Rectifier

Circuits

Electronic
Engineering Series

ee
Macmillan Education
Rectifier
Circuits

Edited by William F. Waller

AMITPP AssiRefEng

ee
Macmillan Education

Published by
The Macmillan Press Limited
Technical and Industrial Publishing Unit

Managing Editor William F Waller

AMITPP AssiRefEng

General Manager Barry Gibbs

The Macmillan Press Limited

Brunei Road Basingstoke Hampshire UK

ISBN 978-1-349-01202-2 ISBN 978-1-349-01200-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-01200-8
The Macmillan Press Limited 1972
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1972 978-0-333-1254 7-2
SBN 333 125 479
Foreword

This book is intended for both component and circuit

engineers working in design, development and pro-
duction environments, and it provides a thorough
appraisal of components and circuits whose basic
function is rectification.

The first nine chapters all deal with components used

in rectifying circuits and their coverage ranges from
semiconductor diodes through thermionic devices to
such important auxiliaries as heatsinks. In each of
these chapters the standpoint is essentially practical
and consideration is given to component construction,
the mode of operation, operating characteristics, the
advantages and limitations of a component type and
application areas.

The latter half of the book,. Chapters 10-16, then deals

with circuit configuration. Coverage in this section
ranges from single-phase rectifier circuits, through
three-phase circuits, controlled recitification, power
choppers and stabilisers to generalised short circuit
arrangements. Here too, the treatment is practical as
the chapters discuss the function and mode of opera-
tion, circuit parameters, equivalent circuits where they
are applicable, operating characteristics and applica-
tion areas. The final chapter deals with the problems of
harmonics in rectifier circuits and methods of reducing
their unwanted effects.

A short glossary of technical terms, peculiar to this

engineering discipline, completes the book's coverage.
Contents
Chapter Page

9 Heatsinks 79
D R Henderson Grad/ERE and T C Sidwell
Technical Officer and Marketing Liaison Officer
Chapter Page Marston Excelsior Ltd

1 Semiconductor Diodes 7
I W V Taylor BSc
Product Evaluation Manager
Emihus Microcomponents Ltd 10 Single-Phase Rectifiers 85
J C McGill CEng MIEE
Project Leader
Weir Electronics Ltd

2 Voltage Reference Elel'!lents 19

R H Murphy CEng BSc MIEEE
Technical Manager
Transitron Electronic Ltd 11 Three-Phase Rectifiers 95
K Parkinson BSc
Chief Engineer
Farnell Instruments Ltd

3 Selenium Rectifiers 27
W G Ashman CEng MIERE
Deputy Chief of Electrical Research (Semiconductors)
Westinghouse Brake & Signal Co Ltd 12 Controlled Rectification and 101
Inversion
F Mazda MPhil DFH CEng MIEE
Senior Development Engineer
4 Glass Envelope Devices 35 ITT Components Group Europe
R E Lake
Deputy Manager
English Electric Valve Co Ltd
13 Power Choppers 111
J E Crowe
Senior Engineer
5 Controllable Power 45 Advance Industrial Electronics Ltd
Semiconductors
F Mazda MPhil DFH CEng M/EE
Senior Development Engineer
ITT Components Group Europe 14 DC Stabilisers 119
A R Leaverland and A Marchant
Senior Design Engineer and Chief Engineer,
Rectifier Division
ITT Components Group Europe
6 Semiconductor Control Devices 53
8 L Norris BSc(Eng) CEng M/EE
Applications Manager
Texas Instruments Ltd
15 Short Circuit Techniques 127
R G Dancy MIEE
Engineering Manager
International Rectifier Co (Great Britain) Ltd
7 Auxiliary Circuit Elements 61
M A Burchall CEng FIERE
Technical Director
Power Supply Division 16 Harmonics 135
Advance Industrial Electronics Ltd G Duddridge
Sales Engineer
Entertainment Division
General Instrument (U.K.) Ltd
8 Circuit Protection Devices 73
R G Dancy MIEE
Engineering Manager
International Rectifier Co (Great Britain) Ltd Glossary of Terms 141
 Chapter 1

Semiconductor
Diodes

I W V Taylor BSc
Emihus Microcomponents Ltd

Semiconductor diodes must be considered as one of the

principal building block components for all electronic
systems, and can now be found in virtually all modem
electronic equipment. Their range of usage is vast and diodes
can be, and are, used in all of the following applications :
1. Rectifiers in power supplies. (This could be considered
as the basic application, that of conversion of an a.c.
waveform to a d.c. voltage signal).
2. Detectors for the information contained in amplitude
modulated high frequency signals in radio circuitry.
3. Logic performing elements in digital circuits.
4. Voltage clamping elements in switching circuits.
5. Protective devices in relay circuits.
6. Current variable resistors and voltage variable capacitors.
7. Bias stabilising and temperature compensating elements
in a wide range of circuits.
8. Logarithmic conversion.
This list is by no means exhaustive but gives an indication
of the versatility of the ubiquitous semiconductor diode.
The modern semiconductor diode spans the whole field of
electrical engineering with designed forward current ratings
of up to 1 000 amps and above, voltage capabilities of up
to several tens of kilovolts and operation up to frequencies
in excess of 1 000 MHz. These capabilities of course will not
be found simultaneously in any particular device.
A wide selection of signal and power diodes is shown in
Figs. 1 and 2.
Although this chapter is concerned with two classes of
diode, signal diodes and power diodes, it must be emphasised
that the dividing line between these categories can not always
be clearly drawn, the difference being one of application and
design rather than of a fundamental nature. Consequently,
the major phenomena which are common to both classes
will be considered first followed by separate discussions of
germanium and silicon signal diodes and silicon power
diodes.
7
 Fig. 1. Selection of silicon and germanium signal diodes. (a) DO? germanium diodes (b) double stud silicon diode (c) miniature double
stud silicon diodes.
BASIC RECTIFIER PROPERTIES
The ideal rectifying diode would show the current/voltage
characteristic given in Fig. 3a. It would have zero capacitance
and would be able to switch from one branch of the curve
to another instantaneously. Such a device would have an
impedance characteristic depending purely on the polarity
of the applied voltage, zero for forward bias and infinite
for reverse bias, and consequently could operate with no
losses whatsoever. The manner in which a practical semi-
conductor diode differs from this ideal is shown by the
following characteristics.
Current/voltage characteristics
The principal semiconductor materials currently used for
diode production, germanium and silicon, are very similar
chemically, both belonging to group IV of the periodic
table. There are, however, considerable basic differences
from an electronic viewpoint in devices produced from these
materials.
The basic junction diode is produced by a series of processes
which produce a change in the doping impurity from p-type
to n-type across a single crystal. The device can then be
8
considered as consisting of three parts : a p-type region
where the majority current carriers are holes, an n-type
region where the majority current carriers are electrons, and
a neutral region, the depletion layer, where there are no
charge carriers.
To achieve low voltage drop during forward conduction,
but a high reverse capability, it is arranged in practical
devices that the doping level on one side of the junction
exceeds that on the other. This gives rise, for example, to
the p+n diode, where the p-region is more heavily doped
than then. Such a system exhibits a non-linear d. c. resistance
characteristic which can be made to approximate to that
ofFig. 3a.
In fact, consideration of the quantum-mechanical restric-
tions on such a system and the classical laws governing the
flow of charged particles under conditions of diffusion and
applied electric field, yields the following exact relationship
for the current/voltage characteristic 1 2 .
I = I.,(exp(qvj kT) - 1) 1
where: /,. the saturation current, is a constant for any
particular device
 d

Fig. 2. Selection of silicon power diodes. (a) 25 amp stud mounted diode (b) 8 k V cartridge rectifier diode (c) 3 k V cartridge rectifier diode
(d) large glass-metal diode, 1 amp capacity (e) small stud mounted diode (f) 400 rnA DO? rectifier diodes (g) 3 amp plastics diode (h) top
hat diode (i) 1 amp plastics diode.

q = electronic charge (1.60 x 10- 19 Coulomb)

k = Boltzmann's Constant (8.62 x 10- 5 ev/K) Fig. 3. (a) ideal diode characteristics (b) 1/ V characteristics
for a device with I,= 10 - 14A.
T = Temperature in Kelvin
V = Applied voltage
200
This curve, for a diode with I. = 10- 14A, is shown in Fig. 3b

The detailed analysis yields, for a junction of unit area, the

following relationship for I. the saturation current 2 .

2 <(
E
~ 100
Where:
q = electronic charge a b
n, = intrinsic charge carrier concentration
DpDn = Diffusion constants for holes and electrons resp.
Nv.N A = Doping density of donor and acceptor atoms
Ln,L P = Diffusion length for electrons and holes respec- a...-
tively. /
-30 -2 0 -10 ll 0 20 V VOLTS
Now ni, the intrinsic charge carrier concentration, is an 1(}14A_/
' 1'-- b
exceptionally strong function of 9 , the band gap energy
-2 X 10'4A
(0.7 eV for germanium, 1.1 eV for silicon), and can be
expressed for any semiconductor as:
nf = Const. x T 3 exp( -Eg/kT) 3
9
or numerically
nf = 15.2 x 1032 T 3 exp( -14000/T) for silicon 4
nf = 3.1 x 10 32 T 3 exp( -9000/T) for germanium 5
Evaluation of these terms at 300 K yields the following
results:
nf(silicon) = 2.56 x 1020 6
nf(germanium) = 6.25 x 10 26 7
Hence the first major difference between germanium and
silicon devices emerges. The theoretical Is is several orders
of magnitude. greater for a germanium diode than for a
silicon diode 1 2 3 4 .

The immediate consequence of this is that the d.c. charac-

teristics show considerable differences : for a given forward
bias, silicon diodes have currents several orders of magnitude
less than germanium, but for reverse bias the leakage current
through a germanium device will be several orders of
magnitude greater than that for silicon. Consequently,
germanium diodes approach closer to the ideal in the
forward bias direction but silicon devices are superior in 10- 4
the reverse direction.

Figs 4 and 5 show measured current/voltage characteristics

for a selection of silicon and germanium diodes. <t

Finally in dealing with the current/voltage characteristics

there are three additional features of some importance:

(1) At very low levels of current the dominating flow of

charge is due to recombination of holes and electrons in the
depletion layer, rather than to diffusion of minority carriers
across the junction 2 4 . When recombination is important
this factor dominates the I/V relationship, although the
recombination current and diffusion current are additive.
This effect will be seen at currents of less than w- 8 A.

(2) At high current levels the injected excess minority carrier

concentration may exceed the doping level on one side of
the junction. When this happens the density of majority
carriers increases to maintain overall electrical neutrality.
The effect of this increased majority carrier concentration
is to slow down minority carrier injection rate with increas-
ing voltage 4 .

(3) All devices exhibit some series resistance, due either to

contact resistance or bulk semiconductor material resistance, v
or a combination of both. At sufficiently high currents the
voltage dropped across this must be taken into account. Fig.4.
(a) non gold doped diode- high resistivity }
area = 7.3 X J0- 4 cm 2
Hence the full relationship for current and voltage in a (b) gold doped diode -low resistivity- area silicon
semiconductor diode is: = 4.1 X J0- 4 cm 2
(c) gold doped diode -low resistivity- area
I = I.(exp(q(V - I x R)/1JkT) - 1) 8 = 13 x 10- 4 cm 2
(d) gold doped gold bonded diode }
where 1J takes a value varying between 1 and 2 depending (e) standard gold bonded diode germanium
on the level of current. The factor 1J is usually determined (f) point contact diode
experimentally where required and is sometimes referred
to as the ideality factor. R is the series resistance.
10
Temperature effects
Operating temperatures. It is unfortunate that each semi-
conductor material has a maximum temperature above
which rectification will not satisfactorily take place. This
restricts the field of usefulness of the devices and has an
important limiting effect on the maximum feasible power
dissipation. For germanium and silicon, the limiting tem-
peratures are around + 100C and + 300C respectively.
This is explained by the following discussion 2 :

For any semiconductor:

p X n= nr 9
where:
p,n = hole and electron densities respectively.
n; = intrinsic carrier concentration.
Consider a silicon n-type material doped to a density
ND = n = 10 15/cm 3 , assuming 100% ionization of the
donor atoms. Then from equations (6) and (9) at 300 K
p X n = 2.56 X 1020
p = 2.56 x 1020/10 15 = 2.56 x 10 5/cm 3
From equation (3):
nr = Const. X T 3(exp(- Eg/kT)
Thus as temperature increases, nr
must increase also. In
the present example, since n(N D), exceeds p by ten orders of
magnitude, and is independent of temperature, the initial
increase of nr
is due almost entirely to the increase in p.
However, at higher temperatures there must come a stage
when n and p once more become close to one another and
further thermal increase in nf is produced by a simul-
taneous increase in both nand p. At this stage, due to thermal
influences alone, the material has again become intrinsic
and the concentration of holes and electrons are close to one
another. Thus the possibilities of satisfactory rectification
are lost.

The maximum operating conditions are, however, normally

set lower than the figures given above, to + 90C for ger- v
manium and + 175C for silicon. This restriction is due to
the strong effect of temperature on reliability and operating
life expectancy.

Temperature coefficients of current and voltage. The

saturation current I,, being directly proportional to is nr.
strongly temperature dependent. Although Tis also present
in the exponent of equation (1), consideration of the magni-
tude of the effects shows that it is the variation of I, which
is the dominating term in the temperature dependence of
current.
By differentiating equation (3) with respect to temperature,
rearranging and substituting values it can be shown that,
around 300 K, I,. increases at a rate of 10%/K for ger-
manium and 15 %/K for silicon. Thus the value of leakage
current for germanium and silicon devices might be expected
roughly to double with every 8K for germanium and 5K
for silicon.
Fig. 5.
(a) non-gold doped silicon diode- high resistivity
area = 7.3 X J0- 4 cm 2
(b) gold doped silicon diode -low resistivity
area = 4.1 X J0- 4 cm 2
(c) .gold doped silicon diode -low resistivity
area = 13 x J0- 4 cm 2
(d) goli doped germanium gold bonded diode.
(e) standard germanium gold bonded diode.
(f) point contact germanium diode.
11
In practice however these increase rates will not always be
seen, nor in fact will the absolute value of leakage current
be as expected from the particular value of I,.
On all devices, surface effects give rise to additional com-
ponents of leakage current. Such factors as moisture, im-
purities or surface imperfections provide additional resistive
leakage current paths across the semiconductor surfaces.
This surface leakage current can be relatively unaffected by
temperature but considerably voltage dependent. Conse-
quently the observed leakage current levels may be con-
siderably in excess of the theoretical expectation, and in-
crease with voltage (see Fig. 5). This is particularly true for
silicon devices, whose theoretical I, values can be less than
a pico-amp and are readily swamped by surface effects.
However, since the effects of surface leakage are not strongly
temperature dependent, the overall leakage characteristic
may not have such a large temperature dependence as the
above predicts. Semiconductor manufacturers take con-
siderable care in ensuring that these adverse surface effects
are eliminated as far as possible and a large number of steps
in any production cycle will be devoted to surface treatments
ensuring that the contamination on the devices is minimised.
Where a well defined forward voltage characteristic is re-
quired the temperature variation of the forward charac-
teristic will be of importance to the circuit designer. Both
experiment and theory show that the forward voltage
temperature coefficient is dependent on the forward current
level 5 , being expressable as :
dV/dT =-A+ Blogi 10
where A and B are constants for any particular device.
Practically, values of TC for both germanium and silicon
devices will be found in the range -1.5 m V/K to -2.5 m V/
K.
Breakdown phenomena
Thus far discussions have indicated that there is no limit
to the reverse voltage which can be applied. This, however,
is obviously not the case, due to the breakdown phenomenon,
limiting the applicable reverse bias.
Zener breakdown. When the applied field is sufficient in
itself to break the inter atomic bonds, providing free charge
carriers, the phenomenon of Zener breakdown is observed
as an abrupt inverse in current at the breakdown voltage.
Avalanche breakdown. This current increase mechanism is
caused by avalanche multiplication of charge carriers.
Under certain field conditions electrons will gain sufficient
energy between collisions to ionise atoms with which they
collide. When the field and mean free path of the charge
carriers are suitable for avalanche breakdown a very sharp
increase in current is seen. The effects of avalanche break-
down are seen in Fig. 5.
It is found that diodes exhibiting breakdown below 5 V do
12
Material
Junction
Type Germanium Silicon
5.5 4
3 2
Table I. Approximate values of n the empirical constant in
equation 11.
so by a Zener process, while above 5 V avalanching pre-
dominates. Around 5 V both phenomena may be taking
place. The temperature coefficient of Zener breakdown is
negative, while that of avalanching Ispositive and at about
5 V the two tend to cancel one another, giving a very low
net temperature coefficient.
Hence 5 V Zener diodes are frequently used as voltage
reference devices where good temperature stability is
required (the term Zener diode is applied to all devices
utilising the breakaown region, irrespective of the break-
down mechanism).
A useful empirical expression giving the leakage current
magnification at any voltage when avalanching is taking
place is:
11
Where:
V = applkd voltage
VA = avalanche breakdown voltage
n = empirical constant whose approximate values are
given in Table 1 for a range of junction types.
A.C. characteristics
The preceding section has been devoted to d.c. and thermal
characteristics but semiconductor diodes also exhibit a
variety of important a.c. and transient effects which can
seriously impair their high frequency operation if not
properly considered.
Transition region capacitance. The semiconductor junction
can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor with a gap
determined by the depletion layer width, W. Since W
depends on the applied voltage bias, the capacitance is
strongly voltage dependent, the relationship being given in
the following equation:
Ct = Const./(- Vn- 4>- 2kT/q}t 12
where:
V = the applied bias
4> = the contact potential
Since the reverse resistance of a diode is generally large the
capacitive reactance in the reverse biased mode may be
important to fairly low frequencies and, for high frequency
signal diodes, low capacitance is included as an important
design parameter.
Stored charge - Reverse recovery time and diffusion ca-
pacitance. During forward conduction a certain excess
concentration of minority charge carriers is stored in the
device, eg for a p + n diode, where the major part of the
current is carried by holes, excess holes are stored in the A R B

,,
n-region. This gives rise to two phenomena which markedly
alter the diode characteristics from that of the ideal at high PULSE
frequencies. Since the charge stored in a p + n device consists GEN I
of minority carriers in the n-region a reverse bias suddenly
applied during forward conduction will tend to sweep out ~------------_.c

this charge as a reverse current. Thus, when a diode is (A)

abruptly switched from the forward direction it exhibits a

low impedance in the reverse direction for some short time
until all the stored charge is removed or recombinl!s.
This phenomenon is demonstrated in Fig. 6 where the timet (Bl
is termed the Reverse Recovery Time 8

The charge stored in a device is directly proportional to

r
the current, consequently as current and voltage vary the
charge stored also varies. Thus a small signal capacitance 0 10 20 30 40 TIME (msecl
can be defined for forward conduction conditions : the
Diffusion Capacitance.
v ----l~OVERSHOOT (C)

Fig. 6. Reverse recovery waveforms. (a) circuit for observing

i l
l
reverse recovery waveforms (b) current waveform viewed across
v, (:TEA," STATEI
BC (c) voltage waveform viewed across AB.

DC. BLOCKING
CAPACITOR RF
CHOKE
rtt oo 20 30 40 nME<m~l

B Fig. 7. Forward recovery waveforms (a) Circuit for observing

forward recovery waveforms. Rs is sufficiently large to apply
A
PULSE a 'step current' to the diode (b) current waveform viewed
GEN across AB (c) voltage waveform viewed across BC.

c
(A) For a p + n junction it can be shown that :
CD= dQ/dVD = I 2 n/2DP x g,. 13
Where:
In = length of n region
(8) DP = Diffusion constant for holes
ge = Small signal forward conductance
dl ql. ql q
TIME ge = dV = kTexp(qV/kT) ~ kTfor V~ kT 14

The forward impedance characteristic is thus that of a

conductance and capacitance. both proportional to I, the
forward current and, at high frequencies, the impedance.
differs from that found by taking the gradient of the V-1
characteristic.
(C)

The unwelcome effects of this stored charge can be reduced

by treatment of the semiconductor crystal to reduce the
TIME effective minority carrier lifetime (the average time which a
t minority carrier will remain free before recombination).
This time is extremely dependent on the crystal treatment
and can be reduced by the presence of crystal defects such
as dislocation and by interstitial impurity atoms. All such
defects act on sites for the trapping and recombination of
holes and electrons.

13
This feature is profitably exploited in the production of fast
switching gold doped diodes, where a certain amount of
gold is diffused through the junction to provide the required
recombination centres. Unfortunately this treatment is not
without its disadvantages, since the gold impurity atoms
act as sites for the generation of hole-electron pairs in the
reversed biased mode. Consequently gold doped devices
exhibit higher leakage currents than comparable non-gold
doped types.
Forward recovery. When a step current waveform is applied
to an unbiased diode it is observed that the voltage rises
above the steady state va\ue for a short time.
Since a fmite time is required to inject the necessary steady
stored charge, the diode exhibits initially, a high impedance
on switch-on. Thus the voltage of the device rises initially
above that of the eventual d.c. value. The magnitude of the
overshoot voltage increases with the rise time of the applied
pulse. For example, consider a diode with a step current
pulse of 10 rnA applied where the steady state charge
storage is 100 p Coulombs. It will take 10- 8 seconds for the
necessary charge to accumulate at that current, and hence
the forward voltage will be in excess of the steady state for
that time. This is demonstrated in Fig. 7.
SIGNAL DIODES
Signal diodes are utilised in the transmission, detection and
processing of signals containing information. Since the
information content of the signal being processed must, in
general, be retained, considerable restrictions are placed
on characteristics of the diode being used. Typical signal
diode specifications may include:
1. Well controlled forward characteristics with voltage
maxima and minima specified over several decades of
current.
2. Forward small signal impedance specified at several d. c.
current levels and frequencies (it is common for devices to
be sold as sets with closely matched forward impedance
characteristics).
3. Precisely defined leakage current maxima at several
voltages and temperatures.
4. Maximum stored charge and reverse recovery time figures
(for some applications a minimum stored charge may in
fact be specified).
5. Maximum transition capacitance at zero volts, or some
specified reverse bias.
The general aim of reducing the forward voltage and leakage
current, and increasing the breakdown voltage and high
frequency capabilities is adopted in signal diode production
and design. However these aims cannot be met simul-
taneously. For example, the forward conductance charac-
teristic can be considerably improved by increasing the
junction area (increasing J.), but this directly increases
transition capacitance and leakage current. Similarly, reverse
recovery time can be improved by gold doping, but again
leakage current increases. Consequently a compromise
14
between what is desired and what is technically feasible
must always be made, with the emphasis placed according
to the requirements of the application.
Germanium signal diodes
Germanium diodes were historically first in the electronics
scene for technical reasons rather than for any obvious
advantage of germanium: it proved easier to obtain ger-
manium of the required purity in the infancy of semicon-
ductor technology. However, as can be ascertained from
the following discussion on the two major device types,
the use of germanium as a material for semiconductor
devices brings disadvantages as well as advantages over the
use of silicon.
Gold bonded diodes. The gold bonding process provides a
simple and effective way of producing a p-n junction in
germanium and can readily be automated (which is a major
consideration in modern diode production). Basically a
gold bonded diode consists of a wafer of n-type germanium
into which is fused a fine gold wire, alloyed with a p-type
impurity such as gallium. This is basically a form of alloyed
junction. The gallium content of the gold wire forms a p-n
junction with the germanium while the gold wire provides
electrical and mechanical contact.
The standard gold bonded diode is encapsulated in the
JEDEC D07 package (see Fig. 8a) which provides a con-
venient and reliable device.
Devices produced by this process have good breakdown
voltage, low forward voltage and low capacitance, due to
the low junction area. However the switching times are
relatively long. A variant of this process can be used to
improve the switching time by using a germanium wafer
which is already gold doped. The additional gold content
reduces further the minority carrier lifetime and hence
reverse recovery time, but the reverse current and breakdown
voltages are severely impaired.
Point contact devices. Point contact germanium diodes 1 6
differ from devices already discussed in that the rectification
is not produced directly by the production of a p-n junction,
but is due to the potential developed between the bulk
region of a doped semiconductor and its surface in contact
with a metal point. For n-type germanium a large number
of surface states exist at the metal semiconductor interface,
which trap electrons from the bulk material and a large
potential barrier is built up. This potential barrier is found
to depend entirely on the surface states and the work
function of the metal point contact has not a significant
effect on the overall system. In germanium this potential
barrier causes a depletion layer at the surface of the semi-
conductor (due to repulsion of conduction electrons) and in
fact the field can be sufficiently high to eject electrons from
the valence band to produce a thin p-type surface barrier
layer. Hence the point contact germanium rectifier does in
fact have a p-n junction although it is not formed by the
conventional change of impurity elements across the crystal.

ENVELOPE FUSION-SEALED ONE- PIECE GLASS BODY
0
GERMANIUM WAFER
RECTIFYING
JUNCTION
(A)
0 wafer is mounted on a large diameter stud rather than a thin
RECTIFYING
JUNCTION
{8)
Fig. 8. (a) gold bonded diode construction (the construction
of the point contact device is almost identical) (b) alloyed
silicon D07 construction.
The d.c. characteristics of these devices are very similar to
the standard gold bonded biode but have a poorer forward
characteristic at high currents due to the Spreading Re-
sistance. This is the effective resistance from the barrier layer
to the base of the chip. Due to the very small area of the
contact this resistance can be high, since all the current
must flow through this small area. The d.c. characteristics
of a point contact device are shown in Figs 4 and 5.
Point contact devices tend to have a better high f.r }Uency
characteristic than the standard gold bonded device and
are suitable for use at up to several hundreds of MHz.
A major disadvantage ofthe point contact device is the fact
that it is prone to mechanical damage, due to the fragile
contact between the metal point and the semiconductor
crystal. Consequently manufacturers use a variety of
mechanical screening tests to remove potentially faulty
devices.
Again the standard encapsulation of the point contact
device is the D07 package due to its good mechanical and
constructional properties.
The limiting factor of the D07 packzge for germanium
diodes is its power dissipation capabilities. Due to the
maximum operating junction temperature of 90C for
germanium devices, the power dissipation rating is only
80 mW. This can be improved using a package in which the
lead out post. This directly increases the heat flow and
permits increased power capabilities by ensuring that the
junction temperature rise is kept low.
The principal properties of the germanium device discussed
are showin in Table 2.
Silicon signal diodes
As already stated silicon diodes have a number of principal
advantages, and, due to their high voltage and temperature
capabilities, they are generally used wherever the lower
voltage drop of germanium is not required.
Two device types are commonly found: alloyed and planar
epitaxial diffused diodes. Of these the planar devices are
predominant since the production processes are such that
devices with exceptionally well controlled and repeatable
characteristics can be made.
Alloyed diodes. These are usually fabricated using alu-
minium asap dopant on ann-type crystal. The aluminium
can be a small sphere or wire but the basic process is
identical: that of driving the aluminium into the silicon

Table 2. Basic properties of different signal diode constructions.

