
values of soil strength are costly to determine and yield information which must be accepted
with circumspection by the engineer who must use sound engineering judgement in their
application. For the foregoing reasons practical guidelines have been applied in Hungary for
dimensioning dikes, levees and dams lower than 3.0 m in height and retaining less than 3
million m3 of water.

The dikes are classified into homogeneous (a) and zoned (b) cross sections, the latter including
those with an impervious core, with or without an impervious upstream blanket (Figure 3). The
individual structural elements (zones) of the embankment are classified again as narrow or
wide, depending also on the material used as shown in Table 1.

The degree of compaction required for the various structural elements of the dike is indicated in
Table 2.

Low earth structures designed and constructed according to these guidelines have proven
satisfactory in Hungary.

In connection with these guidelines it should be noted, however, that no cohesive soils classified
according to the critical void ratio as Group C must be used as construction material for the
dikes. The soils belonging by the same criterion to Group B can be used as impervious core
material, if the core is protected on both upstream and downstream sides by shells (Figure 3)
belonging to the size category wide of Table 1 and constructed of sand.

Under arid climates, where dry spells of extended duration are liable to occur, no material
classified as Groups B and C by the critical void ratio must be used for dikes of uniform cross
section. Soils belonging to Group B may be used for the core, but must be protected by shells of
coarse to medium sand. A transition layer at least 0.5 m wide should be provided of sand, if
gravelly sand or gravel is used for the shells.

Slopes built with the inclinations and of the materials shown in Table 1 and observing the
foregoing limitations will normally be stable. The most important single factor causing
deterioration is erosion on the upstream side by wave action, and on the downstream side by
heavy rains. The slopes must be protected against these contingencies. A sound grass cover
will offer adequate protection on the downstream side and the crest against rain erosion and
normally even on the upstream side above the line of wave run up. Grass cover should be
established as an organic part of the construction work, as soon as the slopes are finished to
grade. The kind of grass to be seeded and the method of seeding will vary from region to region
and the advice of an agronomist should be sought on this matter.
Over sections exposed to wave attack, the slope must usually be protected. Reed belts of about
4 m width will attenuate waves effectively and should be planted on berms with a horizontal, or
mildly sloping surface. Where reed belts are unacceptable, or where reed refuses to grow, other
means of slope protection should be envisaged. The material commonly used for such
protection is riprap, which may be dumped in a thickness of 0.5 m, or hand placed, where labour
is cheap, in a thickness of 0.25-0.30 m. Fifty percent of the stone by weight should be of a size
about equal to the thickness of the riprap, the remaining half should be graded uniformly down
to the largest diameter of the underlying filter bed.

Other alternatives of slope protection that may be considered where rock is unavailable are
blocks of concrete, ceramic blocks, continuous concrete mattress, or lime stabilization, but
brushwork mattresses have also been used on minor projects. These latter, however, require
frequent maintenance and must be replaced at rather short intervals of time.

The soils classified as unsuited can be improved in their properties by lime treatment, which
results in greatly reduced swelling and shrinking and makes the soils much easier to compact.
The soils stabilized by such treatment will also offer higher resistance to erosive action. There is
ample literature available on the theory and methods of lime treatment, the economic desirability
of which depends on local conditions and must be evaluated separately for each particular
project.

Figure 3. Types of dikes

Table 1 Classification of Component Elements of Dikes according to Size

Table 2 Densities related to Proctor Optimum in Embankments

The dike cross section determined in the foregoing manner must next be checked for
underseepage and piping failure. Whereas underseepage is merely a problem of water loss
from the pond, piping must be prevented since it presents a serious danger to the stability of the
structure. Piping occurs when the force exerted by seeping water on the soil exceeds the
resistive force offered by the soil. The potential energy represented as the differential head
created by the dike is dissipated as frictional loss as the water flows past the soil particles. The
seepage force S acting on the soil is the product of the unit weight of water w and the hydraulic
gradient i. The latter is found when the differential head is divided by the distance between the
points of seepage entry and emergence. When upward flow exists in a cohesionless soil and
the head loss per unit length of the flow path exceeds the submerged effective weight of the
material, movement of the soil particles will take place. For example, if the weight of a cubic
metre of saturated cohesionless soil is equal to 2 000 kg, the submerged weight will be 1 000
kg. Hence, if there is an upward hydraulic gradient of 1, the seepage force will be equal to 1 000
kg and the material will be in a condition of unstable equilibrium, termed a 'quick' condition.

Whenever water flows from a less pervious material to a more pervious one, or out onto the
ground surface, the possibility of migration of fines, or piping should be considered. Even a very
minor washing away of fines at the downstream side of the dike is serious. As soon as some
fines are washed away, the resistance to erosion along the path of seepage is reduced and this
results in an increase of flow. Owing to the increased flow, the rate of washing away is further
increased, and so forth, until failure occurs.

To analyse the subsoil of the dikes for potential piping and to estimate the factor of safety
relative to piping failure, two cases of interest in designing fish pond dikes will be considered
(Figure 4).

1. Case of a single pervious layer under the dike base

No detailed analysis of piping failure is necessary, if the condition

is satisfied.

Here

B is the base width of the dike, in metres,

H is the differential head, also in metres and

i0 is the 'inherent failure gradient' of the soil material forming the layer, and has the following
values:

gravel to coarse sand io =0.9

fine sand to silt io = 0.6

cohesive soil io = 0.85

The limit failure gradient is found as

where

is the irregularity index of the soil material, given in terms of the uniformity coefficient U =
D60/D10

5 0.2

5 -15 0.5

>15 0.8

Figure 4. Cross sections of dikes

The limit failure gradient must be smaller than the effective gradient Ieff = H/B and the factor of
safety is Ieff/If

2. Case of dike built on a single cohesive top layer

The subsoil may be considered impervious, so that no analysis of piping failure is necessary, if
the thickness of the cohesive layer under the dike is

and on a sample taken from 1 m depth the liquid limit wL >45%, the index of plasticity Ip = 15%
and the critical void ratio eM > 3.

If the layer is thinner than 3 m, then it may burst under the gradient

, that is > 0.85, which is the inherent failure gradient of the cohesive top layer.

Piping failure will occur, if the material of the pervious sublayer is eroded after the cohesive top
cover has burst, thus if
It should be noted that to account for a concentration of flow lines in the vicinity of the break in
the top layer, where the seepage flow emerges, a factor of 3 has been introduced. In the
foregoing formula the inherent failure gradient of the pervious sublayer must be introduced. The
factor of safety is again Ieff/If.

In order to prevent piping, movement of soil particles under the action of seepage forces must
be prevented. Where the soil subject to possible piping is exposed at the downstream side of
the dike, piping can be prevented either by reducing the seepage gradient at the exit point so
that the seepage force is too small to cause movement of particles, or by stabilizing the soil at
the exit area mechanically.

Mechanical stabilization consists of covering the exit area with a filter blanket of coarser
material, so graded that the pores of the coarser material are small enough to prevent the larger
particles of the finer soil from passing through. The two layers must obey Terzaghi's filter rule
which is to be found in all handbooks on soil mechanics.

Further methods of piping control consist of the construction of drainage trenches and relief
wells, or of extending the path of seepage by an upstream blanket. These methods are,
however, normally too expensive to be justified in fish-pond projects. On the other hand, the
possibilities and alternatives of controlling underseepage and thus seepage losses from the
pond must be considered.

The problem of underseepage and the desirability of control measures should be examined by a
dynamic approach, i.e., by examining the potential decrease of seepage losses over time. At
any particular instant the magnitude of the seepage loss from a given pond area is given by the
product of permeability and the hydraulic gradient, obtained as the ratio of the water head to the
thickness of the soil layer above the ground-water table. However, in this product both the
permeability coefficient and the position of the groundwater table may be variable with time.

The permeability coefficient can be expected to decrease with time, as the sediment particles
carried in suspension by the entering flow are washed into the pervious bottom layer and fill in
the voids of the latter. This process, known as clogging, or 'colmatation' in French papers
depends thus on the relative granulometries of the pervious layer and the silt, and on the
sediment content of the feeding water. The mineralogical composition of the sediment (the
presence of clay minerals) is also an important factor. Both laboratory experiments and field
experience indicate that the permeability coefficient of a 10 cm thick surface layer may decrease
by as much as two orders of magnitude within 10 to 14 days, and practically complete sealing
may develop within six months. The rate of clogging will become faster if the granulometry of
the sediment is comparable to the fine fraction of the pervious top layer, and for perfect sealing
to develop the presence of clay particles is essential.

Where the flow feeding the ponds carries no sediment in suspension, such as a supply from a
reservoir, the process may be induced artificially. For this purpose a thin (2-3 cm thick) layer of
fine, non-cohesive material, such as fine sand, is spread underwater. This can be done from a
barge evenly on the pond bottom proceeding from the edges toward the centre. The largest size
of this material should equal 0.6 to 0.75 times the effective diameter of the bottom material. The
seepage loss should be observed by readings on a staff gauge during this treatment. The first,
or at the most the second such treatment should already produce a marked decrease in the
seepage losses. As the final step of treatment a clay (bentonite) slurry should be spread by
similar methods on the bottom. The concentration of the slurry depends on the activity of the
bentonite available. Thus if the bentonite displays a viscosity of 26 centipoise in a 6 percent
suspension (60 g of bentonite suspended in 1 000 ml of water), an application rate of 2-3 litres
of slurry per square metre of bottom area should suffice for complete sealing. The application
rate should be increased if the bentonite is less active.

As pointed out in the foregoing, repeated cycles of desiccation and rewetting are most liable to
cause adverse changes in the soil structure. The sealing just described should be maintained in
a wet condition, therefore, and the pond should not be kept empty for extended periods of time,
especially in the dry season.

Seepage losses from the feeder canal can also be controlled by this method, but to prevent the
bentonite slurry from being washed away, it is usually necessary to impound the canal by
reaches for a few days during which the slurry is placed and allowed to penetrate into the soil
pores.

5. CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION
During construction work on the dikes and canals, soil mechanics supervision is necessary to
check whether the soils envisaged are used for the various parts of the dikes, whether these are
placed at the moisture content specified and whether they are compacted to the density
specified.

The soils from the borrow areas previously explored are classified visually to identify them with
those tested at the laboratory.

The moisture content of the borrow material can be determined by burning if a major departure
from the average is observed.

The conventional method of determining the density and moisture of the material placed and
compacted in the dike consists of taking core samples, which are then taken to the laboratory
for moisture determination by oven drying.

Where the dike material is moved and placed mechanically, even moderate-capacity equipment
will produce fast progress, so that the point of sampling will usually become buried by the time
that the result becomes available, leaving the soils engineer with no possibility of any remedial
measure. To remedy this, devices have been developed by which the moist unit weight and the
volumetric moisture content of the soil can be found instantly, on the spot, indicating whether the
density attained is acceptable, or not. The unit weight of the compacted layer up to about 30 cm
thickness is found by a gamma probe, based on the attenuation of the intensity of gamma
radiation by the soil between the source and the detector. Moisture is determined by detecting
the slow neutrons reaching the detector through the soil layer from the source of fast neutrons.
Devices such as these available on the market have proven reliable and effective.
 Chapter 6. Principles of Designing Inland Fish Farms
K. Elekes
Water Planning Institute
Budapest, Hungary

1. SITE SELECTION
2. PREPARATORY WORK
3. PURPOSE AND DIMENSIONING OF FISH FARM STRUCTURES
4. FISH POND ARRANGEMENTS
5. EARTH STRUCTURES
6. DIKE PROTECTION
7. STRUCTURES
8. REFERENCES

1. SITE SELECTION

1.1 Considerations in Site Selection

1.2 Basic Principles of Arrangement

The site for a fish farm should be selected with great circumspection and care, since the site
and general arrangement will control the economics of operation.

1.1 Considerations in Site Selection

- Sites should be selected for fish farms only where water of the required volume and quality is
available at the times needed for operating the farm.

- Preference should be given to sites where a gravity water supply to the farm is possible.

- The quality of the water available must be such that the desired fish can be raised, e.g. fresh,
brackish or salt water.

- Gravity drainage of the ponds should be possible.

- The fish farm should be sited primarily in areas unsuited to other agricultural uses.

- The soil in the area selected should, if possible, be impervious.

- For low construction costs, plain areas with slope less than one percent should be selected.
- The site should be in the vicinity of transportation routes, or where the access road can be
constructed economically.

- In the proximity of inhabited areas, considerations of public health and the necessity of
guarding against poachers should be kept in mind.

- Fish farms need electrical power, so the possibility and cost of connection should be
considered.

- Any existing electric power line must be excluded from the area envisaged for the fish farm.

- Skilled operators are essential for operating major fish farms efficiently. An important
consideration in site selection is, therefore, to provide an attractive environment and facilities for
both professionals and operators.

Factors to be considered in site selection are described in more detail in Chapter 1

"Considerations in the Selection of Sites for Aquaculture".

1.2 Basic Principles of Arrangement

Fish farms consist of many ponds performing different functions in fish production. Their relative
positions, as well as their connection to the water supply and drainage facilities, power supply
and transport roads, in fact the general arrangement of the fish farm, has a major influence on
the operating costs. In deciding on the general arrangement, the following should be
considered:

- The farm centre, consisting of operating buildings and living quarters, should have good road
access.

- The facilities requiring frequent attendance, such as the hatchery, rearing and nursery ponds,
holding ponds and pumping station, should be as near as possible to the centre.

- Separate filling and drainage possibilities should be provided, if possible, for each pond.

- Transport of feed from the grain storage to the ponds and of the fish harvested to the holding
ponds should involve short hauling distances.

- The holding ponds should be close to the common external cropping pits serving several
ponds.

The foregoing principles can be realized best by an arrangement in which the operating
buildings, the holding ponds and the water control structures are in the vicinity of the
geometrical centre of the area. Wherever the terrain conditions permit, this type of arrangement
should be adopted.

2. PREPARATORY WORK
2.1 Technological Requirements
2.2 General Technical Data
2.3 Geodetical Data
2.4 Hydrological and Meteorological Data
2.5 Geotechnical Data
2.6 Water Quality Data

The layout of the site is governed by the combined requirements of operation and the particular
site conditions. Prior to designing work, all information should be collected regarding
technological requirements and the data particular to the site.

2.1 Technological Requirements

- Species of fish to be produced.

- Sequence of operations envisaged: production from hatching to market fish, or production of

market fish alone.

- Method of fry production.

- Production quantities envisaged.

- Methods and possibilities of nutrient supply to the ponds, such as organic manure, duck
farming, fertilizer application.

- Feed distribution (fish feed, grain feed, etc.).

- Transport management - method and means of in-farm and external transportation.

- Buildings required (operation, social-cultural amenities, grain store, equipment shed, repair
shop, housing, etc.).

2.2 General Technical Data

- Data on existing water uses affected.

- Data affecting water supply and drainage.
- Future development plans for the area.
- Data on other facilities (roads, railways, etc.)
- Property conditions and data.

2.3 Geodetical Data

Topographic surveys to the scale 1:500 to 1:5000 and with contour lines of 20-25 cm (perhaps 1
ft) vertical spacing are needed for the entire fish farm area, in order to permit designing
complete pond drainage and earthwork volume estimates of the required accuracy.
On any existing earth structures (embankments, canals, etc.) cross sections should be taken at
50-100 m spacing, with points spaced sufficiently close to each other to plot the actual terrain
with 20 cm accuracy on the cross sections of 1:100 scale.

Cross sections should be plotted at the sites of major structures (intakes, road crossings, etc.)

Cross sections at not more than 500 m intervals and continuous profiles are needed on the
connecting stream or canal extending for the distance affected by the fish farm (e.g. to the
backwater limit).

The topographic survey should be connected, especially as regards elevations, to the national
survey network.

2.4 Hydrological and Meteorological Data

Where water is obtained from a natural stream, data must be acquired on the stages and flow
rates to be anticipated at the diversion point in the periods of pond filling and for compensation
of water losses. Water supply should be designed for a flow rate of 80 percent probability.

In the case of ponds through which floods must be conveyed, or the dikes which are required to
retain floods on the stream, the designer will require also data on design flood levels and
discharges. The probability of occurrence of the design flood is normally specified by the
competent water agency. In the absence of such specification, the flood of 1 percent probability
of occurrence (once in a hundred years) should be adopted as the design flood. In the case of
minor ponds, where a dam failure would cause no other losses, a flood of say 3 percent
probability might be adopted as the design flood. The retention capacity of upstream ponds is
taken into account in estimating the design flood.

Data on the peak values of monthly evaporation and rainfall are needed for estimating the water
demand.

Data on the monthly average and extreme temperatures are needed for selecting the species of
fish for farming, for planning the necessary feed supply rates and for designing the holding and
storage facilities of live fish.

The annual volume of sediment entering the ponds should be estimated.

Data are needed on the direction and highest speed of wind prevailing in the area in order to
design wave protection.

2.5 Geotechnical Data

The geotechnical explorations should be extended to the entire area of the fish farm, to provide
data on the soil stratification in the pond area, under the dikes, along the canal traces and at the
sites of structures.

The data obtained by soil explorations should be suited to estimate:

- seepage losses
- underseepage conditions and the hazard of piping failure
- stability of the dikes
- the required degree of compaction
- the allowable flow velocity in the supply canals, and
- the foundation of the structures.

The methods of exploration and laboratory testing, as well as the interpretation of the results are
described in more detail in Chapter 5 on soil characteristics for aquaculture farms.

2.6 Water Quality Data

The water supplied to the fish ponds must not contain pollutants and toxic substances
detrimental to fish life. The composition of the feed water should be subject to quality analysis,
including the following:

- oxygen content
- pH value
- total salts content
- ammonia content
- free CO2 content
- phenols, oil and tar content.

The water quality analyses should be such as to enable prediction of the interactions between
the soil and the feed water.

3. PURPOSE AND DIMENSIONING OF FISH FARM STRUCTURES

3.1 Hatchery
3.2 Fry Rearing Ponds and Basins
3.3 Nursery Ponds
3.4 Production Ponds
3.5 Fish Holding Facilities

3.1 Hatchery

The most important structure in the technological process of artificial reproduction is the
hatching house, where the following operations are carried out:

- Preparation of the breeders prior to stripping.

- Treatment of the breeders (hypothysis treatment, tranquilization, stripping, etc.).

- treatment, fertilization, spawning of the eggs.

- Treatment of the larvae.

- First feeding of the fry.

- Laboratory functions related to artificial reproduction (water analysis, egg analysis, detection of
fish pests, chemical and medicament dosage, etc.).

- Packaging of fry.

The equipment needed in the hatchery includes breeder tanks, hypophizing and stripping table,
hatching jars, fry holding vessels.

3.2 Fry Rearing Ponds and Basins

The small fry are reared from the age of 4-5 days to 3-4 weeks in the fry rearing ponds and
basins. These should be arranged in places sheltered from wind, on impervious soil and close
to the hatching house and road.

The preferable size of the fry rearing ponds ranges from 100 to 1 000 m2 . Within this range the
actual size of the fry rearing pond depends on the number of fry which can be introduced within
1-2 days. The pond size should therefore be adjusted to the capacity of the hatching house.

The water supplied to the fry rearing ponds should be rich in oxygen and must contain no
chemical or biological pollution. Water containing much suspended sediment must be allowed to
settle first. The supply system should be dimensioned to permit the water in the pond to be
exchanged twice daily. In densely populated ponds, a distribution network of perforated pipes
should be provided at the bottom for the uniform distribution of inflow water. The fry rearing
ponds are lined with stone or concrete.

Circular basins are made with diameters from 4 to 6 m and about 1 m depth. The freshwater is
introduced tangentially through nozzle pipes to maintain the water in permanent circulation. The
effluent is withdrawn from the centre of the basin.

Rectangular basins should have a ratio of short to long sides from 1:2 to 1:4. The water is
introduced to, and withdrawn from, these basins along the short sides. The drainage system of
the fry rearing ponds should be dimensioned hydraulically to permit each basin or pond to be
drained in four hours. Sluices equipped with box traps should be used to collect the fry. For a
guideline to determine the total area of all fry rearing ponds, as a general rule 100 to 200
feeding larvae require 1 m2 of water surface area.

