You are on page 1of 5

25.2.2.12.

Volatile Solids and COD

Volatile solids and chemical oxygen demand (COD) are common measures of the substrate
entering a digester. Volatile solids are the ignitable (550C) fraction of total solids. They
typically are thought of as the organic fraction. Volatile solids measurements typically are
used as part of determining overall process performance, regulatory compliance, and for
mass-based calculations. One must be careful when using data from a volatile solids test.
There are artifacts to the test, because a significant amount of inorganic saltsespecially
ammonium-based saltscan volatilize in analytical tests, skewing the volatile solids
concentration higher and the volatile solids destruction lower (Beall et al., 1998; Wilson et
al., 2008b).

Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of the chemically oxidizable material in solids. As


with volatile solids, this measure has limitations (e.g. the accounting of non-substrate
components). Chemical oxygen demand typically is used in kinetic models (e.g., ADM 1)
because all of the parameters are based on COD coefficients (WEF, 2009; Batstone et al.,
2002).

Most plants provide volatile solids data rather than COD data in their regulatory reports
because of the relative ease of conducting the volatile solids test.

25.2.2.13. Biogas Production and Characterization

The quality and quantity of digester gas (biogas) produced also can be used to evaluate
digester performance. Biogas production is directly related biochemically to the amount of
volatile solids destroyed; it often is expressed as volume of gas per unit mass of volatile
solids destroyed. The gas-production rate is different for each organic substance in the
digester (see Table 25.7). The gas-production rate of fats ranges from about 1.2 to

Table 25.7. Gas-production rates from various organic substrates (Buswell and Neave,
1939).

Specified gas production per unit mass destroyed


Material m 3/kg Methane content, %
Fats 1.21.6 6272
Scum 0.91.0 7075
Grease 1.1 68
Crude fibers 0.8 4550
Protein 0.7 73
1.6 m 3/kg (20 to 25 cu ft/lb) of volatile solids destroyed; the gas-production rate of proteins
and carbohydrates is 0.7 m 3/kg (12 cu ft/lb) of volatile solids destroyed. The gas-
production rate of a typical anaerobic digester treating a combination of primary solids and
WAS should be about 0.8 to 1 m 3/kg (13 to 18 cu ft/lb) of volatile solids destroyed. The
amount of gas produced is a function of temperature, SRT, and volatile solids loading.
Specific gas production should be measured until an average value can be obtained and
used for monitoring.

The two main constituents of digester gas are methane and carbon dioxide; it also contains
trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. Performance data from healthy
digesters suggest that methane concentrations should be 60 to 70% (by volume) and carbon
dioxide concentrations should be 30 to 35% (by volume). Tortorici and Stahl (1977) have
published data on typical digester gas characteristics (see Table 25.8).

Table 25.8. A survey of the characteristics of biogas from anaerobic digesters (Tortorici
and Stahl, 1997).
a
Except as noted.
b
Trace.
c
Btu/cu ft 37.26 = kJ/m 3.

Constituent Values for various plants, % by volume a


Methane 42.5 61.0 62.0 67.0 70.0 73.7 75.0 7375
Carbon dioxide 47.7 32.8 38.0 30.0 30.0 17.7 22.0 2124
b
Hydrogen 1.7 3.3 2.1 0.2 12
b
Nitrogen 8.1 2.9 3.0 6.5 2.7 12
Hydrogen sulfide 0.15 0.01 0.06 0.1 11.5
Heat value, Btu/cu ft c 459 667 660 624 728 791 716 739750
Specific gravity (air = 1) 1.04 0.87 0.92 0.86 0.85 0.74 0.78 0.700.80
An increase in carbon dioxide levels (percent) often indicates an upset digester. Excessive
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can indicate unbalanced digestion, industrial waste
sources, or saltwater infiltration. Hydrogen sulfide may be responsible for odor problems
and excessive corrosion in the digester and adjacent piping. Heavy metals can precipitate as
metallic sulfide, thereby minimizing hydrogen sulfide concentrations in biogas.

25.2.2.14. Pathogens

Pathogen and pathogen-indicator reduction are major stabilization criteria. The rate and
extent of pathogen or pathogen-indicator destruction (inactivation) are process-specific.
The degree of pathogen or pathogen-indicator reduction required depends on the biosolids
quality desired (Class B or Class A, assuming beneficial use is desired). Design engineers
should consult 40 CFR 503 and other applicable regulations for pathogen or pathogen-
indicator reduction requirements for anaerobic processes. (For more information on
pathogen-reduction regulations, see Chapter 20.)