Materoal Type of Vf at 10mA VR at 100 j.tA /Rat -50V Transition 'Stored' Area of ResistiVIty F1gure
junction Capac1tance charge JUnctoon
at -1V t (cm 2 )

Pomt contact 0.95V -100V 201!A 0.25pF 80pC 4f,

5f.
4e,
Germanium gold bonded 0.37 -100V 21!A 0.44pF 500pC 5e,
4d,
doped gold bonded 0.39 10-20V 1.0pF 50pC 5d,

10-'l 4b,
gold doped 0.80 -100V 20nA 1.0pF 30pC 4.1 X 1150cm
5b,
4c.
gold doped 0.67 -100V 140nA 1.7pF 50pC 13x10- 4 1.150cm
5c,
Silicon 4a,
non gold doped 0.80 )200V 0.5nA 1.6pF 3000pC 7.3 X 10- 4 110cm
5a.
Schottky 0.4v 40V 1.0pF Negligible

At 1 0 rnA
t Not stroctly the charge stored, but the charge recovered under spec1f1ed test cond1t1ons. Depending on the test Circuit considerably different results could be
obtained. The above figures were obtained by sweeping the charge out of the d1ode by applying a fast rose ( < 5nsec) reverse pulse of 10 V to the device duronq
conduct1on of 10 rnA forward current.

15
wafer at high temperature. After junction formation an
etching process is generally used to clean the area around
the junction and cut down surface leakage effects. Due to
the fairly large size, alloyed junctions are normally en-
capsulated in the 007 package or its variants (see Fig. 8h).
Planar diodes. The planar epitaxial process involves the
diffusion of a p-type impurity from the gaseous state through
windows photolithographically formed and chemically
etched out of an oxide layer grown on top of an n-type
wafer. The n-type wafer consists of a basic substrate of n +
material on top of which is grown a thin layer of n-type
silicon of the desired resistivity- this layer is known as the
epitaxial layer.
Once the junctions are formed several plating processes
are adopted to produce ohmic contacts. Commonly, gold
is plated onto the reverse of the diode on the n + material,
the high conductivity of the n + region simplifying the
production of an ohmic contact. Silver will generally be
deposited onto the junction p material to form an anode
contact (see Fig. 9a).
Once the wafer is scribed and cut, the individual dice are
assembled into their final encapsulation which, due to the
small size of the dice, can be smaller and more compact
than silicon alloyed or germanium diodes. The double stud
diode (see Fig. 9b) is a commonly used package for planar
diodes and is considerably cheaper to produce than the 007.
The oxide found on top ofthe epitaxial wafer is of consider-
able importance and is known as a passivating layer. By
covering the surface of the wafer the oxide effectively
protects the devices from contaminl;ltion and preserves the
ultra-clean conditions which exist during diffusion of the
junction. Thus surface leakage effects are considerably
reduced by using this technique.
Fig. 9. Planar diode construction (a) chip cross section (b)
double hem sink diode co11struction.
Sl R ANODE CONTACT
GOLD BACK CONTACT
HEAT SI NK STUD
PLATED DUMET
LEAD OUT
DIODE CHIP GLASS ENVELOPPE
( 8)
16
The silicon signal diode characteristics depend largely on
the junction area and the basic wafer resistivity:
1. Vf decreases at given current as the junction area increases
and substrate resistivity decreases.
2. Capacitance increases as junction area increases and as
resistivity decreases.
3. Leakage currents increase as area increases and are
larger for gold doped devices. Increasing resistivity decreases
leakage currents.
4. Breakdown voltages increase as resistivity increases.
These factors are displayed in Table 2 and Figs. 4 and 5.
By gold doping processes the reverse recovery time can be
substantially less than for alloyed switching devices and
standard diodes and can give reverse recovery times down
to 2 ns. As with germanium gold bonded diodes it is possible
to further decrease the recovery time by heavy gold doping,
but this is only achieved at the expense of low breakdown
voltage and increased leakage currents. However reverse
recovery times as low as 0.5 ns. can be realised.
Schottky barrier diodes (Hot Carrier Diodes). To overcome
the low breakdown voltage capability of heavily gold doped
junction diodes where very high frequency operation is
required, silicon Schottky barrier diodes 7 9 are frequently
used.
The mechanics of Schottky devices are similar to those of
germanium point contact devices in that the rectification
is due to a potential barrier set up at the interface between
an-type crystal and an evaporated metal layer. By exercising
exceptional care, very clean surfaces are produced and the
effect of surface states minimised. Thus the characteristics
of the device are determined by the work function of the
metal used. Conduction is by electrons surmounting the
barrier by thermal excitation, the barrier height being raised
or lowered according to the bias applied. Hence these
devices are also known as hot carrier diodes. Unlike the
germanium point contact device an inversion layer is not
set up and current flow is entirely by electrons (ie majority
carriers). The effects of minority carrier conduction are
thus not seen, giving negligible charge storage and no
recombination or high level effects. Reverse recovery times
of less than 0.1 ns. are obtainable and a logarithmic charac-
teristic with an ideality factor of approximately 1 is found
over as much as eight decades of current.
Schottky devices find application in very high frequency
circuitry and in logarithmic converters.
SILICON POWER DIODES
Most electronic equipment can be separated into a number
of discrete subsystems of which the power supply can be
considered as fundamental. Similarly, considering the power
supply itself as an electronic system the rectifier diodes,
performing the basic conversion of raw a.c. power to d.c.
power, are of primary importance.
Due to the wide range of system power requirements an
exceptional range of device types is currently available
with parallel systems giving current ratings up to 1000 amps.
and series stacks, reverse voltage capabilities of tens of
kilovolts. Due to their obvious advantages silicon devices
are now specified in almost all applications.
Design considerations for power devices
The basic theory already discussed is valid for power
devices and only the major constructional considerations
involved in fabricating devices which may be called upon to
dissipate many watts during conduction need be discussed.
The principal problem is that of reducing series package
resistance and increasing the heat flow capabilities from the
junction to the environment. Fortunately both of these aims
can, in general, be dealt with simultaneously. Increase of
the heat flow capabilities can be discussed in terms of
reducing the thermal resistance R 9 from the junction to case.
This parameter is of considerable importance to the device
user and merits some detailed discussions.
Thermal resistance is specified as the junction temperature
rise, relative to some reference temperature, for a given
power dissipation -its units are C/Watt. The specifica-
tion for this parameter may take two forms:
1. R 9 .JA : This is the thermal resistance measured relative
to the ambient air temperature. Since the temperature rise
in the device will depend to a varying degree on the mounting
method, this must be specified in a statement of the above
parameter. When a mounting other than that specified is
used the junction temperature rise may in fact not readily
be calculable and hence this form has limited use.
2. R 9.Jc : In this version the reference temperature is that of
the device case, for stud mounted diode, or at some specified
point on the lead for axial lead device. Hence this specifica-
tion is independent of the mounting conditions, and thus,
being more useful than the former, will usually be specified
for power devices.
The use ofthe R parameter is demonstrated in the following
example:
Tj - Tc =W x R 9Jc 15
Where:
TJ = junction temperature
Tc = 75C =case reference temperature
W = 100 W = power dissipation level
R = 0.7C/W =thermal resistance
Then the operating junction temperature is calculated as :
'T.J = 0.7 x 100 + 75 = 145C.
Thermal Resistance can be reduced by several means :
1. The use of high thermal conductivity materials, such as
copper or silver, for lead outs and as contact materials to
the junction.
2. Making the area of contact to the junction as large as
possible and using large area lead outs.
3. Utilising mounting arrangements which reduce the
temperature gradient between the device and its mounting
heatsink (ie reducing R 9 case-heat sink). Devices employing
these techniques include stud mounted and press fit diodes.
It will be noticed that all the above contribute towards
lowering the contact and series resistance to the actual
junction.
Junction production. Most power diodes are produced by
a double diffusion process, where p and n impurities are
diffused into opposite sides of an appropriately doped wafer.
Ohmic contacts to the wafer are then produced by deposition
of metal films. Nickel followed by gold is used by some
manufacturers for contact materials and this process gives
a junction which can be readily soldered into its encapsula-
tion. Using this process the total wafer area is available as
a junction and this can be subsequently diced to a size
appropriate to the required current capabilities. The junc-
tion area can be considerable for high current devices.
A whole heirarchy of encapsulations are available for
rectifier devices depending on circuit requirements and a
brief description of some of these follows.
Encapsulation
Plasnc and epoxy axial lead diodes. For domestic and
industrial uses, the plastic and epoxy axial diodes are
becoming increasingly widespread. This package provides a
cheap and reliable device at up to about 3 amp rating. A
typical construction is shown in Fig. lOa.
'fop Hat' Devices. At currents up to approximatefy 6 amps,
these devices provide a more sturdy and reliable package
than the plastic devices, but are bulkier and heavier. Fig. 1Ob
shows a typical construction.
Stud mounted and press fit diodes. For high current
operation these devices are predominant, due to the easy
heatsinking and low R 9 Fig. 1Oc shows a typical construction.
In all these devices considerable care is taken in ensuring
thermal matching of the materials used, to obviate thermal
stresses being transmitted to the junction. In plastic diodes
silicone rubber coatings are frequently used for mechanical
protection of the junction.
Power diode ratings and specifications
If reverse voltage is allowed to increase indefinitely current
and power will also increase, giving rise to increased junction
temperature. Unless this is not limited a condition known as
thermal runaway will develop - where the temperature
rise produces increased charge carriers (increased nf> and
hence increased current. Unless controlled and limited an
unstable and potentially destructive state develops with
rapidly rising junction temperatures. Similarly, potentially
destructive junction temperatures can be built up in the
forward direction if excessive current flows.
17
Hence for power diodes (and also signal diodes) considera-
tion of the maximum allowable voltage and current is SILICONE RUBBER PROTECTION
essential for reliable circuit operation. For all diodes a range
of maximum ratings are given by the manufacturer and these
must not be exceeded : a brief description of these ratings
follows.
1. VR - Maximum d.c. reverse voltage which can safely MOULDED PLASTIC BODY
DIODE CHIP
be applied.
2. VRM(Rep)- Maximum repetitive peak reverse voltage (A)

(a voltage and duration will be specified).

3. VRM(Surge)- Maximum non-repetitive reverse surge HERMET IC GLASS TO METAL SEAL
voltage (voltage and duration will again be specified).
4. 10 - Maximum average current rating. This is dependent
on the loading and will be lower for capacitative loads for
inductive and resistive loads due to the repetitive surge
rating IFM(Rep). SI LICONE RUBBER
OR VARNISH
5. IFM(Rep) - This is the maximum repetitive surge current
allowable and will be specified for a given waveform and WELDED CONNECT ION OF
CAN TO BASE
duration. A curve of IFM(Rep) vs. pulse duration is some-
times given which is useful for the design of circuits feeding DIODE CHIP
capacitative loads. (8 )
6. IFM(Surge) - This limits the maximum nonrepetitive surge
which may be applied and is usually specified as a peak value
for one half cycle of mains frequency. COPPER LEAD OUT
HERMET IC GLASS TO
ME TAL SEALS
Sensible choice of components will ensure that these limits
are never too closely approached, but due to the limited
validity of some of these ratings (being dependent on the
specified waveform) it may be difficult in some application
to be certain that over voltage or current conditions do not
exist and where doubt exists it is advisable to be conservative
in choice of device.
BRAZ ED JOINT
Forward voltage. This parameter, although of prime im- WHOLE ASSEMBLY T IN PLATED
portance for signal diodes, is not usually critical for power (C)
diodes since the diode voltage drop will be a small fraction
Fig. 10. Diode constructions (a) moulded plastics (b) top hat
of the total applied voltage. However, for power dissipation diode (c) stud mounted.
considerations a low voltage drop is important and low
voltage drops are achieved ; in general less than 15 V for
single and parallel devices, but up to several volts for REFERENCES
series diode stacks. The forward voltage drop may be speci-
fied under either d.c. current conditions or under a.c. 1. Shockley W. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors.
conditions at I 0 with stated load. The forward voltage may be Van Nostrand.
specified at several case temperatures. 2. Sparks. Junction Transistors. Pergamon Press.
3. Warner and Fordenwalt. Integrated Circuits-Design
Reverse current. In power devices, carrying many amps in Principles and Fabrication. McGraw-Hill.
the forward direction, leakage ..,urrents of up to several 4. Grove AS. Physics and Technology of Semiconductor
milliamps can be tolerated and values of approximately Devices. John Wiley and Sons.
10 rnA at high junction temperatures are commonly found.
5. Simpson JH. Theory of the Temperature Coefficients of
The leakage current can be specified again either under d.c. the Foreward Voltage of a p-n Junction. SCP and Solid
(/R maJor a.c. conditions (/RAv) and at one or more tempera- State Technology. Sept 64.
tures.
6. Dekker AJ. Solid State Physics. Macmillan.
Speed specifications. For mains frequency applications the 7. Cowley AM. Titanium- Silicon Schottky Barrier Diodes.
effects of charge storage are not important but as applica- Solid State Electronics. Vol12. 1970.
tions using power diodes in high frequency rectification 8. Ko WH. The reverse Transient Behavior of Semicon-
circuits are becoming common, reverse recovery time may ductor Junction Diodes. IRE Transactions on Elec-
now be specified for some devices. It is essential to use a tron Devices. March 1961.
device with adequate switching speed since very large, 9. Saltech and Clark. Use of a Double Diffused Guard
potentially dangerous, reverse current surges can flow in Ring to obtain new ideal I/V Characteristics in Schottky
power diodes being switched from a low impedance source. Barrier Diodes. Solid State Electronics. Vol13 1970

18
 Chapter 2

Voltage
Reference
Elements

R H Murphy CEng BSc MIEE MIEEE

Transitron Electronic Ltd

Many electronic systems need compact, portable voltage

regulator and reference elements capable of stable operation
over a wide range of environmental conditions. All circuits
are, to a greater or lesser extent, sensitive to supply voltage
variations. In extreme cases these may cause catastrophic
malfunction of the circuit; more usually the accuracy, noise
level or fidelity of the circuit is affected. When the circuit
itself presents a varying load to the supply, the latter must
be regulated against consequential voltage changes that
will in turn affect the circuit operation. Hence power
supplies must be regulated, or stabilised, against both input
voltage and load current variations with elements that are
insensitive to temperature and other environmental factors
within the accuracy required over the desired working
range of the equipment.

In addition to stable operating voltages, some sub-systems

employ basic voltage references with which measured
variable or analogue voltages are compared so that an
error signal may be derived. This signal is then amplified
and applied by negative feedback to correct the variable
voltage, or used directly to present the measured informa-
tion in absolute terms. In fact, the more sophisticated
stabilised power supplies may be regarded as sub-systems of
the former type, whereas digital voltmeters and other forms
of analogue-digital converters are examples of the latter.
In general the accuracy of these sub-systems is limited by
the temperature, time, and environmental-stabilities of the
basic voltage reference elements.

Silicon voltage regulator and reference elements, derived

from the Zener diode 1 and monolithic circuitry incorporat-
ing Zener diodes with transistor amplifiers, thus provide the
basic building blocks for a very wide class of sub-systems
employed in all applications of electronic equipment. The
essential difference between a regulator and a reference is
that the former, with its associated circuitry, supplies a
load current at a stabilised voltage, whereas the latter
provides a stabilised voltage into an effectively infinite
impedance and ideally supplies no current. Usually, Zener

19
diodes used as references have greater time-stability factors
and lower temperature coefficients than those used as
regulators as a consequence of their limited and optimised
u
working environment, but monolithic voltage regulators a::
UJ
achieve an overall stability under load comparable to that a.
of discrete reference diodes. Because of the method of *-z
l-
006
construction used to null the temperature coefficients of UJ

reference diodes, they give reference voltages that lie ~

LL.
004
within specific ranges of a group of nominal values, and do LL.
UJ

not extend over the complete range of available regulator 8 002

voltages. From a usage point of view, reference diodes are UJ
a::
::J
sometimes defined as Zener diodes with a temperature ~ 0
a::
coefficient of less than 0.01% per. 0 C., but the 'double UJ
~-0024~~----~--~~--~--~~--~~__J
anode' construction, places them in a different generic !-
family from simple Zener diodes. VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Fig. 2. Temperature coefficient of a silicon regulator.

SILICON VOLTAGE REGULATORS

A silicon diode can be utilised as a voltage regulator if
operated in the saturation region of its inverse characteristic
and, if designed for such operation, is known as a Zener
diode. The voltage-current characteristics of some typical
Zener diodes are shown in Fig. 1. As can be seen, the
curve breaks sharply when the saturation voltage is
reached and an essentially constant voltage is maintained
over a wide current range.
The Zener voltage of a silicon regulator is determined by
the type of silicon material used and is a controllable
element in the manufacturing process. This voltage can be
predetermined within certain lilnits for a particular
regulator. The voltage is further dependent upon the operat-
ing ambient temperature. The coefficient that results is a
constant for a given regulator and is related to its voltage,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.

The Zener diode, when used as a regulator, eliminates
some of the problems inherent in other types of regulators.
It is smaller, lighter in weight, and has a mechanical
ruggedness unobtainable with gas-discharge tubes. There is
also a greatly reduced deterioration during storage and
little or no ageing over its operating life.
Whereas gas-discharge tubes can provide regulation only
at specific voltages and over limited current ranges, the
silicon voltage regulator can be designed to provide
regulation at any desired voltage up to about 200 V and
over a very wide current range. Further, operating currents
above one ampere are possible.
In any silicon regulator there is an inherent upper limit
to the current range over which it can regulate. This limit
is established by its heat dissipation capabilities. Because
of this current limitation and because demands exist for
regulators that will operate at currents within the range
1 rnA to 2 amperes, various power classes of regulators have
been developed, extending from 250mW to 50 W.
The basic parameter for measuring the regulating ability
of a silicon voltage regulator is its dynamic resistance. The
dynamic resistance is an expression of the change in
voltage for a small change in current. It is measured by
observing the a.c. voltage developed across the regulator

Fig. 1. Voltage/current characteristics of some typical Fig. 3. Dynamic resistance related to voltage.

'l
zener diodes.

24

21

'l
Vl UJ
u
~ z
<l
~ 15 I-
VI
UJ 12 Vl

t
l!>
~
~
_J u
~ ::;;

:t
<l
z
b
I I l I I I I I I I I
00-2 05 2 5 10 2 5 1002005001000 2000 7 10 15 20 30 40
CURRENT ( MILLIAMPS) VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

20
 SHUNT REGULATORS
1000

..
~
E
.s=
400
The simplest way of using a Zender diode as a voltage
regulator is in the shunt regulator mode (Fig. 5). This works
2 by diverting current from the load when the input voltage
w 100
u
z
and/or load resistance rises. It thus maintains an approxi-
<[
40 mately constant voltage across the load and reduces the
Iii
iii ripple voltage if present at the input terminals. This
II! 10 mechanism is illustrated in the graphical analysis shown in
u
;:;; the diagram, which also conveniently represents the
4
<[
z limiting factors involved in the design of shunt regulators.
~ The penalty for simplicity is, of course, inefficiency result-
I
02 05 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
ing from considerable power diversion into the regulator
CURRENT (MILLIAMPS)
diode in the course of maintaining a constant output
voltage. On the other hand, the system is short circuit
Fig. 4. The dependence of dynamic resistance on operating proof provided the series resistor has an adequate power
current.
rating, because the maximum dissipation in the regulator
diode occurs at open- rather than short-circuit conditions.

when a small a.c. current is superimposed upon the operat-
ing d.c. current. Fig. 3 shows the value of dynamic resistance
related to operating voltage. The lowest dynamic resistance
is observed at between 5.5 and 6.5 volts, and from there it
rises at a rate that is proportional to approximately the
square of the voltage. In particular regulators the dynamic
resistance is further dependent upon the operating current.
Fig. 4 illustrates the magnitude of this change for a typical
regulator. At any given current a variation in dynamic
resistance is also observed with changes in ambient tem-
perature. As temperature increases, the dynamic resistance
increases linearly, rising approximately 30% for 100C.
In order to express the regulating ability in a direct manner
under various conditions, the regulation factor (F) has been
developed. The derivation of this factor is as follows:
F = Rdc = Edc/Idc = EdJldc = M/Idc
Rae Rd ll.E/M ll.E/Edc
This factor expresses the improvement in regulation that
will be achieved and simplifies calculations for the design
of regulating circuitry.
To determine the degree of regulation that can be obtained
from silicon regulators, several conditions must be known.
These are the output voltage, operating current range,
ambient temperature range, and the expected changes in
input and output conditions. Once the output voltage and
current range have been fixed, the two elements that affect
overall regulation are the change in current through the
regulator, and the change in ambient temperature condi-
tions. If the temperature coefficient proves to be the limiting
element in overall regulating ability, consideration should
be given to utilising a series string oflower voltage regulators
which have smaller temperature coefficients. If the reJ!;ula-
tion factor (Eq. 1) in the operating current range is limiting,
consideration should be given to operating at a current
where this factor is higher, or utilising lower voltage devices
which will provide better overall regulation at a particular
operating current.
(1)
The nature of the input variations over which the device is
expected to regulate will determine the degree of regulation
that can be achieved. If the current changes in the r,.gulator
are less than 25 % and of short duration, the regulation

Fig. 5. Zener diode in the

shunt regulator mode.
ZENER CURRENT

Rs

I max E REGULATOR ~
~---D-1-0D-E--~--R~L ___]l
(MAX DISSIPATION)

Im'" (LIMIT OF
REGULATION)

REGULATOR
DIODE + MIN
LOAD RESISTOR ---::::-=,_=:::t=::.L_ _ _~::,..__ _ ____:~V~OLTAGE
REGULATOR DIODE (OPEN GTRCUIT) Vm'"/::,.V Vmax Emax

21
factor at the operating current expresses the operating
characteristics of the device. If the current changes are larger,
but still of short duration, the change in dynamic resistance,
and therefore of the regulation factor with current, must be
taken into consideration. If the current changes have a
long-time duration, the operating junction temperature
will change as a result of the changing power level. This
causes a change in operating voltage as determined by the
temperature coefficient. The formula for this thermally
induced resistance is as follows
Once the thermally induced resistance of the device has
been determined, it can be added to the dynamic resistance,
and a new regulator factor, called the static regulation
factor, can be determined:
Dynamic Resistance (short duration surges) = Rd
Dynamic Resistance for long duration surges = Rd
Rinduced
. Edc/ Ide
= R R (3)
Fstatic
d + induced
If the current changes require that this static regulation be
considered, a check should be made to determine whether
the dynamic resistance or the thermally induced resistance
is the dominating factor in limiting the regulation. Because
dynamic resistance decreases with increasing current, while
the thermally induced resistance is independent of operating
current, the dynamic resistance will tend to dominate at
lower currents, and the thermally induced resistance will
limit regulation at higher currents.
If thermally induced resistance is determined to be the
limiting factor in a particular application, an improvement
in regulation can be achieved by either utilising lower
voltage units in series, or by using units with higher power
dissipation capabilities. With the lower voltage devices,
regulation is improved b~cause the temperature coefficient
is smaller and the power dissipation per unit is reduced.
A regulator with high heat dissipation capabilities will
also improve regulation.
IMPROVED REGULATORS
Fig. 6 shows three types of improved regulators 2 that
overcome some of the basic limitations of the simpler shunt
regulator.
'J]j,,
R. R2 Rc
-
Rs
J
u-, T,
(Al
+
2~z,
(8)
1 (C)
22
The cascaded version (Fig. 6a) is an example of a two stage
regulator giving improved regulation and ripple reduction
at the expense of a higher input voltage. For example,
a 150 V input with 10% ripple can be reduced to 50 V with
2% ripple by R 1 Z 1, and further to 24 V with 0.2% ripple
by R 2 Z 2 Typically, the circuit would give 2% output
voltage change for an increase in load current from zero
to 150 rnA, representing an output impedance of approxi-
mately 3 ohms.
The transistor shunt regulator (Fig. 6b) enables the current
(2) diversion from the load to be accomplished by a transistor
rather than a Zener diode, allowing the output impedance,
and hence the regulation against load current changes, to
be improved by a factor equal to the current gain of the
transistor. However, since the transistor operates in what
is effectively an emitter follower configuration, load voltage
variations follow those at the base of the transistor. Hence,
regulation against input voltage changes, and ripple
+ reduction, are only improved by the effect of operating the
regulator diode into a higher load impedance than would
obtain in the simple shunt regulator.
Since all shunt regulators suffer from inefficiency, most
stabilised power supplies are based on the series regulator
mode (Fig. 6c). Here the transistor is a true emitter-follower
and current is not diverted but controlled by the series
element. The Zener diode is also used as a reference rather
than a regulator element, since ideally the base, or an
amplifier feeding the base, would have infinite impedance.
The circuit is not inherently short-circuit proof; maximum
dissipation in the series element occurs when the load is
'half short circuited', ie when the load voltage is half the
supply voltage, assuming the base current is limited.
SILICON VOLTAGE REFERENCES
Precision Zener or reference diodes 3 are available that are
inherently ten times more stable than unsaturated cadmium
standard cells and approach the stability of the saturated
type. However, the choice between standard cells and
reference diodes for some applications is by no means
automatic. Amongst the advantages of the former are the
complete absence of external power supplies, almost
absolute reproduceability and ultra stability, albeit under
constant load and favourable environmental conditions.
Very few types of reference diode are currently available
with guaranteed long term stabilities of the same order as
those of standard cells, but considerations of small size,
:::r
Fig. 6. Three types of im-
proved regulator circuits.
RL Rs z,
~ ,,
 Reverse biased Temperature
junction voltage coefficient
5.4 to 5.9 0.03% or 1.5 mV per
7.0 to 7.6 0.04% or 1.5 mV per
10.1 to 11.1 0.05% or 4.5 mV per
2 x 5.4 to 5.9 0.03% or 3.0 mV per
3 x 5.4 to 5.9 0.03% or 4.5 mV per
Table 1. Addaional junctions for higher voltuye 1ejerences.
lack of vibration and attitude sensitivity, lower temperature
coefficients, and general ruggedness including the ability
to recover immediately after accidental high current drain
or even short circuit conditions, are providing an incentive
for widespread adoption.
Temperature coefficient compensation
The breakdown region of a Zener diode is due to a com-
bination of two mechanisms, Zener effect. and avalanche
multiplication; the former resulting from carrier emission
caused by electric field intensity, and the latter from carrier
multiplication due to ionising collisions analgous to those
in gaseous discharge phenomena in voltage regulator (ie
Neon) tubes. It is not proposed to discuss the physics of
these mechanisms, since this subject is adequately covered
elsewhere 1 However, an important characteristic which
differentiates between them is the temperature coefficient of
the sustaining voltage; this being negative for Zener effect
and positive for avalanche multiplication.
The previous curve of temperature coefficient against
breakdown voltage, shown in Fig. 2, illustrates the fact
that avalanche multiplication becomes the predominant
mechanism in devices fabricated for 'Zener' voltages
higher than approximately 5.2 V. Arbitrarily defining a
reference diode as a Zener diode with a temperature
coefficient of better than 0.01% per C, it is evident that
reference diodes could be fabricated from p-n junctions
with avalanche breakdown voltages in the neighbourhood
of 5.0 to 5.5 V. Unfortunately, however, the curve of Fig. 2
is rather steep in this range, and hence the dependence of
temperature coefficient on operating current and tempera-
ture tends to be severe. In addition, the magnitude of the
dynamic resistance remains unnecessarily high, as shown
inFig.3.
Somewhat fortuitously, devices with avalanche breakdown
voltages in the range 5.4 to 5.9 Vat 7.5 rnA, exhibiting mini-
mal dynamic resistance as seen from Fig.3, happen to have
positive temperature coefficients of about 0.03% or 1.5 m V
per ac which is equal and opposite to the temperature
coefficient of a forward biased silicon p-n junction. Thus
two junctions, one forward and one reverse biased, may be
connected in series to yield an effectively zero temperature
coefficient unit at little expense in dynamic resistance. In
practice the forward biased diode adds approximately
0.5 to 0.6 V to the reference voltage and 4 ohms to the
dynamic resistance, yielding a 59 to 65 V reference diode
of typically 8 to 15 ohm dynamic resistance at 7.5 rnA.
No. of forward Resultant
biased junctions reference
oc 1 5.9 to 6.5
oc 2 8.0 to 8.8
oc 3 11.1 to 12.3
oc 2 12.0to13.2
oc 3 17.7 to 20.3
The process may be extended to obtain higher voltage
reference diodes of low dynamic resistance by connecting
multiple forward and reverse biased junctions in series
according to Table 1.
Dynamic resistance cancellation
As already indieated, ihe merit of a Zener diode as an
accurate voltage reference depends to a large extent on the
dynamic resistance of the device, since the terminal voltage
can be expressed in the form :
V = Vz + lzRd (4)
The magnitude of Rd thus determines the extent to which
Iz must be stabilised against temperature and variation of
external supply voltage. The conventional method of
deriving Iz from a cascade chain of Zener diodes from a
relatively high voltage source as discussed earlier is usually
not good enough where reference diodes are concerned
and quite sophisticated transistor series regulated power
supplies or monolithic voltage regulators must be em-
ployed.
A novel method4 of overcoming this problem for lightly
loaded applications where the reference voltage may be
allowed to 'float' relative to the external power supply is
shown in Fig. 7. Here the reference diode is connected in
a bridge circuit and its dynamic resistance is effectively
cancelled as far as the reference voltage Vo is concerned,
by virtue of the following relationships :
~vl Rd
(5)
~E P + Rd
(6)
~Vo Rd R
------=---=0
~E P+Rd Q+R
if Rd R (7)
P+Rd=Q+R
Thus, it is not necessary to balance Rz with a low resistor
but merely adjust a ratio of relatively high resistors (or
set the tapping on an accurate potential divider). Notice
that temperature variations of V 1 are cancelled as well as
random fluctuations, but it is essential that the latter should
not be large enough to cause significant variation of Rz.
23
 junction is to be used in the forward biased state, the unit is
subsequently polarised in the preferred direction from
measurements of temperature coefficient and dynamic
p Q resistance. Additional junctions for higher voltage references
according to Table 1 are made at the same time by alloy
E .6E
diffusion and bonded to the assembly to form a compact,

!
Vo
rugged entity of superior reliability and long term stability 5 .
r, ,.J \/. Fig. 8 shows the final arrangements for 6.2, 8.4, 11.7 and
2

v, R 12.6 V references having maximum temperature coefficients

Rd
as low as 0.0002% (2 ppm) per oc over a working tempera-
~ ture range of from -55 to + 150C.