3.3 Nursery Ponds

The fry reared in the fry ponds are transferred for further growing into the nursery ponds at the
rate of about 100 000 per hectare. The optimal size of the nursery ponds ranges from 1 to 10
ha, but the maximum size should not surpass 30 ha. The water depth should be 1.0 to 1.5 m.
The nursery ponds should be arranged in the vicinity of the fry ponds, preferably in a manner to
permit direct transfer of the fry to the nursery pond, together with the water from the fry rearing
ponds.
The water supplied to the nursery ponds should be both chemically and biologically clean. In
general no flow through the ponds is necessary, but provision must be made to compensate for
any water losses.

Complete and rapid pond drainage is an essential requirement. For this reason the bottom of
the ponds should slope towards the outlet and should be so graded as part of the construction
work on the ponds. The body weight of around 100 g is attained in these ponds during 160 to
220 days. Fishing should preferably be made possible from external cropping pits.

3.4 Production Ponds

These ponds serve to grow yearlings to full grown fish. The ponds are designed according to
the following specifications:

The ponds vary from 20 to 100 ha in size, but the largest pond size should be determined by
taking the total fish production envisaged into consideration, so that the total fish production in a
single pond should not surpass 100 t. For example, for attaining a total unit yield of 2.5 t/ha, the
ponds should not be larger than 40 ha.

The ponds should be from 1.2 to 1.8 m deep, with pond depth of 1.8 m especially in regions with
elevated temperatures. Water depths less then 0.6 m will result in reduced production.

Filling the ponds should not take more than 2 to 10 days, depending on pond size. No
continuous flow through the ponds is required, but the losses due to evaporation and seepage
must be compensated for during the growing season. Wherever possible, the production ponds
should have filling and drainage systems permitting them to fill and drain independently of the
other ponds.

Complete drainage is an essential prerequisition of intensive fish production. In dimensioning

the drainage system, an essential criterion is that the number of days required to drain a pond
should equal the square root of the pond area in hectares. For example, the draining sluice of a

30 ha growing pond should be dimensioned so as to make possible drainage in or 5.5

days. Another requirement is that the drainage period of the entire fish farm must not surpass
twice the square root of the total pond area. For example, the drainage canal of a 500 ha fish

farm should be capable of removing within or 45 days the water from all ponds of the
fish farm.

The ponds are stocked with fish of 100 g body weight at the rate of 3 000/3 500/ha and the
weight gain to 1 500 g/unit is attained in about 300 days.

For advanced fishing, external cropping pits should be provided for the ponds. The feed,
manure and fertilizers should be stored in the vicinity of the ponds. For transporting feed, as well
as the fish, a sound road network is essential.

3.5 Fish Holding Facilities

The fish harvested from the ponds must be stored in holding ponds until they are marketed or
processed. The capacity of the holding ponds is governed by the composition of the production
according to species, the yield envisaged, the time schedule of fishing and marketing or
processing. The breeding stock should be stored, if possible, in the production ponds, rather
than in the holding ponds.

For holding purposes small 500 to 2 000 m2 basins or ponds of 0.2 to 10 ha area should be
provided. Under climatic conditions similar to those of Hungary, the basins are termed
"wintering" ponds or basins. The average depth of the holding ponds should be from 1.8 to 2.2
m.

The most important requirement to be observed in connection with the holding ponds is that the
dissolved oxygen content of the water in them should never sink below the 2.0 mg/l level.
Oxygen can be supplied by introducing a feed water saturated with oxygen, by allowing water to
flow through the pond, or by injecting oxygen or air into the holding ponds. Air injection must be
accompanied by passing flow through the pond in order to remove the products of metabolism.
At high rates of air injection, the rate of flow through can be reduced to around one-third of that
without air injection.

To estimate the flow rate through, or air injection rate into the ponds, information is required on
the oxygen consumption of the fish stored, the oxygen content of the feed water and the
efficiency of the air injection system.

The oxygen consumption rate of fish depends on the water temperature, or on their body
temperature which is identical. The rate of oxygen consumption increases with temperature.
Conversely, cold water is capable of absorbing more oxygen than warm water. As an example,
the hourly oxygen consumption of carp of 1 kg average body weight is;

10 cm3 at 5C

25 cm3 at 10C

50 cm3 at 50C

Each litre of saturated water contains the following amounts of oxygen:

8.91 cm3 at 5C

7.87 cm at 10C

7.04 cm3 at 15C

When estimating the necessary flow rate, it should be remembered that the fish do not consume
the entire oxygen content of the water for breathing, so that the residual oxygen content of the
effluent from the ponds is still around 1 cm3/l.

In the absence of more accurate computations, the flow rate through the holding ponds can be
estimated at 1.0 l/sec for each ton of fish stored.

The allowable fish density in the holding ponds ranges from 5 to 15 kg/m2 pond area.

4. FISH POND ARRANGEMENTS

4.1 Barrage Ponds

4.2 Contour Ponds
4.3 Paddy Ponds

The arrangement of the fish ponds at any particular fish farm site is normally dictated by
topographic conditions. The following types of pond arrangement are usual:

- Barrage ponds (Figure 1)

- Contour ponds (Figure 2)
- Paddy ponds (Figure 3).

The first two types of pond system are typical in rolling terrain, while paddy ponds are adopted
in flat land. These types of arrangement differ from each other in their method of construction,
structures and operation.

Figure 1. Barrage pond systems

Figure 2. Contour pond system
4.1 Barrage Ponds

Such ponds are established in a valley of flat to medium longitudinal slope, by closing the valley
with a low dam at a suitable site. A site is considered suitable if the shortest possible dam will
create the largest possible pond. Thus, dams can be constructed most economically at a narrow
point in the valley situated at the downstream end of a flat, wide section.

The floods on the stream will pass through the ponds and must be released without causing
damage to the dams, dikes and structures, and without allowing the fish to escape. For this
purpose a spillway must be provided.

4.2 Contour Ponds

The ponds established behind a longitudinal dike in the valley will not be affected by floods,
these being passed along one of the valley sides. In other words, fish ponds are created on one
side of the valley alone. To create gravitational supply to the ponds, the stream is blocked by a
weir, the water being diverted through a gated intake to the supply canal. From the latter, each
pond can be filled separately, while separate drainage is possible to the original stream bed
except during flood conditions. The relocated stream bed must be dimensioned to carry the
design flood safely, while the crest of the longitudinal dike running parallel to the stream must be
raised above the design flood level. This arrangement is only possible on wide valley floors.

4.3 Paddy Ponds

Each pond of fish farms in flat plain areas is surrounded by a dike. The flat terrain offers wider
opportunities for the favourable arrangement of ponds, in which each pond can be filled and
drained independently, thus creating the possibility of intensive fish farming.

5. EARTH STRUCTURES

5.1 Dams and Dikes

5.2 Feeder Canals
5.3 Drainage canals
5.4 Drain Ditch
5.5 Internal Pond Drains
5.6 Borrow Pits
5.7 Internal Harvesting Pits

Earth structures form an important part of any fish farm project. The dams and dikes are
constructed of earth, while the supply and drainage canals, the seepage drain ditches, the pond
drains and the harvesting pits are excavated in earth.

5.1 Dams and Dikes

The dams and dikes (Figure 4) are normally constructed of the soil material available at the site.
The dimensions and cross sectional shape of the dikes are governed by the purpose they are
intended to serve and the material available for construction. The main principles to be
observed are:

- The crest width should not be less than 2 m.

- The dike crests serving as unpaved roadways for internal transportation should be at least 3 m
wide.

- Paved roads on the dike crests should be made with at least 1 m wide unpaved shoulders.

- The centre line of the dike crest should be elevated by 15-20 cm relative to the shoulders.

- The crest elevation above the highest water level, the safety freeboard, is controlled by the
maximum wave height anticipated. In the absence of calculations, a freeboard of 50 cm should
be provided.

- The slope inclinations should be selected as outlined in the notes on soils engineering.

- Where a reed belt is envisaged for wave action control (Figure 5) either a horizontal 3 m wide
reed berm should be envisaged with the surface not more than 0.5 m below the normal pond
level, or a slope inclined at 1:4 to 1:8 should be formed starting 0.3 m below the normal water
level.

Figure 3. Paddy pond systems

Figure 4. Typical dam and dike cross sections

5.2 Feeder Canals

The feeder, or supply canals (Figure 6), carry water from the intake to the individual ponds, and
are used occasionally as waterways for barges.

The feeder canals should be dimensioned to allow the various types of ponds to be filled within
the times mentioned. Moreover, they should enable all ponds of the fish farm to be filled in less
than 50 days.
The longitudinal profile of the feeder canal should be designed to ensure a canal water level at
least 0.1 m higher than the normal water level at the intakes to the individual ponds. In
estimating the water level in the feeder canal, the backwater caused by the structures should
normally be taken into consideration.

Depending on the seepage losses anticipated from the feeder canal, some kind of lining, or
other method of seepage control, may be necessary.

The feeder canals are made with trapezoidal, or mixed, cross-sections. The bottom width and
water depth are found from the hydraulic calculations. The dikes along the feeder canals should
have at least 2.0 m wide crests. The slope inclinations depend, just as in the case of the pond
dikes, on the quality of soils, but should not be steeper than 1:1.5. The safety freeboard along
the feeder canals should normally be 0.5 m, but can be reduced sometimes to 0.3 m over the
terminal sections.

Canals to be operated at freezing temperatures should be designed for water depths of more
than 1.0 m.

5.3 Drainage canals

The drainage canals (Figure 6) serve to convey the water from the ponds to the recipient stream
when the ponds are drained.

The lowest water level in the canal at the outlet of the drain sluices should be at least 20 cm
deeper than the lowest bottom elevation in the pond, or than the bottom of the harvesting pit.
Where this is impossible to achieve, pumps should be considered to ensure complete drainage
of the pond.

The conveying capacity of the drainage canals should be estimated starting from the drainage
times and periods mentioned for the various types of pond.

5.4 Drain Ditch

These ditches (Figure 6) serve to drain any seepage from the ponds and the feeder canals, and
the external runoff that is prevented by the pond dikes from draining towards the recipient
stream and, thus, to protect the surrounding areas against the potential damages caused by
such waters.

The bottom of the ditch should nowhere be less than 0.3 m below the terrain level and the water
should not be allowed to overflow, even when carrying the design discharge.

The drain ditch follows largely the trace of the extreme dike. The distance from the dike
depends on the soil conditions and stratification (see notes on soils engineering, "piping
control"). The distance between the outer toe of the dike slope and the edge of the drain ditch
should not be less than 2.0 m.

Figure 5. Temporary wave protection

5.5 Internal Pond Drains

Figure 6. Canal cross sections

The water from undrained depressions within the pond area is conveyed to the outlet sluice,
from where the fish are carried to the cropping pit. The slope of these drains should be steeper
than 0.1 percent, while they should be cut deeper than 0.2 m. The minimal bottom width
desirable is 3.0 m and the sides should be sloped at 1:3, or flatter. The earth excavated from
these drains might possibly be used for constructing the dikes or for filling any depressions. Any
material that cannot be used for such purposes should be deposited at a distance of not less
than 5 m from the drain, so as not to interfere with draining the pond, and to prevent it from
sliding back into the drains.

5.6 Borrow Pits

Where it is impossible to secure the earth needed for constructing the dikes from the cuts
envisaged, separate borrow pits must be opened. Material may be obtained from areas outside
the ponds, but also from within the pond as part of the bottom levelling work, or as special
borrow pits. Attempts should be made to obtain the dike material from levelling the pond bottom,
which should slope towards the outlet sluice. The bottom should be levelled to an accuracy of
15 cm. Any internal borrow pit should be designed by observing the principles outlined in
connection with the pond drain network.

5.7 Internal Harvesting Pits

For harvesting, cropping pits should be placed in the vicinity of the outlet sluice, either within or
outside the pond. An internal pit serves one pond only, while two or more ponds can be
connected to an external pit.

Internal harvesting pits may be arranged parallel or perpendicular to the dike. The bottom area
required for the cropping pit is around 40 m2/ha. To accommodate the length of the nets in
current use, the pits should be 10 to 25 m wide. The differential elevation between the two ends
of the bottom of the pit should be 20 cm. The preferable depth of the pits ranges from 0.6 to 1.0
m. The internal borrow pits and pond drains should be connected to the harvesting pit, so that
their bottom at the entrance should be at least 20 cm above the pit bottom.

External harvesting pits are connected to the pond outlet sluices over drainage canals of varying
length. Fresh water should always be introduced into the external harvesting pits during the
period of harvesting. External harvesting pits need not be dimensioned for the entire fish
population in the ponds, since the fish are admitted intermittently to the pit. The preferable area
in plan varies from 1550 to 2070 m. The bottom of the external harvesting pits should be at
least 30 cm deeper than the deepest point within the pond and an additional differential
elevation of 20 cm is necessary between the two ends of the harvesting pit. The crest of the
dike around the external harvesting pit should be designed so as to have a pit depth of 0.8 to
1.0 m below it.

The slopes of the harvesting pit should not be steeper than 1:2, while over the section where the
net is drawn out they should be inclined at 1:4.

6. DIKE PROTECTION
6.1 Wave Action
6.2 Biological Protection
6.3 Wave Control Linings

The dikes require effective protection against the destroying effects of waves. Even the surfaces
of earth structures not exposed directly to pond water may often require protection against rain
and wind erosion, depending on the prevailing climatic conditions.

6.1 Wave Action

The length and height of wind generated waves depend on wind speed, the fetch length and the
depth of water. Of the large number of empirical wave height formulae, the one suggested by
Dyakova is

h = 0.0186 W0.71 B0.24 H0.54

where h is the wave height in metres, W the wind speed in m/sec, B the fetch length in km and
H the water depth in metres.

6.2 Biological Protection

Biological protection consists of establishing a vegetation cover as a means of controlling both

wave action and erosion, provided that such vegetation can be planted and grown under the
particular conditions, and is compatible with the requirements of fish production.

Information on the plants potentially applicable and their biological requirements in any
particular area should best be obtained at the site. Under the conditions prevailing in Europe, a
reed belt has been found most effective for controlling wave action.

For effective wave action control, the reed belt should be 4 m wide for the first 1 000 m length of
fetch, and should be increased by 2 m for every subsequent 1 000 m increment of fetch length.
The density of the stand should be at least 70 reeds/m2 and each reed should have a diameter
of not less than 8 mm above the water level.

The wave control reed belt is planted on the reed berm of the dike (Figure 5). Over the surface
on which the reed is to be planted a topsoil or humus cover of at least 20 cm thickness should
be spread, in which the reed is planted either by seeding, as a soil root mixture or as root or
shoot cuttings. Except for propagation as shoot cuttings, reed planting operations are confined
to the winter hibernation interval. The shoots should be planted at the time when the fresh
shoots have developed 7 to 8 leaves.

Whichever method of reed propagation is adopted, the water demand of the growing plants
must be satisfied. Without the possibility of irrigation, the result of reed planting will be
questionable. In the first period of growth, up to the appearance of 3 to 4 leaves, the soil should
be saturated, but a permanent water cover is definitely undesirable.
On the slope surfaces and dike crests exposed to rain and wind erosion, a sound grass cover is
often the most economical method of control. For grass planting the surfaces should be covered
by at least 10 cm of topsoil, but this can occasionally be replaced by manure and fertilizers. The
grass cover is established on properly prepared surfaces most expediently by seeding. The
desirable seed mixture should be determined with due consideration to the soil type and climatic
conditions. The grass cover must be mowed regularly and in dry climates provision must be
made also for irrigation. Where irrigation is impracticable, the costs of grass seeding will be
wasted.

6.3 Wave Control Linings

Where no biological protection is possible, the earth structures exposed to wave action must be
protected by other types of lining. Guidance to designing such linings can be found in the notes
on soils engineering.

7. STRUCTURES

7.1 Monk Sluices

7.2 Open Sluices
7.3 Spillways
7.4 Fish Control Structures

The structures normally used for supplying water to, and draining water from a fish farm are of
types familiar in hydraulic engineering. Those particular to fish farm projects will be dealt with
here.

7.1 Monk Sluices

Monk sluices (Figure 7) are the structures generally used for supplying water to, and draining
water from, fish ponds. By means of stop-log closures and fish screens or racks, the operator is
free to decide whether the lower or the upper water layer from a pond should be released.

Monk sluices consist of two main parts, namely the shaft and the horizontal pipe. Three pairs of
slots are incorporated in the shaft, one for the fish screen, the other two for the stop-log closure.
The shaft is normally on the upstream side, thus inlet monks for filling have their shaft on the
side of the supply canal, while outlet monks are on the pond side. The pipe crosses under the
dike and serves also to dissipate the energy of the water falling over the stop-logs. The pipe
may be built with circular, horseshoe, or rectangular cross sections. For higher conveying
capacity twin pipes may be provided.

Access to the shaft is made possible by a walkway at least 0.5 m wide. For working on top of
the shaft, a platform is cantilevered therefrom. A handrail must be provided along the walkway
and the platform to prevent accidents.

7.2 Open Sluices

Open sluices are built where the passage of barges is required, or where the discharges to be
passed are higher than those which normal monk sluices are capable of carrying. Their
application is also needed for the inlet sluices of external cropping pits, to facilitate the passage
of fish. They are preferable also in the screen-box structure of nursery ponds where drainage or
fishing of two nursery ponds can be handled by means of a single structure.

In the longitudinal section the structure follows the cross-sectional shape of the dike. The open
cross section is U-shaped. To enable traffic to pass over the structure, the open U can be
bridged by a slab.

With closing gates provided on both the upstream and the downstream ends, such open sluices
can be designed as locks.

The closing mechanism in open sluices may be stop-logs or vertical-lift steel gates. Openings
wider than 1.5 m are cumbersome to close by means of stop-logs and here steel gates with
proper hoisting gear are the better solution. The hoisting gear of frequently operated gates
should be driven by an electric motor where power connection is possible. The steel gates
should be of the double-leaf type which can be released from either below or above the gate, as
required by the operator.

7.3 Spillways

Spillways are essential components for the safe operation of fish ponds formed by valley
closure. These serve to pass the floods arriving at the ponds without damage, while preventing
the water level in the ponds from sinking below the normal operating elevation and the fish from
escaping from the pond system.

The spillways should be dimensioned to pass the design flood without damage. The structure
must be capable of passing at least the 10 percent probability flood without any human
interference. At higher flood discharges human control may be necessary at the closing
mechanisms of the structure.

A wide variety of spillway designs have been developed, of which a few simple types will be
described.

Simple unlined spillways are earth canals arranged at the junction of the dam and the valley
side and having a sill level corresponding to the normal operating water level in the pond (Figure
8). Normally, no fish screen is provided. For stabilizing the sill, a recessed beam of concrete or
hand-placed rock may be advisable. The depth of flow over the spillway, or the highest
allowable flow velocity must be determined with due regard to the local soil conditions so as to
prevent scouring. The surface of the spillway may be protected against scouring by a grass
cover, reinforced if necessary by rows of buried brushwork or hand-placed stone ribs.

Improved unlined spillways are similar in design to the foregoing but with fish screens between
piers and lined for some distance upstream and downstream of the screen (Figure 9). The piers
have cantilevers at the top, on which a service walkway is supported to permit cleaning the
screen.
Reinforced concrete spillways with recessed sill have the sill elevation below the normal
operating water level in the pond, which is maintained by means of stop-logs (Figure 10). The
fish are prevented from escaping by a fish screen. To pass major floods, the stop-logs must be
lifted clear of the water. For ease of handling the stop-logs, the spans between the piers should
not be longer than 1.5 m. The sill should not be lower than 0.6 m below the normal pond level.
The piers should carry a walkway or a footbridge.

Figure 7. Monk sluices

Figure 8. Simple unlined spillway
Figure 9. Improved unlined spillway

Figure 10. Reinforced concrete spillway with recessed sill

Drop shaft spillways are normally combined with the outlet sluice. Where the subsoil offers good
foundation conditions, such structures are capable of passing safely minor flood discharges.
Behind the shaft of the monk sluice a drop shaft having a crest elevation at the normal pond
level is also provided. The flood discharge is carried by the pipe of the sluice, so that the pipe
must be dimensioned for the design flood flow. At the downstream end of the pipe, an energy
dissipator is needed. Cleaning of the fish screen around the crest of the drop shaft can be
accomplished from the access bridge of the structure.