Design engineers should carefully consider which digestion system to use. While multiple
methodologies meet the desired degree of pathogen reduction, each comes with costs and
degrees of process complexity.
25.2.3.2.2. DESIGN CRITERIAMESOPHILIC

Typically, converting from a low-rate system to a high-rate one will increase gas
production, solids destruction, and overall process stability. In the 1970s, U.S. EPA
extensively evaluated single-stage, high-rate anaerobic digesters operated at mesophilic
temperatures with residence times exceeding 15 days; regulators found that the process
achieves significant pathogen reduction and solids stability. The agency defined it as a
process to significantly reduce pathogens (PSRP) in its 1979 rule (40 CFR 257), and it
essentially became a baseline for wastewater solids stabilization.

The basic design criteria for such mesophilic digesters typically are as follows:

o Volatile solids loading rate of 1.9 to 2.5 kg volatile solids/m 3d (0.12 to 0.16 lb
volatile solids/cu ft/d), and a typical limiting value of 3.2 kg volatile solids/m 3d (0.20 lb
volatile solids/cu ft/d);
o SRT of at least 15 days when feeding at peak 15-day or month loads [a 15-day SRT
is the minimum allowed under the PSRP (Class B) requirement in Part 503];
o Mesophilic temperatures [35 to 39C (95 to 102F); the PSRP (Class B)
requirement in Part 503 is at least 35C];
o Enough mixing to ensure that the temperature is relatively consistent throughout the
reactor (and to minimize bottom deposits and surface scum/debris, although this is only
partially achieved in many high-rate digesters); and
o Feed cake containing between 4 and 5% solids (historically), although more
facilities are aiming for between 5 and 7% solids.
Frequent solids feeding helps maintain steady-state conditions in the digester. Methanogens
are sensitive to changes in substrate levels; uniform feeding and multiple feed-point
locations in the tank reduce shock loading to these microorganisms. Excessive hydraulic
loading should be avoided because it decreases detention time, dilutes the alkalinity needed
for buffering capacity, and requires more heat to achieve process goals. Good mixing also is
required to disperse feedstock, mix microorganisms with fresh feed, and ensure that the
temperature is consistent throughout the reactor.

Improvements in mixing, heating, and solids loading enhanced anaerobic digestion


performance. Mixing and heating provide better contact between substrate and
microorganisms, increasing stabilization while reducing short-circuiting (less short-
circuiting makes pathogen kill more consistent, thereby increasing biosolids stability).

The relative success of high-rate mesophilic digestion has made this process the most
common means of solids stabilization in the world. It also is the standard for evaluating
future process variations.

25.2.7.3.3. CYLINDRICAL DIGESTERS

Cylindridal (pancake) digesters are by far the most common tank design for anaerobic
digesters in the United States (see Figures 25.42 and 25.43). Their relatively low height-to-
diameter ratio makes them easier and less expensive to construct. However, this tank does
not have the process benefits realized by egg-shaped and silo digesters.
Figure 25.42. Schematic of a typical pancake (short cylinder) digester with a
gas-holder cover (covers are interchangeable).

Figure 25.43. The anaerobic digesters at King Countys South Wastewater


Treatment Plant in Renton, Washington (courtesy of Brown and Caldwell and
King County, Washington).

Pancake digesters are more prone to dead zones and poor mixing regimes, resulting in
lower VSR and more grit deposition. So, cleanings are needed more often, increasing O&M
costs.
However, pancake digesters can be fitted with a variety of cover configurations, which can
allow for significant process flexibility and multiple roles (e.g., gas storage and variable
liquid level). Egg-shaped digesters are only suited for service as anaerobic reactors.

These tanks typically are made of reinforced concrete, with sidewall depths ranging from 6
to 14 m (20 to 45 ft) and diameters ranging from 8 to 40 m (25 to 125 ft) (U.S. EPA, 1979).
Conical bottoms are preferred for cleaning purposes, with slopes varying between 1:3 and
1:6 (WPCF, 1987). Slopes greater than 1:3, although desirable for grit removal, are difficult
to construct and difficult to stand on while cleaning. Conical bottoms also minimize grit
accumulation; instead providing for relatively continuous grit removal. The floors can have
either one central withdrawal pipe or be divided into wedges, each with its own withdrawal
pipe (waffle-bottom digester). The latter are more costly to construct but may reduce
cleaning costs and frequency.

Where necessary, cylindrical digesters have been insulated using brick veneer and an air
space, earth fill, polystyrene plastic, fiber glass, or insulation board.

You might also like