Fig. 7. Allowing the reference voltage to 'float' relative to the

external power supply.
NOISE
An important parameter seldom quoted for reference
diodes is the random noise voltage. This is generated because
DEVICE TECHNOLOGY
avalanche multiplication is a quantum, rather than con-
The manufacture of reference diodes by the series combina-
tinuous, process and the voltage fluctuations extend from
tion of separate forward and reverse biased p-n junctions
very low to moderately high frequencies. When operated at
produced by the silicon alloy process was a standard
the onset of breakdown, some Zener diodes can be employed
technique until the inception of the alloy diffused process.
as 'white noise' sources. However, it is obviously important
It did, however, present several difficult problems. Possibly
to minimise noise in reference applications.
the most severe proved to be obtaining a high yield of
regulator diodes to the required voltage tolerance. With the
When operated at the normal current levels the best
alloy process, the only variable that could be used to control
reference diodes exhibit typically 10-20 J.N average peak-
this parameter was the resistivity of the silicon. Accurate
to-peak noise voltage over a 0-1 kHz bandwidth. This
matching of regulators to forward diodes required con-
comprises two components, flicker noise and shot noise,
trolling the voltages of the former to 1.5 %, which demanded
and whereas the latter is constant with frequency, the former
a resistivity control to within 10%. The resistivity of a
typical n-type silicon crystal may, however, be expected
to vary by up to 100% along its length so that only a small Fi ~ 8. The mechanical arrangement of higher voltage
fraction of each crystal could be used. The matching process reference sources.
then involved the additional problem of choosing pairs with
eqQal and opposite temperature coefficients over a wide
temperature range and assembling them in a single encap-
sulation in such a way that no accidental mismatch was
introduced; all measurements in this process necessitating
accuracies of better than 1 m V in 6 V.

It was found that by using boron doped silicon (p-type)

and a graded junction formed by gaseous diffusion, the 6 2 VOLT
voltage yield could be further controlled by the duration and RE FERENCE
1(7 VOLT
temperature of the process. Also a much more effective REFERE NCE
crystal utilisation could be obtained since the resistivity
of a boron doped crystal varies typically only 10% along CONTACT
its length. However, the low voltage required by reference
diodes dictated a very heavily doped material and this
resulted in the junction formed by gaseous diffusion lying
at an extremely shallow depth, which made both the surface
preparation before diffusion, and the contact formation
afterwards, very critical.

The alloy (solid) diffusion process overcame these difficulties

and allowed the formation of regulator and compensating
forward biased junctions simultaneously. The technique
involves sandwiching donor material between two slices of
p-type silicon, and heating under closely controlled condi-
tions. This results in a bipolar p-n-p structure (ie two Zener
8-4 VOLT 126 VOLT
diodes back-to-hack) with almost identical breakdown REFERENCE REFEREN CE
characteristics in either direction. However, since one p-n

24
 Fig. 9. Three forms of advanced regulators. (a) Simple voltage regulator with error amplifier. (b) Voltage regular with current limiting.
(c) Complex voltage regulator with current limiting.
not only decreases in average power at 3dBjoctave, but is
heavily dependent on processing. Thus the 10-20 Jl V
quoted can be extrapolated to 3-6 JlV over a 1-10 Hz
bandwidth, and the measurement of this provides an
accurate control on processing. If flicker noise is absent,
the equivalent level is 1-2 JlV over the low frequency band,
and in fact, certified reference diodes are observed to
approach this level after the full stabilising and screening
process.
MONOLITHIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS
The advent of integrated circuit technology has led to
vastly improved performance/cost ratios for series voltage
regulators. Apart from the ease with which reference
elements, error amplifiers, and series power transistors can
be diffused into a single silicon chip, advantage can be taken
of close thermal matching to reduce overall temperature
coefficients and the elimination of metallurgical interfaces
to improve long term stability and reliability. Complex
current limiting and active protection circuitry can also
be incorporated at little expense in chip area.
ADVANCED CIRCUIT DESIGN
Progressing from the simple series regulator shown in
Fig. 6, the addition of an error amplifier (Fig. 9a) vastly
improves performance 6 . Here a voltage proportional to
the output voltage is fed back to the error amplifier through
the resistor divider composed of R 1 and R 2 The error
amplifier output is fed to the series regulating transistor
such that the difference between the fed back voltage and
the reference is minimised and regulation is achieved.
This circuit has been a basic functional element of stabilised
power supplies for many years. However, there are a number
of performance compromises associated with it. These
compromises are due to the resistor divider made up of
R 1 and R 2 , which is used to set the value of the regulator
output voltage. The loop gain of the regulator is propor-
tional to the resistor divider ratio, decreasing as the divider
ratio is decreased. Therefore, as the desired output voltage
is increased, the divider ratio, and therefore the regulator
loop gain, is decreased. As the loop gain is decreased the
regulator output impedance increases, degrading the no-
load to full-load regulation characteristics; the regulator's
bandwidth is also degraded.
Current limiting is usually achieved by adding a resistor in
series with the emitter of the output power transistor. The
voltage across this resistor is fed to a control transistor
as shown in Fig. 9b. If the output current exceeds a pre-
determined value, which is programmable by selecting the
size of the resistor, Rsc. the control transistor is turned on,
such that the base current available to the output power
transistor is limited or reduced. Thus, output current
limiting is achieved, simply, but not without a compromise
in performance.
The major penalty of utilising the type of current limiting
shown in Fig. 9b is increased power. Since the current
sensing resistor, Rsc. is in series with the regulator output,
the minimum input-output voltage differential is increased
by the current limiting sense voltage. This is at least 600 mV,
and can result in total circuit power dissipation under
regulation conditions, that is up to 25% higher than in the
case when no current limiting is employed. Another dis-
advantage is that this current sensing resistor increases the
output impedance of the regulator.
An alternative approach to this basic regulator circuit is
shown in Fig. 9c. Here the output error amplifier and power
transistor are connected as a non-inverting amplifier with
unity gain. Variation in the output voltage setting is achieved
with the addition of a reference level shifting amplifier whose
gain, and hence the regulator output voltage, is determined
by the resistor divider composed of R 1 and R 2 Since the
load on the level shifting amplifier is constant, there is no
degradation in the regulation characteristics for different
output settings. The output power amplifier, on the other
25
 33 k.0. - - RFe
+E 0?

~
Rsc 25

r--
I v,,- - - - - - - - 20
I
I
I 15
I RFB
I

1_
I VouT

-hf"
I
I
L 5"
R LS '
c2 lp lsc 25mA
Rsc 5.\1
lo
R_s >
l c, 0 Isc 200 250 m A

( A) (8)

Fi g. 10. (a) B a~ic; voltag e reg ulator with 'foldback' current limiting. (b) Peak po wer predi ctions for output characteristi cs.

hand, offers maximum loop gain, mmtmum output im- REFERENCES

pedance and wide bandwidth, all of which are constant over
the full voltage range of the amplifier.
The resistor, Rsc. in series with the collector of the output
transistor is used to sense the output current of the regulator.
The voltage across this resistor is fed to additional circuitry
such that the base current available to the power transistor
is limited and, in fact, a foldback characteristic (Fig. lOb)
can be achieved. The advantage of this is that since maxi-
mum power dissipation occurs when the voltage across
the regulator and load are equal (half short-circuit), the
device can deliver more power to the load than it could
with vertical current limiting because it 'folds-back' to the
point of maximum dissipation. The addition of Rsc to the
circuit does not increase the minimum input-output voltage
differential. Current sources and other circuitry common
to the output error amplifier account for a voltage drop from
the positive supply to the base of the power transistor that
far exceeds the 600 m V necessary to drive the current
limit circuitry. All that is needed to take advantage of this
voltage drop is a power transistor with a low saturation
resistance. Thus, no increase in circuit power dissipation
is incurred, and none of the output parameters of the
regulator are degraded by the addition of current limiting.
1. Hunter L P, Handbook of Semiconductor Electronics.
McGraw-Hill, 1956.
2. Schwartz S (Ed), Selected Semiconductor Circuits Hand-
book. John Wiley & Sons, 1961.
3. Murphy R H, Ultra-Stable Semiconductor Reference
Diodes. Electronic Engineering, Vol. 36, No. 431, Jan.
1964.
4. Banga J, Zener Diodes and their Application in Refer-
ence Units. British Communications and Electronics,
Oct. 1961.
5. Murphy R H, Zener Diodes as Accurate Voltage-
Reference Sources. Colloquium on Laboratory Voltage
Reference Standards, lEE, 1965.
6. Sullivan DR and Mamie H W, Design and Application
of a Monolithic Voltage Regulator with Foldback
Current Limiting. Transistron Applications Note
WD/AP2, July 1969.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Acknowledgement is due to the Directors of Transitron
Electronic Limited for permission to publish the material
presented.

26
 Chapter 3

Selenium
Rectifiers

W G Ashman CEng MIERE

Westinghouse Brake & Signal Co Ltd

Selenium rectifiers have been widely used for many years

in general purpose rectifying circuits and still provide an
economic and simple rectifier for a variety of applications.
Since their original practical realisation the basic structure
has remained unchanged, improvements being generally
in methods of manufacture and processing which have
resulted in improvements in yield, voltage rating, current
rating, operating temperature, reliability and ageing effects.

CONSTRUCTION AND MANUFACTURING

TECHNIQUES
Basic Element Construction
The basic selenium rectifying junction will be termed an
element and any group of them will be termed as assembly
or rectifier assembly. The element is shown schematically
in Fig. I where a base plate provides mechanical support
and rigidity for the selenium material, and further functions
as the electrical contact to one side of the rectifying junction
and a thermal contact to provide a good path for heat flow
for cooling. Commonly, steel or aluminium is used for the
baseplate, aluminium having the advantages of higher
thermal conductivity, lighter weight and resistance to
corrosiOn.

On the opposite side of the selenium is the counter electrode

which is an alloy whose constitution has considerable
influence on the rectifying properties of the junction.
Rectifier action takes place at the junction of the counter
electrode and selenium where the so-called barrier layer
exists. The direction of easy current flow is, as shown by
the arrow, from the baseplate to the counter electrode
ie the counter electrode is the cathode terminal in conven-
tional diode terminology.

Manufacturing Techniques
Techniques to be described lend themselves to automated
production which requires considerable investment in
special purpose plant to enable a viable product to be

27
 CoMe ctor ---~

Supporting Ban s~l~nium

t:ctrodc:
r-~l
Coldnt~
Insulato r - -- - - -

_ ln:,.ulot ing
....1(
--- Sleeve

C onducting
Dir c:e uon
Spring

NOTE: It is not n~cnsary to

contact whole or~aot d eme nt.

Fig . 1. The basic selenium rectifying j unction. Fig. 3. Sectional view of a typical spindle mounted rectifier.

produced. However, considerable advantage exists in the
selenium process in that extremes of material purity,
cleanliness, process control, handling and test gear are
not required as with most other semiconductors.
The base material in strip form is prepared by roughening
one surface to improve selenium adhesion, followed by
chemical cleaning and degreasing. Interaction between
the baseplate and selenium must be inhibited and this is
usually achieved by nickel plating in the case of a steel
baseplate and, for an aluminium baseplate, a coating of
bismuth.
A variety of methods have been used over the years to
deposit the selenium and, of these, two are most commonly
used.
One method, is to spread a layer of powdered selenium,
with halogen and oxygen additions, evenly over the
prepared side of the baseplate. It is then heated to about
150C under mechanical pressure to form a thin homo-
geneous layer. A disadvantage of this method is that it is not
easy to achieve accurate control. An alternative method
employs a high vacuum technique whereby selenium is
Fig. 2. Typical VIA characteristic before and after forming.
evaporated in an evacuated cham her and allowed to con-
dense on the heated baseplate. This process enables a thin
and uniform layer to be ut:posited, reducing the amount of
selenium used and providing an element with good and
consistent rectifying properties. After coating further heat
treatment is necessary to convert the selenium layer to a
crystalline state.
At this stage further chemical surface treatments are carried
out to improve the characteristics of the element. A variety
of techniques are used and these introduce beneficial
variations in the forward and reverse characteristics to
suit particular applications.
The next stage is to introduce the counter electrode by
spraying the selenium with a suitable alloy having a melting
point below that of selenium. The materials used for the
counter electrode have considerable influence on the
properties of the rectifier and various low melting point
alloys can be utilised. Generally a eutectic alloy of tin,
cadmium and bismuth in varying quantities, giving
different melting points, is used. Often deliberate traces of
other metals, such as thalium, are introduced to improve
or control the rectifying characteristics. At this point the
rectifying junction between the counter electrode and the
selenium is generally unsatisfactory and a 'forming'
process is required to produce a suitable rectifying element.

100~ Forming is an electrical process whereby current is passed

through the element in the reverse direction for a consider-
able length of time. Initially this current will be relatively
high. in the order 50mA/cm2 , for about 10 milliseconds,
then falling to about 5mAjcm2 During this process care is
taken to ensure that overheating of the element is avoided,
otherwise destruction could result. A typical volt/ampere
characteristic taken before and after forming is shown in
Fig. 2. The formed characteristic is seen to have a slightly
VOLTS
increased forward voltage drop while the reverse voltage
-40 -30 -20 -10 capa bility is considerably increased to give an improved
1 1
fl rectification efficiency.

1
FORMED

UNFORMED r It is possible to produce a rectifying junction . without

electroforming by introducing a thermal forming stage into
the process. Generally this leads to an inferior rectification
efficiency and is therefore not commonly used.

28
 Other assemblies have been devised for specific applications.
The contact cooled and miniature clamped assemblies are
commonly encountered types. The contact cooled assembly
has a number of elements arranged in the required manner
insulated from, and packaged in, a metal container which
is attached to a convenient metal surface (eg radio or
television chassis) to obtain adequate cooling. The minia-
ture clamped assembly is held in aU-shaped spring which
LoC"k Wother Insulated Tube Connect ing Nuh
provides both location and pressure for the elements.

All assemblies in which the elements are exposed are

Fig. 4. Sectional view of a tubular type construction. capable of functioning without additional protection, but
for normal industrial environments it is usual to spray or
dip-coat the complete assembly with a special paint to
provide protection against the ingress of contaminants. A
photograph of some typical assemblies is shown in Fig. 5.
Having produced elements suitably formed it is possible,
if the process has been correctly carried out, to punch or
cut the plates to the desired size without damage to the
rectifying properties. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Static Characteristic
Mechanical Assembly
Measuring current magnitudes at various values of d.c.
A variety of mechanical assemblies can be employed to
voltage gives a curve similar to that shown in Fig. 2. This
construct a complete rectifier based on any size or shape of
curve is of limited use and, measured for a single element,
plate and circuit configuration to suit the application.
does not indicate the process spreads that occur and ignores
the effect of 'creep', deforming and ageing.
The main purpose is to arrange the elements in such a
manner that the heat generated internally can be dissipated
All of these effects are minimised in modem elements
and thus maintain a relatively low and uniform temperature
that are operated within their ratings, but are nevertheless
at the rectifying junction. In addition, the assembly must
present in some degree.
maintain a constant pressure on the rectifier element,
without exceeding a specific level beyond which the
rectifier will fail.

-
Cooling in the case of low current rated rectifiers is easily
achieved as the baseplates themselves form cooling struc-
tures to spread and dissipate the heat. Thus it is only
necessary to arrange the elements in a convenient structure
for interconnection, mounting and operational purposes.

Larger current ratings require additional surfaces to

dissipate the heat and cooling fins are introduced in Fig. 5. (a) Group offlat contact cooled. edge cooled. tubular.
intimate contact with the baseplate. Figs. 3 and 4 show miniature and Westode selenium rectifiers. ( b) Complete
sectional views of typical rectifier assemblies. assemblies. designed for natural air cooling.

Spindle mounting, as shown in Fig. 3,provides a convenient

system of locating all the component parts with a single
centrally located hole through which the insulated spindle
is fitted. Cooling fins are included adjacent to each element
to dissipate heat and the complete assembly is maintained
at a constant pressure by the end spring. The cooling fin
can be circular or square, generally a<> convenience dictates.
When several plates are assembled in this manner then
heat loss will be mainly by convection and, to ensure
efficient transfer to the surrounding atmosphere, the
spindle must be mounted horizontally with a free flow of
air across the fins. Fig. 4 illustrates a tubular construction
where a large number of low current element<> are series
connected to form a high voltage assembly with good
electrical insulation.
29
Creep manifests itself as a variation in reverse current which
is time dependent in that, initially, when a reverse voltage
is applied, current flow will be high and rapidly reduce with I
time. The level to which the current reduces is dependent
on the immediate past history of the element, since if the
-
~7
ELEMENTS
element is continuously subjected to the same magnitude voc UNDER
of reverse voltage there is no creep, but an increased voltage J~
TEST

sets an initial lower reverse leakage current for a lower

voltage which exhibits positive creep, and conversely for a
reduced voltage. Fig. 8. Reverse leakage test circuit.
Deforming takes place to a limited extent with extended
storage or continuous operation in the forward current 120
60"C
mode.
Ageing is evidenced by a continuous increase in the forward
resistance of the element throughout its operational life.
For these reasons manufacturers publish a limit static 40
VOLTS
characteristic which takes into account some of these -40-30-20 -10
factors by including suitable safety margins. Furthermore I

it is stated to be a static characteristic which can only be 2 0 r85"C

r:
used if the rectifier is operated in d.c. circuits. I
60"C

Fig. 6. Forward dynamic test circuit. Fig. 9. Shift of characteristic with temperature.

BRIDGE ON TEST
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics are obtained under actual operat-
ing conditions with the elements connected as an assembly
and functioning as a rectifier.

Since selenium rectifiers are always supplied as an assembly,

with a specified element area to define the current capability
and a cooling fm for a maximum ambient temperature,
then manufacturers must define the operating conditions
completely. Comprehensive tables of current output capa-
bility, a.c. voltage in and d.c. voltage out, load conditions
and ambient temperature are therefore given.
Fig. 7. Typical dynamic forward characteristic.
A typical circuit for forward dynamic characteristic testing
applicable to a simple single phase bridge is shown in Fig. 6.
The bridge is loaded to the correct conditions for the rectifier
f-
z (nominally 120mA/cm 2) and forward voltage drop deter-
w
11::"'
o:: E
mined from the reading on voltmeters Vac and VL A set
=>u
u, of readings can be taken and a dynamic forward charac-
120
0<(
o::E teristic is produced, based on limit readings, as shown in
~>- Fig. 7.
D::f-
o-
u..~
zw
<(0
In the reverse direction the current flow at the specified
w
~
rms voltage is determined. The test limit for this is
commonly lmAjcm 2 at the rated a.c. rms. voltage. A
circuit for measuring this is shown in Fig. 8, where two
rectifiers under test are connected back-to-hack across
an a.c. supply and the rated a.c. rms. is applied.

Temperature Effects
0 08
MEAN FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
An increase in temperature results in a lateral shift of the
PER ELEMENT VOLTS volt/ampere characteristic as shown in Fig. 9. For both
directions of current flow the temperature coefficient of
30
resistance is negative, resulting, with increasing tem-
perature, in a lower forward voltage drop with forward 32

current and an increasing reverse current at the reverse

30
voltage rating. Normal operating temperatures for the
element are in the region 70-soac (with higher values for 28
special plates) and if this is exceeded the increased reverse
current increases the internal heating. If this happens 26
thermal runaway takes place until ultimately the counter
electrode melts at a hot spot and the rectifier is destroyed I
I-
2-4

by the resulting short circuit. ~

_J 22
w
_J

Losses _J
<(
Q: 20
Losses in the rectifier element result from reverse current ~
at reverse voltage and forward voltage drop during forward Q:
w
18
current flow. Reverse losses are small but significant at Q_
(f)
16
the working voltage of the assembly. w
Q:
w
Q_
~ 1-4
Forward losses per element are given by the integrated <(
I
product of the instantaneous current and the instantaneous l!)
z 12
voltage over the half sine wave of forward conduction, i=
<(

instantaneous voltage being determined from the dynamic Q: 10

I-
characteristic of Fig. 7. z
~ 08
Q:
::J
u
Generally total loss curves are published as shown by the 06
28L
typical curves of Fig. 10 which are obtained by measuring
input and output power to an assembly and taking the 0-4
difference to find the losses in a complete assembly, in
this case a single phase bridge. 02

Cooling
Complete assemblies of the types shown in Fig. 5b are
~~2~---3~--~4~--~5-----6~-
designed for natural air cooling and, with a free flow of air
m/sec
at or below the specified ambient temperature, the assembly
will function satisfactorily until the end of life of the Fig. 11. Forced air cooled ratings.
equipment.

Fig. 10. Total losses in a single-phase bridge. one element Derating must be employed (about 70 %) if two assemblies
per arm. are vertically stacked such that the upper one is heated by
convection currents from the lower.

. I Forced air cooling can considerably increase the rated

012 current of an assembly as illustrated in Fig. 11 where
ELEMENT _; ;
TEMPERATURE
65C
various assemblies can be selected and a known rate of
I flow of air can be used for improving the dissipating
I
(\j
010
E
0
properties of the cooling fins, thereby cooling the elements
---'-CAPACITIVE LOAD
'
(f) more effectively.