7.4 Fish Control Structures

At valley-dam fish ponds supplied by a perennial stream, measures must be taken to prevent
fish from escaping from the upstream pond. A fish screen or an electrical fish deterrent are
possible solutions.

The fish screen should extend at least up to the level if the 10 percent flood. The screen must
be cleaned at the time of floods, so that a working platform must be provided for the operator.
The mesh width of the screen or the spacing of the rack bars depend on the size of fish kept in
the pond. In production ponds a bar spacing of 2 cm is sufficient.

8. REFERENCES
Elekes, K. and T. Selmeczy, 1975, Mezgazdasgj; vizhaszmosits. Vol. 2, Halszat, edited by
Gy Fris. Budapest, VIZDOK s Mezgazdasgi Knykiad Vllalat

Huet, M. and J.A. Timmermans, 1972 , Textbook of fish culture: breeding and cultivation of fish.
Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Book Ltd., 436 p. 4th ed.

Pillay, T.V.R., 1979, The state of aquaculture. In Advances in aquaculture, edited by T.V.R. Pillay
and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, pp. 1-10

Tang, Y.A., 1979, Physical problems in fish farm construction. In Advances in aquaculture edited
by T.V.R. Pillay and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, pp. 99-107

Woynrovich, E. and L. Horvth, 1980, The artificial propagation of warm-water finfishes: a

manual for extension. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., (201):183 p. Issued also in French and Spanish

Chapter 7. Preparation of Plans and Cost Estimates and

Tender Documents
J. Kvri
Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations
Rome, Italy

1. INTRODUCTION
2. OUTLINE OR FEASIBILITY PLAN
3. DETAILED PLAN
4. ESTIMATES
5. TENDER DOCUMENTS
6. REFERENCES
ANNEX 1 HYDROLOGICAL FORMULAS
ANNEX 2 GENERAL PROVISIONS
ANNEX 3 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
ANNEX 4 CONSTRUCTION OF CHIPATA FISH FARM IN ZAMBIA
ANNEX 5 Bill No........ Construction of Outlets
ANNEX 6 Bill of Quantities and Contract Cost
ANNEX 7 Bidding Schedule

1. INTRODUCTION
Engineering planning, design and construction of dams, barrages, pumping stations, etc., is
normally carried out with a high degree of efficiency. Sometimes, however, the smaller
structures, secondary channels, etc., used for aquaculture projects are badly made or omitted
entirely from engineering plans. In developing countries engineers have frequently neglected
these minor works, particularly those required at the farm level. To contractors they do not mean
much profit and they are dispersed and difficult to supervise.

It has been increasingly recognized that one of the major difficulties encountered in the
implementation of aquaculture development programmes in developing countries is proper
project preparation. Inadequate and poor preparation of projects has often caused the final
construction cost of the project to be much higher than estimated. The purpose of this lecture is
to present in simple form the various steps required in preparation of plans, estimates and
tender documents for projects and to describe some of the planning procedures that are used in
these processes.

Project preparation is usually considered to include all those activities short of a final decision to
implement. This process includes the following stages:

(i) Identification of the project. At this stage, the production target based on a marketing study,
the species to be cultured and the systems of culture to be adopted, the availability of a large
enough drainable and accessible land area free from flooding and having adequate soil
conditions as well as adequate water source, must all be investigated and determined.

(ii) Preparation of outline or feasibility plan of the project.

(iii) Preparation of detailed plan of the project.

(iv) Preparation of estimates of the project.

(v) Preparation of tender documents of the project.

During each stage, a number of activities and analyses must be carried out and the findings
used to meet the requirements of the subsequent phase, until the project is finally completed.
2. OUTLINE OR FEASIBILITY PLAN

2.1 Purpose of Outline Plan

2.2 Procedures for Preparation of Outline Plan

2.1 Purpose of Outline Plan

The purpose of an outline plan is to confirm that the proposed project can be economically
developed on the selected site, and to investigate and provide all data, calculations and outline
plans based on the different investigations required for the project approval and detailed
planning.

2.2 Procedures for Preparation of Outline Plan

2.2.1 Site selection

2.2.2 Collection of maps and data
2.2.3 Outline plan

2.2.1 Site selection

In aquaculture project operations, site selection is of paramount importance. Success of the

project depends to a large extent on the proper selection of the site. There are both ecological
and technological as well as economic and social considerations involved in site selection.
Factors to be considered in site selection are described in more detail in Chapter 1 on
considerations in the selection of sites for aquaculture (Pillay, 1977).

2.2.2 Collection of maps and data

The following maps and data about the site should be gathered to facilitate the preliminary
investigations and calculations:

(a) Maps
- contoured sheet of map at a scale of 1:25 000 to 1:50 000. This can be used for preparation of
a project location map, to determine the water catchment area and to serve as a source of
information on road connections, etc.;

- land map showing boundaries of properties with different ownerships according to the official
register of owners;

- soil or geological map showing the topsoil or subsoil encountered at the site;
- water resources development map. This will help in determining the water source of the project
by indicating the possibilities of water supply and drainage, as well as by showing the depth of
the expected water tables and yield capacities of any aquifers; climatological map showing the
meteorological stations nearest to the site and the monthly mean values of temperature and
rainfall;

- other development map, if any, regarding the proposed site.

(b) Meteorological data

- mean monthly temperature;

- mean monthly rainfall;
- mean monthly evaporation;
- mean monthly humidity;
- mean monthly sunshine;
- mean monthly wind speed and direction.

(c) Hydrological data

- data for discharge, yield, floods and water elevations of existing water sources (rivers,
irrigation channels, reservoirs, springs, etc.);

- restriction for water supply to the fish farm (for example, periods of the maintenance works in
the irrigation channel).

2.2.3 Outline plan

An outline plan is generally used as a basis for approval and financing of a project. This should
prove the technical feasibility of the project. The production calculations concerned as well as
the design should be in sufficient detail so that a reliable cost estimate including both the annual
operational and production cost can be established.

The principal parts of the outline plan consist of the following;

(i) Report
This should contain the most important information on the project proposal including a
description of the site, soil characteristics determined by the reconnaissance soil survey, source
of water and the results of the water analysis, meteorological features used for planning,
operation plan with the necessary production calculations, planning considerations,
arrangement of the layout plan for the ponds and the location of the hatchery and the other
buildings with the approach road to the project, arrangement for water supply and drainage of
the ponds and the hatchery, the pond facilities, abstract of costs for capital, operational and
production costs, economic analysis for benefits, and the proposed construction programme.
Additionally, all the statements obtained and required for approval and implementation of the
project must be presented usually in a list of annexures to the report.

(ii) General location map

This is generally an unsealed map showing the location of the project.

(iii) Plane table map

This has a scale of 1:2000 to 1:5000 depending the size of the project, showing the boundary
lines and the proposed size of the project, the locations of the soil test pits with their elevations,
the rough contour lines and water source and drainage possibilities.

(iv) Outline layout plan

This plan to a scale of 1:1000 to 1:5000 should include the arrangements of the ponds, the
water supply and drainage systems as well as the location of the hatchery and other buildings
including the proposed approach road and the power and telephone lines.

(v) Outline cross-sections of dikes and channels

All the typical cross-sections of the dikes and channels showing their measurements and slopes
required for the cost estimate must be provided.

(vi) List of proposed buildings and equipment

A list of the proposed buildings with their plinth areas and the equipment needed for running the
project should be given for the cost estimate.

(vii) Soil and water test results

Soil test laboratory results of the samples taken from the test pits for engineering and production
purposes should be provided in tables which are used for planning dikes, etc. (Buring, 1979).

(viii) Cost estimate

Estimates of base (civil works) cost must be calculated using unit rates judged to be applicable
for the region of the project site and major quantities of each item shall be calculated from the
drawings in just sufficient detail to serve the needs of proper estimating. Building costs should
be estimated on plinth area. Earthwork costs are based as far as possible on a balance
between cutting and filling. Estimates of cost are given for electricity supply, engineering (design
of detailed plan and supervision of construction), equipment, land procurement and physical
contingencies.

Lastly, the operational costs and the production cost are provided under separate heads.

(ix) Implementation schedule

Based on the results of the reconnaissance investigations and quantity calculations a bar-chart
for the various activities required to complete the detailed plans and tender documents and
procure the land for construction should be prepared.

3. DETAILED PLAN
3.1 Reviewing Outline Plan
3.2 Detailed Planning

3.1 Reviewing Outline Plan

3.1.1 Topographic survey

3.1.2 Soil survey

After having approved the outline plan of the project, a review should be made of all data
available and, if this is insufficient, action should be taken to rectify the deficiency. Any
modifications of the proposed operating schedule and related water management and water
requirement calculations for both the fish ponds and the hatchery have to be completed prior to
commencing detailed planning.

3.1.1 Topographic survey

The topographic survey which has to be carried out at the site selected for a project should be
based on a convenient datum marked with a temporary bench mark (TBM) at the site. There are
several methods used for topographic surveys. Depending upon the nature and size of the land
required for the project, the following methods are the most commonly applied for topographic
surveying:

(i) Gridding
(ii) Plane tabling
(iii) Cross-section method with traverse survey
(iv) Radiating lines method with traverse survey
(v) Tachiometry

Methods (i) and (ii) are ideal on relatively flat land, while methods (iii) and (iv) may also be used
but are best suited to hilly terrain or use in a narrow, long valley. Tachiometry can be used in
either case. The field work in tachiometry is rapid compared with the other methods and it is
widely used, therefore, for contouring of any types of areas. With reasonable precautions, the
results obtained can be of the same order of accuracy as, or better than, those obtainable by
other methods. The following topographic maps and plans are generally needed for a project:

(i) Index or location map

(ii) Boundary map
(iii) Contour map
(iv) Cross and longitudinal sections
(v) Land map

3.1.1.1 Requirements of maps for engineering designs

(i) Index or location map
This map, which gives general information about the location of the project, the existing roads,
railways, towns or other settlements, rivers, lakes, contours, etc., is the most commonly
prepared from one of the map sheets scaled at 1:50 000, which may be obtained from the
Survey Department Map Sales Depot, or the Survey Department. An example of a location map
prepared for the Chipata Fish Farm is shown in Figure 1.

(ii) Boundary map

During topographic surveying the boundary lines of the selected area for the project should be
fixed by stones or concrete blocks. The boundary lines are usually formed by a closed traverse.
The points of the traverse lines are called stations or bearing points (PBR). These may also
serve for control of levelling or contouring operations over the site, and for setting out the
facilities of the project. The boundary map, as shown in Figure 2, must indicate the lengths of
the traverse lines for the boundary of the project, locations of the PBRs, the coordinates of the
reference meridian, the bearings of the lines, the actual area covered by the traverse lines, the
existing roads, buildings, rivers and other property boundaries. The list of the coordinates of the
PBRs, including the elevation as shown in Table 1, should be attached to the boundary map,
and the data should be recorded in the construction site logbook before starting any
construction works at the site. This is essential as, if the PBRs are destroyed by any machines
during the construction period, they can easily be re-established from the site logbook.

Figure 1. Chipata Fish Farm. Location map

Figure 2. Boundary map
Table 1 List of Coordinates and Elevation of PBRs

PBR Coordinates (m) Elevation (m)

 Partial E Partial N Easting Northing

6170 492 403.11 101 604.34 2.241

6173 - 194.26 - 68.54 492 334.57 101 410.08 5.544

6174 - 193.57 - 68.70 492 265.87 101 216.51 0.880

6175 - 181.20 + 68.59 492 084.67 101 285.10 0.906

6176 - 296.20 +111.18 491 788.47 101 395.28 1.158

(iii) Contour map

Contour maps used in design of the facilities of the project must show the contour lines and all
the establishments found at the proposed site such as roads, electric and telephonic lines, rivers
and drains or other channels, buildings, underground oil, gas or water supply pipelines, borrow
pits, boundary lines, including the location of the PBRs and the TBMs, the north direction as well
as the scale used for mapping. The contour map may also show the location of soil sampling
stations with numbering. The contour maps, depending on the size of area proposed for the
project, should be scaled in 1:1000 to 1:5000.

The contour lines should be plotted on the map at 10 cm intervals for flat land and 20 to 25 cm
intervals for hilly or valley terrain.

(iv) Cross and longitudinal sections

If a project is established in an area where there are fish ponds, drains and other channels, etc.,
their cross and longitudinal sections are often required for designing of the new fish ponds or
the renovation of the old ones, etc. In such a case, the cross-sections should have a scale of
1:100 and the longitudinal sections should be plotted to a scale of 1:100 vertical and 1:500 to
1:5000 horizontal.

(v) Land map

In order to procure the land needed for a project, the required area of the project should be
marked by the selected boundary lines on the land map. For procurement of land, the cadastral
data of the lands including their owner's names, the size and unit price, as well as total amount
in local currency of lands, should be prepared as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Land Cadastral Data

Item Land owner's name Land Land price

Number Area (ha) Required area (ha) Unit Total amount

(I. Rs) (I. Rs)

1 Shri M.B. Prasad 900 0.154 0.154 40 000 6 160

2 Shri A.K. Sing 989 0.125 0.125 40 000 5 000

3 Shri M.B. Beg 934 0.229 0.138 45 000 6 210

Total 17 370

3.1.2 Soil survey

A detailed investigation of soils is needed to design the facilities of a project. The first step in a
detailed investigation is a review of the work already done in the previous project stage. This
includes not only a review of the reconnaissance investigations, but also an examination of the
reconnaissance design, if any is available, and a determination of whether the objective is still
the same. Depending upon the results of the reconnaissance exploration and the size of the
project, the requirements for the detailed soil survey must be predetermined. The number and
spacing of borings including their exploration depth is dependent upon what is needed to get the
data of the soils found in the bore holes at the site. By studying the exploration boring logs
available general information on the expected conditions can be obtained. From this the
additional number of borings including their spacing distance and exploration depths can be
determined. In order to avoid loss of time and money due to boring superfluous bore holes, the
following is suggested for preparation of a detailed investigation (U.S.D.I., 1965).

(i) 1 or 2 sample stations to each 2 to 5 ha of the site, should generally be used under uniform
soil conditions. More sample stations will be required in variable soil conditions. The Engineer
conducting the field exploration work should decide upon the additional number of sample
stations.

(ii) The depth of each bore hole should be a minimum of 2.0 m below the deepest intended
excavation of the project area. The boring depth and the number of sample stations for a special
structure, i.e. a large water tower, should be commensurate with the size of the structure.

A number of disturbed and undisturbed samples should be taken from every stratum
encountered in the bore holes. The soil samples provide material for an investigation of the soil
properties by means of laboratory tests. The results of the soil investigations should be detailed
in a report (Terzaghi, 1967).

3.1.2.1 Requirements for soil survey report

The results of the soil survey should be presented in a report. A detailed soil survey report must
contain the following:

(i) General report

In this part, the location of the investigations, methods of boring and samplings, in situ tests
conducted at the site, the results of the laboratory tests, the allowable bearing capacity and
settlement, the characteristics of the ground water, including whether the water table is perched
or normal, its expected fluctuation at the site and quantity of soluble salts or other minerals
present as well as foundation and dike construction considerations, should be described in
detail.

The laboratory tests should provide the required data as listed below for the construction works:

(a) soil consistency

- liquid limit (LL)

- plastic limit (PL)
- plastic index (PI)
- relative consistency (Cr)

(b) soil components

- grain size analysis curves coefficient of uniformity (Cu)

- particle size analysis

(c) index properties

- water content (w)

- void ratio (e)
- porosity (n)
- dry density ( d)
- wet density ( wet)
- proctor maximum dry density ( Pr)
- absolute specific gravity (Gas)
- apparent specific gravity (Gs)
- cohesion (c)
- angle of internal friction ()
- allowable bearing capacity ( a)
- modulus of elasticy (E)
- permeability coefficient (k)

(d) ground water analysis

- pH
- content of sulphate ion

(ii) Location map

Location map should show all the locations of sample stations with their ground elevation.
(iii) Logs of sample stations

A log is a written record of the data concerning soils and conditions encountered in individual
bore holes. It also provides the results of the laboratory tests on which all subsequent
conclusions are based, such as design of the facilities and method of construction. It may form
an important part of contract documents and it may be required as basic evidence in court in
case of dispute. Each log, therefore, should be factual, accurate, clear and complete. It should
not be misleading. The headings on the log forms provide spaces for supplying identifying
information as to project, hole number, elevation, dates started and completed, and the name of
the person responsible. The body of the log form is divided into a series of columns covering the
depth, thickness and description of strata, the presence or absence of water levels as well as
the results of the laboratory tests.

(iv) Soil profiles

Sections to show the subsurface conditions are used in projects located on hilly terrain. Where
soil profiles are provided in the soil report, the information shown in them is limited to factual
data such as the ground surface line and logs of bore holes located in their actual position with
respect to the ground surface line. Although the choice of sections is made to simplify
interpretation, actual locations of features such as water table, etc., are not illustrated by
continuous lines, but only where they are encountered in each hole.

3.2 Detailed Planning

3.2.1 Project report

3.2.2 Designs
3.2.3 Criteria for designing pond facilities
3.2.4 Preparation of detailed drawings

3.2.1 Project report

A complete report should be prepared covering the project proposal, investigation, the
production including its proposed method, engineering features, execution of construction,
summary of costs, etc. It should contain a general description of the design including the
drawings. The following outline of the items which the report should cover is included as a
guide. Obviously, all of the information listed in this outline is not necessary for any particular
small project, but the greater part of it will be usually required for a larger project (Alien, 1981).

1. Introduction

This includes the background information and the notes of the proposal.

2. Purpose of project

This should contain the following particulars:

2.1 Type of project
- pilot fish farm
- research fish farm
- training fish farm
- production fish farm

(a) fish seed production fish farm

(b) commercial fish farm

2.2 Production of project

- proposed cultural method

(a) selection of fish species

(b) type of fish culture

- monoculture
- polyculture
- main characteristics of production
- production calculation considerations

(a) broodstock requirement

(b) survival rates
(c) fry requirement
(d) fingerling requirement
(e) stocking ratio
(f) feed conversion ratio
(g) pond fertilization

2.3 Marketing schedule

- methods

3. General information and data

This should include the following particulars:

3.1 The project site
- location
- accessibility
- communication
- power supply
- land status
- existing improvements

3.2 Hydrological data

- design flood
- runoff
- ground water potential
3.3 Meteorological data

- mean monthly temperature

- mean monthly rainfall
- mean monthly evaporation
- mean monthly humidity
- mean monthly sunshine
- mean monthly wind speed and prevailing direction

3.4 Water source and quality

- description of water source

- statement for water rights or water restrictions
- summary of water analysis

3.5 Topography

- summary of topographic survey

- list of the boundary points' coordinates
- list of the temporary bench marks

3.6 Soil characteristics

- summary of the soil report

- water table conditions

4. Planning considerations

Design criteria and specifications, description of the facilities, and schedule of execution should
be stated in this section of the report.
4.1 Layout of the fish ponds size of ponds
- water depth in the ponds

4.2 Water requirement summary of the water demand calculations

4.3 Water supply and drainage systems

- for fish ponds

- for hatchery building
- for additional concrete tanks
- for raceways
- methods for water filtration or water treatments

4.4 Description of the facilities

(a) fish ponds

- dikes dike protection
- internal roads
- structures

(b) hatchery

(c) pumping station

(d) other buildings

4.5 Description of the construction works schedule of execution

5. Cost estimate and cost of production

(These will be presented in Chapter 4)

6. List of detailed drawings

It should contain all drawings required for the project to be executed. The following drawings are
most commonly prepared and enclosed with the project report:

6.1 Location map

6.2 Layout plan
6.3 Setting out plan
6.4 Cross and longitudinal sections
6.5 Structural detailed drawings
6.6 Plans of hatchery and other buildings
6.7 Plan of pumping station
6.8 Installation plans

3.2.2 Designs

In order to ensure that the detailed plans should be both economical and suitable to the
construction, their design must be properly performed. The following designs depending upon
the nature and scale of the project usually have to be prepared for the detailed drawings.

3.2.2.1 Hydrological computations

To design a fish farm, located on hilly terrain and fed by water stored in a reservoir or supplied
from runoff of the water catchment area, usually will require hydrological computations as
follows:

(a) determination of design flood for the spillway of the reservoir to fish ponds or hatchery;

(b) runoff of the water catchment area of the project site should be calculated to determine the
capacity of the reservoir or the possible area of the fish ponds.