/.~r~
I- 008
I-
~ RESISTIVE OR In severe atmospheric conditions or high voltage applica-
(f)
INDUCTIVE LOAD

)//.
8 006 tions it is common practice to completely immerse the
_J
rectifier assembly in oil. This provides both protection and
~ 004
I- /
additional cooling and conventional principles of design
are employed to establish heat transfer relationships.
~ 002
~
.~ Series and Parallel Operation
An adequate voltage capability can be obtained by connect-
ing any number of elementc; in series and no special pre-
0
cautions are needed to ensure voltage sharing between
elements. Each element will operate on the part of its
reverse voltage characteristic determined by the current

31
flowing in the assembly when it is reverse stressed. Reverse
losses may be slightly increased or decreased but not by
any significant amount. Forward losses are increased in
direct proportion to the number of series elements.
To obtain a greater current capability than that provided
by a single plate and, assuming a suitable single plate size
of the required rating is not available, it is permissible to
connect further plates in parallel without recourse to
current sharing components. Due to the inherent forward
resistance of the elements, any parallel path tending to
take excessive current will increase its forward voltage
drop such that it reaches the common voltage level of other
elements without any large increase in forward losses.
Overload and Intermittent Operation
Due to the relatively large thermal mass, attractive over-
load and short term current ratings are possible. These are
given by published curves based on measurements of the
thermal mass of rectifier plus cooling structure, the thermal
time constant of the rectifier and the equivalent steady state
current of a repetitive on/off load current.
For very short periods there is practically no loss by con-
vection or radiation and the whole of the forward losses
are stored in the mass of the rectifier. Longer conduction
times give a rise of temperature which is exponential with
time and is calculable based on a knowledge of the rectifier
thermal time constant.
Fig. 12 shows a typical set of curves from which a re-rating
figure can be obtained with a maximum peak current limit
of ten, this being set by the particular structure employed.
Operation in D.C. Circuits
When the selenium rectifier is operated as a d.c. stopper
reverse losses can be ignored. In this mode of operation
there is a tendency for the rectifier to deform and at the
Fig. 12. Intermittent overload rating.
PERCENTAGE OF NORMAL
RATED CURRENT FOR
GIVEN ON/OFF DUTY CYCLE
0 Limitations in the selenium rectifier are its large mass for a
OFF TIME SECONDS
32
N
E
~ 006
\
w
u
z 004
;:
u
~
<( 002
u
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
ELEMENT VOLTAGE
Fig. 13. Capacitance of selenium element with applied voltage.
instant reverse voltage is applied a high reverse current
will flow for a few milliseconds. It will then fall to a low
level and will exhibit its normal reverse blocking char-
acteristic.
Element Capacitance
Selenium elements exhibit a capacitive effect that is variable
in magnitude as a function of voltage appliec, as shown
in Fig. 13. This is not normally of any significance at
power frequencies, but receives passing attention as a
possible voltage controlled variable capacitance or de-
coupling element at high frequencies.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF
THE SELENIUM RECTIFIER
The main advantages of this type of rectifier are in its
inherent robustness and thermal capacity to withstand
short term current overloads. This means that protection
is not a problem in that normal HRC fuses will provide
overcurrent protection. In addition, the methods normally
required for monocrystalline rectifiers for overvoltage
protection need not be employed, as the element itself is
capable of absorbing a considerable amount of power in
its reverse direction and functions to suppress reverse
voltage transients.
A further feature of the element is that in some failure modes
the sparking at the barrier layer acts to bum out material
at the hot spot to clear what might otherwise have been a
short circuit.
Economically the selenium rectifier can be very attractive
particularly in the range of voltages requiring only a single
element in each arm of the assembly. The economic aspect
is enhanced when considering the minimal protection
required.
given output capability, its poor efficiency when using a
series string in, for example, a mains rectifier application.
In addition its poor rectification efficiency in comparison
with monocrystalline rectifiers can limit its usefulness.
APPLICATIONS
Any general purpose rectifying application can utilise a
selenium rectifier particularly where economy and inherent
robustness are of importance. In radio and television
receivers the mains rectifier can be a selenium assembly,
where it~ large overload capability enables it to withstand
the charging current of the capacitive input filter. Further,
for television tubes, the EHT potential can be derived
from a multiplying circuit comprising a number of selenium
rectifiers appropriately connected.
Simple and economic battery chargers commonly include
a selenium rectifier and again, the overload capability
enables it to be used with advantage under initial inrush
current conditions. Motor field windings require simple
and robust rectifiers which can be adequately met by a
selenium assembly. Series assemblies in tubular form are
conomically attractive for a wide range of high voltage
applications, eg electrostatic precipitators, EHT for cathode
ray tubes etc.
Other applications include click suppression in telephone
circuits, transient suppression for silicon devices, small
signal rectification with low area elements, miniature
rectifiers for low voltage transistor equipments.
FUTURE TRENDS
In the more sophisticated rectifier applications, silicon
has largely superseded selenium on the grounds of high
B
efficiency, high reverse voltage capability in a single element
and inherent unlimited life.
For mor~ general applications selenium will continue to
be used on the grounds of economy, overload capabilities,
self protection and general robustness.
Other applications for selenium rectifiers are arising in
in non-rectifying modes, for instance surge suppression
where the reverse characteristic is used for protecting
monocrystalline rectifiers and, possibly, as a decoupling
element utilising the inherent element capacitance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks are due to Westinghouse Brake & Signal Co. for
permission to reproduce photographs and rating data, and
to colleagues who provided valuable assistance.
REFERENCES
1. Richards, Metal Rectifier Engineering, Pitman.
2. Jackson, Selection & Application of Metallic Rectifiers,
McGraw-Hill.
3. Henisch, Rectifying Semiconductor Contacts, Oxford
University Press.
4. Jenkins, Ph.D. Thesis, University of London, 1956.
5. Williams & Thompson, Metal Rectifiers, Proc. lEE.
Oct. 1941.
6. Selenium Rectifier Publications Se/W, Se/H/C, Se/FC,
etc. Westinghouse Brake & Signal Co. Ltd.
33
 Chapter 4

Glass
Envelope
Devices

R E Lake
English Electric Valve Co Ltd

The invention of the thermionic valve in the early years of

the twentieth century is credited to Fleming, although the
emission of electrons from heated materials was already
known. The important aspect, however, was the apprecia-
tion of the valve as unidirectional conductor or rectifier.
In any substance free electrons are present and in a state
of continuous movement which is entirely random. These
electrons have escaped from neutral atoms which are
therefore left with an equivalent positive charge. Normally
the electrons remain within the body of the material,
which appears electrically neutral. However, at the surface
some electrons will escape into space thus leaving a posi-
tively charged surface which promptly encourages the
electrons to return, and therefore some additional energy
is required before the electrons can escape altogether. The
amount of energy required varies with the substance and
is known as the work function of the material. In order to
assist the electrons to escape various methods may be
employed: a low work function material may be chosen;
the surface of the material may be brought under the
influence of a high electric field of suitable polarity; or the
temperature of the substance may be raised.

Cathode emission
In many of the devices to be discussed in this chapter the
low work function material is usually a mixture of oxides
of barium, strontium and calcium heated to a temperature
of approximately 850C by means of a separate electrical
supply.

The cathode may be directly, or indirectly heated, ie the

heating element may itself be coated with emissive material,
or may be used to raise a surrounding coated cylinder to
the appropriate temperature. This coating may be applied
by painting, or more usually by spraying, and initially
consists of a mixture of carbonates in an organic or water
suspension. During the processing of the valve, these
carbonates are decomposed by heating, and the oxides
remain. Other types of directly heated cathode are some-

35
times used, eg pure tungsten or thoriated-tungsten. The
running temperature of a tungsten filament would be
approximately 2 300C. Thoriated-tungsten consists of
tungsten containing 1-2% of thoria and is operated at a
temperature of approximately 1700C. The surface is
usually converted to a form of tungsten carbide by heating
the filament within a suitable carbonising atmosphere,
eg benzene. This improves the ability of the filament to
withstand positive ion bombardment at high voltage as
well as modifying the rate at which thorium atoms diffuse
to the surface. The efficiency of the system relies on the
low work function of thorium on tungsten, this value
approaching half that of pure tungsten at the same
temperature.
A somewhat different arrangement is found in mercury-
pool devices where the source of electrons is the mercury
pool itself. In order that electrons may be liberated it is
necessary to form a cathode spot on the surface of the mer-
cury by means of an auxiliary electrode, the action of which
is described in detail later.
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE
If the valve is to be used as a rectifying element, then there
must be negligible current flow during the period of anode
negative. Thus the anode must not emit electrons and is
consequently made of a material of high work function
and is normally kept as cool as possible. Moreover,
anode electron emission should remain negligible during
the life of the valve in spite of the possible deposition of
cathode material onto the anode surface. Therefore, the
anode may be a pure metal, eg iron, nickel, molybdenum
or tantalum, suitably processed to provide a clean surface,
or a coated material, eg carbonised nickel, and positioned
relative to the cathode so as to avoid the possibility of
electrical breakdown between the two due to high field
stresses. In very high-power gas-filled valves and mercury-
pool devices, graphite is commonly used.
The manufacturing processes involved are basically similar
for all valves, details depending on the valve type, final
use and environment, etc. All components must be very
clean and surface contaminants removed. A heat treatment
often follows, which involves reaching a temperature of
approximately 1000C in an atmosphere of hydrogen or
equivalent. Apart from the reduction of oxides present,
the hydrogen replaces most of the gases present in the
body of the material, and thus makes subsequent outgassing
easier. In some instances, vacuum degassing is used,
whereby the component is heated in a vacuum chamber to a
temperature above I 000C.
After the components have been assembled, it is necessary
to evacuate the envelope and to degas the components.
This is achieved by heating the complete valve in an oven
to the highest temperature possible determined by the
envelope material, the evolved gases being continuously
pumped away. The thermionic cathode (if present) is then
heated as previously described. All metallic components
36
are outgassed, usually by HF induction, and may reach a
temperature of I 500C. High-power gas-filled valves are
then filled with the correct gas or vapour, and a high current
is passed. This provides a means of heating the anode (which
may be the only method in some cases) as well as final
cathode conditioning. The degree of vacuum obtained
varies with the valve type, but would not be worse than
000133 N/m 2 (10- 5 torr) and for high voltage vacuum
rectifiers would probably be better than 000000133 Njm 2
oo- 8 torr).
VACUUM DIODE
As the voltage between cathode and anode is increased
(anode positive) a current will flow until a point is reached
where a further increase in anode voltage produces a
negligible increase in current. This is illustrated in Fig. 1,
which shows the idealised case. The region AB is known as
the space-charge limited region and BC the cathode-
temperature limited region. At point B the valve is said to
saturate. The space charge may be regarded as a cloud of
electrons between cathode and anode, which tends to
repel electrons from the cathode, thus limiting the number
available to reach the anode.
The voltage drop across a vacuum diode may be typically
200 volts. The product of this and the current passing gives
the anode dissipation. A figure of 500 watts must be
considered high and the vacuum rectifier is therefore
restricted in its use to applications where low currents are
required. It is, however, capable of withstanding very high
voltages in the reverse polarity condition, ie anode negative.
One of the most important applications is in the rectifica-
tion of very high voltages for use with X-ray tubes----values
in excess of 100 kV are typical.
Effect of gas filling
In the presence of a suitable gas or vapour, the anode
current/voltage curve of Fig. 1 becomes appreciably
Fig. 1. Idealised anode current-voltage curve.
f-
z
w
(i:
(i:
:::0
u
c
w
0
0
z
<!
ANODE
VOLTAGE~
SPACE -CHARGE CATHODE TEMP
LIMITED
LIMITED
 prevent the anode field from penetrating the grid; conduc-

/ "
, ..... -- tion is prevented, and the valve remains an effective open
circuit. As this grid voltage is made less negative a point
will be reached where the anode field can exert the necessary
I
1- influence on the electrons and conduction will follow.
z
w
cr The value of grid voltage at which this occurs is called
cr 'the critical grid voltage'. The grid now becomes covered
~
u
with a layer of positive i~ns which remain even though the
w
0
0
voltage on the grid may be increased negatively, and thus
z the grid has no influence over the current flowing through
<t
the valve. As in the case of the diode, this current can only
be stopped by the removal of anode voltage and the
restoration of neutral conditions in the gas. The thyratron,
therefore, may be regarded as a unidirectional switch which
can be closed by application of a signal to the grid but
ANODE VOLT AGE-
which can only be opened by the removal of anode voltage.
Fig. 2. Modified anode current-voltage curve.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
modified. At some relatively low value of anode voltage Before dealing in detail with the various types of gas-filled
(typically 10-15 volts), the electrons attain sufficient valve it is necessary to discuss the phenomena which have
energy to ionise gas molecules with which they collide. to be considered in the design and application of these
This process usually means the removal of one or more devices.
electrons from the gas molecule, which therefore attains a
positive potential. These positive ions neutralise the One of the most important of these is Paschen's Law,
electron space charge which effectively is replaced by a which relates the breakdown voltage in a gas as a function
glowing plasma consisting of electrons, ions and molecules. of the product of gas pressure (p) and electrode spacing
The electrons have a far greater mobility because of their (d). This relationship always takes the form of the curve
relatively low mass, and there is no restriction on the build shown in Fig. 3.
up of anode current other than the impedance of the
external circuit. In Fig. 2, the portion AD conforms to the Most rectifiers and thyratrons, and all types concerned
curve of Fig. 1 until the ionising potential is reached. The with high voltage, operate on the left-hand part of this
anode current then rises very rapidly without any true
saturation. If there were no restriction on this current,
then the demand on the cathode would exceed the emission Fig. 3. Breakdown voltage curves in mercury vapour. (After
current available. The voltage drop across the valve then Llewellyn Jones and Galloway, Proc. Phys. Soc., Lond., 1938,
rises, and at some value (eg 22 volts for mercury) the V ot. 50, p207 .)
positive ions attain sufficient energy to cause severe damage ~oor------,~-----.-------,------~
to the cathode by bombardment, and the cathode disinte-
grates. A similar effect occurs if the gas or vapour pressure
is too low to provide a sufficient plasma density. The
normal voltage drop across the valve is approximately
10 volts and thus (with a cathode of sufficient area) a very
high current may be passed without too high a value of
anode wattage. The gas-filled hot-cathode diode is there-
fore more efficient than the vacuum diode.

v
1HYRATRON
The first practical form of rectifier appeared in 1928, the 2000

thyratron being available soon after, although the earliest

reported work on the three-electrode gas filled valve is
due toG W Pierce in 1913.

When a third electrode or grid is introduced between

cathode and anode then the anode field must penetrate
this grid structure in order to promote collisions between
0 o~----~2~5------~5~0------~~~-----~~~
electrons and gas molecules and thus initiate ionisation
and conduction within the valve. If the grid is held at a pd (mm Hgxcm)
potential negative relative to the anode, it is possible to

37
 Fig. 4. Typical mercury vapour valves; the BD12 is a full-wave
rectifier.
curve, and it is therefore necessary to establish a value of
(p) x (d) which will ensure a breakdown voltage of a
sufficiently high value. The choice of electrode material
and shape varies the curve to some extent, but for practical
purposes this is usually ignored. In the case of the hot
cathode valve it is the peak inverse voltage rating that is
being considered, ie the voltage that the valve will with-
stand with anode negative. Strictly speaking, it is the gas
density rather than pressure which should be used and this
will be a lower value than the gas pressure in all hot cathode
valves due to the density gradient between the region of
the hot cathode and the relatively cold envelope.
The Mean Free Path (mfp) is the average distance that a
particle will travel before colliding with another particle.
The mfp of an electron is of interest because it is the
collision of electrons with gas molecules that promotes
ionisation in a gas filled valve. Such collisions are to be
encouraged if rapid and efficient ionisation is required,
but the mfp is usually of more importance in the prevention
of collisions when considering hold-off voltages.
Ionisation and deionisatioo times are usually only con-
sidered in the multielectrode gas filled valve. The ionisation
time is usually less than 10 J.1Secs. and is of no significance
in rectification, particularly when dealing with 50 Hz
supplies. The deionisation time is much longer and may
be 1 000 J.lSec. or greater. If a thyraton, or other multi-
38
Fig. 5. From left: AX:!:!8 xenon rectifier (half-wave); 3B22
xenon rectifier (full-wave); 68506 Tungar rectifier.
electrode valve, is required to hold-off the applied voltage
after a period of conduction, then the deionisation time
determines how soon this voltage can re-appear. In this
case it is necessary only for the grid-to-anode space to have
deionised and recovery is possible even while an appreciable
plasma density remains in the grid-cathode space. The
term 'recovery time' is therefore preferred to 'deionisation
time' for this reason. After the removal of anode voltage,
recovery may be assisted by presenting a low impedance
path to the current produced by positive ions flowing to
the grid.
OPERATING CONDITIONS
The choice of gas or vapour is governed by the effect on
the materials used. It must be chemically inactive and
remain gaseous over an acceptable temperature range.
During the life of the valve, gas molecules are driven into
the surface of various parts of the cathode and anode
structure, due to the energy they receive as positive ions,
when influenced by a negative voltage. This results in a
gradual reduction of gas pressure. In the case of the
noble gases (usually xenon or argon~ this loss is permanent,
and the end of life of the valve occurs when the gas pressure
is too low to support the anode current. This problem is
avoided by the use of mercury where a state of equilibrium
exists between liquid mercury and vapour. The materials
used in the construction of the valve must not form com-
pounds with mercury, and for this reason steel is frequently
used. However, the pressure of mercury vapour is critically
dependant on temperature, and in order to provide a
pressure sufficiently high to support the anode current,
and sufficiently low to prevent inverse voltage breakdown,
600
it is necessary to maintain the condensation temperature
of the mercury within a narrow range. In most mercury
vapour valves the coldest part of the envelope is just above
the base and this is the point at which the mercury
condenses. In order to maintain the temperature at this
point within the desired range, air may be blown on to the
envelope and this may be cooled or heated as conditions
demand. Because the achievement of a suitable condensed
mercury temperature is the result of the application of
heater power only, the effective warm-up time of the
valve is long (30 min is not unusual). FurthermoJ;e, the wall
200
of the envelope, and in particular the anode structure,
must reach a temperature sufficiently high to evaporate
any mercury condensed thereon. All mercury vapour
800 "'
valves have a heating and cooling curve available as part ~
of the published data, and it is essential that this informa-
tion be made use of to obtain the most reliable performance.
!:i
The xenon-filled valve is not subject to temperature ~
limitations and the warming up time is therefore the same
as the cathode heating time, and it is usually not more than - 2S -20 - IS -10 .. 5.() 0
0 i
l minute. GAID VOLTAGEIN VOLTS

Attempts have been made to combine the advantages of Fig. 6. Control characteristic of BTJ9 mercury thyratron .
gas and vapour by using argon and mercury together.
Anode voltage may be applied as soon as the cathode
heating time has expired and the argon will support the
anode current. As the valve warms up and the mercury
vapour pressure rises, this takes over from the argon due
to the lower ionisation potential of mercury, and for the Fig. 7.Grid current characteristic of BT19 mercury thyratron.
bulk of the running time the mercury vapour is in use.
This is a satisfactory arrangement for low voltage valves
but because of the possible condensation of mercury in
the anode region from previous use arc backs are possible
until this mercury has evaporated.

In the manufacture of a gas-filled valve it is desirable to -+50

introduce a pressure as high as possible in order to achieve

a long life, but because of Paschen breakdown considera-
tions there is a limit to this pressure for a given electrode 0

spacing. This gives rise to the essential difference in con- lo200mA

struction between mercury vapour valves and gas-filled
valves. The former have an open construction and large -SO

inter-electrode spacing made possible by the low vapour

soo .
pressure, but the gas-filled type has its anode enclosed by -10
an extension of the cathode structure so as to maintain
the anode to cathode spacing at an effective practical
minimum. The vapour pressure of mercury is approxi-
mately 0.133 Njm 2 (10- 3 torr) at 20C, whereas the xenon-
filled valve can have an initial filling pressure of 13.3 N/m2
jl0- 1 torr).
A special form of rectifier known as the Tungar rectifier,
used in low-voltage applications such as battery charging, - 10 - 8 0 -6<> - 4 0 - 20 0
is capable of providing a high anode current from a GRID YOLT.I.GEIN V(ll.TS

relatively small cathode. This is achieved by raising the

temperature of the cathode to increase emission and, at

39
the same time, preventing the evaporation of this material
by an increase in the gas pressure (argon at 8 000 N/m2
(60 torr)). This reduces the effective hold-off voltage but
since these valves are used at no more than mains voltage
the value is acceptable.

Although the majority of mercury and xenon rectifiers

are single anode devices some twin anode valves are made
and full wave rectification is possible with a single valve.
Because of the high voltages than can exist between anodes
it is necessary to shield each from the other in a rather
complex manner and to use these valves at relatively low
voltages-usually less than 1 500 volts. Figs. 4 and 5 show
typical examples of the rectifiers discussed.

THYRATRONS
The operation bf the thyratron or grid-controlled rectifier
has already been described and compared to a unidirectional
switch. The energy applied to the grid to initiate conduction
is very small compared with the capability of the valve
itself. However, too high a grid circuit impedance is to be
avoided due to the possibility of capacitive 'drag-up' of
the grid towards anode potential, which may cause pre-
mature firing, and also because of an increase in the
recovery time.

The control characteristic is of the form shown in Fig. 6,

where a range of values is given to allow for manufacturing
variations, changes during life, and effects of ambient
temperature. The grid voltage quoted is the voltage at the
grid, which may not be the same as the grid supply voltage.
This particularly applies if electrical leakage is present
across the valve base or elsewhere in the circuit, which
reduces the voltage at the grid proper due to voltage drop
across the grid resistance. This resistance should always
be positioned close to the valve, to overcome possible
pick up in the grid circuit which may give rise to an oscilla-
tory condition in extreme cases.
Fig. 9. Typical shield-grid thyratrons; the BT29 is mercury-
filled, the 2D21 xenon-filled.

Fig. 8. Structure of shield-grid or tetrode thyratron.

The grid current characteristic shows a relationship between
SHIELD GRI D grid current and grid voltage at various values of anode
current. A typical example of this curve is shown in Fig. 7.
This characteristic is necessary in the design of the grid
circuit so that adequate allowance may be made for the
anticipated grid current. The grid current can increase
with life due to a decrease in grid/cathode insulation
already referred to, and there can be a build up of grid
emission due to the deposjtion of sputtered material from
the cathode on to the grid itself. During the conducting
period the grid current is at its highest value, and the
temperature rise of the grid may be appreciable unless
this current is limited. Sputtering of grid material is
possible under severe conditions and this material may
CONTROL GRID cause electrode leakage and/or gas clean-up. It is for this
reason that a maximum negative grid voltage during
conduction is often specified.

40
In the shield-grid or tetrode thyratron the additional grid
almost surrounds the other electrodes and separates one
from another. Heat radiation to the control grid from
cathode and anode is reduced and deposition of cathode
material on to the control grid is made more difficult.
The capacitance between control grid and cathode is also
reduced and thus high impedance grid circuits may be
used. The structure is shown diagramatically in Fig. 8,
and typical valves are illustrated in Fig. 9.

MERCURY POOL VALVES
Although less widely used than the hot cathode types,
these valves form an interesting group, relying on electron
emission from liquid mercury. They are all capable of
sustaining a very high peak and mean anode current, with
control over the initiation of the arc.
An early form of multi-anode glass bulb rectifier rated at
400 amps is shown in Fig. 10. The large area of glass
(often air-cooled), ensured an adequate surface on which
mercury vapour could condense, and return to the pool.
Ignition was effected by means of an electrode E (Fig. 11)
which could be withdrawn from the mercury by an electro-
magnet M and an arc produced at the mercury surface.
GLASS
ENVELOPE
MERCURY POOL
Fig. II . Diagram shows operation ofelectrode (E) in the glass-
bulb type of rectifier shown in Fig. IO.
The resulting ionisation was sufficient to cause a transfer
of the arc to a 'holding' electrode H, and a low current of
a few amperes maintained, thus ensuring the presence of
cathode spots on the mercury surface. These spots are in
continuous movement at speeds variously quoted from
0.3 to 10 m/s. Current densities between 4000 ampsjcm 2
and 107 ampsjcm 2 have been estimated, and the brilliance
of the spot may be due to incandescent mercury vapour
at a temperature of approximately 2000C.

Fig. 10. Glass-bulb rectifier; grid-controlled. Fig . 12. Sectional view of steel t ank rectifier.

41
 WATER
OUTLET

WATER
JACKET

ENVELOPE

DE IONISING
BAFFLE

IGNITOR

ARC RETAINING
RING

MERCURY POOL
CAT HODE
WATER
INLET

Fig. 13. Typical rectifier type ignitron; diagram shows electrode arrangement.

To avoid the use of glass, steel tank rectifiers were developed.
These were capable of handling higher powers, were usually
continuously pumped and water cooled. The sectional
arrangement of a 4000 amp unit is shown in Fig. 12. The
method of ignition was improved by the development of
the ignitor rod. This consists of a sintered mixture of
boron nitride, boron carbide, carbon etc, shaped into a
pointed rod dipping into the mercury surface and producing
a meniscus. With a current of about 10 amps at 200 volts
an arc is formed and transfer to the main or holding anode
can occur as before.
from the mercury pool in a similar manner to the glass
bulb rectifier. The grid used for promoting recovery or
arc supression is often a graphite component similar to
that found in high power thyratrons.
Finally, for very high d.c. transmission voltages, large
mercury pool valves may be used. These are usually multi-
grid valves capable of operating at over 150 kV, at 300 amps,
due to the additive effect on voltage rating achieved by
grid stacking. Fig. 14 illustrates an experimental valve
developed by GEC.

The ignitron is a single anode, water cooled, mercury pool

valve, in which ignition is arranged by means of the
ignitor described above. A typical construction is shown in
Fig. 13. Because ignition can be effected in 100 JlSec. or
less when a suitable pulse is applied to the ignitor, anode
current may be delayed to any point in the positive half-
cycle, and thus complete control of the output power
achieved in a similar way to a thyratron.
The valves so far described are intended for low voltage
use (less than 2 kV). For high voltage, controlled rectifi-
cation the excitron, a special form of ignitron, is used in
which the mercury pool is adequately insulated from the
grid and anode by means of a glass envelope. Ignition and
excitation are achieved by the withdrawal of an electrode
SUMMARY
Many of the smaller hot cathode rectifiers and thyratrons
have been superseded by semiconductor devices which
undoubtedly offer an advantage in terms of smaller
volume, lack of heater power and higher efficiency.
However, for higher voltages the traditional valves are
often preferred and in many industrial applications are
economically more acceptable. Moreover, the valve is far
better able to withstand fault conditions without serious
damage, surge ratings being often I 0 times the peak
current rating or 50 times the mean current rating for a
duration of 01 second, and no complex protective circuit
1s necessary.

42
 llll - - - Glass
seal

-
Ill
C'l

Anode

Grid 5

Grid 4

Grid3 Glass
envelope

Grid 2

Fig. 14. Mercury arc converter valve (Courtesy GE ).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Holliday and Swift-Hook. Compact mercury-arc convertor

Gewartowski and Watson. Principles of electron tubes.
Bell Telephone Lab. Series. Van Nostrand.
Cobine. Gaseous conductors. Dover Publications.
H de B Knight. The arc discharge. Chapman & Hall.
Rissik. Mercury-arc current convertors. Pitman.
Loeb. Fundamental processes of electrical discharge m
gases. Wiley & Sons.
Meek & Craggs. Electrical breakdown of gases. Oxford
University Press.
valves. GEC- AEI Journal vol 35 no 2, 1968.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank the Directors of English Electric
Valve Company and General Electric Company for
permission to publish this chapter.
43
 Chapter 5

Controllable
Po\Ner
Semiconductors

F Mazda MPhil DFH CEng MIEE

ITT Components Group Europe

A semiconductor diode cannot be controlled. With a

positive anode voltage it will conduct at the commencement
of this voltage and will cease conduction when the anode is
driven to a potential negative with respect to the cathode.
When operating from an a.c. supply line it will therefore
conduct for one half cycle and block the other half cycle.
In contrast to this there are several semiconductor devices
which have the ability to conduct in one or both directions
and whose conduction can be initiated or terminated.
irrespective of the polarity of the supply voltage. In this
chapter four such controllable semiconductors are dis-
cussed. Principal amongst these is the thyristor. which can
act only as a rectifying element and is capable of controlling
several megawatts of power. This is followed closely in
popularity by the triac, which is bidirectional in operation.
and its unidirectional counterpart the logic triac. The power
transistor is capable of rectification only and can operate
in the linear mode if required. Due to the large dissipation
this would involve it is rarely run as anything but a switch.
Finally, a modification of the thyristor. the gate turn-off
switch. is currently available for relatively low power
levels only. Its manufacture has been limited by develop-
ment difficulties. but there are signs that these are now being
overcome.

THYRISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Basically the thyristor is a three terminal unidirectional
switch. Although it is semiconductor element its character-
istics can be illustrated very clearly with the help of the
electromechanical analogy shown in Fig. 1. In this RL is a
relay with one normally open contact RLl, and the diode
D2 allows the thyristor to conduct current only when its
anode is positive to its cathode. Assuming that RL is
de-energised when switch S is first closed, the thyristor will
be non-conducting. There will, however, be a low leakage
current via capacitor C into the load. If the gate is now made
momentarily positive to the cathode, current will flow in
RL. energising the relay and closing RLl. Load current is

45
now supplied through RL from E, and the relay will remain
energised even with the gate supply removed. It is now not
possible to tum the thyristor off by making the gate nega- (/)

tive. since diode Dl would block this voltage. Once a ~

<(
D
thyristor is switched into conduction it will behave like a
diode and it can only be returned to the off state by inter-
rupting the anode (relay RL) current, either by reversing
the anode to cathode polarity by external circuitry, or by
opening switch S.

There are. therefore. three states for a thyristor. blocking.

switching and conduction. During blocking and conduction
its characteristics are similar to those of a diode and there- E A
fore. the present section will deal principally with the
switching aspects of a thyristor.

Fig. 2 shows a typical thyristor characteristic. In the

forward direction the breakover voltage is reduced by
injecting gate current. Once conduction is initiated the
thyristor rapidly turns on (BC) and thereafter the volt drop
increases with load. In the reverse direction negative gate
current can slightly increase the breakover voltage. CD.
AE and EF closely resemble a diode characteristic. Only
Fig. 2. Thyristor characteristics.
AB and BC are unique to a thyristor.

There are three methods for turning a thyristor into con-

conduction periods that are possible with a thyristor. the
duction. The first involves the application of a gate current
mean current rating will vary with the firing angle. This is
as already described. In the second technique the anode
illustrated by Fig. 3. Irrespective of the conduction angle rx
voltage can be increased with the gate held open circuit.
the rms current is fixed at a value determined by device
This would increase the leakage current through C untiL
heating. (This is modified slightly only at low conduction
at a critical value called the thyristor continuous forward
angles due to peak current effects). If IRMS is this value for a
blocking voltage, the current through RL would have
thyristor, then for a conduction angle a to n:
reached a sufficient magnitude to pull in RLl. The thyristor
then switches on. However every thyristor has a peak
forward blocking voltage, which represents the breakdown --{1)

-{
voltage of capacitor C, and this must never be exceeded.
The third technique for thyristor switch-on is to maintain
the anode voltage at a low value but to ensure that it rises = pk
I [l + sin 2a _ ~Jt 2)
sharply. The current through capacitor C is now given by 2 2n n
C dv /dt and for a sufficiently swift change it could reach the The mean current, is equal to:
energising level of RL. Normally only gate turn-on systems
It
are used for thyristors.
IM = ~Ilpk sin 8 d(}
2n
Generally a thyristor has a greater volt drop than a diode
(due to the presence of coil RL) and is. therefore. subject to
"'
higher watts losses. It is still rated in terms of mean current --{3)
and surge currents as for a diode but due to the unequal

Fig.l. Electromechanical analogy of a thyristor Fig. 3. Varying the conduction angle in a thyristor.

,.....-----~~---+rllrl:t-_----1
E
r--------,
I I
L __ _ _ ._-TI-D~~ ~~-~---~ o \ I
27T
I
ANODE I Dz RL-1 CATHODE 0 a \
L- D, I \ I \ I
- - - -

GATE
- ,-.._ THYRISTOR
' I
' /

46
 INSET
'VIINIMUMGATETRIGGERCURRENT
+25C
+125C -55C

u
~ 100
w
0::
::::>
~
0::
w
CL
~
w
t-
o
::::>
t-- 0 10 20 30 40 50
Ul GATE CURRENT (mA)

--------
X
<( MINIMUM GATE TRIGGER
~ VOLTAGE TO TURN ON

20 o~--L-~~--~2~~--~3------~4--~~5 0 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
GATE CURRENT (mAl
MEAN CURRENT OUTPUT (A)

Fig. 4. Thyristor derating curves. Fig. 5. Thyristor gate characteristic.

Equations (2) and (3) can be used to calculate the mean
current rating for a thyristor at any conduction angle. This
is usually given on manufacturers data sheets in the form of
derating curves. Fig. 4 shows typical characteristics for a
thyristor rated at 3 amperes mean at 180 conduction.
Therefore from equation (3) for a = 0, I M = I pk/n and
I pk = 3n. Similarly in equation (2) for half cycle conduction
I RMs = I pk/2 = 3n/2 or 4.5 amperes. This is seen to be
given by the d.c. curve on Fig. 4. For, say 30 conduction,
from equation (2) I RMS = 0.087 I pk = 0.8 amperes. which
again agrees with Fig. 4.
Apart from the magnitude of the current a thyristor can
sometimes also be destroyed if the rate of rise of current is
too fast when it is first switched on. This can be illustrated
as being due to the fmite change in contact resistance of
RLL although in practice it is caused by the slow spread
of gate current in the plasma constituting the semiconductor
thyristor structure.
also essential to ensure that the peak gate power dissipation
is not exceeded. Therefore, for a duty cycle of x %, the gate
drive resistor should exceed that given in equation (4):
V2
X
(4)
R > 400P
where P is the mean gate power and V the gate drive
voltage.
THYRISTOR CONSTRUCTION
A thyristor is a semiconductor four layer device as shown in
Fig. 6. The dice is approximately 0.38 mm in thickness with
a diameter which varies from 2.5 mm to 25 mm depending
on its current rating. The layers may be made by gaseous
diffusion, alloying or by epitaxial techniques. The encapsu-
lation of the slice can take many forms from T05 to large
double sided water cooled configurations.

Clearly the relay in Fig. 1 requires a minimum current to

remain energised. This is referred to as the holding current Fig. 6. Schematic representation of a thyristor.
of the thyristor. Also of interest is the turn-on time of a

r
thyristor ie the time required to energise the relay and there-
fore the period during which gate current must be main-
tained. and its turn-off time, which is the de-energising time
of the relay or the period for which current must be inter-
rupted in the thyristor before it can again block forward A
Pz Nz P, N,
K
voltage. A thyristor also has minimum gate voltage and
current requirements which permit it to be turned on
successfully. These are shown by curves as in Fig. 5. This
shows that to fire all devices the gate voltage must exceed G

3 volts and the current (at 25C) 20 rnA. There is a wide

spread in gate characteristics so that the load lines, when
drawn on this curve. must not pass through this area. It is

47
 a,

CATHODE

K INITIATING GATE

G LATERAL LIP
(A) RESISTANCE
P,
A

p2 Nz

P,
CONDUCTING
N2 REGION p2
RESISTANCE
G

(B)

Fig. 7. pnp-npn thyristor analogy. a, Schematic representation. Fig. 9. The eff ect of emitter lip resistance in reducing the
b, Discrete transistor connection. thyristor di/d t capability.

The operation of the thyristor can be explained with Normally the sum of the two gains is small. However due to
reference to Fig. 6. When the anode is positive to the cathode. rising temperature, gate current or anode voltage, it can be
junctions 11 and J3 are forward biased (pn regions) whereas made to approach unity so that the anode current increases
12 is reverse biased and supports the circuit voltage. Only rapidly and turns on the thyristor.
minority carriers cross this junction and if their energy can
be increased sufficiently they will cause 12 to break down In practice several modifications are made to the basic
and the thyristor to tum on. To tum the thyristor otT the thyristor structure in order to enhance a particular operat-
anode to cathode voltage is now reversed. Holes and ing characteristic. For instance the addition of gold doping
electrons in the outer layers are rapidly swept away but during diffusion will reduce the carrier lifetime and so
12 recovers slowly by a process of recombination which can reduce the turn-off time of the thyristor. Unfortunately
take from 10-50Jl seconds for typical power devices. this also increases its leakage current and forward volt
drop. Similarly, higher operating voltages require a rela-
The thyristor structure shown in Fig. 6 can also be con- tively thick control layer. The advantage is now obtained in
sidered as a pnp-npn arrangement as in Fig. 7. If cx 1 and cx 2 the form of increased voltage loss and turn-off time.
are the current gains of the two transistors and I A and I co
the anode and leakage currents, then : It is known that a thyristor is sensitive to rate of change of
voltage which can cause current flow across the capacitance
lA =aliA+ cx2/A +leo of depletion layers and into junction 13, so turning the
leo thyristor on. A modification which overcomes this is the
or I A = ----=-='------ -{5)
1 - (cxl + 1X2) shorted emitter construction and is shown in Fig. 8. As
seen the Pl layer extends in places up to the cathode so that
Fig. 8. Shorted emitter thyristor construction to increase its
dv/dt rating.
low capacitance currents are shorted directly to the cathode
and do not enter the Nl region, as gate current. The penalty
N, to be paid is clearly the larger gate current required to fire
dJ P, the thyristor under normal conditions.
/ uuuuu&'&tf5 '_N 2
/
/,..::...._ ~
_______ p2 ALUMINIUM LAYER
~~,... Another modification commonly employed in thyristors
L ~
~BACKING PLATE is that used to increase its di/dt capability. When a thyristor
~----------__J is pulsed into conduction the turned-on area spreads
relatively slowly (typically a few microseconds) through the
slice. This could result in current crowding through an

48
 POWER TRANSISTORS
The power transistor differs in two important aspects from
the other controllable power devices to be described in this
chapter, or indeed in this book. Firstly it is capable of
operating not only as a switch but also in a linear mode,
where the current that it passes is a ratio of its base current.
Secondly it is readily available in both germanium or
silicon materials whereas thyristors, triacs, gate turn-ofT
REGENERATING THOOE switches and power semiconductor diodes are currently
SOURCE
manufactured from silicon only. Table 1 compares the
salient properties of the two types of transistor materials.
Due to their low saturation voltage germanium transistors
are more suited to low voltage, high current applications,
although silicon transistors are rapidly falling in price, and
silicon's switching properties raise the serious possibility
of germanium being displaced altogether as a material for
power transistors.

A power transistor behaves very like its small signal

Fig. 10. Regenerative gate construction to increase the
di/dt rating ofa thyristor.
initially small turned-on area with the creation of localised
hot spots and wafer puncture. This effect is worsened due
to the lateral emitter lip resistance. as shown in Fig. 9.This
resistance exists in most thyristors between the cathode N
region and the cathode plate contact. As cathode current
begins to flow the volt drop across this resistance opposes
the gate potential and can even cause reversal of this
current in severe circumstances. This further slows the
turn-on action and can lead to self destruction in the
thyristor. This is overcome by the regenerative gate con-
struction shown in Fig. 10. The initiating gate merely acts
to start conduction of the device. The lateral gate resistance
has now been increased to provide a relatively large volt
drop. This is picked up by the regenerative source connec-
tion and distributed to several regenerative gates, placed
at locations around the dice to achieve a more uniform
turn-on of the whole wafer.
counterpart and these are sufficiently well known not to be
repeated here. However, there are a few critical parameters
which are of special interest at these power levels. For a
transistor being used as a switch the collector-emitter and
base-emitter saturation voltages should be low and the
switching speed (_{) high to minimise dissipation. High
gain (hFE) is also important at the peak collector current as
it economises on base drive requirements. In linear applica-
tions fast speeds are not critical but low saturation and high
gain are again important. In all applications however, it is
important to ensure that the heat generated in the transistor
is limited . by adequate heatsinking and that the safe
operating area (SOA) is not exceeded.
The concept of SOA is important for power transistors. It is
normally given by sets of curves on the device data sheets,
as in Fig. 11. This shows that although the transistor is
rated at 100 amperes (Jc) and 100 volts (VeE) it cannot work
at these values. At 100 volts the peak current it can safely
control is only 1 ampere. For pulsed operation this value
rises due to the shorter duty cycle and, therefore, lower
heat loss.
Consider the action of a transistor which is operated outside
its safe operating area. For a certain base current the supply
voltage is increased and this gives an increasing collector

Table I. Comparison of germanium and silicon power transistors

Parameter Germanium Silicon

Maximum junction temperature 100 oC 200 C

Leakage current microamperes nanoamperes
Peak economical supply voltage 50 volts 1 500 volts
Peak economical collector current 250 amperes 25 amperes
Saturation voltage 0 .1 volts 0 .5 volts
Switching time microseconds nanoseconds
fT 1 MHz 100 MHz
Readily available configuration pnp pnp and npn
Application areas Low voltage, high current. low cost High voltage, high current. Presently higher cost
than germanium

49

500 I shaped cases are convenient for mounting on heatsinks, but
/
200 '?<.!'
100
(f)
n_
::!'
<J:
u
H
10
VCE VOLTS
Fig. 11. Safe operating area curves for a typical power
transistor (100 amperes.]()() volts).
current and collector-emitter saturation voltage. This is
shown as region AB in Fig. 12. At B the base current is
insufficient to maintain a rise in collector current. The
transistor comes out of saturation, the supply voltage being
supported by an increase in collector voltage. There is a
slight increase in collector current over region BC. At point
C the electrons in the device attain sufficient energy to
cause the transistor to go into avalanche, the collector-
emitter voltage collapses and the current rises. Usually
this build up of current is concentrated in a small area of
the semiconductor slice and results in localised heating.
This results in further generation of intrinsic current in the
transistor and could lead to eventual melting of the semi-
conductor and a collector-emitter short circuit.
The design of a power semiconductor transistor, as with
other semiconductor devices, requires a compromise of
parameters to obtain the optimum conditions for any
application. For instance an increase in breakdown voltage
or SOA requires a larger base width or collector resistivity.
However, this also gives a lower gain and higher saturation
voltage. To increase switching speeds the base width and
resistivity should be reduced and this has the added
advantage of increasing the gain but, unfortunately. also
reduces SOA and peak voltage.
Fig.l2. Secondary breakdown in a transistor.
50
In packaging power transistors the prime requirement is
easy access to the source of heat. T0-3 and T0-66 diamond
for higher currents stud type encapsulations, similar to those
used for thyristors, are required. There has also been an
increase in the use of plastics transistors with metal mount-
ing plates, since they are proving to be as reliable as the more
established types and, at the same time, less expensive.
GATE TURN-OFF SWITCHES
Referring to the previously given two-transistor analogy
it will be seen that it is possible to turn-off the pnp--npn
combination if the gate is driven sufficiently negative to
divert all the collector current of the pnp stage away from
the base of the npn transistor. The device is now called a
gate turn-off switch (GTO). The electromechanical repre-
sentation of Fig. 1 will still apply, but with the gate diode
D1 short circuited.
The parameters of interest in a GTO are very similar to
those of a thyristor. In addition the device has a specified
gate turn-off gain, a feature which is of course not possible
for thyristors. This gain is defined as the ratio of anode
current to gate current required to commutate the GTO at
this instance. If the transistors in Fig. 7 are assumed to be
in deep saturation, the collector currents are equal so that
the turn-off gain is two. Generally however it is possible to
design the GTO such that the pnp gain is low and npn gain
is high. This gives an improved turn-off gain, which can
be made to approach five. There are several factors which
limit the increase in this ratio. For instance, the reduction
of the pnp stage gain requires an increase in its n-base
width and a reduction of emitter efficiency. However, these
will reduce the break over voltage of the device and also
give a higher conduction volt drop. Similarly, a large
increase in the npn stage gain would make it over sensitive
to spurious gate signals during turn-on, and the thin base
region required would need a large operating turn-off
voltage.
GTOs are. at the moment, available in current ratings of
only a few amperes. They have faster turn-off times than
thyrisistors and less stringent turn-off power requirements,
however, the gate firing current required is higher and the
larger volt drop on load gives lower operating efficiencies.
Generally the dv/dt and overload capabilities are also
poorer. The prime use of GTOs is in high voltage systems
requiring a fast turn-off switch. This means that the device is
unlikely to be used in the majority of rectifier circuits, being
more suited to special applications such as choppers.
TRIACS
A thyristor is a four layer device which can only conduct
in one direction. Bidirectional operation can be obtained
by joining two thyristors in inverse parallel as shown in
Fig. 13. There are now two gates which have to be individu-
ally operated when its cathode terminal goes negative. The

GATE
p, p,
GATE
TERMINAL 2
Fig. 13. Inverse parallel connected thyristors.
resulting structure has five layers and a triac is very similar
to this arrangement but has only one gate connection. This
makes it very convenient for use in power control circuits.
An arrangement of the semiconductor layers within a triac
is shown in Fig. 14, and Fig. 15 gives its operating charac-
teristics. There are two quadrants in which the triac can
conduct namely the first and third. In each of these quad-
rants the gate current can be positive (injected into the
device) or negative (out of the triac). Consider operating
mode 1 +.Terminal 2 (T2) is positive to T1 and gate current
is also positive. The device acts as a normal thyristor with
active layers p1 n2p2n3 and the gate at p2. For 1- operation
pL n2. p2. n3 are again the active layers. However conduc-
tion is initiated by hole-electron emission from the forward
biased p2n3 junction turning the triac on. When the voltage
across the triac is reversed and the gate current is positive
Fig. 14. Semiconductor layer arrangement in a triac.
TI GATE
~'\'\'\'\'\'\~
n3 nl
- The growth in the power handling capability of controllable
p2
n2
Po
n, n,
T Where uncontrolled rectification is required there is no
!
.....
z
w
~
)"Jr;-G-,---::> rG2
c (
VOLTAGE
7
I
Fig.J5. Triac voltage/current characteristic.
(111 +)layers p2 n2 p1 n1 form the four layer active structure
whereas conduction is initiated by the diode layer P,2n3
(left hand region). Similarly for 111- operation p2n2p1n1
carry the main current but p2n3 (right hand region)
triggers the triac into conduction. Clearly some operating
modes are more efficient than others, and for a triac the
gate sensitivity is usually best in 1 + and 111-.
Although a triac may be used as a rectifier by only triggering
it on alternate half cycles, it clearly has advantages over the
thyristor when operated as a bidirectional switch. However
there are some applications where the control device is
required to pass a.c. under some circumstances and to
rectify in others. In order to simplify the firing requirements
in these instances, advantage has been taken of the unequal
gate sensitivity of the triac in its various modes to develop
a modified device called the logic triac. In essence it is
identical in structure to the triac but by carefully arranging
the gate terminaL the logic triac is made inoperative in mode
111 +. This means that when it is desired to cause the triac
to conduct in both directions a negative gate signal is
applied (operating modes 1- and 111 - ). but to rectify the
gate signal is made positive (mode 1+ only will be effective).
APPLICATIONS
semiconductors has resulted in their adoption for a wide
range of applications. notably in the field of rectification.
Some of these applications are discussed in a later chapter
principally with reference to the thyristor. since this is the
device which is most frequently used for controlled rectifica-
cation. However. any of the other devices described in this
chapter could replace the thyristor in most of the circuit
configurations. Before leaving the present discussion it
would be useful to consider the similarities and differences
between the various power devices and their broad fields of
application.
substitute for the diode. It is the cheapest of the semi-
conductor power devices and the most efficient. Although
51
a diode plus some form of magnetic amplifier has been used
in the past where control of the output is required, such
systems are bulky and have been largely replaced by all-
semiconductor control devices. The thyristor is by far the
most popular controlled rectifier at the present. It is avail-
able in a wide range of voltage and current ratings, and for
straight forward a.c. to d.c. rectification it gives the best
price/performance ratio. However when the power levels
are very low or d.c. is required to be controlled (as for
choppers, described in chapter 14) alternative control
devices should be considered.
Power transistors are available in relatively high voltages
(1 500 volts) and currents (250 amps) but not from the same
device. Usually the higher ratings are also more expensive
than equivalent thyristors. However a transistor can be
turned on and off by its base current and can work at
relatively high frequencies. For thyristors running from
d.c. supplies the cost of commutation circuitry must be
added to the basic cost, and at any event the turn-off time
of power thyristors rarely falls below about 10J.L seconds.
But a transistor has a much lower gain than a thyristor (of
the order of 1/1 OOOth its value) and, whereas a thyristor can
be pulse fired, a transistor requires continuous base drive
during its conduction period. This leads to more elaborate
drive circuitry and lower efficiency. Generally transistors
are used in high frequency, low power systems or where
linear operation (as in audio amplifiers) is required.
A gate turn-off switch can rival a transistor for low power
requirements and thyristors in medium power applications.
It can be turned off by a short duration gate pulse and.
although this mechanism is not as convenient as the tum off
action of a transistor. it is an improvement over thyristor
commutation. Since a GTO also has basically a thyristor
structure it is much cheaper than a transistor in the high
voltage area. The turn-off time of the GTO is of the order of
one microsecond and since it is only required to be pulsed
on or off, it can replace the transistor in many medium
frequency applications.
In power handling capability the triac comes next in line
to the thyristor. Although it is primarily an a.c. switch, and
has largely superseded two back-to-hack thyristors in
these applications at low and medium powers, it can also be
used for full-wave controlled rectification. Generally it is
cheaper than two thyristors and more convenient to use,
although its acceptance as a rectifier element has been
slow. However it must be emphasised that for high power
applications the thyristor rules supreme. It is possible to
increase the voltage rating of a single device by connecting
several in series and to parallel them for greater current
52
carrying capabilities. But these modifications all increase,
the cost and reduce the operating efficiencie~ .- e advantage
of thyristors currently available to control upwards of one
megawatt from a single device, is then obvious.
BffiLIOGRAPHY
Bisson, D K, Dyer, R F, A silicon controlled rectifier- Its
characteristics and ratings, Trans AI EE Communications
and Electronics, May 1959 pp 102-106
Perugini, M, Flynn, G, Forum on SCR's Pt. 1, Electronic
Products, March 1969 pp 18-28
Bradley, R, Lewis, G B, High power thyristor design for
performance and reliability, I EE Conference Publication
No. 53 Pt. 1, May 1969 pp 22-31
Mazda, F F, The thyristor as a switch, Electronic Com-
ponents 23 October 1970, pp 1153-1157
Mazda, F F, The thyristor as a switch, Electronic Com-
September 1971
Martin, A H, Thyristor development- the next decade,
Electrical Times, 30th April 1970.
SCR Designer's Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
tion, 1964.
Thyristors & Triacs, International Rectifier Co Ltd., 1969.
Lehner, L L, Silicon power transistors - design and
applications, Electro-Technology, February 1970 pp 29-34.
Silicon Power Circuits Manual, RCA, 1967.
Schafft, H A, Second breakdown - a comprehensive
review, Proc IEEE, Vol. 55 No. 8, August 1967 pp 1272-
1288.
Franson, P, Power Transistors- a status report, Electron-
ics World, May 1970 pp 25-63.
Longo, T A, Miller, M, Derek, A L, Eknian, J D, Planar
epitaxial pnpn switch with gate turn-off gain, IRE Wescon
Conv. Rec. Pt. 3, 1962 pp 1-3.
Storm, F H, Introduction to turn-off SCR, Paper 63-321
presented at 1963 IEEE Winter General Meeting, New
York.
Wolley, E D, Gate turn-off in pnpn devices, IEEE Trans
Electron Devices, Vol. ED-13 pp 590-597 July 1966.
Howell, E K, The triac-gate-controlled silicon a.c. power
switch, IEEE International Conv. Record 1964, Vol. 12,
Pt. 9 pp 86-91.
Cooper, D, Power logic triac Pt. 1, Electronic Components,
April1969 pp 401-408.
Rozenboom, J, Diac triggering of thyristors and triacs,
Electronic Applications, Vol. 28 No. 3 pp 85-94.
Triacs bid for a.c. power control, Electro-Technology,
March 1968 pp 53-59.
Fields. S W. The triac- from trickle to triumph in three
years, Electronics, 19 February, 1968, pp 169-171.
 Chapter 6

Semiconductor
Control
Devices

B L Norris BSc(Eng) CEng MIEE

Texas Instruments Ltd

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal device
exhibiting a stable incremental negative resistance region
under certain conditions. This negative resistance makes
possible the design of unique switching circuits comprising
fewer components than comparable transistor circuits. The
input impedance of the UJT in the off state is high-in
the order of 5 megohms- making the UJT suitable for
high input impedance voltage sensing circuits.

From the standpoint of its theory, the UJT is not a new

device. In 1948 Heinrich Welker applied for a patent in
France on a unijunction-type device. The patent was
granted in the United States in 1954. As early as 1949
Shockley and Haynes had written a paper describing the
basic operation of the UJT. Initi~lly this device was known
as the double-base diode and older literature refers to the
UJT by this name.

Device symbol
The symbol for a UJT is given in Fig. 1. Base 1 and base 2
leads are shown at right angles to the base because they are
are non-rectifying. ohmic contacts. However. the emitter
connection is represented by an arrow because it is a
rectifying or PN junction, and the arrow is slanted to
indicate the emitting properties of the junction. The arrow
head is pointing towards the base, signifying a p-type
emitter and an n-type base.

Construction
At present there are three basic methods of manufacturing
unijunction transistors. The 2N489 series bar unijunction
device consists of an n -type silicon bar the ends of which are
the base 1 and base 2 contacts, as shown in Fig. 2. The
silicon bar is alloyed onto a slotted metallised ceramic
which controls the base 1 base 2 distance. The emitter
consists of a p-type aluminium wire which is alloyed into
the bar above the base 2 contact.
53
 82

82
E D - - - - - - - ,....1
E
'I-- 8 1

Fig. 1. Device symbol for u uni-

junction transistor 81 Fig. 5. Unijunction bias polarities 7i77

The silicon cube alloyed structure used in the 2N2646 is
similar to the 2N489 device except for a 33 per cent reduction
in size (see Fig. 3). In this approach. the emitter is an alu-
minium wire alloyed into the side of the cube. The base 1
contact consists of a gold wire making ohmic contact
with the top of the cube. It has a reduced emitter base 1
distance and small active area size.
Fiq. 2. Bar unijunction con truction
After being somewhat neglected. diffused techniques have
now been applied to unijunction transistors as shown in
Fig. 4. The base 2 area is the bottom of the planar unijunc-
tion chip. similar to the construction of the silicon cube
structure. The base 1 contact area consists of an n-plus
diffused area into the n-type silicon chip. The emitter area
is a p-type diffusion. All junctions in the planar device are
created internally within the chip and are protected by
oxide passivation. The size of this transistor chip is approxi-
mately only 05 mm square. In the planar process. the
emitter-to-base dimensions are established by photo-
lithographic techniques which permit a high degree of
dimensional accuracy. Because of this precision. planar
UJTs have shorter emitter-to-base-l distances and much
smaller base 1 areas than the bar or cube alloy type. The
expanded-contact techniques are used to make this possible.
and with oxide-passivation this means that planar UJT's
have a substantially smaller emitter reverse current. over
three orders of magnitude less. than the alloy or cube struc-
tures.