All these calculations based on the local meteorological and soil conditions may be presented
using the calculating formulas as shown in Annex 1.
3.2.2.2 Production calculations and pond facilities

Production calculations provided by an Aquaculturist are the most essential parts of the project
documents. All statements of production calculations should be considered to prepare any
detailed plans of the project. These contain usually the following particulars:

(a) fish farm

- production target
- proposed cultural method cultured fish species
- stocking rate
- initial weight
- proposed harvesting weight
- survival rate
- requirements of broodstock, fry and fingerling
- feed requirements
- feed conversion ratio
- pond fertilization
- pond management
- operational plan
- marketing plan
- pond specifications
- type of ponds
- size and number of ponds
- proposed water depth for each type of pond
- harvesting specifications
- harvesting method
- requirements of the harvesting facilities
- aeration requirements to the ponds if needed

(b) hatchery

- production target
- proposed hatchery technology
- operational plan
- specification of facilities
- aeration requirements.
3.2.3 Criteria for designing pond facilities
(i) Size and shape of ponds can be defined on the following criteria:
(a) Production purpose: based on the species to be cultured in the ponds, the size should be as
follows:

Type of pond Bottom area (ha)

Spawning (S) 0.01 - 0.5

Nursery (N) 0.05 - 2.0

Rearing and production (R) 0.25 - 10.0

Holding (H) 0.10 - 1.0

These ponds, except the rearing and production ones, should be square or rectangular in shape
(Woynrovich, 1980).

(b) Intensification of production: the higher the production per unit area, the more important
becomes the production factor in relation to pond size. Considering the possibility of a larger
amount of fish loss during a longer period of harvesting it is advisable to complete harvesting as
quickly as possible. It should take no more than one day per pond. The maximum amount of fish
which can be handled by an experienced staff with equipment in one day depending on the
water and air temperatures, is 10 to 40 tons. This can determine to a large extent the optimal
size of the pond, as follows:

Level of production Production Bottom area

ton/ha/cycle (ha)

Intensive 8-10 1-5

Semi-intensive 5-6 2-8

Extensive 3-4 3-10

(c) Risk

Losses due to epidemic diseases or algae bloom etc., in pond water are more in larger ponds
with higher stocking density. It is not desirable to risk more than 10 tons in each pond if any
such losses are anticipated.

(d) Marketing schedule

The demand of fish for market may be determined by the optimal size of each production pond.

(e) Harvesting method

To facilitate netting, it is desirable to limit the width of the ponds to about 75 m. However, using a
separate harvesting pond or special harvesting box or structure, the width and the shape of the
ponds are not limited.
(f) Construction cost

The larger the pond, the lower will be the construction cost per unit area. This is because, the
smaller the ponds, the greater is the proportional area occupied by dikes and channels. The
construction cost for larger ponds will be lower if their long sides can be oriented parallel to the
contours. The steeper the ground gradient the more important it becomes to orient the ponds
parallel to the contour. Ponds oriented parallel to the contours also require a shallower cut and a
shorter earthmoving haul, which is very important when the ponds have to be constructed with
manual labour. The larger the pond, the more difficult it becomes to locate ponds parallel to the
contours.

(ii) Water depth in the pond is determined by the following factors:

(a) species to be cultured in the ponds (Chen, 1976; Edwards, 1978; Huet, 1972; Lee, 1973)

Species Average water depth in m

S N R H

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 0.4 0.8 - 1.5 1.0 - 2.0 1.5

Chinese carps:

Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)

Silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molitrix)

Big head (Aristichthys nobilis) - 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.0 2.0

Mud carp (Cirrhina molitorella)

Snail carp (Mylopharungodon piceus)

Indian major carps:

Rohu (Labeo rohita)

 Catla (Catla catla) - 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 1.5

Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)

Tilapia species 0-5-0.6 0.6-1.2 0.8-1.5 1.5

Grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) - 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 1.5

Catfish species 0.6-1.0 0.6 1.0-3.0 2.0

Black bass species 0.6-0.9 1.0-1.2 1.0-2.0 1.5

Pejerrey (Basilichthys bonariensis) - 0.8 1.2 1.2

Colossoma species 1.0 1.2 1.5

Rhamdia species - 1.0 1.5 1.5

Eel species - 0.4-0.6 1.0-1.5 1.5

Freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) - 0.9

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) - 1.5-2.0 2.0

(b) Meteorological features

Both air and water temperature as well as wind velocity must be considered in determining the
water depth in the pond.

In the tropical region, the daily temperature fluctuations are smaller in deeper ponds than in
shallow ponds because of the greater ratio between the water surface and volume. This is
important because the optimal water temperature required for a higher fish production may be
assured with a sufficient water depth. Whereas, in colder areas, such as Europe, where the
problem is how to attain higher water temperatures in the ponds more rapidly, the shallower
ponds are recommended to achieve a relatively high fish production (Hepher, 1981).
The direction and average velocity of the prevailing winds affect the natural circulation in the
ponds which is very important for deeper ponds.

When the water source is solely runoff, sometimes it is necessary to increase pond volumes by
increasing depth so as to accumulate enough water during the rainy season to suffice for the
entire growing season.

(iii) Pond bottom

In order to drain water completely the bottom of the smaller ponds and the bottom of the internal
channels in the larger ponds must be sloped towards their outlet points respectively. A minimum
bottom slope of 0.1 to 0.2 % is sufficient

(iv) Dike

Measurements and slopes of the dikes should be determined according to the depth of water in
the pond, the size of the pond, soil conditions, construction method and the requirements of
transport as well as transit on the dike. The following figures represent good practice:

Water depth in the pond Top width of dike Free board

(m) (m) (m)

0.50 0.50 0.40

0.50 - 0.80 0.50 - 1.00 0.40 - 0.50

0.80 - 1.20 1.50 0.50

1.20 - 2.00 2.00 - 2.50 0.50

2.00 - 3.00 2.50 - 4.00 0.50 - 0.60

Top width for a road used by vehicles should be a minimum of 3.0 m. If there is a feeder channel
on the top of the dike, its top width should be wide enough for both the feeder channel and a
road or a passage way. The latter is needed for pond operations and maintenance of inlets and
feeder channel (Tapiador, 1977).

The side slopes of the dikes depend upon the soil conditions, water depth and size of the pond,
as well as the expected wave actions. The following slopes are recommended for dikes in
various soils:
 Type of soil Inside slope Outside slope

Sandy loam 1:2 - 1:3 1:1.5 - 1:2

Sandy clay 1:1.5 1:1.5

Firm clay 1:1 1:1

Inside brick lining 1:1 - 1:1.5 1:1.5 - 1:2

Inside concrete lining 0.75- 1:1 1:1.5 - 1:2

The exposed parts of the dike (outside slope, crown, inside slope above the water level) should
be protected by grass against erosion. In ponds with more than about 0,5 ha of water surface,
wave protection made of branches, rip-rap, brick lining, bamboo matting, etc. is required at the
water level (Stickney, 1979).

In order to have a stable dike, a berm with a width of 2.0 to 4.0 m must be left between the dike
toe and the drainage channel (Khanna, 1981).

v) Inlet and outlet structures

A fish pond should have separate inlet and outlet structures for water supply and drainage as far
as possible. The inlet may be anything from a simple pipe to a concrete sluice. It is very
important that the inlet be screened to prevent predatory fish and other animals from entering
the pond. The floor level of the inlet is usually higher by a minimum of 0.10 m than the water
level in the pond partly to ensure water aeration and partly to avoid escape of stocked fish.
Protection must be provided against erosion under and around the inlet. The inlet is better
located in the centre of the short side of the pond, in order to provide better water circulation
(Hora, 1962).

The outlet should be, generally, on the opposite side to the inlet in smaller ponds. A turndown
pipe, open sluice or monk are used as outlet structures. The best type of outlet for controlling
water level in the pond and draining the pond is the monk. The monk consists of a vertical tower
with three pairs of grooves for housing screens and stoplogs and a horizontal conduit passing
across the dike at the lowest level of the pond. It is advisable to provide a harvesting box at the
downstream end of the conduit for harvesting the pond without netting. This harvesting box may
also be used for breeding or for holding fish for marketing. The size of inlet and outlet should be
calculated on the basis of the time needed for filling or draining the pond respectively (Wheaton,
1977).

For designing inlets of ponds the required filling times of different types of ponds can be
considered as follows:
 Type of ponds Filling time in days

Spawning 0.1- 0.3

Nursery 0.2 - 0.5

Rearing and production 1- 10

Holding 0.5 - 2

For calculation of the discharge of the feeder channel including intake structure or pumping
station the peak water demand has to be considered. The total filling time of all the ponds can
be calculated as 6 to 30 days for 5 to 25 ha ponds. The drainage time for different types of
ponds should be as follows:

Type of ponds Drainage time in days

Spawning 0.2 - 0.4

Nursery 0.2 - 0.5

Rearing and production 2-8

Holding 0.5 - 1.0

The total drainage time of all the ponds can be calculated as 5 to 25 days for 5 to 25 ha ponds.

The structures used for fish ponds are made of various materials. For designing these
structures the durability and maintenance cost of the materials used should be taken into
account as follows:

Material Durability Maintenance cost

(years) (%)
Reinforced concrete (1:2:4) 20-30 100

Stone rubble in 1:5 cement mortar 10 - 15 150

Brick masonry in 1:5 cement mortar 5-10 250

Wooden 5-8 300-400

3.2.3.1 Water requirement calculations

The annual water requirements of fish ponds will depend on the soil conditions found at the
project site, environmental factors, cultured species and the chosen technology of fish culture.
To avoid any difficulty during the operation period of fish ponds all the factors have to be
considered in this calculation. The necessary amount of water for a pond in an average year
can be calculated using the equation below:

Qr = Vf + Vrf + Le + Ls + Lc Vra (m3)

or

(l/sec)

where

Qr = annual water requirement (m3 or l/sec)

Vf = Ah = the pond volume to be filled (m3)
A = average water surface area of pond (m2)
h = average water depth of pond (m)
Vrf = NoVf = the pond volume to be refilled (m3)
No = number of refillings a year
Le = AE = water loss from evaporation (m3)
E = mean annual evaporation (m)
Ls = ATS= seepage loss in the pond (m3)
S = seepage coefficient (m/day)
Lc = Ac1.2E = transmission loss in earthen channel (m3)
Ac = water surface area of feeder channel (m2)
Vra = AeffRa = water inflow from rainfall to pond (m3)
Aeff= total area of pond including 70 dikes affected by rain (m3)
Ra = mean annual rainfall (m)
T = operational time in days.

For a hatchery, the peak water demand should be determined considering the production target
and hatchery technology proposed (Piper, 1982).

For a raceway system, the maximum flow of water should be calculated. This can be
determined from the number of daily water changes in the raceway and the cross sectional area
of the raceway (Leitritz, 1980).

3.2.3.2 Hydraulic computations

To avoid overdesigned sizes of hydraulic structures for fish ponds or hatchery, and to assure
that their sizes are adequate for smooth operation, hydraulic computations to determine their
sizes should be performed, as follows:

(a) for water supply system

- design of the main and secondary feeder channels including intake, division boxes, pumping
station or syphon, etc.

- design of inlets

(b) for drainage system design of outlets

- design of drainage channel including its structures, i.e. culvert, fall, etc.

(c) for hatchery

- design of the capacity of pump including its overhead tank design of the water supply pipeline
- design of the drain pipeline
- design of the filter system

To calculate the sizes of the above-mentioned or other hydraulic structures the hydraulic
formulas given in Chapter 8 include all the formulas required to determine the sizes of the
hydraulic structures. Obviously, the peak water demand based on the production calculations
should be considered.

3.2.3.3 Structural calculations

In order to achieve sound hydraulic structures and buildings the structural calculations should
be performed.

3.2.3.4 Stability analysis of dikes

The dikes of fish ponds must be safe and stable during all phases of construction and operation
of fish ponds. To accomplish this, the following criteria should be met:

(a) the dike must be safe against sliding by water force

(b) the slopes of the dike must be stable during construction and under all conditions of pond
operation including rapid drawdown of the pond (Creager, 1950)

(c) the dike must be designed so as not to impose excessive stresses upon the foundation

(d) seepage flow through the dike, foundation and structures must be controlled so that no
internal erosion takes place and so there is no sloughing in the area where the seepage
emerges. The amount of water lost through seepage must be controlled so that it does not
interfere with planned project functions.

An earthfill dike designed to meet the above criteria will prove permanently safe provided proper
construction methods and control are achieved (Capper, 1978)

3.2.4 Preparation of detailed drawings

To prepare drawings based on detailed investigations and designs, the following should be
noted:

- to ensure the most economic solutions and to avoid any delay in construction as a result of
shortage of materials, the structures and any buildings should be generally designed with
available local materials (Tang, 1979);

- to ensure durability of structures and buildings, etc., the best quality materials and
workmanship must be used;

- to maintain a high quality of construction, standard local construction techniques should be

taken into account when the facilities are designed, and in particular when the measurements of
earth works are determined.

3.2.4.1 Requirements of detailed drawings

(i) Location, boundary, contour and land maps

The requirements of the above maps have been discussed in point 3.1.1.1.

(ii) Layout plan

This plan, depending on the size of the project area, must be scaled in 1:1000 to 1:5000. The
layout plan must show the contour lines if those are not provided on a separate contour map
and all the establishments found at the site such as the existing roads, electric and telephonic
lines, rivers and drains or other channels, buildings, underground pipelines, boundary lines,
including the location of the PBRs and the TBMs with their elevations, the North line and the
scale used for planning. In addition, the layout plan must show the designed establishments
such as fish ponds with their measurements and area as well as the FSL in the ponds, the
location of the feeder and drainage channels, all the structures with their mark and number, the
hatchery and other buildings needed, the pumping station or other water sources, i.e. wells, etc.,
the approach road, etc. The characteristic data of the structures such as their mark, size and
floor level must be given in a table on the layout plan as shown in Figure 3.
A separate layout plan must usually be prepared for the buildings showing their locations
including the internal roads, the measurements and the floor levels of the buildings, etc., their
connections to the designed ponds, the North line as well as other facilities, i.e. electric and
water supply pipelines, etc. This plan is generally scaled in 1:500 to 1:1000.

(iii) Setting out plan

In order to ensure the accurate marking-out of all the earthworks of the fish farm, a setting out
plan must be prepared. The reference line including the TBMs, all the measurements of the fish
ponds and drains, as well as feeder canals, including the location and numbering of the cross
sections required to peg out the centre lines of the dikes and the channels must be illustrated on
this plan as shown in Figure 4. The elevations of the TBMs and other data needed for setting
out the facilities should also be given in this plan. The TBMs should be established in such
positions that they cannot be destroyed by the machines during the construction period. The
scale of this plan is the same, or less, than that used for the layout plan.

(iv) Cross-and longitudinal sections of earthworks

(a) Cross-sections

Cross-sections of dikes, feeder and drainage channels, inner channels and harvesting pits in
the ponds should be given in the detailed plans scaled in 1:100. Two types of cross-sections
should be noted as follows:

1) Typical cross-sections can be prepared for a smaller project located on flat land. In this case
the cross-sections must show all the measurements including their slopes, etc., except their
actual height.

2) Cross-sections prepared for a medium or larger project should be generally shown for every
50 m of their longitudinal sections including all the dimensions required for their marking out, as
well as their actual height. In this case, the section number of cross-sections should be
indicated on the drawing. Using these cross-sections, the earthwork calculations for the bill of
quantities can be easily done.

In addition to the above, the necessary elevations for both the top of the dikes, the FSL in the
ponds and the pond or drain bottoms must be indicated in all the cross-sections. A mark,
number or section number must be given to each cross-section. The existing ground level
including the instructions referring to the topsoil removal from the basement of the dikes, should
be noted on the plan. It is very important that the axis of the dikes and drains, as well as their
distances, be illustrated on the drawing.

Figure 3. Layout plan

Figure 4. Setting out plan
From time to time when the soil used for construction of dikes has a higher seepage coefficient
than required for an impervious dike, a clay core should be designed into the dikes. In this case,
the measurements of the proposed clay core including the specifications needed for the core
materials must be shown in the cross-sections.

In the larger ponds, wave protection has to be provided. Therefore, a typical cross-section of the
proposed wave protection in the ponds should be prepared in a scale of 1:50. All the materials,
both in quantity and quality, with their specifications should be given in this cross-section.

(b) Longitudinal sections

In general the longitudinal sections are to be plotted in the scale of 1:100 in vertical and 1:500 to
1:5000 in horizontal. They should contain as shown in Figure 5, the length, bottom level in the
ponds or in the drains, the location and mark of the structures and dikes, the ground level, the
designed crest level of the dikes, as well as the FSL in the ponds. Longitudinal sections will
have to be prepared in the following cases:

1) In a barrage pond system for the valley section occupied by:

- fish ponds
- each dam of the fish ponds
- the diversion channel
2) In a larger contour pond system for the water supply channel, i.e. irrigation channel to the fish
farm:

- the main and secondary feeder channels to the fish ponds

- the main and secondary drains
- the inner drains in the ponds
- the dikes

The longitudinal sections including the cross-sections concerned can be used for the quantity
calculations of the different earthworks.

(v) Structural detailed drawings

Based on the result of the hydraulical computations and the structural calculations, the detailed
drawings of all the hydraulic structures including also the feeder channels as well as the
pumping station if needed, must be prepared in the following detail:

1) Layout plan of the structure scaled at 1:50 to 1:200 must show the plan, the required sections
and views as well as other details of the structure with all measurements and elevations
required for formwork, its connection to the dike and the drain, etc., as well as the quality of the
different materials designed for the structure as shown in Figure 6.

2) Reinforcement details of the structure as shown in Figure 7 scaled in 1:25 to 1:50 should
show all the bars including their spacing and mark in detail sections needed for its construction.

3) Reinforcement plan should give the quality, mark, shape in cm, diameter in mm, number, unit
length and total length as well as total weight of bars required for construction of the structure as
shown in Figure 8.

The additional detailed plans of the screen, the stoplogs or the installation plans of the pumps
for the pumping station, must be prepared in a similar format and detail.

Figure 5. Longitudinal sections - Chipata Fish Farm

Figure 6. Mwekera Fish Farm. Details of outlet
Figure 7. Mwekera Fish Farm. Reinforcement details of outlet
Figure 8. Mwekera Fish Farm
Figure 8. (Cont'd)
(vi) Hatchery building

Based on the production technology and other calculations, the detailed plans of the hatchery,
depending on its output capacity must be prepared in the following detail:

1) Layout plan of the hatchery scaled at 1:50 should show facilities for egg incubation and fry of
fingerling holding tanks of spawners, the necessary space for handling and treatment of
spawners, storage facilities for feed, equipment as well as laboratory room in which the required
chemical and other materials may be stored (Bardach, 1972; New, 1982).

2) Plumbing plan should include all the pipelines of both water and air supply to the incubation
and rearing facilities showing the materials and size of each pipe including fittings as well as the
designed drainage facilities.

3) Installation plans of the incubation and rearing facilities should be separately provided in
detail with a scale of 1:10 to 1:50.

4) Reinforcement details of the different tanks and the building as well as other detailed plans
needed for construction of the hatchery must be provided in a scale of 1:10 to 1:50.

4. ESTIMATES
4.1 Preparation of Detailed Estimates

Before approving a project, the cost of work required must be thoroughly investigated. It is
necessary to prepare the cost estimate, for the intended work from the plans and specifications.
Thus, an estimate for construction work can be defined as the process of calculating the
quantities and costs of the various items needed in connection with the work (Chakraborti,
1922).

Quantity Estimate or Quantity Survey

This is a complete estimate of the quantities of materials or items that may be required to
accomplish the project concerned. The quantity estimate is one of the most important ones in
order to arrive at an accurate cost estimate for the detailed plan.

Detailed Estimate

Based on the results of the quantity estimate, this includes the cost estimate of everything
required for satisfactory completion of work, and should be the best and most reliable estimate
that can be made.

Complete Estimate

This is an estimated cost of all items, i.e. cost of main contract or material, labour and
supervision, cost of land, engineering fees, miscellaneous, viz. removal costs of owner,
contingency percentage, etc., which are related to the work in addition to the detailed estimate.

4.1 Preparation of Detailed Estimates

4.1.1 General abstract of cost

4.1.2 Abstract of cost
4.1.3 Analysis of rates
4.1.4 Quantity estimates

Based on the methods used for the preparation of detailed estimates in different countries, in
general the principal parts of the detailed estimates consist of the following:

4.1.1 General abstract of cost

This includes the name of the project, the date of preparation and the cost of different main sub-
headings, including engineering cost of civil works, cost of equipment and land, etc. as well as
contingencies. The detailed cost of each sub-heading is not shown in the general abstract of
cost.

4.1.2 Abstract of cost

The estimated cost of each and every individual item of work is calculated by multiplying the
quantity by the specified rate in tabular form known as "Abstract form' as shown below, then
adding all together to get the actual estimated cost of work. A percentage (1.5 to 2.5 percent) of
the above estimate is usually added for a work charge along with an amount (usually 0.5
percent) for tools and plant, to calculate the grand total of the estimated cost.

S1. No. Description of item Unit Quantity Rate Amount

Total:

1 % for work charge

% for tools and plant

GRAND TOTAL:

In order to ensure that the detailed estimates can be easily surveyed, sub-headings are usually
required. In this case, each sub-heading of the estimate is grouped for similar items of work. For
an aquaculture project, the sub-headings should be as follows:

(a) Site clearing and preparation

(b) Earthwork - this includes excavation, filling, dressing, dewatering, etc.

(c) Concrete work - this includes plain and reinforced concrete works, prefabricated concrete
works, formwork for concrete structures, etc.

(d) Brickwork - this includes brickwork in foundation and plinth, brickwork in superstructures, etc.

(e) Stonework - this includes stone work for bed or wave protection and in structures, etc.

(f) Woodwork

(g) Steelwork

(h) Roofing

(i) Water supply and sanitary works

(j) Miscellaneous

(k) Finishing

The abstract of cost should contain the different sub-headings shown separately and added
together to show the cost to complete the project.

4.1.3 Analysis of rates

In order to provide a correct and reasonable rate per unit for a particular item, a detailed
surveyed called an "Analysis of rate" should be conducted on costs of materials, labour and
equipment as required for the unit following its specification. The rate per unit of an item
consists of the following:

(a) Quantity of materials and their cost

The quantities of various materials required per unit rate for an item are determined by the
specifications. The cost of materials should be the cost on site. To calculate this, an analysis of
rates of materials should be calculated separately. This includes the market cost of the
materials, including loading and unloading costs, 10 percent profit, and transportation costs.

(b) Labour cost

This includes the number of labourers, skilled and unskilled, and their respective wages
multiplied by the hours required to complete per unit.

(c) Cost of equipment, tools or plant

Wherever possible, the cost of equipment should be allocated to a specific item of rate, i.e. the
cost of operating a concrete mixer should be spread over those items for which it is used. For
certain tools and plant it is difficult to allocate their use to an individual item of rate, and it is
therefore suggested that this expenditure be included in overheads, i.e. establishment charges.

(d) Overhead or establishment charges

These include such items as office rent and depreciation of equipment, salaries of office staff,
postage, lighting, travel, telephone charges, plans and specifications, etc. They are usually 2 /
2% of the net cost of a unit of rate, and may increase to 5 percent.

(e) Profit

In general, a profit of 10 percent is calculated for ordinary contracts after allocating all charges
for equipment, establishment, etc. For small jobs 15 percent profit and for large jobs 8 percent
profit should be considered as common figures.

For such items of work for which it is difficult to prepare an analysis of rate, a lump sum (L.S.)
rate should be provided in the estimate.

4.1.3.1 Schedule of rates or data for costing

To facilitate the preparation of estimates and to enable them to be prepared in a uniform

manner, a schedule of rates or data for costing each kind of work commonly executed is
provided by different departments in each country. These usually include general conditions,
general specifications, items of different works, data for transportation, materials and labour,
method of rate analysis, plant rate analysis and basic unit rate analysis.

4.1.4 Quantity estimates

As mentioned previously, quantity estimates of items of various works should be prepared to

provide an accurate cost estimate for the implementation of a project. Quantity estimates should
be prepared separately for both the structures and the earthworks.

(i) Quantity estimates for structures and buildings

Measurement of all structures and buildings should be taken as per the standard specification,
or as per the schedule of rate, or as per current practice.

(ii) Quantity estimates of earthworks

The quantity estimates of earthworks, using the plans of cross and longitudinal sections, as well
as contour plans if needed, should be prepared. Measurements for earthwork shall be
calculated from the relevant drawings.

Calculating formulas

(1) Sectional area having no transverse slope for diking or cutting with same side slopes

A = Bd +sd2, m2

where

B = crest width of dike, m

d = height of diking or depth of cutting, m
s = ratio of side slope as horizontal: vertical
(2) Sectional area having no transverse slope for diking or cutting with different side slopes

m2

where
b = base width of dike, m

(3) Irregular sectional area

Simpson's rule: divide the sectional area into an even number (n) of parallel strips by means of
(n + 1) ordinates, spaced equal distances, d

(first ordinate + last ordinate + 2 , odd ordinates + 4 even ordinates)

(4) Volumes of earthwork

(a) Mid section formula

In this formula, the mean depth or height should be calculated first by averaging the depths of
two consecutive sections. From the mean depth the area of mid section should be calculated
and volume of earthwork computed by multiplying the area of mid section by the distance
between the two original sections. To estimate the quantity of earthwork for a dike or a channel
whose level sections are taken at a distance, D, which may be varied depending on the ground
level in the longitudinal section of the dike or the channel, a tabular form can be used as shown
below:

Station Height or depth at Mean height or Sectional Distance Quantity

station (m) depth (m) area(m2) between

stations (m) Dike Cutting

(m3) (m3)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(b) Trapezoidal or end areas formula

This method is based on the assumption that the mid area of a pyramid is half the average area
of the ends and the end sections are in parallel planes. If A1and A2 are areas of the ends the
volume of the prismoid is given by
Quantity of earthwork may be calculated by trapezoidal formula in a tabular form as shown
below

Station Height or depth at Sectional Mean sectional Distance between Quantity

station area area stations

(m) (m2) (m2) (m) Dike Cutting

(m3) (m3)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(c) Prismoidal formula

If the volume of earth between two successive cross-sections is considered a prismoid, then a
more precise formula, the prismoidal formula, may be used. It is generally considered that end
sections are in parallel planes.

(first area + last area + 4 even areas + 2 odd areas), m3

There are a number of alternative ways in which the prismoidal formula may be used. For
instance, it can be used to calculate the volume of excavation in a smaller nursery pond
applying the prismoidal formula for a single strip

, m3

where

D = depth of excavation, m
A1 = top area of excavation, m2
A2 = bottom area of excavation, m2
Am = mid area of excavation, m2

(d) Volumes from contour lines

This method may be conveniently used where accurate contours are available. The contour
interval will determine the distance D in the trapezoidal or prismoidal formula, and for accuracy
this should be as small as possible, preferably 0.1 to 0.5 m. The areas enclosed by individual
contour lines are best taken off the map by means of a planimeter. In computing the volumes,
the areas enclosed by two successive contour lines are used in the trapezoidal formula,
whence:
where
V = volume of earth between contour lines A1 and A2
D = vertical interval

This method can also be used to calculate the volume of water contained in a reservoir,
corresponding to a given height. This is done by calculating the total volume contained below
successive contours and then plotting volume against height to give a curve from which the
volume at intermediate levels may be read.

(e) Volumes from spot levels

This is a method by means of which the earthwork for pond bottom, borrow pits, etc. and similar
works with vertical sides may be calculated. Using this method, the area marked out on the
contour map should be divided up into squares or rectangles. Elevations are taken at each of
the corner points and by subtracting these from the corresponding formation levels, a series of
heights is obtained from which the mean height of a series of vertical truncated prisms of earth
can be found. The volume of each prism is given by the plan area multiplied by the mean height
of the prism. The prisms may, of course, be considered as either rectangles or triangles.

5. TENDER DOCUMENTS

5.1 Advertisement for Bids (Notice to Contractors, or Invitation to Bid)

5.2 Draft Contract
5.3 Statements of Work, Services and Technical Specifications
5.4 Bill of Quantities
5.5 Schedule of Execution
5.6 Bidding Schedule
5.7 Approved Drawings

A tender is a written bid submitted by a Contractor in pursuance of the notification given, to

execute certain work at calculated rates with the terms and conditions laid down in the tender
documents.

5.1 Advertisement for Bids (Notice to Contractors, or Invitation to Bid)

For wide publicity of a major work, the sealed bids concerned are invited by advertising in a
minimum of two daily local newspapers. All tender notices should be in the standard form
established by the competent department. The advertisement should contain the following
information: issuing office, brief description of work, location of project, estimated cost of work,
office where plans and specifications can be obtained and charges for them, price of tender
form and other tender documents, class of Contractors, earnest money to be deposited, time of
completion, date for receipt of bids and time of opening of bids, accepting authority and rights
reserved to the Owner. An example of a tender call notice is shown below.

ORISSA FISH SEED

DEVELOPMENT
CORPORATION LIMITED.

VIVEKANANDA MARG, BHUBANESWAR-751002

TENDER CALL NOTICE

No. CAD-385K: - Managing Director, Orissa Fish Seed Development Corporation Limited. Vivekananda
Marg, Bhubaneswar-2, Orissa invites sealed tenders for the following work from the registered
contractors of State Public Works (R & B) and Irrigation Departments; Name of work:- Construction of 10
hectare fish seed hatchery project at Chiplima in the dist. of Sambalpur. Tender amount:- Rs. 12,25,191.
Cost of tender paper:- Rs. 300 (Son refundable). E.M. 1% of cost of tender paper:- Rs. 12,250. Class of
Contractor:- 'A' Class & above. Time of completion:-Twelve months. The tender paper will be sold during
the office working days up to 9-12-82 and will be received on 10-12-82 at 2 p.m. and will be opened on
the same day at 2.20 p.m. in the presence of the tenderer or their authorised representatives. The
earnest money will be duly pledged to the Managing Director, Orissa Fish Seed Development
Corporation Limited, Bhubaneswar in shape of N.D.C./N.P.S.C./N.S.C./Orissa Government Loan Bond/
Postal Savings Pass Book/Demand Draft on any Indian nationalised banks at Bhubaneswar, without
which tender will be liable for rejection. Certified copy of the Sales Tax and Income Tax clearance
certificates are also to be attached and the original to be shown at the time of opening. The authority
reserves the right to cancel any or all the tenders without assigning any reason thereof.

MANAGING DIRECTOR

For smaller projects, an invitation for bids is issued by the owner to a selected group of
Contractors. It conveys much of the information that would be included in an advertisement. In
this case, instructions to bidders should be provided in the letter of invitation to the Employer.

5.2 Draft Contract

5.2.1 Types of contracts

5.2.2 General provisions or general conditions
5.2.3 Special provisions or special conditions

For implementation of the construction works of a project, an agreement, commonly called a

contract, between Owner and Contractor should be concluded which requires that certain legal
formalities be observed by the parties. The nature and content of contracts vary from country to
country and the terms of the contract should be precise and definite and there should be no
room for ambiguity or misconstruction therein. To avoid this contingency, the government
department and agencies as well as the Association of Consulting Engineers or the Institutions
of Civil Engineers have established standard printed contract forms (Abrahamson, 1969).
5.2.1 Types of contracts

Unit-price contract

For unit-price contracts. Contractors are required to quote rates for various items of work on the
basis of the corresponding unit price.

Advantages of unit-price contract:

(i) This form of contract ensures a more detailed analysis of cost by the Contractor. The
authority concerned with accepting the tender can easily control the rates with reference to its
own calculations and decide which of the tenders is favourable.

(ii) Since the Contractors are to write rates of individual items in figures as well as in words, it is
not easy to form a ring during submission of tender and allot work to one of the Contractors
without competition.

(iii) The Contractors work out the unit prices of all items of the Bill of Quantities in order to put
them in the bid. Thus, an unworkable rated tender may be avoided, which leads to smooth
progress and timely completion of the work.

Lump-sum contract

In this form of contract the Contractor is required to quote a fixed sum for execution of the work
completed in all respects. For such a contract, it is very important that the drawings and
specifications be comprehensive and show in complete detail all features and requirements of
the work.

Advantages of lump-sum contract;

(i) The employer knows exactly what the work will cost.

(ii) Detailed measurements of the work executed are not required to be recorded except in
respect of additions and alterations.

Contract with lump-sum and unit prices

In this form of contract the Contractor is required to quote partly a fixed sum for execution of an
entire structure completely detailed on the drawings, and partly unit prices which may be
required for features of variable quantities such as excavation of drains for ponds.

Negotiated contract

When work is awarded on contract by mutual negotiation between the parties without call of
tenders, it is said to be a negotiated contract. It may be in any of the forms mentioned above.
Advantages of this contract are that it brings some economy in expenditure. The parties
selected being always reliable and financially sound, ensure interrupted work with less chance
of dispute.
Draft contracts consist of general provisions or general conditions and special provisions or
special conditions. The general provisions set forth the rights and responsibilities of the parties
to the construction contract and the surety, the requirements governing their business and legal
relationships. Particular requirements of the project are separately inserted in the special
provisions.

5.2.2 General provisions or general conditions

Governments have their own standard general conditions of contract provided on the printed
tender form. The conditions specify mainly the following articles:

1. Definitions and interpretation

2. Engineer's representative
3. Assignment and subletting
4. Extent of contract
5. Contract documents
6. General obligations
7. Labour
8. Work materials and plant
9. Commencement time and delays
10. Maintenance and defects
11. Alterations, additions and omissions
12. Property in materials and plant
13. Measurement
14. Provisional and prime cost sums
15. Certificates and payment
16. Remedies and powers
17. Special risks
18. Frustration
19. Settlement of disputes
20. Notices
21. Default of Employer

The general provisions used by FAO in the contract for an aquaculture project as shown in
Annex 2 specify the following articles:

1. Nature and interpretation of contract

2. Delays and default
3. Acceptance
4. Copyrights and patents
5. Disputes and arbitration
6. Liability with respect to claims
7. Changes and amendments
8. Termination
9. Notices
5.2.3 Special provisions or special conditions

There are several articles or clauses in the special provisions of a contract to govern the
character of the work to be carried out. Annex 3 shows the general form used by FAO for
aquaculture projects which comprise mainly the following articles:
1. Work and services to be executed by the Contractor
2. Equipment, materials, supplies, services and personnel to be provided by the Contractor
3. Schedule of performance
4. Authorizations and permits
5. Levies, duties, taxes, etc.
6. Statement of accounts and/or invoices of Contractor
7. Overpayments
8. Remuneration and method of payment
9. Revision of prices
10. Bonus for early completion and penalties
11. Certificates of completion of works
12. Period of maintenance
13. Completion of period of maintenance
14. Supervision of works
15. Construction site logbook
16. Organization of the construction site
17. Particulars to be supplied
18. Presence of the Contractor on the construction site
19. Insurances at the cost of the Contractor
20. Clearance of site on completion
21. Patent rights and royalties
22. Inspection of site
23. Designation of the Organization's Resident Engineer

5.3 Statements of Work, Services and Technical Specifications

5.3.1 Types of specifications

5.3.2 Specification writing

Statements of work and services contain the scope of the work including description of the site
for work, soil characteristics determined by the reconnaissance soil survey carried out at the
site, meteorological features needed for the construction works and the operation of the project,
description of the project in detail including the construction works and services required.

The technical specifications contain detailed descriptions of all workmanship, services and
materials as well as testing methods which are required to complete a project in accordance
with the drawings and specifications.

The specifications required for a project are as follows:

1) Specification of work is required to describe the quality and different materials needed for a
construction work and is one of the essential contract documents. In this manner the Contractor
can prepare a programme to procure the materials required for a project as well as enabling the
Owner's representative (the Engineer) to check the quality of materials, confirming the
specifications and thereby avoiding any dispute with the Contractor.
2) This also specifies the scope of work and services provided by the Contractor to the Engineer
as well as the workmanship, including the method of performing the work. Thus specification of
a work serves as a guide both to the Contractor and the Engineer in order to execute the work
to their satisfaction.

3) As the rate of work is based on a specification, the Contractor can calculate the rates of
various items of works in a tender with his procurement rates of materials and labour. Thus
tender documents without specifications of works are baseless;

4) The necessity of specification is to test the quality of materials for the work involved in a
project.

5) Specification is an essential contract document and is required for Arbitration or court cases.

5.3.1 Types of specifications

The specifications are divided into two types as follows:

Standard specifications

The governmental departments and other public agencies sponsoring public works publish
"standard specifications", ensuring a uniformity of administrative procedure and of quality of
constructed facilities, as evidenced by specific requirements of materials and workmanship
(Merritt, 1968).

Master specifications

In order that the specifications for a particular contract may be completely adaptable to the work
of a contract, the standard specifications almost always require modifications and additions.
Therefore, master specifications are prepared by design organizations. A master specification
covers a particular item of construction, such as excavation of drains, dikes and concrete
structures of ponds, etc. It contains requirements for all possible conditions and construction
that can be anticipated for that particular item.

5.3.2 Specification writing

Specifications usually are written in the traditional style of composition. They should be
prepared with as much detail as necessary to convey that which is required and hence agreed
to. Ambiguity and verbosity should be avoided. A good specification is clear, concise and easily
understood. The courts have traditionally interpreted ambiguous requirements against the party
who prepared them. Since specifications supplement the drawings, the special provisions and
standard specifications together should not leave any doubt as to the quality of the required
work.

An example of Technical Specifications prepared for the construction of Chipata Fish Farm is
given in Annex 4.

5.4 Bill of Quantities

A bill of quantities or schedule of quantities consists of a complete list of all various items of
works for a project, giving the item number and description of items with unit and quantity of
work against each, thus enabling an estimated calculation of price of work. The bill of quantities
is prepared from drawings and specifications and is arranged in a tabular form without
completing columns of rate and amount. An example of a bill of quantities for construction of
outlets is shown in Annex 5.

The work of a project is usually divided into separate elements for payment purposes with
respect to the kind of work involved, each element as a separate bill designated as a payment
item. The total price of a bid is obtained by summation of the amounts for all items scheduled in
the tender, arrived at by multiplying the estimated number of units for each item by the
corresponding unit-price bid. A sample summary used for bill of quantities and contract cost is
shown in Annex 6.

5.5 Schedule of Execution

The Contractor shall complete the work and services of the project to be executed under the
contract in accordance with the schedule of execution.

Schedules may be performed in either tabular or graphical form, although the graphical form is
generally used because of ease in visualization.

The most widely used graphical presentation of schedule of execution is the rectangular bar
chart (Figure 9). It shows starting and completion dates for each item of work. It indicates the
items on which work must proceed concurrently, items that overlap others and by how much,
and the items that must be completed before work on others can begin. It is a convenient way to
advise the Contractor of necessary material delivery dates.

For comparing performance of work with that scheduled, a bar is usually placed above the
schedule bar showing actual start and completion dates. The chart in Figure 9 indicates that
clearing and preparing of site started on the date programmed and was completed ahead of
time whereas construction of outlets began late. At the close of August, construction of outlets
was 75% complete. This method has the advantage of being simple. It can be used for a small-
scale project, however a more detailed schedule of execution is required for a large-scale
project. In this case bar charts have to be separately prepared for performance of work items
and others showing materials and different machinery needed for all items of works.

Figure 9. Rectangular-bar progress schedule

5.6 Bidding Schedule

The bidding schedule is a very important document on which the contractor summarises his bid
including the total price of bid, the load bearing capacity of the soil at the site on which the bid is
calculated and confirms as well as signs the terms and conditions of the contract. There are
various forms of a bidding schedule. A sample form of this used by FAO for aquaculture projects
is given in Annex 7.

5.7 Approved Drawings

One set of approved drawings prepared for the project should be provided with the tender, on
which the bidders will be able to control the tender's bill of quantities and calculate their bids.
The following drawings have been generally enclosed with the tender documents:

1. Location map of the project, scale 1:50 000

2. General layout of the project, scale 1:2 000
3. Setting out plan, scale 1:2 000
4. Cross-section plan, scale 1:100
5. Longitudinal section of drains, dikes, etc., scale 1:2 000/1:100
6. Structural drawings, including reinforced concrete, scale 1:50
7. Details, scale 1:20
8. Plans of the hatchery and other buildings, scale 1:100
9. Plans of the pumping station, scale 1:500/1:50
10. Electrical installations, scale 1:50
11. Sanitary and other, if necessary, installations, scale 1:50

Further drawings may be issued from time to time at the discretion of the Engineer, as need
arises.