Fiy. 3. Cube unijunction construction Operating characteristics

Bias polarities for a pn-type UJT are shown in Fig. 5. If
BASE ONE OHMIC
CONTACT V88 is held constant as IE is increased from zero. an emitter
N - TYPE
SILICON characteristic similar to that of Fig. 6 will be obtained.
CUBE PN EMITTER JUNCTION
The negative-resistance region is where the slope of the VE.
EMITTER
r-~-
IE curve is negative. End points of this region are marked by
BASE TWO OHMIC the peak point (I P' ~), and the valley point (I y, Vv ).
CONTACT

HEADER The UJT is a current-controlled device. For each specific

emitter current there is a unique emitter voltage; however.
as many as three separate values of emitter current may
exist for a specific emitter voltage.

Cut-Off Region. The input impedance in the off region is

Fig. 4.Planar unijunction construction
that of the reverse biased emitter diode. This reverse bias
UXIDATION PASSIVATION
PROTECTS ALL JUNCTIONS
causes a diode leakage current to flow. and this leakage
EXPANDED ALUMINUM
explains the negative emitter current near the origin of the
CONTACTS emitter characteristic. Currents in the off region are typically
EMITTER DIFFUSION in the order of 1 to 10 J.LA at 25C for an alloyed construction
AREA (P- TYPE
SILICON) and a maximum of 10 nA for planar construction.
N- TYPE SILICON
SUBSTRATE
Negative Resistance Region. The incremental resistance in
this region exhibits a negative characteristic; that is. as
BASE TWO
CONTACT voltage increases. current decreases. At low current levels.
the incremental resistance is in the order of - 100 kQ and

54
approaches zero at the minimum voltage point. Currents in
the negative resistance region run typically from 10 ~-tA at
the low end to 30 rnA at the high end or from 5 !!A to 1 rnA
with planar construction.
Saturation Region. The high-current. positive-incremen-
tal-resistance region is called the saturation region. Satura-
tion voltage is measured from emitter to base 1 at some
specified emitter current, usually 50 rnA. Typical saturation
voltages are in the range of 3 to 5 volts.
Device parameters
The static interbase resistance, r 8 1l' is measured between the
two base terminals with the emitter open. This is simply
the ohmic resistance of the silicon bar (rbb is the incremental
interbase resistance); r 88 is slightly dependent upon the
applied voltage and is specified at a low voltage and current
level to eliminate the effects of self heating. It is dependent
upon temperature and varies between +0.8 and +0.9%/C 0
The value r 880 is the value of rbb at 25C. A curve of r 88
versus temperature is given in UJT data sheets.
The static resistance. r 81 is that of silicon bar from the point
of emitter contact to the base-l terminal. This resistance
is a function of emitter current and decreased as IE increases.
Figure 7 shows r81 as a function of IE and r82 is the d.c.
resistance of the silicon bar from the point of emitter
contact to the base-2 terminal. The a.c. value is given as
rb 2 ; it is usually assumed to be constant with emitter
current. When the UJT is in saturation. a significant portion
of the device dissipation occurs in this resistance. which
occupies a small volume. This situation can cause a hot
spot- especially at high base supply voltages- unless
an external base 2 resistor is added. The sum of r 81 and
r 82 is equal to the interbase resistance r 88 .
lv and Vv designate the emitter current and voltage at the
valley point, as shown in Fig. 6. t~.VE/IE = 0 at the valley
point. From this point to the peak point the incremental
Fig. 6. Unijunction emitter characteristics
NEGATIVE
CUT -OFF --RESISTANCE-- SATURATION
REGION REGION REGION
VE
resistance is negative. The valley point IS a function of
temperature and V88 .
I P and Vp designate the peak -point current and voltage. The
peak point is approached as the emitter diode becomes
forward biased causing the device to go into its negative
resistance region. Vp is a function of the interbase voltage
and IJ.
The intrinsic stand-off ratio 1J, is defined in the following
equation: vp = 1]. VBB + VD> where vD is the forward
voltage drop of a silicon diode. The ratio 17 determines the
firing voltage of the device for a constant interbase voltage;
it is relatively constant with changes in interbase voltage
and temperature. and may be thought of as the attenuation
ratio of the base resistance as shown in the equivalent
circuit.
IE 820 is the leakage current of the emitter-base 2 diode when
biased in the reverse direction with base i open. Since
I EBlo is defined as emitter current and flows out of the
device. it is given a negative sign in the data sheet. I EBlo is
similar in behaviour to the leakage of any silicon diode.
This leakage current will affect the charging rate of a
capacitor tied to the emitter, causing timing error if not taken
into account.
I B(modJ gives an indication of the current gain from the
emitter to base 2. I BZ(modJ is specified at a constant V8281
and a specific emitter current. With a resistor in base 2
and with I Bl(mod) known. the pulse amplitude at base 2
resulting from the emitter firing may be calculated.
V88 is the total base supply voltage.
V8281 is the voltage that appears at the base-2 terminal
with respect to the base-l terminal.
VEE is the emitter supply voltage.
R 81 and R 82 are external resistors placed in series with base
1 and base 2. respectively.
Fig. 7. Static resistance r 81
'st
55

Fig. 8. Physical equivalent
circuit of a unijunction transistor
Operation
A physical equivalent circuit of the UJT is shown in Fig.
8. The bar is made from high-resistivity (lightly doped)
n-type silicon. This means there are relatively few free
carriers (electrons) in the silicon. Resistance between B 1
and B2 with the emitter open or reverse-biased is in the
order of 5 kQ to 10 kn As the voltage between the emitter
and base 1 is increased. a portion of the (p-type) emitter
becomes forward biased and holes are injected into the
base. As holes are injected electrons are pulled into base 1
to maintain charge neutrality. The injection of holes and the
corresponding electron flow cause a decrease in the emitter-
base 1 resistance. Accompanying the decrease in resistance
is a decrease in voltage on the base side of the emitter diode.
This reduced voltage tends to forward bias more of the
emitter which. in turn. injects more holes, further lowering
the resistance. This regenerative action gives rise to the
negative-resistance portion of the curve. The regeneration
continues until saturation or limiting occurs and the incre-
mental resistance again becomes positive. Base 2 is usually
biased at a higher potential than the emitter. thus any
injected holes are repelled by base 2.
Mathematically. the change in conductivity of rb 1 may be
expressed by the following relation:
(1)
where a = conductivity
q = electronic charge
p = hole concentration
~P = hole mobility
n = electron concentration
~n = electron mobility
Since p and n must change by equal amounts. equation (1)
may be rewritten as:
Thus. as 11p increases 11a also increases. causing a decrease
in the emitter-base-l resistance. In this short explanation.
both ~P and ~n are assumed constant for small variations in
56
~ 92
rsot
Bl
Fig. 9. General UJTequivalent circuit
p and n. However. the mobilities are affected by the total
carrier concentration and become important in the limiting
process near the valley point.
Equivalent circuits
Since the UJT is usually used in the switching or large-
signal mode. different values for the equivalent circuit
components must be used for each area of operation.
Fig. 9 shows a general equivalent circuit.
The simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 10 represents the
UJT behaviour in the off region. Because it is small com-
pared to rbt rsat is omitted; rseries is omitted since D is
reverse biased. (lp, Vp) is the point at which the emitter
diode becomes forward biased.
rBl
vp = . vBB + vD = , . vBB + vD (2)
rBl + rB2
If the UJT is operated in the negative-resistance region as
a small-signal device (such as a negative-resistance smpli-
fier). the general equivalent circuit must be used. Small-
signal measurements must be made at the operating point
for parameters such as y in the current generator.
Applications
The UJT can be operated in a number of different circuit
configurations such that any of the three terminals can
serve as a signal input or load output. This makes UJTs ideal
for timing circuits. triggering circuits. oscillators. voltage
sensors and power-controlling devices. They are also useful
for counter and memory systems.
Timing and switching circuits designed with unijunction
transistors are. in general, simple. and as they require
fewer components. they are more reliable as well as less
expensive.
To illustrate the application of a UJT. probably the most
widely used UJT circuit, a CR Relaxation Oscillator. is
shown in Fig. 11. This basic circuit is often modified to
improve performance or stability. Varying resistance R
(within specified limits) will vary the frequency of operation.
 ~v,~::
-------~+Vas
A

o.____r;:1_.._'L R

E D +I
's1
81

Fig. 10. Simplified equivalent Fig. 11. A CR relaxation Fig. 12. U JT complementary
circuit in the off region oscillator pair equivalent

Trends and development UNIJUNCTION COMPLEMENTARY

Planar technique. The shorter emitter-to-base-l dimensions PAIR EQUIVALENT
resulting from planar construction reduce the carrier
Construction
transit time and provide faster and more uniform turn-on
By arranging a p-n-p and n-p-n transistor in the configura-
times. The smaller base 1 area combined with the reduced
tion as shown in Fig. 12. a characteristic very similar to that
interjunction distances decrease the effective volume in
of the UJT is obtained. A reference voltage level must.
which conductivity modulation takes place. This reduction
however. be provided at point A.
has the effect of lowering peak-point current, valley-point
current. and emitter saturation voltage. The low peak-point
current provides a high degree of sensitivity at low trigger-
Operation
current levels. This characteristic is particularly valuable
When the voltage on the emitter of the p-n-p transistor is
in designing sensitive time-delay circuits as large emitter
taken above the reference voltage set on point A the
resistors for relatively long delays can be used. Also.
p-n-p will begin to conduct and provide collector current.
combined with low leakage current, the size and cost of
The latter is effectively base current for the already correctly
capacitors is reduced. Other improved performance is
biased n-p-n transistor which, in turn will begin to conduct
obtained in precise voltage and current-level sensing
and its collector current provides further base current for
circuits. In some oscillator circuits. however. the lower
the p-n-p transistor. Thus regenerative action occurs and
valley-point current can be a disadvantage as it limits the
the pair switch hard on. Switching off is accomplished
average emitter current or load power that can be handled.
by reducing the voltage or current level below the valley
The higher value of the peak-point voltage of the planar
figures.
UJT -which is typically 9 volts-permits it to be used
with more loosely specified and .more economical SCRs as
a triggering device. This allows positive triggering of higher-
current SCRs even at very low temperatures. The more
Advantages and limitations
mechanically rugged construction allows the devices to
The pair must. as mentioned, be provided with a reference
withstand extreme figures of constant acceleration making
voltage and this. in its simplest form, means two resistors.
them suitable for military (eg fuses~ aerospace. and heavy
Thus component insertion costs are much larger than those
industrial uses. of the single UJT ie effectively ten terminals compared with
three. However. two transistors can be cheaper than a
Complementary unijunction
unijunction. Also. using transistors, the peak voltage point
By using standard n-p-n planar transistor processing
can be accurately set. and by just reversing the configuration.
techniques. a unijunction transistor with all the foregoing
a negative supply rail can be used if required.
advantages. an improved stability and a much smaller range
of intrinsic-stand off ratio. 1J can be obtained. As the
characteristics are those of a standard UJT except for the
fact that the applied voltages and currents are ofthe opposite
polarity. the device is known as a complementary unijunc- TRIGGER DIODE AND DIAC
tion transistor. The trigger diode is a two-terminal device with a charac-
teristic as shown in Fig. 13 and where the stated breakdown
The tight r 880 and 1J spread means that only one properly and breakdown voltage values are guaranteed.
selected external R 82 resistor can compensate in a given
circuit, to maintain good stability over a wide temperature If the device has guaranteed breakdown voltage and
range. Thus oscillators and timers with stabilities in the negative resistance characteristics in both directions. ie
order of 0.5 per cent over. for example, an 80C temperature it is electrically symmetrical. it is known as a bidirectional
range can be made. trigger diode or Diac.

57
 BREAKBACK
VOLTAGE
hwJ ,.-, .-
-8--IIJ A C
~r--P,_,-N"'rj-P-Tj-NI-j-----'

- ~ VeR v
(A)

~!(1-al)

Fig. 13. Trigger diode characteristic ---tl

I
p I I
B - A

1
N
I
p
C Ia1
I~-;- -
I
I 1 I
Fig.l4. 'Irigger diode symbols ----.!-'a2'"~1 I I t-l-
1- - - -

l
N P N
_ _+.:...._~~.,..._-_ _ !( 1-~}
(A)
(8)
----IC~ll---
(8) Fig. 16. A four layer diode device

Device symbol
The symbols for trigger diodes are given in Fig 14. Fig. 14a
with the single arrow represents a unidirectional device
while Fig. 14b with a double arrow represents the bidirec-
tional or Diac device. In all cases the arrow signifies a
rectifying p-n junction.
Construction
As could be deduced from the characteristics and symboL
the trigger diode is essentially a transistor structure with
the base open circuited. (cf BVeEO of a transistor). The major
method of construction follows the process for an n-p-n
transistor. The base resistivity and diffusion depths must
be carefully controlled. however. to enable the breakdown
and breakdown voltages to be contained within the allow-
able limits. Also. if the device is bidirectionaL the two p-n
junctions must be made symmetrical. The thickness of the
centre layer is large (0.025 mm) when compared with a
transistor base structure and this. the symmetrical con-
struction. and the same approximate thicknesses of outer
layers (0.025 mm). means that the diode structure would
have small gain should it be operated in a transistor mode.
This method of construction gives breakdown voltages in
the order of 30 V and breakback voltages in the order of8 V.
A much better characteristic. with a considerably increased
breakback voltage can be obtained by using a four layer
structure. effectively an SCR without a gate and this is
shown in Fig. 15. In order that they can stand high inverse
voltages. the two centre layers are wide when compared
with the base widths of a silicon transistor. making the
current transfer ratios small. To obtain a Diac with such
characteristics a 5 layer device would be needed.
Operation
If a voltage is applied to the three layer structure unidirec-
tional trigger diode. one junction. at the positive end. will
be reverse biased and the other slightly forward biased by
the small minority carrier leakage current flowing across the
junctions (cf ICE0 ). Since the difference in resistance across
the two PN diodes is very large ie 106 0 reverse biased
versus 0.100 forward biased. the voltage drop will all be
across the reverse biased diode. Little current will therefore
flow until the breakdown voltage of this junction is reached
when the 'snap-back' into the negative region of the
characteristic occurs.
The operation of the four layer device may be explained by
considering the structure. Fig. 16a.. as a combined p-n-p
and n-p-n transistor. Fig. 16b. In p-n-p and n-p-n transistors
the charge carriers are holes and electrons respectively.
producing currents in the directions shown in Fig. 16b.
Thus. across junction A flows the leakage current (cf
leBo) plus a current due to hole injection at B. (Ja 1) and a
current due to electron injection at C. (Ja 2 ) where a 1 and a 2
are the emitter-collector current gains of the transistors.
Since we assume no external connections to the two 'base'
regions. the total current at A is equal to the external
current:

Fig. 15. Characteristic of a four layer trigger diode structure

Therefore.

I l_ __ -:J
or
v
1= leBo
1 - (a 1 + oc 2 )
With the wide 'base' regions. a 1 and oc 2 are fairly small.
=
and if. for example. oc 1 + oc 2 0.9. then I = 10. leBo

58
A slight increase ill' the effective transfer ratios., however,
will cause 1 - (1X 1 + 1X 2) to become extremely small and will
produce a large increase in current. This can occur in the
following manner. As the external voltage is increased, the
leakage current across junction A gradually increases,
improving the emitter efficiencies, and therefore the effec-
tive transfer ratios, ofthe two transistors. Thus, 1 - (1X 1 + 1X 2)
decreases. When the external voltage becomes large enough,
carrier multiplication commences in junction A, the junc- Fig. 17. Trigger diodes as switches
tion starts to break down and the leakage current increases
rapidly. Consequently. 1 - (1X 1 + 1X 2) quickly reduces to
zero. Hence, the increase in forward current at A is acceler-
Should more tum on charge be required for the SCR or
ated by an increase in the current gains IX 1 and IX2 untiL
Triac. then the four or five layer device must be used. The
when avalanche breakdown occurs, the current becomes
construction of these, being much more complicated,
so large that the p.d. across the external circuit resistance
means that their cost will be greater.
results in the component transistors becoming heavily
saturated. When in this condition the structure effectively
comprises a saturated transistor and one forward-biased
Applications
p-n junction. Consequently, the voltage drop across the
Even the directional trigger diode can be used to provide
device falls nearly to that of a conventional forward-
a simple RC relaxation oscillator. However. by far the most
biased silicon rectifier. This forward characteristic was
common and important use of trigger diodes is as switching
illustrated in Fig. 15. (together with the reverse character-
devices. They are placed in series with the gates of (uni-
istic. which exhibits the normal avalanche breakdown of a
directional) SCRs, or (bidirectional) Triacs to control their
pn junction). Once forward breakdown has occurred the
switching-on point. A simple practical circuit to illustrate
device remains in the on state until the sum of the current
this use is shown in Fig. 17. In this circuit it is possible to
gains, IX 1 and IX 2, falls below unity, whence the off state is
control the actual point on the input sine wave at which the
resumed. Generally, switch-off can be initiated only by
Triac switches on from approximately oo to 180.
reducing the forward current below a certain minimum at
which IX 1 + IX 2 = 1 (cf holding current of an SCR).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Advantages and limitations Texas Instruments, Application Reports on Unijunction
The most common construction. ie the three layer transistor Transistors, SCRs, and Triacs.
structure. provides a cheap simple device with sufficient General Electric. SCR Manual, 4th Edition.
breakback voltage to provide, together with the capacitor Design Fundamentals of Unijunction Transistor Relaxa-
C. adequate charge to fire most SCRs and Triacs. The trigger tion Oscillators, Sylvan, T P, Electronic Equipment, Decem-
diode family is usually defined by having a range of specified ber 1957, pp 20-23.
breakdown voltages. RCA Applications Literature.

59
 Chapter 7

Auxiliary
Circuit
Elements

M A Burchall CEng FIERE

Advance Industrial Electronics Ltd

TRANSFORMERS AND INDUCTORS

Core materials
The universally used core material for mains frequency
transformers and inductors is silicon-iron. This is available
in various grades with different silicon content and electrical
properties and the grades are known by various trade
names. Table 1 gives a cross-reference guide to typical
properties and trade names. Some of these names are now
obsolete but are included for reference.

The 107 grade material in 0.35 mm (0.014 in) thickness is

the one used for most small mains frequency transformers up
to 1 or 2 kVA Thicker material such as 0.50 mm (0.020 in)
can be used for smaller sizes depending on the core loss
which can be tolerated in a particular design.

At least 6 grades of grain-oriented silicon-iron are also

available. These are based on a silicon-iron which is given
improved electrical properties in one direction by cold
rolling. This material is commonly used in ~oroidal or
C-core form to utilise the unidirectional properties but is
also available in a standard range of E and I laminations
in Unisil 51 grade. Table 2 gives a cross-reference to typical
properties and names.

At higher frequencies it is common practice to use 0.10 mm

(0.004 in) material, particularly in grain-oriented grades, but
it should be noted that this is not an essential requirement.
Choice of core material and thickness should be guided by
allowable core losses or magnetising current for a particular
application.

Core construction
There are two basic methods of core construction, shell
type and core type. Shell type construction, as shown in
Fig. 1 is usually employed on small mains transformers
either with E and I laminations (normally of scrapless
design) or double-loop C-cores. This construction gives an
economy of copper and a simplicity of winding due to the
single bobbin.
61
Trade Names
Super Silcor, Extra Special Stalloy,
Quality 6, Stantranis No. 3, Silcor 92,
Ferrosil 92, Hisil 92
Silcor 1, Special Stalloy, Quality 5,
Stantranis No. 2, Silcor 100. Ferrosil 100,
Hisil 100, Trancor 2
Silcor 2, Stalloy. Quality 4, Strantranis
No . 1. Silcor 107, Ferrosil 107, Hisil 107,
Transil 107, Trancor 1, Lamcor 107
Silcor 3, 42 Quality, Silcor 17, Mesil17,
Losil 17
Table 1. Core properties and trade names of silicon irons.
Core Losses at
Trade Names 15 Tesla and 50Hz
for 0 .33 mm
(0.013 in) material
Core Losses at 13 Tesla
Winding materials
and 50Hz for 0.35 mm The only winding material normally encountered in the
(0.14 in) material low power field is copper. Although insulated aluminium
Less than 2.03 W/kg
wire is available its low tensile strength restricts its use
to heavy gauges. A cheaper transformer can be produced
in the region of 5 kVA and above by using aluminium but
Less than 2.21 W/kg a larger size of transformer is inevitable, due to the lower
conductivity and higher losses of an aluminium coil.
Less than 2.36 W/kg
Aluminium foil has established some economic advantages
in simple windings.
Less than 3.21 W/kg Insulation materials
Insulation materials are graded by maximum temperature
of continuous usage. These temperature classes are deter-
mined by experience and accelerated lite tests and a material
belonging to a specific class should be capable of giving a
Core Losses at trouble free lite of more than 20000 hours. The classifica-
17 Tesla and 50Hz tions in Table 3 are referred to in BS 2757 'Classification of
for 0.33 mm
(0.013 in) material insulating materials' and materials are listed accordingly.

OS 115, Unisi146, 1.0 W/kg 1.6 W/kg In certain circumstances it is possible to use a material at a
Alphasil 33
higher than rated temperature level for mechanical purposes
OS 215, Unisil 51. 1.2 W/kg 1.8 W/kg
Alphasil 37 only, providing that a second layer of electrically rated
OS 111 . Unisi156. 1.3 W/kg 19 W/kg
insulation exists for that temperature, ie a Class 130
Alphasil 40 asbestos bobbin could be backed with a Class 155 polyester
OS 11 0, Unisil 62, 1.4 W/kg 2.1 W/kg tape and may be considered adequate for a Class 155
OS 210 1.6 W/kg 2.3 W/kg system.
OS 209, Unisil 88 2.0 W/kg 2.9 W/kg
With the use of non-hygroscopic insulation systems the
Table 2. Grain oriented silicon irons. necessity for varnishing to keep out moisture no longer
exists to any great extent. However, it is still considered
Core type construction, as shown in Fig. 2 is usually used
good practice to apply some form of coating, even if only
for larger transformers of the order of 3 or 4 k VA and above,
by dipping, to provide mechanical bonding of the wires
where the extra area of coil surface is required to remove the
and prevent abrasion of the insulating coating by vibration.
copper losses. It is usual to provide two coils, one on each
The same etTect can be achieved by using self-bonding wire.
limb, with a half primary and a half secondary on each
This possesses an extra coating of a thermoplastic resin
limb. Large transformers are constructed from longitudinal
which can be fused into a solid mass by the application of
strips of iron or sometimes from single-loop C-cores. Core
type construction is occasionally used for small transformers heat, often obtained by passing a current through the coil.
for special applications (such as fluorescent lamp ballast
transformers and inductors) where a very tlat construction
is required. TRANSFORMERS-DESIGN AND
PERFORMANCE
The design of transformers consists essentially of arriving
Toroids are a special case of core-type construction. They
at a compromise between cost, size, temperature rise,
have not found their way into common transformer appli-
regulation and any other required parameters to meet a
cations mainly because of the special machinery required
particular design specification.
for winding and the fact that at low frequencies they give
little electrical benefit over .C-cores. However, they do
It requires a knowledge of:
otTer a very t1at construction if this is required although
mounting is sometimes a problem. (a) The cost of materials such as iron, copper and insulation.

Fig. I . Shell type transformer Fig. 2. Core type transformer

construction. construction.

62
 Classification Insulating Material Wire Coating lmpregnant

Class 105 (Formerly Paper, cotton, rayon, Enamel (Oieoresinous) Varnish

Class A) silk, acetate

Class E (120C) Paper Laminates Polyvinylacetate (PVA),

(SRBP), Triacetate Polyurethane, Polyamide
(Nylon)

Class 130 (Formerly Epoxy Glass, Polyester Phenolic resin,

Class B) Glass, Polycarbonate Polyester resin

Class 155 (Formerly Epoxy Glass, Acrylic Polyester resin, Epoxy

Class F) Tape resin

Class 180 (Formerly Polyamide Paper, Polyester, Polyester, Silicone resin, Epoxy
Class H) asbestos, silicone glass Polyimide, asbestos resin, Polyester resin
cloth, polyester glass
cloth

Class 220 (Formerly Mica, glass, porcelain, Polyimide, Polyester Silicone resin
Class C) quartz, PTFE, asbestos

Table 3. Classification of insulation materials.

(b) The sizes and shapes of common cores.
(c) The effect of power losses on the surface temperature
and winding temperature in relation to the ambient
temperature.
(d) The etTect of ditl"erent methods of rectification and
smoothing on transformer voltage and current requirements.
(a) Because the cost of copper is so much higher than that
of iron and fluctuates very widely, it is good practice to
design transformers with a maximum of iron and a minimum
of copper to produce a minimum cost. Within limits, given
a particular volume in which to fit a transformer, different
designs can be produced having different ratios of iron to
copper. One advantage of using a high proportion of iron
to copper is that due to the small amount of copper used
the winding resistances of the transformer are also smaller.
(This has to be treated with some caution since low winding
resistances can have very bad effects on current ratios in
capacitor-input circuits as described in a later section).
Consider a hypothetical transformer which is rated at
100 VA with a 5% regulation and a 60C hot-spot tem-
perature rise, and is laminated with a 0.35 mm 107 grade
material with a flux density of approximately 13T to provide
a reasonable magnetising current. If the current taken from
this transformer was increased by a factor of J2 to provide
141 VA, then the copper losses would double (if the increase
of wire resistance with temperature was ignored). The
temperature rise would also approximately double and the
load regulation would increase to 7 %. If now this trans-
former was laminated with a 0.33 mm Unisil 51 grain-
oriented material the flux density could be increased to
15.5 T for the same magnetising current and core losses,
ie an increase in working voltage of 19%. Therefore,
for a 60"C rise the rating would increase to 119 VA and the
load regulation would reduce to 42 %. For a l20C rise
these figures would be 168 VA and 5.9 %- These figures are
listed in Table 4.

(b) The most popular laminations on the market for Fig. 3. Scrapless lamination
general purpose uses are those known as 'scrapless' lamina- dimension ratios.
tions. These are dimensioned in such a way that the material
stamped out of the 'E' pieces to make the window spaces
are just the right size to become 'I' pieces. The usual ratios 5H
are shown in Fig. 3 based on the window height 'H'. These
laminations are available in both Imperial and Metric H
r-3H
dimensions. Another common core shape is the 'C' core
based either on the British HWR pattern or the German
DIN standard. 6H L
(c) The power rating of a particular size of transformer is
not a rigidly fixed parameter. With the exception of the
smaller sizes, where load regulation is the dominating
I H

H
factor, transformer power rating is determined by the core
material and the allowable temperature rise.
63
 Power Rating Load Regulation
Temp. rise 107 grade Unisil 51 107 grade Unisil 51
60C 100 VA 119 VA 5% 4.2%
120oc 141 VA 168 VA 7% 5.9%
Table 4. Transformer power rating and regulation for differing
cores.
The amount of temperature rise that can be tolerated is
governed by the temperature rating of the insulating
materials and the ambient temperature. Because of varia-
tions in ambient temperature and the surface temperature
rise above ambient, the ratio between radiated and con-
vected heat losses is variable and it is very diflicult to state
the temperature rise for a given surface dissipation in
wattsjcm 2 Nothing can really replace an empirical know-
ledge based on particular designs in particular conditions.
(d) Except for very low powers of the order of a few watts,
full-wave or multi-phase rectification is universal. Push-pull
or bridge rectification is a matter of design and cost com-
promise, low voltages tending to favour push-pull rectifica-
tion since the extra secondary VA required by a push-pull
circuit can be partially otlset by the lower forward voltage
drop of the single series diode instead of the two series
diodes of a bridge circuit.
The voltage and current factors in inductor filter circuits
are tabulated in most standard references 5 6 and usually
cause no problem in determining transformer ratings.
However, these figures are given for infinite inductance
values ie square waves of diode and transformer current. In
practice the inductance value at full load may be only 2 or 3
times the 'critical' inductance and under these conditions
the diode and push-pull transformer current ratios can
increase from the theoretical value of 0.707 to about 0.75.
The analysis of single phase rectification with capacitive
tiltering has been covered by such authors as Schadel,
Walz and Burkhard2 and Ridler 3 . The curves derived by
Ridler are more extensive and accurate than those of the
previous authors and provide information that is more
relevant to modem semiconductor power supply applica-
tions. In the general circuit shown in Fig. 4 RL is the load
resistance, C is the smoothing capacitor and r is the series
resistance per conducting path (including the source
resistance and primary resistance referred to the secondary
side of the transformer plus the secondary resistance, diode
incremental resistance, secondary fuse etc.).
Io
Fig. 4. Push-pull rectification
circuit.
64
Both Schade's and Ridler's curves are plotted in terms of
r/RL and wCRv Schade's curves provide values of in
terms of mean VDC, whereas Ridler's curves provide values
of in terms of minimum V oc (ie ripple troughs) and are
therefore very useful for series regulator designs where
minimum V DC is the controlling parameter. The current
ratio 10 /IDC can be obtained from Fig. C (ii) of Ridler's
paper. It can be seen that from an rms current addition:
the diode rms current Io. which equals the push-pull
transformer current, can be obtained. Also, since 18 = J2 10
and from considerations of waveform it can be seen that
18 is the current that would flow in a bridge transformer
secondary, the transformer VA can be derived for both
types of circuit. Furthermore leap = J(2I~ - J~) and
the capacitor rms ripple current rating can also be deter-
mined.
These ratios are plotted in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 against r/RL to
show the int1uence of series resistance r (mainly caused by
transformer load regulation). Fig. 5 shows transformer
current ratios for bridge and push-pull circuits and it can
be seen how little an influence wCRL has once a few per
cent r/RL is reached. Fig. 6 shows transformer VA ratios
both for mean V DC and for minimum V DC together with
approximate diode correction factors. These are based on
open-circuit transformer voltages and would have to be
reduced by the %transformer regulation to obtain the more
usual on-load VA rating. Fig. 7 shows how the capacitor
ripple current ratio deteriorates with too low a transformer
load regulation. Since Fig. 6 shows that the transformer VA
is relatively unaffected by r/RL there is every reason to design
for as high a load regulation as possible.
Two further reasons for designing for high resistance
windings are :
(i) Magnetisation switch-on surge. If the transformer is
switched ofl' at zero mmf the core is lett magnetised at a high
flux density. If the transformer is then switched on at zero
voltage increasing in the wrong direction, it tries to increase
its magnetisation to three times the normal working level
and since this level cannot be reached, the primary current
is limited only by the source and primary resistance. The
current can reach values of hundreds of amps for several
milliseeonds. This phenomenon takes several cycles to die
away.
(ii) Diode switch-on surge and repetitive peak current. At
switch-on, in addition to the magnetising phenomena
described above, the uncharged smoothing capacitor looks
like a short-circuit to the rectifying diodes and produces a
surge current through the diodes. This is limited only by the
source and primary resistance and the secondary and diode
resistance. Even after the capacitor has reached its normal
charged level, a repetitive peak current still flows every
half-cycle and from Ridler's curve Fig. C (i) it can be seen
that this can quite easily exceed a factor of 4 or 5 times the
d. c. current. For this reason rectifier diodes are often
 u
~
'
-;;; lx=TRANSFORMER CURRENT
E (BRIDGE)~ TRANSFORMER
CURRENT(PUSH-PULL)
Jc
(J)
w
I-
<!
0::
I-
z lx=TRANSFORMER CURRENT
w (PUSH-PULL) DIODE
0::
0::
10 WCR=7 CURRENT(BRIDGE OR PUSH-
::J
u PULL)
09

08

07

06

Fig. 5. Transformer current 05ool 002 003 004 005 006 008 0 I 02 03 04 05
ratios for bridge and push- r
pull circuits. RL

Fig. 6. Transformer VA 21
ratios.

1
TRANSFORMER VA
mxl 0cx Voc(mln)

TRANSFORMER VA
}
m x locx Voc

NB MULTIPLY BY I 414
FOR PUSH- PULL
TRANSFORMER

15 WCRL =20

14

13

002 003 03 04 05
r
RL

65
c
 WCR=50
22
WCR=20
21

19
18
u 17
0

::::V> 16
~ 15
li
<!
~u 14
<::)
f-
<!
0::
12
f-
z
w I I
0::
0::
::>
u

08
07
06

05ool
r Fig. 7. Capacitor current
RL ratios.

restricted to well below their normal mean rating by con-
siderations of surge current rating and repetitive peak
current rating. This problem is sometimes also overcome
by building deliberately 'leaky' transformers with a high
leakage reactance which also have the benefit of reducing
transformer and capacitor rrns current requirements.
the factors Lik and I oc J R are constant, therefore, if it
is known that a core is capable of providing say IH at 1 A
with 1 Q resistance, then it is also known that it is capable
of providing 4H at 0.5 A with 4 Q resistance, etc. Addition-
ally, since Lik is also proportional to core volume, extra-
polation can be carried out to cores of related volume.

(b) Tabulations of energy content. In an extension of the

INDUCTORS-DESIGN AND
PERFORMANCE
The design of inductors is as varied as the use to which they
are put. This discussion will be restricted to inductors with
air gaps used for smoothing applications ie working at
100Hz and carrying direct current.
In a similar fashion to transformers, inductors can be run
under three limiting conditions:
(a) Regulation (Series resistance R)
(b) Temperature (Iron and Copper losses)
(c) Saturation (a.c. flux density)
The last of these is not significant in smoothing applications
unless relatively low inductances are used but the a.c. flux
density should always be checked at the end of a design to
ensure that the saturation level is not reached.
The art in inductor design consists mainly in selecting the
right core in the first instance. There are three basic methods
of achieving this :
(a) Extrapolation from a known design. For a given core
foregoing method 19 cores are tabulated by 'core energy
content' EC, derived from a number of pilot designs based
on a particular core material and coil temperature rise where
EC = (Lloc/JR). Given these three parameters a core can
be selected and the necessary design carried out.
(c) By the use of Hanna's curves 7 Manufacturers of electri-
cal steels usually provide for each grade a graphical
tabulation of Ll 2 /V where V is the core volume against
magnetising force (ampere-tumsjmetre). A core is selected
and can be rapidly checked against this curve to see if the
volume is too large, too small or about right.
Having selected the right core, the design can then be
checked in detail to see that it meets the original specified
parameters of inductance, resistance, temperature rise and
flux density.
A minimum volume design can always be found that has
a temperature rise compatible with the insulation materials
used, ie the most economic design. This may, however,
have too large a series resistance to meet the circuit require-
ments in which case a larger, more costly design becomes
necessary.

66
SPECIAL TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Constant voltage transformer WITHOUT BUCKING WINDING
This transformer has the ability to stabilise its output
voltage to within 1% of nominal when supplied with an I WITH
I
input voltage varying by as much as 15%. For many
/BUCKING
----J---.._., WINDING
applications this provides sufficient voltage stability making I ....
further stabilisation unnecessary. For output powers up : I
I I NORMAL
to a few watts the transistor regulator is technically and -1 1--- OPERATING
economically superior, but above this level the constant I 1 RANGE
I I
voltage transformer type of power supply is unbeatable on I I
price providing that the limitations of performance are I I
acceptable 8 . INPUT VOLTAGE

Fig. 9. CVT transfer characteristic.

The basic theory of operation has been covered in detail by
several authors but very briefly it is as follows. A shell type 15% INPUT
construction as shown in Fig. 8 contains a primary winding,
a secondary winding, a capacitor winding and an optional
bucking winding. In practice a core type construction can
also be used. The primary and bucking windings are
separated from the secondary and capacitor windings by
-15% INPUT
a magnetic shunt.

As the primary voltage is increased from zero, transformer

action couples the primary winding to the secondary wind-
ing by the normal transformer turns-ratio formula. When
enough voltage is developed in the secondary winding to
produce ferro-resonance, the secondary voltage stabilises
at a higher than turns-ratio level and the secondary portion
of the core saturates at a relatively high flux level. Any extra
flux caused by an increasing primary voltage will now flow
through the magnetic shunt instead of the highly saturated
and, therefore, high reluctance secondary portion of the
core. This has the eftect of 'loosening' the coupling between
the primary and secondary windings and primary voltage
changes have only a small eftect on the secondary voltage.
This residual etlect can be largely compensated by the
addition of a 'bucking' winding in series with the output
winding as shown in Fig. 9.
An additional feature of the constant voltage transformer
is its ability to withstand overloads as shown in Fig. 10.
This can provide a very useful form of short-circuit protec-
tion in many applications.
Fig. 10. CVT load characteristic.
Paraformer
A relatively new device 9 10 11 known as the 'Paraformer'
operates on the basis of parametric coupling instead of the
usual inductive coupling. From the complete transformer
equation:
d di dL
E = dt (Li) = L dt + i dt
it can be seen that the first term represents the normal
flux coupling which is the basis on which ordinary trans-
formers work and the second term represents what is known
at the parametric coupling. One form of the device, shown
in Fig. 11, is constructed from a pair of 'C' cores rotated at
goo.

Fig. 8. Schematic section of a CVT. Fig. 11. Schematic construc-

PRIMARY WINDING
tion of a Paraformer.

WINDING

INPUT

ITOR WINDING

67
The primary flux is in such a plane that it does not link
with the secondary winding and therefore no mutual
inductance exists (since L di/dt = 0). However, the primary
flux does modulate the reluctance of the secondary core
which sustains the secondary oscillations. The basic con-
cept is of a power oscillator parametrically pumped by the
input. As an oscillator the device has the properties of
nearly sinusoidal output voltage and automatic collapse of
output voltage when overloaded. This last property can
give rise to problems, since the device is not necessarily
self-starting on load One major advantage claimed is that
due to the lack of mutual coupling between the primary and
secondary windings, interference on the input side cannot
be coupled through to the secondary side and noise attenua-
tion in excess of 50 db is quoted.
CAPACITORS
Materials
Capacitors used in modem power supply smoothing
applications are almost without exception of either alumin-
ium or tantalum foil construction. The modem electrolytic
capacitor is a very much improved device from those of
even ten years ago in terms of volumetric efficiency, series
resistance, ripple current capability and temperature per-
formance.
Large size aluminium electrolytic capacitors have a peak
of volumetric .efficiency at about 40 V rating with lower
values at both lower and higher voltage ratings. Variations
also occur with both can size and termination type, screw
terminal devices generally being of a lower volumetric
efficiency than solder terminal devices. 2 to 3 mF-V/cm 3
is normal for small to medium size units and 4 to 5 mF-V/
cm3 is obtainable in the latest deeply etched foil types.
It is useful to remember that in a circuit design that requires
a particular value of capacitance, the best economy in terms
of Farad/ is usually achieved by the smallest volume capa-
citor that is capable of giving that amount of capacitance,
since capacitor prices tend to be governed by the volume of
the device (and hence the weight of anodised aluminium)
rather than the Farad-Volt product.
In many power supply smoothing applications the most
important characteristic of the electrolytic capacitor is its
ability to carry large amounts of ripple current Provided
that the consequent large ripple voltage is tolerable, the
maximum economy is achieved in terms of ripple current
Ampsj. It is quite possible for example to develop 3 or 4
Volts peak-peak of ripple on a 16 Volt capacitor if all the
allowed ripple current is used at 40C or 50C ambient.
This could well be unacceptable, in which case the design
becomes a capacitance dominated design rather than a
ripple current dominated design and maximum economy
is achieved in terms of Farad-Volt/.
68
Temperature rating
Until recently aluminium electrolytic capacitors rated at
above 65C or 70C were both rare and expensive. Today it
is possible to buy all sizes and values at 85C rating, with
105C and l25C types either available or coming shortly.
This reduces the advantage that tantalum electrolytics have
previously enjoyed of being the only high temperature
types available. The prime application of tantalum cap-
acitors now lies in their higher volumetric efficiency (mainly
due to the dielectric constant of tantalum pentoxide being
24 against that of 8 for aluminium oxide), but even this
advantage is being eroded by the availability of very deeply-
etched aluminium foils. For these reasons the use of tan-
talum foil capacitors is restricted in power supply applica-
cations to high temperature rated and tightly packaged
units where cost is of secondary importance.
Ripple current
The ripple current rating, lifetime and reliability of an
electrolytic capacitor are all very dependent on the operating
temperature.
Ripple current in a capacitor creates dissipation due to
12 R where R is the effective series resistance (ESR) of the
capacitor at the frequency of the ripple current. ESR does
reduce at higher frequencies and specific applications
should be checked against the manufacturers' data. If in
doubt, measurement of the surface temperature of the
connection stud is a good guide to the internal temperature
of the capacitor, and comparison checks can be made
between the unknown loss of the high frequency application
and the quoted figures for lOO.Hz applications. Temperature
rises of between 10C and l5C are normally allowed at
maximum ambient temperature, eg the upper limit for a
Sprague 32D type is 85C ambient + 10C rise = 95C
core temperature. Ripple currents can, therefore, be
increased at lower ambient temperatures by an approximate
square law ie 40% increase for every 10C reduction in
ambient temperature. Details vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Fig. 12 shows the surface area of some indus-
try standard size cans together with the allowable
dissipation for a 10C rise. This is based on a power dissi-
pation factor of lmWjcm 2 tC, which is typical for bare
aluminium cans. Opinions vary as to the effect of insulating
sleevings, McManus 12 quoting an improvement in cooling
and Everitt 13 quoting a reduction.
Lifetime
All liquid or wet electrolytic capacttors possess a finite
lifetime which is controlled by:
(a) the diffusion of electrolyte through the seals
(b) reaction between the electrolyte and dielectric
(c) reaction between the constituents of the electrolyte.
The first is controlled by the quality of sealing and provision
of excess electrolyte, the second by the purity ofthe materials
used and the third by selection of the electrolyte system.
The length of service life being dominated by chemical
reactions the tendency is for the lifetime to follow Arrhenius'
law 14 and approximately double for every 10C drop in
 500 5

78emdoa

h
AA,AB,AC ETC SPRAGUE CAN SIZES /(INSULATED)
5,6,7 ETC MULLARD CAN SIZES DFe/ 1 3on doa
X,X ADVANCE FILMCAP CAN SIZES
/73emdoa
E
400 4
DO ~em doa
/

DC x CE /

N

~
E
lJJ
(/)

0:
u
co/
52em doa
<l300 0 3 16
lJJ
~ /
0: CO BF/,( INSULATED)
<(
0:
lJJ
u ft / / BE./ 2ondoa

cs/
<(
LL.
0:
(/)
f- 8 ~~

. /.
::::> f-
(/)
~ /. ~.,pl5
4 I em doa

200 2
BB xl4

100

0 0
2 11a 3 11a 4\-B 4511 5~ 55il
LENGTH (on)
Fig. 12. Surface area of some
industry-standard capacitor cans 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
and the allowable dissipation. LENGTH (em)

core temperature 15 (Core temperature is stressed since it Reliability

is possible to obtain increase in lifetime by reducing ripple Reliability and failure rate are also controlled by tempera-
current, which reduces the core temperature while retaining ture but in addition voltage stress has a considerable effect.
the same ambient temperature). Figures given by Sage 16 For example figures quoted by Sprague for aluminium
for computer-grade long-life aluminium electrolytic capaci- electrolytic capacitors are given in Table 5. This table
tors show a lifetime in excess of 30000 hours at 60C. highlights the fact that although both types are rated at
More recent figures by Mason 17 show a similar lifetime
reducing to 5000 hours at 90C. It is important to obtain
Table 5. Voltage stress versus reliability for aluminium
life test data and measured failure rates from the manu- electrolytic capacitors.
facturer since one maker's idea of an 85C capacitor may
not be the same as another maker's idea. Differences in Type Voltage Stress Failure rate %/1 000 hours
lifetime by a factor of 3 or 4 can be expected between a at 60% confidence level
computer-grade device and a similar looking and specified 50C 65C 75C 85C
commercial device. Accelerated life tests at 20C, or even
30C, above rated temperature can provide very rapid 360 100% 0.25 0.35 0.90 2.20
360 80% 0.037 0.052 0.135 0.33
comparative evaluation. Solid electrolytic capacitors, 360 60% O.Q12 0.017 0.045 0.11
possessing no liquid to dry out, do not have this defined 320 100% 0.03 0.045 0.12 0.30
lifetime and should last as long as any other electronic 320 80% 0.01 O.Q16 0.042 0.10
320 60% 0.0066 0.010 0.026 0.066
component.

69
 Conventional Stacked foil
(320 max I) (Sprague)
(Sprague) (4320)
Volume 330 cm 3 650 cm 3
ESR 12 mn 1.5 mn
Ripple rating (85cC) 11.8Amps 52 Amps
Inductance 35 nH 1 nH
Table 6. Typical values for stacked foil and conventional
capacitors.
85C, the 32D is substantially more reliable than the 36D
at similar temperatures. It also highlights the considerable
improvement that can be achieved by working the device
at lower than rated voltage levels.
New developments
One new type of e!ectrolytic capacitor which is finding its
way into traditional solid tantalum applications is the
solid aluminium capacitor 21 This uses the same principle
of a solid manganese dioxide electrolytic and has the same
high temperature rating of l25C, due to the lack of liquid
electrolyte. Although it is approximately four times the
size of the equivalent solid tantalum capacitor it is claimed
to be much cheaper and more reliable. Earlier reports 16
quoted a figure of 025 %/1000 hours at 80C (compared
with a figure of 063 %/1000 hours at 80C for solid tanta-
lum). Later reports 20 quote a figure of 0011 %/1000 hours.
One other new type of electrolytic capacitor which has
recently become available is the 'stacked-foil' type 1 8 This
is built on the same principle as stacked mica and by
virtue of its construction possesses almost negligible in-
ductance and resistance. Present devices are arranged for
strip-line termination to computer bus-bars for decoupling
purposes. Although the Farad-Voltjcm 3 is 2 to 3 times
worse than for a conventional device the ESR is 5 to 10
times better and ripple current ratings 4 times better.
Typical values for a 100000 llF 5V component are given in
Table 6 with comparison figures for a conventional device.
Another application for the stacked-foil device is in high
frequency smoothing, such as direct-off-line converter type
power supplies, where the ripple frequency may be in excess
of 50 kHz. At this frequency the typical impedance of a
stacked foil capacitor can be about 1 ron wher~as an
equivalent size conventional device may be about 10 mn.
Therefore, irrespective of actual capacitance value the
stacked-foil capacitor can provide 10 times the effective
smoothing.
DYNAMIC FILTERS
In many high current power supply applications the
sheer magnitude of the capacitance required to produce
an acceptably low level of ripple voltage has led to a search
for other solutions.
Consider, for example, a power supply required to provide
10V at 10 Amps. A capacitor must be selected capable of
70
0/P
Fig. 13. Block diagram of a dynamic filter.
carrying the ripple current of 14 or 15 Amps. Assume that
this is a Sprague 36D 80000 llF at 15V with a ripple current
rating of 15 Amps at 65C:
:. Since the load resistance RL = 1 n
wC RL = 100 X 1t X 008 X 1 = 25.
From Ridler's 3 curves, for a typical value of rjR = 005
the ripple voltage can be calculated as 9% peak to peak of
the output voltage ie 900 mV.
If the circuit requirement was for a ripple of less than 10mV
peak to peak, which would not be an unusual figure for a
piece of electronic circuitry, then the capacitor would have
to be increased to 8 Farads which, both physically and
economically, would be unreasonable for a 100 Watt
power supply. This attenuation factor of 100: 1 could be
achieved by an extra stage of inductance-capacitance
filtering but the inductor would start to become large.
An alternative solution is the dynamic filter which in effect
consists of an electronically multiplied capacitor. The basic
circuit diagram for this is shown in Fig. 13.
The theory of operation is as follows: capacitor C 1 carries
the normal ripple current and thetefore develops the normal
ripple voltage. A small proportion of this ripple appears
across the output terminals and also across the input
terminals of an audio amplifier which is fed from an
auxiliary power supply. The push-pull output from the
audio amplifier is transformer coupled in series with the
smoothing capacitor C 1 and provides an anti-phase
voltage to that across C 1 The result is that the two wave-
forms nearly cancel each other and leave a nearly smooth
voltage across the output terminals. Effectively the power
supply sees a value of C 1 which is multiplied by the overall
gain of the audio amplifier system.
REFERENCES
1. Schade 0 H, 'Analysis of rectifier operation', Proc.
Inst. Radio Engrs., 1943, 31, pp 341-361.
2. Walz F C and Burkhard D G, 'Analysis of capacitive
filtering offull-wave rectification'. International J. Elect.
Eng., 1967, 5, pp 563-572.
3. Ridler P F. 'Analysis of single-phase capacitor-input
rectifier circuits'. Proc. lEE, Vol. 117, No. 12.
 4. von Zastrow E E. 'Capacitor Input Filter Design with
Silicon Rectifier Diodes'. General Electric Co. Appli-
cation Note No. 200 30, 8/67.
5. Dayal M. 'Power Rectification with Silicon Diodes',
Mullard Technical Communications, Vol. 7, No. 68.
6. 'DC Power Supply Circuits using Silicon Rectifiers',
Texas Application Report No. 04.
7. Hanna C R. 'Design of Reactances and Transformers
Which Carry Direct Current', AlEE Journal, XLVI,
Feb. 1927.
8. Burchall M. 'Which Type of Power Supply do I Need',
Industrial Electronics. July, 1968.
9. United States Patent No. 3403323.
10. U.K. Patent No. 1153901.
11. Wanlass S D, Wanlass C L and Wanlass K L. 'The
Wanlass Paraformer', Publication No. PB2, Wanlass
Division, Ambac Industries Inc.
12. McManus R P. 'Ripple Current Considerations in the
Application of Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors',
Sprague Electric Company, Technical Paper.
13. Everitt R J. 'Ripple Current Ratings for Electrolytic
Capacitors', Electronic Equipment News, Feb. 1971.
14. Mattana G. 'Component Reliability in Telecommuni-
cations Equipment', Electronic Components, Aug. 1966,
pp 737-746.
15. Girling D S. 'Capacitors- Reliability, Life and the
Relevance of Circuit Design', The Radio and Electronic
Engineer, June, 1966, pp 373-384.
16. Sage M G. service Life and Reliability of Mullard
Electrolytic Capacitors', Mullard Technical Publication.
No. 1P 660, 1966.
17. Mason D. 'High Grade Long Life Electrolytic Capa-
citors: the 106/107 Series in Power Supply Design',
Mullard Technical Publication, No. TP 1194, 1970.
18. Puppolo H F and Markarian M. 'A Stacked Foil or
Book-Type Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor',
Sprague Electric Company, Technical Paper No. TP
70----2.
19. Booth R A, 'Simplify Magnetic-core Coil Design'
Electronic Design 10, May 10, 1967, pp 78-83.
20. Goudswaard B, 'Solid Aluminium Electrolytic Capaci-
tors' Mullard Technical Publication No. TP 1263, 1971.
21. Sage M G, 'Mullard Solid Aluminium Electrolytic
Capacitors' Mullard Technical Publication No. TP 876,
1967.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MacFadyen K A, 'Small Inductors and Transformers',
Chapman and Hall, 1953.
Welsby V G, 'The Theory and Design of Inductance Coils',
McDonald and Co., 1950.
Langford-Smith F, 'Radio Designers Handbook', Iliffe,
1955.
Connelly F C, 'Transformers- Their Principles and
Design for Light Electrical Engineers', Pitman, 1965.
Lee R, 'Electronic Transformers and Circuits', John ffiley
and Sons, 1955.
71
 Chapter 8

Circu1t
Protection
Devices

R G Dancy MIEE
International Rectifier Co (Great Britain) Ltd

Wherever electrical power is being utilised protection

devices are necessary. The prime functions of electrical
protection devices may be specified as:
(a) To protect personnel and items in contact with or in
close proximity to the electrical equipment in which the
protection devices are fitted
(b) To protect components within the equipment from
damage due to external causes or failure.
Some electrical equipment is inherently reasonably safe
and normally requires no protection devices. For example,
low-voltage battery-operated torches and radios are 'safe'
except in atmospheres containing explosive vapours. All
equipment working from 240 V or 415 V a.c. supplies must
have protection at some point in the circuit, and this chapter
is mostly applicable to the protection of rectifiers when
operated from these voltages, either directly or via trans-
formers.

Circuit protection devices are required to protect from

excess current, excess voltage and excess temperature. Not
all of these conditions may be protected against in any one
equipment. The choice of protecting methods used will be
dependent upon each situation.

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICES

This is the most important protection requirement, and
is met in most cases by utilising a series fuse in the circuit.
Alternative components are circuit-breakers (electro-
mechanical) or in a few specialised cases solid-state switching
devices may be used. The latter (power transistors, thyristors
or t riacs) will not be described here.