6. REFERENCES
Abrahamson, M.W., 1969, Engineering law and the I.C.E. Contracts. London, MacLaren &
Sons, Ltd.

Alien, L.J. and E.C. Kinney (eds), 1981, Proceedings of the Bio-Engineering Symposium for fish
culture, Bethesda, Maryland, Fish Culture Section of the American Fisheries Society, FCS
Publication, 1:307 p.

Bardach, J.E., J.H. Ryther and W.O. McLarney, 1972, Aquaculture: the farming and husbandry
of freshwater and marine organisms. New York, Wiley-Interscience, 868 p.

Buringh, P., 1979, Introduction to the study of soils in tropical and subtropical regions.
Wayennigen, Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation

Capper, P.-L., W.F. Cassie and J.D. Geddes, 1980, Problems in engineering soils. London,
Spon Ltd., 276 p. 3rd ed.

Chakraborti, M., 1982, Estimating costing and specifications in civil engineering. New Delhi
(privately published)

Chen, T.P., 1976, Aquaculture practices in Taiwan. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Book Ltd.,
176 p.

Creager, W.P., J.D. 1950, Justin and J. Hinds, Engineering for dams. New York, John Wiley and
Sons

Edwards, D.J., 1978, Salmon and trout farming in Norway. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Book
Ltd., 208 p.

Hepher, B. and Y. Pruginin, 1981, Commercial fish farming with special reference to fish culture
in Israel. New York, Wiley Interscience, 261 p.

Hora, S.L. and T.V.R. Pillay, 1962, Handbook on fish culture in the Indo-Pacific region. FAO fish.
Tech. Pap., (14):204p.

Huet, M. and J.A. Timmermans, 1972, Textbook of fish culture: breeding and cultivation of fish.
Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., 436 p. 4th ed.

Kafuku, T., and H. Ikeneone, 1983, Modern methods of aquaculture in Japan. Tokyo, Kodansha
Ltd., and Amsterdam, Elsevier, Developments in aquaculture and fisheries science, 11:216 p.

Khanna, P.N., 1981, Indian practical civil engineers' handbook. New Delhi, Engineers Publishers

Lee, J.S., 1973, Commercial catfish farming. Danville, Illinois, Interstate Printers and Publishers,
Inc., 263 p.

Leitritz, E. and R.C. Lewis, 1980, Trout and salmon culture (hatchery methods). Calif. Fish.
Bull., (164):197 p.
Linsley, R.K., M.A. Kohler and J.L.H. Paulhus, 1979, Applied hydrology. New Delhi, Tata,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 689 p.

Merritt, F.S., 1968 ,Standard handbook for civil engineers. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
pag. var. 2nd ed.

New, M.B. and S. Singholka, 1982, Freshwater prawn farming. A manual for the culture
of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., (225):116 p. Issued also in French and
Spanish

Pillay, T.V.R., 1977, Planning of aquaculture development - an introductory guide, Farnham,

Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, 72 p.

Piper, R.G. et al., 1982, Fish hatchery management. Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 517 p.

Stickney, R.R., 1979, Principles of warmwater aquaculture. New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
375 p.

Tang, Y.A., 1979, Physical problems in fish farm construction. In Advances in aquaculture edited
by T.V.R. Pillay and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, pp. 99-104

Tapiador, D.D. et al., 1977, Freshwater fisheries and aquaculture in China. A report of the FAO
Fisheries (aquaculture) Mission to China, 21 April-12 May 1976. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap.,(168):84
p. Issued also in French and Spanish

Terzaghi, K. and R.B. Peck, 1967, Soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York, John
Wiley and Sons Inc.

US Department of Interior, 1965, Bureau of Reclamation, Earth manual. A guide to the use of
soil as foundations and as construction materials for hydraulic structures. New Delhi, Oxford &
IBH. Publishing Co., 783 p.

US Department of Interior, 1965, IBH Publishing Co., 816 p. 2nd ed.

Wheaton, F.E., 1977, Aquacultural engineering. New York, Wiley-Interscience, 708 p.

Woynrovich, E. and L. Horvth, 1980 , The artificial propagation of warm-water finfishes: a

manual for extension. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., (201):183 p. Issued also in French and Spanish

ANNEX 1 HYDROLOGICAL FORMULAS

1. METHOD FOR DETERMINING PEAK FLOOD FOR MINOR STRUCTURES

2 To design small dams with small water catchment areas (< 100 km) for aquaculture projects,
the peak flood estimate required for the spillway calculations can be determined by the rational
formula (Linsley, 1979)
 , m3/sec
where

Qp = peak rate of flow, m3/sec

C = coefficient of runoff

i = rainfall intensity in cm per hour for a given frequency and a duration equal to the time of
concentration of the basin

A = water catchment area, ha Values for the coefficient of runoff are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Values of Coefficient of Runoff, C

Soil type Water catchment area cover

Cultivated Pasture Woodlands

Sandy or gravelly soils 0.20 0.15 0.10

Loams 0.40 0.35 0.30

Heavy clay soils or soils with a clay pan near the surface; shallow soils 0.50 0.45 0.40
above impervious rock

The time of concentration, Tc, is the time it takes for water to flow from the most distant point in
the water catchment area to the outlet point. An equation for estimating this characteristic
follows.

where

Tc = time of concentration in hours

L = length of the water catchment area along the main stream from the outlet to the most distant
ridge in km
H = the difference in elevation between the outlet and the most distant ridge in km.

In areas where rainfall records are lacking, the time of concentration can be calculated to arrive
at the duration of the design storm.

2. METHOD OF ESTIMATING ANNUAL UNIT WATER YIELD FOR UNGAUGED WATER

CATCHMENT AREAS

In order to determine the annual water yield estimated from a catchment area where there is not
enough data to make an accurate calculation, the following formulas proposed by Brenken can
be used:

Region Formula

Arid qA = 0.0555 R - 55

Subtropical qA = 0.373 R - 47

Tropical qA = 0.336 R - 179

Monsoon qA - 0.963 R - 630

where

qA = estimated annual unit water yield in mm

R = mean annual rainfall in mm

ANNEX 2 GENERAL PROVISIONS

Contract No.

Article 1 - Nature and Interpretation of Contract

(a) The Contractor shall, for the purposes of this Contract, have the status of an independent
contractor and shall be fully responsible, in particular, for acts or omissions of his employees.
The Contractor and his employees shall conform to all applicable laws and regulations; he shall
promptly correct any violations thereof and shall keep the Organization informed of any conflicts
or problems arising in relation to the authorities of the country concerned.

(b) The Contractor shall have the sole and full responsibility for the performance of his
obligations under this Contract; except as may be provided for in this Contract or in a written
authorization by the Organization, the Contractor shall not enter into any subcontracts or
otherwise assign, transfer or charge to any third party any of his rights or obligations under this
Contract.

(c) Nothing in this Contract or relating thereto shall be construed as constituting a waiver or
privileges or immunities of the Organization, nor as conferring any privileges or immunities on
the Contractor or his employees.

(d) No official, employee, or other representative of the Organization shall have any share in this
Contract, or receive any benefit therefrom.

(e) In the event of any conflict or inconsistency between the provisions of Section I and Section
II of this Contract, the former shall prevail.

Article 2 - Delays and Defaults

(a) If there should be any delay in the performance of this Contract or any part thereof, the
Contractor shall notify the Organization in writing giving the cause, such notification to reach the
Organization no later than ten days after the date on which the delay is known by the
Contractor.

(b) If the Contractor is unable to obtain any materials or services necessary for the performance
of the Contract from his normal sources of supply, he shall remain liable for any delays when
equivalent material or services can be obtained from other sources in good time.

(c) In any event, if the Contractor fails to make delivery of the material or to complete items or
services required within the time specified in the Contract, or within any extension that may be
granted, the Organization may, without prejudice to any further rights it may have under this
Contract and in particular under Article 8 of this Section:

(i) Suspend or cancel the right of the Contractor to proceed further with any items or services -
or part thereof - in which there has been a delay;

(ii) Obtain elsewhere upon such terms and conditions as may be deemed appropriate,
replacement items or services similar to those which the Contractor failed to provide; and

(iii) Make a corresponding adjustment to the consideration payable to the Contractor;

provided, however, that the Contractor shall continue performance of the Contract to the extent
not suspended or cancelled under the provisions of this paragraph.

(d) The Contractor shall be liable for any excess costs or damage caused to the Organization by
a failure or delay on the part of the Contractor in the performance of his obligations under the
Contract, except where such failure or delay is due to:

(i) causes which are attributable to the Organization;

(ii) any unforeseen cause beyond the control of and without the fault or negligence of the
Contractor, including but not limited to acts of God, acts of Governments, fires, floods,
epidemics, quarantine restrictions, strikes, lock-outs, and freight embargoes.
(e) If, in the event of a default by the Contractor or a delay attributable to him, the Organization
is of the opinion that the determination of actual excess costs or damages, or any part thereof,
incurred by the Organization is not practicable, the Organization may require the Contractor to
pay, in lieu of or in addition to actual damages, as the case may be, the amount specified in, or
to be calculated in accordance with, the relevant provision of Section 1 of this Contract, as fixed,
agreed and liquidated damages for the duration of the delay or default.

(f) The Organization shall determine the effects of any delay or default particularly in regard to
an adjustment of the consideration due to the Contractor and to excess cost or damages
caused to the Organization and its findings shall be binding, provided always that the Contractor
shall have the right to avail himself of the provisions of Article 5 of the section.

Article 3 - Acceptance

(a) The Organization may examine any item, equipment, materials, supplies and/or services to
be provided under this Contract, at any time prior to expiry of this contract.

(b) The Organization may reject any item, equipment, materials, supplies or services or may
require alterations thereto or replacements thereof as a condition for acceptance, and its
findings shall be conclusive except in regard to defects or fraud which may appear later.

(c) Should the Contractor be unwilling to accept any decisions made under (b) of this Article, he
shall have the right to avail himself of the provisions of Article 5 of this section.

(d) If this Contract specifically requires the Contractor to procure equipment, materials or
supplies on behalf of the Organization, such procurement shall be of new equipment, materials
or supplies unless procurement of used equipment, materials or supplies is approved in
advance in writing by the Organization.

Article 4 - Copyrights and Patents

(a) The copyrights of each and any related part of the work to be performed under this contract
shall be vested in the Organization including, without any limitation, the rights to use, publish,
sell, or distribute, privately or publicly, any item or part thereof.

(b) The Contractor shall defend and hold the Organization, its employees and agents free from
any liability whatsoever, for or on account of the use or infringement of any copyright, patterns,
trade mark, personal or private right, or the right of any Corporation or Association in connection
with this Contract.

(c) The Contractor hereby warrants that he has the right to grant the copyright and other rights
referred to in this Contract to the Organization and that the materials shall be free from unlawful
matters.

(d) Should any claim arise out of an infringement of any third party right whatsoever the
Contractor shall be responsible for settlement and he shall indemnify the Organization against
all loss, injury or damage, including any legal costs or expenses, properly incurred by or
occasioned to the Organization as a result of any break of the warranty mentioned in paragraph
(b) above.
(e) Any copyright or other rights, patent or other protection which is to be excepted from the
operation of this Article shall be specifically stated in Section I.

(f) The covenants and warranties specified in this Article shall not apply to material which the
Organization has furnished to the Contractor.

Article 5 - Disputes and Arbitration

(a) Except as otherwise provided in this contract, any dispute between the Contractor and the
Organization arising out of this Contract shall be settled by mutual agreement between the
contracting parties.

(b) If the contracting parties are unable to reach an agreement on any question in dispute or on
a mode of settlement other than arbitration, either party shall have right to request arbitration in
accordance with the rules set forth for this purpose, by the International Chamber of Commerce.

(c) The parties agree to be bound by any arbitration award rendered in accordance with the
above paragraph, as the final adjudication of any such dispute.

Article 6 - Liability with respect to Claims

(a) The Contractor hereby indemnifies and holds the Organization harmless from and against
any and all responsibilities, claims, demands, suits, judgements, damages and losses, including
the costs, fees and expenses in connection therewith or incident thereto for:
(i) any injury to his employees and third parties

(ii) any loss of, damage to, or destruction of any property of third parties; arising out of, or in any
way connected with the performance of the work and services of the Contractor under this
Contract.

(b) The Organization may, where in its opinion, the successful implementation of the contract or
the reputation of the Organization, might be prejudiced, withhold or deduct from the payments
due to the Contractor under Section I of this Contract such amounts as may be required to
honor third party claims brought against the Contractor if these claims are connected with the
supplies or services to be provided under this Contract and if, after consultation with the
Contractor, the Organization is satisfied that such claims have been or may become the subject
of a judgement, injunction or similar court order.

(c) The Contractor shall make provision for adequate insurance to cover such risks as damage
to property and injuries to persons, as well as third party liability claims.

(d) For the purposes of this Article, the term "third party" shall be deemed to include inter
alia officials, employees and other representatives of the United Nations, the Organization, and
other Specialized Agencies participating in the implementation of this contract as well as any
person or entity employed by the Contractor or otherwise performing services for, or supplying
goods to, the Contractor.

Article 7 - Changes and Amendments

(a) The Organization may, at any time, by written notification:
(i) make changes in the specifications and/or delivery schedules, provided always that such
changes do not increase the work of the Contractor, involve additional expense, or reduce the
time within which the work must be performed;

(ii) increase or decrease the number of items or the amount of services and adjust the
consideration accordingly, provided always that such adjustment can be established on the
basis of the existing provisions of this Contract.

Any claim by the Contractor relating to adjustments under this paragraph shall be asserted by
the Contractor within 60 days of receipt by him of the notification of change, it being understood
that the exact determination of the adjustment may, by agreement between the parties, be
postponed until the actual cost difference can be ascertained, provided, however, that no claims
for adjustment shall be receivable after the date of final payment under this Contract.

(b) Any modifications to this Contract other than the changes provided for under para. (a) above
shall be effected by amendment to the Contract to be mutually agreed between the parties
hereto.

Article 8 - Termination

(a) The Organization shall have the right to terminate this Contract if it considers that the
continued implementation of the Contract is impossible or impractical:
(i) for unforeseen causes beyond the control of the Organization;
(ii) in the event of a default or delay on the part of the Contractor.

(b) If this Contract should be terminated, the following shall apply:

(i) the Organization shall complete all payments which may be due up to the effective date of
termination;

(ii) the Contractor shall deliver all work in process and in any event shall take all reasonable
measures to avoid any loss or deterioration of goods or equipment or any other damage;

(iii) the Organization shall pay to the Contractor any sum which is determined by the
Organization as equitable for any work in process.

(c) Adjustments to consideration and any claims arising from or connected with the termination
of the Contract shall be dealt with in accordance with the pertinent provisions of this Contract,
and in particular Article 2 of this Section.

(d) Notices of Termination shall specify the reasons for termination and take effect at the earliest
10 (ten) days after receipt thereof by the addressee, it being understood that the provisions of
the Contract applicable to the winding up of the Contract, the liquidation of claims and the
settlement of disputes shall remain in force for such additional period as may be necessary.

Article 9 - Notices
(a) Any notice affecting the rights or obligations of either party to this contract shall be given in
writing and delivered in person or by telegram or by registered mail to the addresses given
below:
(i) To the Organization:

Director, Administrative Services Division,

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00153 - Rome, Italy

(ii) To the Contractor:

At the Contractor's address shown in the Preamble to this Contract.

(b) Notice shall be considered as effected as on the date of delivery to the addressee.

Signed on behalf of

THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Name and Title:

Date:

Signed on behalf of

Name and Title:

Date:

ANNEX 3 SPECIAL PROVISIONS

Contract No.

Article 1 - Work and Services to be executed by the Contractor

The Contractor shall execute the work and services set out in the "Statement of Work, Services
and Specifications" attached hereto as Annex..., it being understood that such work and
services shall include those which, while not specifically provided for in the said Annex... are
implied by generally accepted usages and standards of the trade and industry.

Article 2 - Equipment, Materials, Supplies, Services and Personnel to be provided by the

Contractor

For the purpose of executing the work and services as set out in Article 1 above, the Contractor
shall be responsible for providing, at his cost, all personnel, equipment, materials, supplies and
all other services as required.

Article 3 - Schedule of Performance

(a) The Contractor shall commence performance of the present contract immediately upon its
signature by both parties and receipt of the relevant authorizations, permits, etc. to build as may
be required in accordance with the laws, decrees and/or regulations of the authorities
concerned.

(b) The Contractor shall complete the work and services to be executed under this contract in
accordance with the "Schedule of Execution" attached hereto as Annex ...

Article 4 - Authorizations and Permits

The Contractor is responsible for obtaining all such authorizations and permits as may be
required for the execution of this contract, it being understood that the Organization will use its
good offices to ensure that the Government will provide the said authorizations and permits and
will put the construction sites at the disposal of the Contractor, free of all encumbrances, in good
time.

Article 5 - Levies, Duties, Taxes, etc.

The present contract is not subject to payment of any levies, taxes, registration duties or any
other duties or charges whatsoever.

Article 6 - Statement of Accounts and/or Invoices of Contractor

The Contractor shall address all statements of accounts and/or invoices for sums due for
payment in accordance with the terms of the present contract to the Office of the Resident
Representative of the United Nations Development Programme, hereinafter referred to as the
"UNDP", after their certification by the Organization's Resident Engineer.

Article 7 - Overpayments

The Contractor shall pay or reimburse to the Organization in the currency of original payment, or
in a currency to be mutually agreed upon:
(i) Overpayments made by the Organization;
(ii) Costs incurred by the Organization for the procurement of alternative work, services or
supplies due to the Contractor's default.

Article 8 - Remuneration and Method of Payment

(a) In full consideration of the work and services to be executed by the Contractor and subject to
the terms and conditions set out below, the Organization shall pay to the Contractor upon
receipt at the Office of the Resident Representative of the UNDP of invoices in triplicate, duly
certified by the Organization's Resident Engineer a total amount not to
exceed ............................ calculated in accordance with the "Bill of Quantities and Contract
Costs", as shown in Annex ...

(b) The total amount specified in paragraph (a) above shall be paid in accordance with the
following schedule:

(i) Upon receipt at the Office of the Resident Representative of the UNDP of six copies of the
present contract signed in due form by the Contractor, and the insurance policies effected in
accordance with Article 19 below, the Contractor shall be entitled to a payment on account of
25% of the total amount of the contract. This payment is further subject to the Contractor
arranging, at his own cost, for a Bank Guarantee issued by a Bank acceptable to the Resident
Representative of the UNDP, which guarantee shall warrant the unconditional refund to the
Organization by the Bank, upon receipt of a notification from the Organization, of the amount of
the first payment made to the Contractor in accordance with this paragraph. This guarantee
shall follow the outline of the "Draft Bank Guarantee" attached hereto as Annex... and shall
remain valid until the Organization's Engineer has issued certificates of completion for all the
construction works covered by the present contract.

(ii) Upon receipt at the Office of the Resident Representative of the UNDP of monthly invoices in
triplicate, duly certified by the Organization's Resident Engineer or other designated
representative at the site, and stating the quantity of work and services completed, the
Contractor is entitled to the payment of the amount certified after deduction on a pro rata basis
of the 25% referred to in sub-paragraph (i) above, it being understood that the total amount thus
paid shall not exceed 85% of the total amount of the contract.

(iii) Upon receipt at the Office of the Resident Representative of the UNDP of a certificate of
satisfactory completion of all work and services referred to in the present contract, duly certified
by the Organization's Resident Engineer or other designated representative at the site and an
invoice in triplicate, the Contractor is entitled to a final payment of 15% of the total amount of the
contract, reduced if necessary, by the amount of penalties enforceable in accordance with the
provisions of Article 10, paragraph (b) below. Such final payment shall be further subject to
receipt of a bank guarantee, arranged at the expense of the Contractor, for an amount not to
exceed 5% of the total amount of the contract, issued by a Bank acceptable to the Resident
Representative of the UNDP, and which shall follow the outline of the "Draft Bank Guarantee"
attached hereto as Annex ... and shall remain valid until the completion of the maintenance
period in accordance with the provisions of Article 12 below.

Article 9 - Revision of Prices

It is understood between the Organization and the Contractor that the prices as specified in
Annex... of the present contract are firm and shall not be revised under any circumstances.
Article 10 - Bonus for early Completion and Penalties

(a) No bonus shall be due to the Contractor for early completion of the whole or part of the
contract.

(b) The Contractor and the Organization agree that the Organization may withold from any
payments due to the Contractor an amount equal to 1/1000 of the total contract amount
indicated in Article 8, paragraph (a), above for each week of delay in the satisfactory completion
of part or all of the construction works beyond the dates specified in Annex ... , it being
understood that the witholding by the Organization of the said amount does not in any way
constitute a waiver by the Organization of its rights under Section II, Article 2 of the present
contract.

Article 11 - Certificates of Completion of Works

(a) When the whole or part of the works have been completed in accordance with the terms of
the present contract, the Organization's Resident Engineer shall issue Certificates of
Completion stating the dates on which the works or parts thereof, were completed in
accordance with the terms of the present contract. Such Certificates of Completion may be
issued, if necessary, subject to any tests as may be prescribed by the Resident Engineer being
satisfactorily concluded.

(b) The date or dates specified in the Certificates of Completion issued in accordance with the
provisions of the preceding paragraph shall be the operative date(s) for the computation of
delays and penalties where necessary.

Article 12 - Period of Maintenance

For the purposes of the present contract "Period of Maintenance" shall mean a period of one
year calculated from the date of completion of part or all of the works certified by the
Organization's Resident Engineer in accordance with the provisions of Article 11 paragraph (a)
above.

Article 13 - Completion of Period of Maintenance

Upon completion of the period of maintenance, the Organization's Resident Engineer shall issue
a Maintenance Certificate stating that the works, except for fair wear and tear, have been
completed and maintained to his satisfaction. If the Organization's Resident Engineer is of the
opinion that he is unable to issue the Maintenance Certificate, the Contractor shall complete, as
soon as possible at his own cost all such works of repair as may be required of the Contractor in
writing by the Organization's Resident Engineer. If the repairs are carried out by the Contractor
during the period of maintenance, commencement of a new period of maintenance of one year
shall be effective as from the date of completion of such repairs as certified by the
Organization's Resident Engineer.

Article 14 - Supervision of Works

(a) Supervision of the execution of the works under the present contract shall be the
responsibility of the Organization's Resident Engineer or his duly authorized Representative.
The Resident Engineer or his Representative shall generally carry out such duties in issuing
decisions, certificates and orders as are required by the Contractor for the satisfactory execution
of the contract. It is understood, however, that the Contractor shall promptly request the
Resident Engineer to provide such instructions or guidance as may be necessary or lacking,
and it is further understood that failure to seek such instructions or guidance shall not constitute
a valid reason for delays in the execution of the works or for an execution which is not in
accordance with the relevant specifications of the contract and/or the standards of the industry.

(b) In particular, the Resident Engineer is empowered to:

(i) Carry out tests of samples of materials and supplies and verify workmanship, as he may
consider necessary at the cost of the Contractor in order to ensure their compliance with the
relevant specifications and standards of Annex ...

(ii) Approve in writing reasonable extensions of the times for completion of the works as set out
in Annex ...

(iii) Explain, adjust and modify in case of ambiguities or discrepancies the specifications of
Annex...and the relevant drawings of the civil works, provided always that this shall not result in
any additional costs to the Organization beyond the total contract amount;

(iv) Approve and certify invoices submitted by the Contractor for works completed;

(v) Issue in writing certificates of completion and maintenance of the works or parts thereof.

(c) Any modification of the specifications or approved final designs or drawings or plans related
thereto, or any modifications of the terms of this contract which may result in additional costs,
shall not be binding on the Organization without the prior written approval of the Director
Administrative Services Division of the Organization.

Article 15 - Construction Site Logbook

(a) On each site, the Contractor shall maintain a logbook for the entry or recording upon each
visit to the site and, at least, on a weekly basis, of the following:
(i) Supplies of constructional plant, equipment, building materials and supplies;

(ii) Quantities of work executed and quantities of materials employed therefor;

(iii) Observations and recommendations of the Organization's Resident Engineer;

(iv) Important facts or events which are likely to influence the progress of works.

(b) The Organization's Resident Engineer shall provide the Contractor with the necessary
guidance for maintaining the logbook which should have two detachable copies for each original
page.

(c) The site logbook shall be made available to the Organization's Resident Engineer upon his
request and should, therefore, be kept permanently on the site. Upon completion of the works
the logbook shall be handed over to the Organization's Resident Engineer.
Article 16 - Organization of the Construction Site

(a) Save for the provision of the construction site(s), all measures necessary for the organization
of such site(s) shall be the responsibility of the Contractor. In particular, the Contractor shall be
responsible for the following at his own cost:
(i) The establishment of footpaths and builders' roads. Such footpaths and roads may be freely
used by the Organization's Engineer and his authorised agents or assistants and such other
enterprises or firms as may be called upon to assist in construction works on the same site;

(ii) The layout of the buildings which entails the use of alignments and levelling;

(iii) The availability of water for construction works, drinking water, and electricity for the
construction works;

(iv) The provision of fencing, lighting, signposts, cleaning, night-watchman services and
maintenance of the construction site;

(v) The renting of additional space for the storage of building equipment, materials and related
implements for the works if the construction site is inadequate for such purposes.

(b) The Contractor shall take all such measures as are necessary to prevent the occurrence of
accidents caused or occasioned by the execution of the works. The Contractor shall be
responsible for any accident or damage caused to persons, property, public highways and
constructional work arising from the transport of constructional plant or equipment, materials
and supplies.

(c)

(i) For the duration of the construction works, the Contractor shall ensure that no unnecessary
interference with traffic is caused by operations necessary for the execution of the works;

(ii) The construction site shall be adequately provided with signposts and warning signals, both
by day and by night. The plan of signs and signals envisaged for the site shall require the prior
approval of the Organization's Resident Engineer before their installation;

(iii) Such costs as may be incurred by the Contractor in implementing the provisions of this
Article shall be the responsibility of the Contractor.

(d)

(i) The Contractor shall permanently keep on each site, all such instruments, tools and
equipment as may be required by the Organization's Resident Engineer for the testing of
materials and samples;

(ii) Failure by the Contractor to observe the requirements of the provisions of this paragraph
shall entitle the Organization's Engineer to purchase such instruments or equipment as may be
necessary and the cost thereof shall be deducted from sums due to the Contractor.

Article 17 - Particulars to be supplied

Within fifteen days of signature of the contract by both parties hereto, the Contractor shall
supply the Organization's Resident Engineer with the following:
(a) a detailed list of the Contractor's employees participating in the execution of the works;

(b) a list of the materials, equipment and supplies assigned for the works under the present
contract.

Article 18 - Presence of the Contractor on the Construction Site(s)

(a) Within fifteen days of signature of the contract by both parties, the Contractor shall submit to
the Organization's Resident Engineer, for approval, the designation of his representative who
shall be empowered to supervise the execution of the works and represent the Contractor in
relations with the Organization's Resident Engineer. The designation of a representative by the
Contractor shall not relieve the Contractor of his obligations under the present Contract;

(b) The Contractor or his representative shall attend all meetings convened by the
Organization's Resident Engineer on the construction site. The Contractor's representative shall
be empowered to provide the necessary instructions forthwith to the employees of the
Contractor.

Article 19 - Insurances at the cost of the Contractor

(a) Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of Section II of the present contract, the
Contractor shall be insured in such a manner against all material or physical damage, loss or
injury from whatever cause arising from the execution of the contract as would be required to
hold the Organization and the Government harmless from any responsibility therefor.

(b) The Contractor shall be responsible in particular for any loss, damage, or injury resulting
from any act or omission of his employees. The Contractor shall also be responsible for any
direct or indirect loss or damage caused by his servants or agents to any property of third
parties, including the Government, Government officials and the Organization and its officials.
The Contractor shall be required to submit the policies of such insurances to the Resident
Representative of the UNDP;

(c) The Contractor shall be insured against theft and the fire hazards and shall submit the
relevant policies to the Resident Representative of the UNDP;

(d) The Contractor shall immediately notify the Resident Representative of the UNDP and the
Organization's Resident Engineer of any accident arising from the execution of the contract and
shall provide full particulars thereof.

Article 20 - Clearance of Site on Completion

Within a month of the completion of the works, the Contractor shall clear away and remove from
the site all surplus materials, rubbish and temporary works of every kind and leave the whole of
the site and works clean and in a workmanlike condition to the satisfaction of the Organization's
Resident Engineer. Failure by the Contractor to clean the site will cause the Government to do
so at the expense of the Contractor.
Article 21 - Patent Rights and Royalties

The Contractor shall hold harmless the Organization and the Government from and against all
claims and proceedings for and on account of infringement of any patent, trademark or other
protected rights used by him for the execution of the works.

Article 22 - Inspection of Site

(a) The Contractor's bid shall be deemed to have been formulated after inspection of the site
and obtaining all necessary information as to risks, contingencies and other circumstances
which may influence or affect the execution of the contract.

(b) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, the Contractor shall be
deemed to have taken full account of the following;

(i) existing buildings, construction works, cables, pipes, etc.;

(ii) surface and sub-surface conditions and the existence of rocks, etc.;

(iii) the presence and nature of surface and sub-surface water and modification of such
hydrological conditions which might result from construction works;

(iv) drops or gradients and slopes;

(v) meteorological and climatic conditions;

(vi) means of access to the site;

(vii) availability of necessary water and electricity.

Article 23 - Designation of the Organization's Resident Engineer

For the purposes of the present contract, the Organization's Resident Engineer is:

Mr. .............................
(title)...........................
(address).....................

ANNEX 4 CONSTRUCTION OF CHIPATA FISH FARM IN ZAMBIA

1. GENERAL

1.1 Scope of Work

The work contemplated under this contract includes general civil engineering works for the
construction of the fish farm with a water surface of 4.5 ha, at Chipata, all as detailed in the bill
of quantities specifications and drawings.
The particular specifications for the work are as detailed herein after. These specifications shall
be read in conjunction with relevant Zambian Standard specifications. Where Zambian
specifications are not available, the specifications provided by the Resident Engineer (the
Engineer) or his Representative will be final and the work shall be executed accordingly. Where
the specifications in the Zambian Standard specifications are in variance with specifications
detailed herein, the specifications herein shall govern.

1.2 Laboratories for Resident Engineer

The Contractor shall provide, maintain and remove, if required, on completion of the works, any
testing laboratories required in accordance with the contract for the use of the Resident
Engineer and his staff. Testing equipment shall be located in testing laboratories as required by
the Engineer.

All laboratories shall be regularly and properly cleaned and maintained by the Contractor for as
long as they are used by the Engineer.

1.3 Survey Equipment

The Contractor shall supply and maintain in good working order for the duration of the Contract
the survey equipment scheduled for use by the Engineer.

1.4 Attendance on the Engineer

The Contractor shall provide casual labour required by the Engineer when checking the setting
out and measuring up of the work.

1.5 Existing ground levels

The Contractor shall satisfy himself that the existing ground levels as indicated on the Drawings
or schedules of cross section levels are correct. To control the existing ground levels the
elevations of the Temporary Bench Marks (DRG. No. 2) shall be used.

Should the Contractor wish to dispute any levels, the ground in the area under dispute shall not
be disturbed before the Engineer has given his decision as to the levels to be used.

1.6 Programme of Works

The programme to be provided by the Contractor shall set out all the operations required to
complete the works plotted against a time scale in weeks and shall indicate the requirements for
plant, labour and materials plotted against the same time scale, including the periods necessary
to mobilize labour and deliver equipment and materials to site. The total periods of completion
shall not exceed those indicated in Annex ..... of this contract.

2. MATERIALS

2.1 Aggregates for Concrete

Aggregates shall be obtained from a source known to produce aggregates satisfactory for
concrete and shall be chemically inert, strong, hard, durable, of limited porosity, and free from
adhering coatings, clay lumps, coal and coal residues, and organic or other impurities that may
cause corrosion of the reinforcement or may impair the strength or durability of the concrete.
Aggregates for concrete shall be natural gravels or crushed stone complying with BS 882/1201.

Flakiness index when determined by the sieve method described in BS 812 shall not exceed 35
for any size of coarse aggregates.

For structural concrete of specified compressive strength of Newtons per square millimetre or
more at 28 days, the ten percent fines value of the coarse aggregate determined in accordance
with BS 812 shall not be less than 10 tonnes and for other structural concrete not less than 5
tonnes.

2.2 Bolts, Nuts and Washers

Mild steel bolts, nuts and washers for the hooks of stoplogs (DRG. No. 12) shall comply with the
requirements of BS 153: Part 1 and either BS 916 or BS 2708.

2.3 Cement

Normal Portland cement and High Early Strength Portland cement shall comply with the
requirements of Zambian Standard ZS 001.

Each consignment of cement shall be kept separate, identified and used in order of delivery.

It is to be stored with proper protection from the weather.

The cement bags shall be stored in such a manner as to permit easy access for proper
inspection. Stacks shall not be more than 10 bags in height and also should be 70 cm away
from the walls.

The cement, if stored more than 120 days, shall be tested for soundness before use on all
important works. If it is found defective in any way it shall be condemned for use.

2.4 Paint and Other Protective Coatings for Steelwork

All paints etc. except where otherwise described are to be first quality priming, undercoating and
finishing paints. They are to be obtained only from suppliers approved by the Engineer. Paint
supplied in sealed containers of not more than five litres capacity shall be submitted for testing
to the Engineer or his Representative.

2.5 Pipes for Water Supply and Drainage Works

Asbestos cement pipes shall comply with the requirements of BS 3656.

Concrete pipes for general drainage use shall comply with the requirements of BS 556 except
that they may be supplied with flexible joints as supplied by manufacturer. The Spigot R.C.C.
pipes shall be Class S pipes.
2.6 Sand

The sand shall consist of natural sand, crushed stone or crushed gravel or a combination of any
of these. It shall be hard durable clean and free of adherent coating and organic matter and
shall not contain any appreciable amount of clay, balls or pellets. It shall not contain any harmful
impurities such as iron pyrites, alkalies, salts, coal, shale or similar laminated or other material
in such form or such quantities as to affect adversely the hardening, the strength and durability.

The maximum quantity of clay, fine salt, fine dust or organic impurities in sand shall not exceed
the following limits:

Clay, fine salt and fine dust:

(i) Not more than 4 percent by weight in natural sand.
(ii) Not more than 10 percent by weight in case of crushed stone sand.

2.7 Steel Reinforcement

Mild steel and hot rolled high yield bars shall comply with the requirements of BS 785. Cold
worked steel bars shall comply with the requirements of BS 1144.

In the case of deformed bars, as defined in BS 785: Part 1 and BS 1144, the results of bond
tests shall be furnished to the Engineer as required by him.

2.8 Structural Steel

Structural steels shall comply with the requirements of BS 153: Part 1 and BS 4360. In addition,
structural steel hot-rolled sections shall comply with the requirements of BS 4: Part 1.

2.9 Timber

Timbers' for stoplogs (DRG. No. 12) shall be of the best quality, well seasoned and free from
cracks, loose knots, cross grain, sapwood, shakes and other defects and except where
otherwise approved, wrought on all faces.

2.10 Water

Water used for both mixing and curing concrete as well as making mortar shall be clean and
fresh and free from organic or inorganic matter in solution or suspension in such amounts that
may impair the strength or durability of the concrete. Water for making concrete shall be tested
in accordance with BS 3148.

3. CLEARING AND PREPARING OF SITE

3.1 Site Clearing

The Contractor shall demolish, break up and remove superficial obstructions on the site of the
fish farm in the way or otherwise affected by the Works. He shall clear each part of the site at
times and to extent required and approved by the Engineer.
Before starting earth work, the area demarcated for excavation of drains construction of dikes
shall be cleared of bushes, vegetation and trees. Stumps and tree roots shall, unless otherwise
directed by the Engineer, be grubbed up, and deposited off the site in dumps to be provided by
the Contractor.

3.2 Stripping Top Soil

Unless otherwise directed, 10 cm topsoil shall be removed from all construction areas and for
re-use in the surface dressing of the dikes for grassing shall be stockpiled at the area located
between the dikes of the ponds P3, P6, P9 and Masupe River.

4. EARTHWORKS

4.1 General

4.1.1 Description of work

The dikes, bottoms, drains and feeder canals shall be constructed according to the dimensions
and slopes as per typical cross sections and longitudinal sections enclosed or as per cross
sections approved by the Engineer.

4.1.2 Definitions, classifications and general use of earthworks materials

'Formation level' shall mean the surface level of the ground obtained after completion of the
earthworks.

'Suitable material' shall comprise all material which is acceptable for use in the construction of
dikes and which is capable of being compacted in the manner specified in Clause 4.3 to form a
stable fill having side slopes as indicated on the Drawings.

'Unsuitable Material' shall mean other than 'Suitable Material' and shall include:

(i) Material from swamps, marshes, dambos or bogs;

(ii) Peat, logs, stumps and perishable material;

(iii) Material susceptible to spontaneous combustion;

(iv) Clay of liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or plasticity index exceeding 55;

(v) Materials having moisture content greater than the maximum permitted for such materials in
the Contract, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer;

(vi) Anthill materials.

'Rock' shall mean boulders exceeding 0.2 m3 and masses of hard material which necessitates
the use of blasting or approved pneumatic tools for their removal.
The Engineer shall decide under which one of the above classes any material shall be classified
and his decision shall be final.

No excavated suitable material other than surplus to requirements shall be removed from the
site except where directed or permitted. Should the Contractor be permitted to remove suitable
material from the site to suit his operational procedure then he shall make good at his own
expense any consequent deficit of filling arising therefrom.

Unless the Engineer permits otherwise suitable material and topsoil, both surplus to the total
requirements of the Works and all unsuitable material shall be run to spoil in separate tips
provided by the Contractor.

4.1.3 Reduced level

Pegs at bed, bottom level in the ponds and tops of dikes at the correct reduced levels
determinated from the existing TBM's will be fixed by the Contractor at his own expense.

The two TBM's shall be properly protected by the Contractor during the period of the
construction works.

4.1.4 Dagbelling

The Contractor shall be required to dagbell lines needed for fixing the correct profile of the dike
section at his own expense.

4.1.5 Profiles

Before starting earth work in any dike, profiles shall be made and maintained by the Contractor
at suitable intervals. Profiles shall be made by actually excavating or filling and making the
correct finished section as per cross section and shall be maintained till the final completion of
the Work if so required by the Engineer. Ballies and strings shall be fixed and tied to indicate
correct levels, finished slopes and dimensions. The level as shown by namoonas will include the
provision of settlement allowance (5 percent for mechanical compaction and 10 percent for
manual compaction).

4.2 Forming Of Dikes and Pond Bottoms

Dikes and pond bottoms filled shall be formed of material excavated from the pond site as
defined as 'Suitable Material' in Clause 4.1.2. Additionally, when permitted by the Engineer,
material wetter than the appropriate limit as specified under inclusion (v) of Clause 4.1.2 may be
incorporated.

All earthworks materials placed in dikes or below pond bottom shall be deposited and
compacted as soon as practicable after excavation in layers of thickness appropriate to the
compaction plant used as permitted in Clause 4.3 or as directed by the Engineer. Dikes shall be
built up evenly over their full width and during the construction of dikes the Contractor shall
control and direct constructional traffic uniformly over their full width.
The dike materials shall be placed only when the weather conditions permit. If rain is
apprehended, the surface shall be graded and rolled with a smooth road roller to facilitate run
off. After rains the surface shall be scarified and moistened before resuming work.

Special care shall be taken in joining new dike with old one or with existing ground. If the work in
a portion remains suspended for some time due to any reason and its exposed surface
becomes hard, then the same shall be properly roughened before another layer of earth is
placed over it. Benching shall also be done as per directions of the Engineer, wherever ordered.
Cost of this work shall also be included in the rates for earthwork, as specified in Annex ...., Bill
No. 2.

Any damage to the dikes or the pond sections by any cause including rain, wind, cattle
movement, etc., shall be suitably repaired by the Contractor as per directions of the Engineer at
his own cost and nothing extra shall be payable to him on this account.

If the work remains suspended for some time and during the intervening period there is growth
of vegetation on the dikes or gets damaged due to any other cause, the top of the dikes shall be
cleared, dressed and made good up to the proper section by the Contractor at his own cost and
no claim shall be entertained on this account.

The berms of ponds and drains should slope towards the inner edge to prevent rain water from
flowing over the outer edge and down the slope of dikes and drains. A slope of 1 in 50 shall be
provided for this purpose.

After dressing the slopes, berms and tops of the dikes, the outside slopes, berms, tops and the
inside slopes above the water surface shall be slightly roughened and covered with a 10 cm
layer of topsoil for grassing. The layer shall then be raked even and lightly rolled with a hand
roller.

4.3 Compaction Of Earthfills

The material to be compacted be thoroughly broken down over the full width and to a depth of at
least 15 cm by means of scarifiers disc harrows, hand tools or other suitable equipment. Any
oversize material which in the opinion of the Engineer cannot be suitably broken down to the
required size shall be removed from the Works.

Any water required before the material is compacted shall be added to the material in
successive applications by means of water tankers fitted with sprinkler bars, or by means of
pressure distributors all capable of applying the water evenly and uniformly over the area
concerned.

The material shall be compacted at the optimum moisture content for Higher Compactive Effort
density with an allowable tolerance of plus one (1) percent or minus two (2) percent of moisture
by weight of dry material.

Compaction shall be carried put by sheep foot rollers or other suitable equipment in a series of
continuous operations over the full width of the layer concerned and the length of any section of
a layer compacted shall not be less than three hundred metres, unless otherwise permitted by
the Engineer. The thickness of any one layer after compaction shall not exceed 15 cm.
The quality of material in any layer shall be equal to or better than the material in the layer
immediately below.

During the compaction the layer shall be maintained to required shape and cross section.

The compacted density (Field Dry Density) at any point in the fill shall not be less than ninety
percent (90%) of the Higher Compactive Effort density.

4.3.1 Compaction trials

Compaction trials as described herein shall be held to determine the type of compaction plant
and number of passes to be used but results obtained shall be considered as a guide only.

At the commencement of construction, compaction trials shall be carried out by the Contractor
in selected fill areas using the actual items of compaction plant which he proposes to use in the
Works.

The Contractor shall test one item of each different class and/or weight of compaction plant to
be used on the fill selected.

The method of conducting the compaction trials shall be as described hereunder:

(i) A layer of material to be used in the fill construction shall be laid in the fill area to a depth
which gives a compacted thickness of 15 cm and its moisture content adjusted to within + 1
percent and - 2 percent of the Higher Compactive Effort optimum moisture content.

(ii) The layer shall then be given an agreed number of passes of the compaction plant after
which ten number in situ density tests shall be carried out at locations chosen by the Engineer.
This process shall be repeated with additional passes until the required degree of compaction is
reached.

(iii) The procedure shall be carried out for all different materials used in fills as and when they
are encountered during construction.

The Contractor shall be responsible for carrying out all necessary tests in connection with the
trials, to the Engineer's approval, and shall present the test results to the Engineer.

4.4 Excavation of Foundation Pits, Drains arid Trenches

The bottom of all excavations and drains shall be carefully levelled. Any pockets of unsuitable
material or loose rock shall be removed and the resulting cavities filled with Class A granular
material as directed.

In cases where it is required the sides of pits shall be adequately supported at all times.

All excavated materials from such excavations not required for building dikes or refilling shall be
disposed of as directed by the Engineer.
Trenches for pipes shall be excavated to a sufficient depth and width to enable the pipe and the
specified or other approved joint and surround to be accomodated.

4.5 Refilling of Foundation Pits and Trenches

Unless otherwise directed by the Engineer, all filling for this purpose shall consist of suitable
material compacted in accordance with Clause 4.3.

Backfilling shall wherever practicable be undertaken immediately after the specified operations
preceding it have been completed.

The surface shall be restored by replacing the materials in their proper order and form, and by
compacting them to such a level as will ensure that after settlement is complete the surface
level or refilled trenches shall be within 30 mm of that of the adjacent undisturbed ground.

4.6 Tolerances

The tolerance allowable for dikes and excavations shall be as follows:

Side slopes 10%

level 30 mm

4.7 Measurement of work

After the clearance of land, removal of topsoil and benching operations, cross section shall be
taken at every 10 m interval and at obligatory points longitudinally and transversally with
reference to the TBM's established at the site of work. The cross section shall be entered direct
in measurement book and signed by both the Contractor and the Engineer in token of
acceptance. The Contractor shall only start the work after the completion of the above
formalities.

Final measurements shall be recorded by observing the finished levels of excavation and dike
on each line of cross section. These measurements shall be recorded in the measurement book
and also plotted on the graph sheet showing the initial ground levels.

Where no earth has been taken from outside borrow pits, the quantity of earthwork shall be
worked out on the basis of internal section excavated.

Where earthwork has been done by earth obtained from internal excavation as well as outside
borrow pits, the quantities of digging and filling shall be worked out from the cross sections and
the greater of the two shall be paid. In cases where the payment is based on the quantity of the
fill, the quantity to be paid shall be arrived at after deducting 10 percent settlement allowance
from the total quantity of the fill in case of manual compaction and 5 percent in case of
mechanical compaction. No payment shall be made to the Contractor for earth borrowed by him
in excess of that required to complete the banks, taking into account the earth available from
internal excavation. Payment shall be based on the rates of Annex ....., Bill No. 2 and Bill No. 3,
as appropriate.

4.8 Payment

The earthwork for final payment shall be measured only when the work is completed to the final
levels and cross section as shown in the drawings, in the entire reach of the agreement. For
running payments, earth uniformly excavated and evenly laid shall be measured. Final
measurements and running measurements for payment shall always be taken by cross
sections.

Full rates shall be payable only when the work has been completed as per specifications to the
full satisfaction of the Engineer. Payment shall be based on the rates of Annex ..., Bill No. 2 and
Bill No. 3, as appropriate.

5. CONCRETE WORK

5.1 Proportioning and Mixing

Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the concrete mix shall consist of the material in the
proportions given in drawings. In proportioning concrete, the quantity of both cement and
aggregate should be determined by weight. However, the quantities of aggregate may be
determined by volume, if allowed by the Engineer.

Concrete shall be mixed in mechanical concrete mixers until a dense concrete of uniform colour
and consistency is obtained.

Only sufficient water shall be added to the cement and aggregate during mixing to produce a
concrete having sufficient workability to enable it to be well consolidated, to be worked into the
corners of the formwork and around the reinforcement, to give the specified surface finish, and
to have the specified strength. When a suitable amount of water has been determined, the
resulting consistency shall be maintained throughout the corresponding parts of the work, and
approved tests such as the slump test shall be conducted from time to time to ensure that this
consistency is maintained.

The type of concrete as generally intended for various situations is indicated below:

Item Type of Compressive Strength at 28 Use

concrete days

1 1:3:6 (M100) 100 kg/cm2 Sub concrete in foundations

2 1:2:4 (M150) 150 kg/cm2 Structure in R.C.C. or precast slabs and bed
 protections in C.C.

The mix proportions given above are normally adopted mixes, where it is not considered
practicable to use controlled concrete.

Mixing and distributing equipments shall be clean before commencing and distribution of the
concrete and such equipment shall be kept free from set concrete.

The mixing shall be done by mechanical mixer but in case mixing is to be done by hand due to
any practical reason, the prior approval is to be obtained from the Engineer. In case of hand
mixing, material measured and mixed shall be on clean and water tight platform of steel sheet or
wood of sufficient size to provide ample mixing area. The measuring shall be done as directed
by the Engineer. Before adding water, aggregate (fine and coarse) shall be turned over at least
three times dry. Water shall only be added in measured quantities by means of watering cans.
Only sufficient water shall be added to ensure a thick plastic material of even colour and a thin
sloppy mix must be avoided. The consistency of concrete shall not tend to separate mortar from
coarse aggregate.

No more concrete than can be used within half hours (in case of C.C.) or in the same day shall
be mixed; should any be left over at the end of day's work, it shall be rejected and removed from
the site immediately.

5.2 Placing

Before proceeding to place the concrete, the formwork shall be realigned if necessary and water
and the rubbish therein shall be removed by approved means. Immediately prior to placing the
concrete, the formwork shall be well wetted and inspection openings shall be closed.

The interval between mixing and placing of concrete shall not exceed 20 minutes so that initial
setting process is not interferred with.

Except where otherwise approved, concrete shall be placed in the forms by shovels or other
approved implements and shall not be dropped from a height or handled in a manner which will
cause separation. Accumulation of set concrete on the reinforcement shall be avoided. Concrete
shall be placed directly in its permanent position and shall not be worked along the forms to that
position.

Each layer of concrete while being placed shall be consolidated by approved methods of
ramming, tamping, or mechanical vibration to form a dense material with all surfaces free from
honeycombing and tolerably free from water and air holes or other blemishes. Any water
accumulating on the surface of newly-placed concrete shall be removed by approved means,
and no further concrete shall be placed thereon until such water be removed.

Unless otherwise approved, concrete shall be placed in a single operation to the full thickness of
slabs and walls, and shall be placed in horizontal layers not exceeding 1 m deep in walls.
Concrete shall be placed continuously until completion of the part of the work between
construction joints as specified herein after or of a part of approved extent, At the completion of
a specified or approved part a construction joint of the form and in the position hereinafter
specified shall be made. If stopping of concrete placing he unavoidable elsewhere, a
construction joint shall be made where the work is stopped.

Construction joints shall be provided as follows:

A joint shall be formed horizontally at the top of the foundation slab of the outlet structure.

A joint shall be formed at the distance of each four metres for the foundation slabs of the feeder
canals.

Before placing new concrete against concrete that has already hardened, the face of the old
concrete shall be cleaned and roughened and scum and loose aggregate removed therefrom,
and immediately before placing the new concrete the face shall be thoroughly wetted and a
coating of neat cement grout applied thereto. The new concrete shall be well rammed against
the prepared face before the grout sets.

Concrete placed below the ground shall be protected from falling earth during and after placing.

The concrete in one precast piece shall be placed in one operation. No piece shall be removed
from the mould or erected until sufficiently matured to ensure that no damage shall be done to
the piece. Pieces shall be bedded or otherwise fixed in their permanent positions as shown in
the drawings.

5.3 Compaction

Concrete shall be compacted into a dense mass immediately after placing by means of
mechanical vibrators. The vibration shall continue during the entire period of placing concrete;
compaction shall be completed before initial setting starts, i.e. within 30 minutes of addition of
water to the dry mixture.

Concrete of low quantity may, however, be permitted by the Engineer to be consolidated by

hand.

5.4 Finishing

The surface of concrete shall be finished all as directed by the Engineer. In case of precast
slabs the top surface shall be finished even and smooth with wooden trowel before the concrete
begins to set.

5.5 Curing

Newly placed concrete shall be protected by approved means from rain, sun and drying winds.
Exposed faces of concrete shall be kept moist by approved means for seven days after placing
or for three days if rapid-hardening Portland cement is used.

No masonry shall be started over the foundation until at least seven days after laying.

5.6 Testing
The compressive strength of the concrete at twenty-eight days shall be not less than the
strength as is described on the drawings.

The compressive strength shall be ascertained by crushing 150 mm cubes of concrete, the
cubes being made on the works and cured and tested as instructed. The Contractor shall pay all
costs incurred in supplying the material for, and in making, maturing, delivering and testing the
cubes and shall be reinbursed for the cost of cubes that attain the required strength, as
approved by the Engineer.

5.7 Formwork

Formwork for concrete shall be rigidly constructed of approved material and shall be true to the
shape and dimensions described on the drawings. Timber shall be well seasoned, free from
loose knots and except where otherwise approved, wrought on all faces. Faces in contact with
concrete shall be free from adhering, grout, projecting nails, splits, or other defects. Joints shall
be sufficiently tight to prevent the leakage of cement grout and to avoid the formation of fine or
other blemishes. Faulty joints shall be caulked.

Openings for inspection of the inside of the formwork and for the escape of water used for
washing out shall be formed so that they can be conveniently closed before placing the
concrete.

Connections shall be constructed to permit easy removal of the formwork and shall be either
nailed, screwed, bolted, clamped, wired, or otherwise secured so as to be strong enough to
retain the correct shape during consolidation of the concrete.

Formwork shall be true to line and braced and strutted to prevent deformation under the weight
and pressure of the unset concrete, constructional loads, wind and other forces. The deflection
shall not exceed 3 mm.

An approved mould oil or other material shall be applied to faces of formwork in contact with
unset concrete to prevent adherence of the concrete. Mud oil, retarding liquid and similar
coatings shall be kept free from contact with the reinforcement.

Formwork shall be removed by gradual easing without jarring. Before removal of the formwork
the concrete shall be examined and removal shall proceed only in the presence of a competent
supervisor and if the concrete has attained sufficient strength to support its own weight and any
load likely to be imposed upon it. The period that shall elapse after the concrete has been laid
before easing and removal of formwork is undertaken, shall be as follows:

Part of structure Period after which formwork

can be eased and removed
for ordinary Portland cement

Sides of foundations and walls 3 days

Under-sides of slabs 10 days

In case of cantilever slabs and beams, the formwork shall remain till structures for counteracting
or anchoring down have been erected and have attained sufficient strength.

5.8 Reinforcing

Reinforcement bars shall be bent by machine or other approved means producing a gradual
and even motion. Bars shall be bent cold.

Bends shall comply with the dimensions given in the DRG No. 19.

Reinforcement shall be accurately fixed and by approved means maintained in the position
described on the drawings. Bars intended to be in contact at passing points shall be securely
wired together at all such points with No. 16 gauge annealed soft iron tyring wire. Links and the
like shall tightly embrace the bars with which they are intended to be in contact and shall be
securely wired, or if approved, welded thereto.

Immediately before concreting, the reinforcement shall be examined for accuracy of placing and
cleanliness and corrected if necessary.

The cover of concrete to the reinforcement shall be as described on the drawings and shall be
provided and maintained within a tolerance 3 mm under and over by means of distance pieces
of cement mortar or other approved material.

5.9 Facework

Honeycombed surfaces shall be made good immediately on removal of the formwork, and
superficial water and air holes shall be filled out. Unless instructed to the contrary, the face of
exposed concrete placed against formwork shall be rubbed down immediately on removal of the
formwork to remove fins or other irregularities.

The face of concrete for which formwork is not provided, other than slabs, shall be smoothed
with a wooden float to give a finish equal to that of the rubbed-down face where formwork is
provided.

The top face of a slab which it is not intended to cover with other materials shall be levelled and
floated while unset to a smooth finish at the levels or falls shown on the drawings. The floating
shall be done so as not to bring an excess of mortar to the surface of the concrete.

6. PIPEWORK

Before a pipe is lowered into the trench, it shall be thoroughly examined to ensure that it is
undamaged. Any damaged parts of the pipe shall, before a pipe is used, be made good as
directed by the Engineer.

Joints shall be made strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

Before making any joints, all jointing surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and dried and
maintained in such condition until the joints have been completely assembled.

The space between the end of the spigot and the shoulder of the socket of flexibly jointed pipes
when jointed shall be as recommended by the manufacturer or ordered by the Engineer.

After the pipes have been laid and tested, the bedding shall be completed by carefully placing
selected excavated material from which stones over 25 mm in size and lumps of clay over 75
mm in size have been removed, into the spaces between the pipe and the sides of the trench to
the level of the crown of the pipe. The material shall be thoroughly packed and rammed by
careful hand tamping in layers 150 mm thick before compaction. Placing and tamping shall
proceed equally on both sides of the pipe. A further layer of the same material at least 300 mm
thick after compaction and the full width of the trench shall be placed over the crown of the pipe
in two equal layers, each layer being lightly tamped by hand.

7. BLOCKWORK

The cement is to be the best Portland cement as before described in Clause 2.3. The sand is to
comply with the requirements of Clause 2.6.

The cement blocks are to be hard, square and uncracked and approved by the Engineer. All
blocks when delivered to site are to be properly stacked and not tipped and any defective or
broken blocks are to be thrown out and carted away.

The cement mortar is to be well worked and prepared in small quantities sufficient only for
immediate use and used fresh. No mortar which has commenced to set may be mixed with any
other mortar.

The blocks in 1:3 cement sand mortar shall be properly placed in position such that the
horizontal and vertical joints are completely filled with mortar. The thickness of joints shall not be
more than 10 mm.

8. STRUCTURAL STEELWORK

The welding of the screens (DRG. No. 11) is to be carried out in accordance with the
recommendations set out in the British Code of Practice CP 113/102 Arc Welded Construction.

9. PAINTING

Remove all scale from unprimed steelwork by flame cleaning, wire brushing chipping or
scraping, degrease with white spirit and immediately prime.

All coats of paint are to be thoroughly dry before the application of any subsequent coat and no
paint is to be applied to external work during inclement weather nor on any moist surface. The
appropriate time as indicated by the paint manufacturer is to elapse between the application of
each coat.
Steelwork is to be primed on the same day that it is cleaned and all coats of priming are to be
maintained in good condition until the undercoating is applied by touching up all damage during
the progress of work.

Each coat of paint is to be a tint distinguishable from the previous coat. In no case is the last
coat to be applied until the Engineer's permission has been obtained.

ANNEX 5 Bill No........ Construction of Outlets

Item Description of items Unit Quantity Rate Amount

Zam. Zam. K.
K.

1. Earthwork in excavation in foundation as per specification m3 225

2. C.C. M-100 (1:3:6) in foundation m3 4.10

3. Supplying and laying SPIGOT pc 40

R.C.C. pipe 300 mm
Class S each L = 2.44 m

4. R.C.C. M-150 (1:2:4) in monk structures and harvesting box m3 21.5

5. Formwork m2 240

6. Steel reinforcement bars in outlets, harvesting box and precast foot kg 890
planks

7. 4 in thick cement block lining in 1:3 CT mortar in harvesting box m2 11.6

8. C.C. M-150 (1:2:4) in bed protection m2 10

9. Precast R.C. M-150 (1:2:4) foot planks

a) 2.500.250.10 pc 2
 b) 1.000.250.10 pc 18

10. Prefab concrete M-150 pc 50

(1:2:4) slabs (40508 cm)
to harvesting box

11. Stop logs measuring 5925 cm pc 170

12. Screens measuring 590500 mm pc 10

13. Refilling foundation pits as per specification m3 155

TOTAL

ANNEX 6 Bill of Quantities and Contract Cost

Summary

Bill No. Description Amount Zam. K.

1. Clearing and preparing of site 22 540.00

2. Construction of dikes and forming pond bottoms 72 150.00

3. Excavation of drains 10 937.50

4. Construction of culvert under access road 4 889.25

5. Construction of feeder canals 21 392.66

6. Construction of outlets 30 659.98

7. Construction of inlets 8 471.50

8. Dressing of dikes 14 500.00

A. Total cost of Work 185 504.89

B. Provisional Sum at 15% 27 931.15

C. GRAND TOTAL including Provisional Sum 213 472.04

ANNEX 7 Bidding Schedule

Contract No. .........

Instructions: Please complete the blank spaces below. Prices should be quoted in the currency of the
bidder.

PART I: The total price of this bid, as broken down in detail in the attached Annex III is:

PART II: I certify that the load bearing capacity of the soil at the site is not less than______ kg per
cm2 and that my bid has been calculated on such basis.

PART III: I certify that nothing in the provisions and specifications of the contract and the drawings
and plans, etc. as enclosed with the letter of invitation is contrary to the provisions of
applicable local laws, rules and building regulations, except as explicitly stated elsewhere in
this bid.

PART IV: I confirm having obtained all necessary data and information as to risks, contingencies and
other circumstances which may influence or affect my bid or the performance of the
contract.

PART V: My bid is valid for a period of 6 (six) months as from the deadline for the receipt of bids, as
indicated in paragraph 9 of the letter of invitation.

PART VI: I am in agreement with the terms and conditions of the contract as enclosed with the letter
 of invitation except as explicitly stated elsewhere in this bid.

Name of Bidder: _______________________ Telephone: ______________________

Mailing Address: _______________________ Cable: __________________________

_____________________________________ Telex: __________________________

Person(s) to contact: ___________________________________________________________

Signature: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Name and Title: _______________________