Fmes
Basically a fuse is a conductor capable of carrying both the
normal steady-state and surge currents likely in a circuit
but which overheats and melts when a fault current flows

73

Fig. 1. Several types offuse housings.
through it. Because of the fast operation during a fault
condition, approaching explosive characteristics, it is
necessary for the fuse element to be mounted in a properly
designed insulating holder, or within its own casing. Fig. 1
shows several types of fuse housings. Glass or ceramic
cartridges are the most common mountings used for fuses;
glass is liable to shatter and is used only on the smaller
ranges, ceramic may be used up to the largest types available.
Semiconductor rectiliers have small thermal time constants
and present a problem of discrimination between normal
circuit surge currents (such as transformer inrush currents
during switch-on) and fault conditions. In order to protect
the rectifier when high level fault current flows the fuse must
operate very quickly. To achieve this and yet to avoid in-
correct operation in a normal overload (such as when starting
a motor) the construction of the fuse must be specially
designed.
A typical semiconductor fuse has a strip element of pure
silver, into which are cut restrictions; fast operation is
obtained by using a small cross-sectional area at the
restriction. High steady-state current is obtained by keeping
the restriction short, so that ample silver remains on either
side to conduct away the heat produced during normal
operation. Increased voltage breaking capability is obtained
by increasing the length of the element and the number of
restrictions in it. Increases in steady-state current ratings
are also obtained by tilling the housing with high-quality
pure quartz sand to conduct heat away from the element,
and by using relatively large endcaps which may be bolted
to busbars to further improve the thermal properties of the
encapsulation.
Voltages produced during fuse rupture must be kept to a
low figure in order to avoid having to use rectifier devices
with unnecessarily high reverse voltage capabilities. Special
control of the restriction shape and packing density of the
Iiller medium is necessary to ensure that during the arcing-
74
ttme of the element no rapid rate-of-change of current
results. Hence a compromise is reached between the energy
let-through during the arcing period and the voltages
produced during current cut-otT. Some authorities on
semiconductor device application and fuse characteristics
tend towards choosing a low l 2 t energy let-through with
rather high arcing voltage, whilst others prefer to limit
arcing voltage to a lower level with a high 12 t. There !silo
signilicant difierence between the economics of the two
situations.
Table 1 gives typical fault clearance properties of a standard
60 amp industrial fuse and a 55 amp semiconductor fuse
and highlights the ditierence between the two.
Low current fuses
The type of fuse construction previously described is
applicable to semiconductor fuses with current ratings in
excess of about 10 amps rms. Below that value it becomes
impossible to produce a flat-strip construction with restric-
tions in the element, and a thin wire is the only economic
element to use. Glass housings are usable at low voltages,
but at 200 V and above, ceramic cartridges are recommended
to avoid shattering during fuse rupture.
In order to utilise a fuse having the minimum blowing time
in the smaller sizes, it is usual to limit normal-operation
surge currents by means of low-value resistors inserted in
series with the rectilier. The 12 t energy let-through concept
is not applicable to small rectiliers and their associated
fuses ; the comparison of diode (or thyristor) overload
current ratings and the fuse current-versus-time charac-
teristics are usually adequate for choosing a fuse for fault
protection. Typical curves for a diode and fuse are given
in Fig. 2.
Protection of rectifier transformers. Primary fusing of some
small transformers can be difficult because the peak inrush
current during switch-on can be comparatively high,
necessitating the use of a fairly high current-rated fuse. A
short circuit on the secondary may not draw sutlicient
current (due to the inherently high regulation of the trans-
former) to cause the primary fuse to blow. Separate fusing
of the secondary circuits should be given consideration
under these conditions. It is easy to practice to check for
correct fusing; the placing of a short circuit on each secondary
winding will check that the fuse blows correctly.
Table I. Fault clearance properties of a standard 60 amp industrial
fuse and a 55 amp semiconductor fuse.
Industrial HRC Semiconductor
60A Fuse S 55A Fuse
Prospective Fault Current
3450A 3500A
Condition (at 240 volts)
Cut-off current 2 100A 500A
l2t 13 200 A 2 sees 375 A 2 sees
Peak arc voltage 580 v 350 v
 110-2 I 10
Fig. 2. Typical small diode and
fuse characteristics.
Fuse life
Fuse manufacturers give information on end-cap tempera-
ture or ambient temperature and specify the rms current
which can be carried. Operated within these ratings fuses
can be expected to provide adequate reliability. Experience
has shown that outside these ratings fuse fatigue can occur,
and if semiconductor rectifiers are running in parallel, and
each is individually fused, overloading of some rectifiers
can occur if other rectifiers fail to take their share of the
current, due to an incre!ile in resistance of their associated
fuses.
TRANSIENT VOLTAGE PROTECTION
DEVICES
Semiconductor rectifier components are susceptible to
damage by voltages which exceed their blocking voltage
capabilities. This applies to diodes and thyristors in the
reverse voltage direction and to thyristors and triacs if
subjected to excess voltage when in the conduction blocking
modes. Although some rectifiers of the avalanche type are
capable of dissipating energy at high voltages, and thyristors
and triacs have self-protecting capabilities, these should not
be relied upon by themselves to ensure reliable operation
under all conditions. The thermal mass of semiconductor
devices is so smalL and the voltage stresses across the
junctions so high that any device can be damaged by voltage
transients having sufficient energy. These transients cannot
easily be avoided; research carried out by the ERA has
shown that 600 Volt transients are very common on standard
240 Volt a.c. supply lines, and that 800 Volt transients occur
sufficiently often to jeopardise the rectifiers in most applica-
tions.
Transient Voltage Protection Components can be cate-
gorised into two main types:
a. Those converting the electrical energy in a transient
directly into thermal energy, which is dissipated to ambient
later.
b. Those which store the electrical energy, prior to con-
verting it to heat and dissipating it later.
TIME SECONDS
Into group (a) fall non-linear silicon carbide resistors,
selenium plate voltage clippers and Zener diodes. Group (b)
consists of R-C networks and rectifier-capacitor 'bucket'
circuits with bleeder resistors.
The characteristics of non-linear silicon carbide resistors and
selenium voltage clippers are compared with Zener diodes
in Fig. 3.
Although the shape of the Vfl curve of the Zener diode
appears to give the best clamping action, in fact the rela-
tively low energy absorption of the zener makes it of limited
utility in transient voltage suppression. The silicon-carbide
resistor and selenium plate assembly commence absorbing
voltage transients once the steady-state voltage is exceeded.
It is important that some series impedance is present in the
supply circuit as the voltage suppressors are parallel-
connected, taking current in relation to the applied transient
voltage, but only the series impedance causes the potential
drop required.
Fortunately transient voltages are usually of highest ampli-
tude at short time periods (1 to 50 microseconds) or lower
amplitude for longer time periods (100-1000 microseconds),
making it an easier problem to overcome.
Fig. 3. Characteristics of voltage clamping components.
2000
...,
Ill
6 1000
>
75
Effective transient voltage source impedances vary; those
originating in a i4o Volt a.c. supply system have been found
to have a source impedance of approximately 50 ohms (the BARRIER LAYER COUNTER - ELECTRODE LAYER
characteristic impedance of typical wiring at high frequen-
cies).
BELLOW SPRING
WASHER
The non-linear clamping components are rated in terms of
watt-seconds energy dissipation.
SELENIUM

Construction of the selenium voltage clipper

Typical selenium voltage clippers consist of a number of
flat plates in series as shown in Fig. 4. Each plate is able
to operate up to a maximum of 26 Volts rms steady-state.
METAL SPACER
The maximum peak transient current handling capacity is WASHER
(NEGATIVE) PRESSURE
dependent upon the surface-area of each plate at about LIMIT ING
0.6 amps per cm2 for a 10 millisecond pulse. The steady-state WASHER
power loss rating is about 50 milliwatts per cm 2 The total
power-handling capability of the series elements is the
power per element times the number of elements. Thus a
selenium unit consisting of 18 series 25 cm2 cells (a typical
415 V a.c. supply transient clipper) has a total capability of ALUMINUM
700 watt-second for 10 microseconds. (This compares with ALLOY
BASEPLAT E
0.44 watt-seconds which a typical 150 amp rated avalanche
thyristor can dissipate for 10 microseconds).

The construction of each plate is shown in Fig. 5. An SELEN

LAYER
acid-etched aluminium plate is electroplated with nickel
prior to a thin selenium layer being deposited by a vacuum
BARRIER
deposition process, the selenium deposit being about 0.1 mm LAYER
thick. A heat treating process follows to start the formation
of the barrier layer on which the non-linear characteristics COUNTER -
ELECTRODE
depend. A barrier layer is then sprayed on, followed by a LAYER
counter-electrode which provides a low-resistance contact
to the selenium plate. Fig. 5. Selenium plate construction.

At this stage the electrical characteristics are rather poor,

and an important electrical forming process under controlled ,runaway conditions) and measurement of the peak voltage
electrical and thermal conditions must be carried out for 1across the device at high transient current levels confirms
up to 24 hours before the cell is a usable voltage clipper. that the device will clip transient voltages correctly.

Testing of each cell after forming ensures that the steady-state Except at very low voltages more than one plate must be
leakage current is within specification (to prevent thermal used in series.

Fig. 4. Typical selenium voltage clippers.

Fig. 6. Bridge rectifier
and CJR network for voltage clamping.

c
._____
-,I
-------< "F
~-
I
I

4~
I
I t- :
I ~ IVOLTAGE
I :REGULATOR
--
I
-~

76
Zener diodes
Zener diodes may be used for transient voltage protection
in small rectifier units. Of all the available components,
zeners have the lowest steady-state leakage current (below
the 'knee' of their characteristic) and the lowest slope
resistance once the zener voltage breakdown region is
reached. Unfortunately there are inherent limitations to the
energy which may be absorbed because of the small
physical size of the silicon junction. The largest Zener
diodes (or bulk avalanche diodes at higher voltages) can
dissipate typically 10 kW pulses for 10 microseconds, but
this is still only about one five hundredth of the capability 0
of a typical selenium voltage clipper. <!
(t:
<!
t..
0
(t:
Zener diodes are of particular advantage when: ~
~
1. Power dissipation requirements are fairly low. I
w
2. Weight and space are important. ::::>
_J

3. Maximum transient voltage must be well defined (as in ~

(t:
transistorised equipment). 0
f::
u
<!
()._
<!
u
Electrical energy storage
If a capacitor is placed across the points in a circuit at which
01
transient voltage suppression is required, it will be charged
to a higher voltage than normal by a transient, thus storing
some of the energy in the transient. If this energy is then
dissipated in a resistive network placed across the capacitor,
the voltage across the capacitor can be brought down to the
original level in preparation for the next transient voltage.
KVA
SUPPLY TRANSFORMER RATING (IMPEDANCE
The higher the value of capacitance the lower the voltage rise APPROX 6% INCLUDING CABLES)
and the more etlective the transient clamping action. A
large capacitor across the a. c. terminals of the rectifier input
Fig. 7. Capacitance values in typical RC transient suppression
will take excessive reactive current; the inclusion of a networks (based on 1 % to 3% k V AR)
bridge rectifier as in Fig. 6 allows a large capacitance to be
used without the attendant a.c. current component. An
electrolytic capacitor of the modern long-life type is an
Much has been written about the design of-RC networks;
economic and reliable unit for this purpose.
an analysis of most of the formulae published will show
that the capacitance value used lies between 1% and 3%
High-energy transients do not impose excessive stresses on
k V~ of the total system k VA. In situations requiring high
any components because no attempt is made to dissipate
reliability or where transient voltages are known to be
the energy instantaneously. The bleed resistor across the
troublesome a capacitance value of 3% kV~ (or higher)
electrolytic will return the capacitor voltage back to steady-
should be used. Where reliability requirements are less
state peak supply voltage, but to increase the bleed current
stringent and transient voltages are less prevalent, it is
in the event of a large rise in capacitor voltage (due to a
economic to use lower values of capacitance.
series of transients in rapid succession), a non-linear circuit
element in series with a fixed resistor may be used.
Figure 7 gives guidelines to typical values of capacitance
for RC network suppressors for use on 50 Hz supplies at
This method of voltage clamping has the advantage that it
240 volt (single phase) and 415 V (3 phase) systems, related
is not a static device. If the working voltage is reduced,
to the kVA of the supply transformer (assuming approxi-
perhaps by a tapped transformer, the clamping voltage
mately 6% impedance including cabling).
capability of the 'bucket' circuit is also lower,
Resistance values utilised are from 5 to 100 ohms; the lower
RC networks values allow the capacitor to suppress transients more
RC networks are generally less etlective than other means etlectively but can produce harmful di/dt problems during
of transient voltage protection, but are used to augment commutation and when thyristors are fired, as well as being
other components. They are useful as a first-line defence, less able to provide sufficient damping of oscillatory currents.
particularly for the higher frequency transients and their Fifteen ohms is a good value for most applications. Higher
simplicity, reliability and good availability are major assets. values reduce the clamping effectiveness and also dissipate

77
greater energy, calling for larger and more expensive resistors.
At fifteen ohms wire-wound resistors are suitable, being eco-
nomic and reliable in operation. Care should be exercised
when selecting the wattage rating of the series resistor,
particularly in thyristor rectifiers in which phase-control
firing is used, with an allowance made for the harmonic
content of the load current.
78
By using one or more of the available techniques for transient
voltage protection, semiconductor rectifiers may be pro-
tected from all normal conditions and will provide reliable
service for many years. Unusual conditions such as very
close lightning strikes are virtually impossible to suppress;
fortunately these are uncommon and may be discounted as
being beyond normal engineering requirements.
 Chapter 9

Heatsinks

D R Henderson Grad/ERE and T C Sidwell

Marston Excelsior Ltd

To electronic engineers a heat sink is a piece of metal

constructed in a particular manner to which a semi-
conductor device is usually attached and which acts
mainly as a heat drain. Thus the term sink is something of
a misnomer - heat dissipator or heat radiator might more
accurately describe its function.

Very few, if any, rectifier assemblies do not include a heat

sink as an essential component. In most assemblies its
presence cannot be ignored so it is surprising to find that
such an important component in the assembly is treated
almost invariably as a afterthought. A rectifier assembly
cannot function properly without a heat sink

THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS

All semiconductors are temperature sensitive and semi-

conductor manufacturers' data sheets state maximum
junction temperature for the device. Typical figures are
85C for germanium diode rectifiers, 150-l75C for
silicon diode rectifiers and 125C for thyristors.

When the device junction temperature is exceeded some

type of failure is likely to occur and it is usually catas-
trophic - for instance, damage to the junction, melting
of internal elements-producing either an open circuit
condition or short circuiting of the device. It is thus seen
that the thermal aspect of operating a semiconductor
device is an important factor.

On the grounds of reliability also, the lower the junction

temperature of the device the more reliable the device.
Reliability is inversely proportional to temperature.

Junction temperature is the product of power and thermal

resistance added to the ambient temperature (more usually
case temperature) and can be derived from the following:
Ti = (cp x W) + Ta
79
where;
1j = Junction Temperature oc
T. = Ambient Temperature oc
Thermal Resistance C(W
</> =
W = Power Watts

It is usual to consider the thermal path from junction to

ambient by means of the electrical analogue shown in
Fig. 1.
It is seen that :
</>j-a = </>j-c + <Pe-s + </>s-a
where;
<Pi-a = Thermal resistance, Junction to
Ambient Temperature
<Pi-c = Thermal resistance, Junction to
Case or Stud Temperature
<Pe-s = Thermal resistance, case to sink
Temperature (contact resistance)
<Ps-a = Thermal resistance, Sink to Ambient
Temperature
The thermal resistance of the device junction to case is
decided by the construction of the device. Thus having
selected a device for its duty in terms of other parameters,
the design engineer can only control the type of heat sink
Fig. 2. Natural convection rectifier assembly. (Courtesy
and the mounting of the device. M ullard Ltd.)

DESIGN FACTORS Although a great deal of reliability has been built into
Several factors must be considered so that the heat sink to such components the equipment will be intrinsically prone
be used achieves the required overall thermal resistance. to failure at some time, even if only wear and tear of the
These factors are not given in any particular order - only moving parts cause breakdown. The design must therefore
the designer can decide his priorities. be subordinate to the normal laws of physics. It is therefore
necessary to examine the circuit diagram carefully, decide
Concept of Equipment Design juxtapositioning in relation to the values given to com-
Adequate provision for cooling may result in too large a ponents and attempt to assess the ambient conditions
space being required for the equipment. To reduce this applicable.
space purpose designed cooling methods will have to be
use<h_It is extremely important to attempt to assess the Methods of Cooling and Cooling Media
total heat generated by The equipment at an early stage These factors are discussed in more detail later under the
because the <P of the heat sink is determined by the sur- heading operating characteristics' Briefly there are six
rounding ambient temperature. If the concept dictates possible ways of cooling a heat sink:
total solid state, it may not be possible to achieve the
required 4> in the space available without introducing (i) By naturally convected air- Fig. 2 illustrates a heat
mechanical components such as fans, blowers or pumps. sink assembly relying upon this method.
(ii) By assisting the air flow with a small fan or blower-
Fig. 3 illustrates a heat sink assembly, the performance of
Fig. 1. Electrical analogue of the thermal path from junction which is increased by a factor of three by using this method.
to ambient. (iii) By forcing a known mass of air through the heat sink
-JUNCTION TEMP (C
-Figs. 4, 5 and 6 illustrate examples of this type of heat
sink which cannot function as natural convection types.
CS> j -c
(iv) By forcing liquid through the heat sink - Fig. 7
CASE TEMP(C) illustrates an example of this type. The liquid can be water,
POWER
DISSIP4TED <Pc -s CP J -a. or a low temperature fluid which can reduce the tempera-
(WATTS.)
-HEAT SINK TEMP(C) ture of the heat sink to a value below the ambient tem-
<Ps-e~ perature.
-AMBIENT TEMP ("c) (v) By using thermoelectric devices between semiconduc-
tor device and heat sink, giving a similar effect to that of
using a low temperature fluid.

80
(vi) By using the change of state of a solid or liquid.
In cases (i~ (ii) and (iii) the cooling medium is the one
usually found in abundance- air; in case (iv) water,
chilled water; in case (v) thermoelectric elements usually
made from bismuth telluride and in case (vi) a refrigerant.
Other factors which must receive consideration are:
Space. A particular type of heat sink chosen to work in a
particular medium decides the space required to house it.
Position in equipment. The thermal resistance is affected by
the surrounding medium and the neighbouring equipment.
Type of material. The required ljJ, coupled with the method
of manufacture and the cost usually determines the material
to be used. This is usually, but not necessarily, an aluminium
alloy.
More than one device per heat sink. It-is sometimes necessary.
because of electrical circuit characteristics and economics
from space and cost viewpoints to fit more than one
device to a heat sink. The method of determining the
necessary heat sink is discussed in the paragraph entitled
Operating Characteristics.
Necessity for electrical isolation of devices sharing the
same heat sink. The same remarks applied to the above
factor can apply here. The factor to be considered is the
increase in the ljJ to the flow of heat from the device insulated
from the heat sink; therefore its position on the heat sink is
important.
Resistance against corrosion. The atmosphere in which the
heat sink is to operate and the difference between the
device and heat sink materials can both affect the choice
of material.
Fig. 3. Natural or assisted convection heat sink as embly for a
double-sided device. (Courtesy Wakefield Engineering Inc.)
Manufacturing methods. Usually the type of heat sink
chosen will determine th~ manufacturing method. However
the material chosen can also affect the manufacturing
method used.
Cost. Cost is not a technical consideration but it may be
the factor which determines concept, thus dictating the
final design. All components and manufacturing methods
will be examined if cost is of paramount importance and
it is doubtful if the heat sink will escape this scrutiny.
Before deciding that a chosen heat sink is 'too expensive'
or 'too big' (very relative terms), it is important to judge its
effectiveness in relation to all other factors considered in
the final design.
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Consider each thermal resistance in the thermal diagram
Fig. 1.
The internal thermal resistance l/Ji-c of the device is deter-
mined by the construction of the device. Thus the thermal
resistance, and the electrical characteristics of the device
being used, should be considered together at the design stage.
The contact resistance lf1c-s at the interface between semi-
conductor and the heat sink can vary greatly. The mounting
face of the semiconductor is not perfectly flat, neither is
the mounting face of the heat sink, unless expensive
machining, to achieve a flat face, is carried out. Clamping
pressure between the two faces can also vary. The manu-
facturers recommended torque for fitting devices should
never be exceeded. Exceeding the recommended torque
figure may cause mechanical damage or stress that will
ultimately lead to malfunctioning of the device, even though
it may improve contact resistance.
Contact resistance can be minimised by the use of metallic
oxide filled silicone greases. The grease applied as a thin
layer to the mounting interfaces fills all the voids and ensures
the minimum contact resistance. The contact resistance is
dependent upon area of contact also; thus high power
rectifiers have large mounting faces and high power triacs
have two sides to be cooled (see Fig 3).
It is often necessary to electrically insulate the device from
the heat sink and yet at the same time it is essential to
achieve a good thermal contact between the device and
the heat sink. Mica washers are usually used for this
purpose and, in some cases, hard anodised washers. These
washers add to the contact resistance and both sides of
the washer must have a layer of silicone grease applied to
ensure good thermal contact.
Thermal Resistance of the heat sink q,....,
The obvious heat sink is the chassis of the equipment but
rectifier equipment is usually purpose built to be incor-
porated into other equipment; the rectifier stack concept.
81

Fig. 4. Force cooled heat sink assembly. ( Courtesy Wakefield
Engineering Inc.)
The most simple heat sink is the flat plate, but the larger
the power to be dissipated the larger the plate required to
achieve the desired cooling. The flat plate is improved by
the addition of fins to the-plate. The efficiency of this type
of heat sink then depends upon the pitch and height of the
fins and it will give its optimum performance when the
plate is vertical This is a natural convection heat sink
(Fig. 2).
The performance of a natural convection heat sink can be
improved by moving air over it by means of a fan (assisted
convection) in which case the rjJ of the heat sink is more than
halved. Apart from introducing the reliability aspect of the
fan, the heat sink designed for natural convection operation
is not as effective as a heat sink purpose designed for forced
cooling.
Purpose designed force cooled heat sinks meet the demand
for compact cooling and the shape (when using the finned
plate concept) changes form as shown in Fig. 4 The efficiency
of a force cooled heat sink depends upon the mass of air,
length of fins and the pitch of fins which are much narrower
than in natural convection types The type of sink shown in
Fig. 4 is useful when devices have to be insulated from each
other.
More compact cooling is achieved by using water as the
cooling medium. The replacement of water-cooled ignitrons
82
by water-cooled triacs is a typical example. When even
more efficient cooling methods need to be used and readily
available types cannot be employed, purpose built heat
sinks must be designed- examples are shown in Figs. 5,
6 and 7.
The mode of operation, in all heat sinks, is the conducting
of heat through the metal of the heat sink away from the
small area of the mounting surface of the device attached
to it into the ambient medium. Radiation plays a part
in natural convection heat sinks and thus, to achieve
better radiation, such types are usually coloured matt
black. A matt black or any other matt surface finish does
not improve the performance of assisted convection, force
cooled, or water cooled, heat sinks. The use of a finish does
however meet aesthetic requirements and in addition will
provide corrosion protection.
Performance curves for heat sinks are presented in various
forms. For each type of natural convection heat sink made
from an extrusion a family of curves is published showing
temperature rise against watts dissipated. The slope of these
curves gives the heat sink r/J.
It is thus possible that several natural convection designs
are available to meet the required r/J. Space availability
will eliminate some types when designs utilising the
available space more efficiently will be favoured. Curves are
also given to show the improvement in performance when
air is blown over the surface of a natural convection
designed heat sink, the optimum limit being in the region
of 50 metres/second.
Performance of force-cooled heat sinks is given as a family
of curves showing rjJ against air flow but other factors have
also to be considered, such as the type of fan to be used and
the length of the assembly, all factors being inter-dependent.
Fig. 5. Purpose built rectifier heat sink, dip-brazed construc-
tion. Not suitable for NC operation.
 In rectifier applications it is often desirable to mount
more than one device on a heat sink. The performance
of the heat sink is improved because of the greater tem-
perature difference between heat sink and ambient atmos-
phere, but it should be remembered that the upstream device
will be working at a higher case temperature. Thus if a
rectifier and a thyristor are mounted on the same heat
sink, the rectifier should be mounted above the thyristor
because it can operate at a higher junction temperature.

CONSTRUCTION
Heat sinks can be made by forming sheet metal into the
requisite shape (fabrication), by forming and attaching the
constituent fabricated parts one with another (brazed or
welded fabrication), by casting (either gravity, low-, or
high-pressure die casting) or by extruding (making a two
dimensional fixed shape in varying lengths).

In the manufacture of the majority of rectifier and thyristor

Fig. 6. Purpose built chassis member for forced cooling assemblies, the favoured method is the aluminium alloy
6 x T03 devices. Dip-brazed construction. Not suitable for extrusion, the length of a particular pattern of which
NC operation. determines the performance.

Aluminium alloy has most of the requirements sought in a

material chosen to make a heat sink. It conducts heat
The performance of heat sinks can be affected as follows:
away from the device at an accepted rate; it is malleable
and can therefore be relatively easily fashioned into a
In natural convection types. The curves published by
shape ; it can be readily extruded and given a surface finish
manufacturers show optimum performance when the heat
having good heat transfer properties (flatness, freedom from
sink is orientated in tin axis, plate axis vertical position and
distortion, freedom from surface roughness) ; it is abundant
with the device fitted centrally onto it.
and it is not too costly. Copper is far superior to aluminium
When the heat sink is orientated in a plate horizontal alloy as a conductor and its heat storing capacity is better.
position, performance drops by approximately 15 % ; But volume for volume, the copper heat sink can better the
orientated in a fm axis horizontal and plate vertical position, _performance of its aluminium alloy counterpart by not
performances drops approximately 25 %. much more than 10 %. Thus a saving of 10% in volume
would be bought at a very high price.
Adjacent bodies, which include heat sinks dissipating heat,
also cause a drop in performance and so do chassis or
cabinet panels which interrupt air flow. In general at Fig. 7. Purpose built heat sink for 8 x T03 devices in which
least 50 rnm clearance should be allowed between adjacent a liquid could be used. Dip-brazed construction.
hot bodies or chassis plates. To obtain optimum per-
formance a clearance of at least 75 rnm should be allowed
between heat sinks mounted one above the other.

The maximum drop in performance compared with free

air conditions occurs when heat sinks are mounted side
by side, 6 rnm apart, 6rnm above a chassis panel and with
the solid cabinet 6 rnm above the heat sink - the drop in
performance under these conditions is approximately 60 %.

Performance of the heat sink can be improved by the

chimney effect, that is mounting the heat sink vertically
within an enclosure open at top and bottom.

It must be further borne in mind that an increase in altitude

will cause a drop in performance - at least 10% can be
expected at a height of 1 500 metres.
83
The basic shape of an extruded heat sink appears so simple
that it may seem an innocent act to copy it. However, it is
important to note that heat sinks, as with other components,
are protected by copyright which must not be infringed.
Figs. 2, 3 and 4 illustrate heat sinks made from aluminium
alloy extrusion; Figs. 5, 6 and 7 illustrate heat sinks, the
constituent parts of which have been joined together by
the process known as flux dip-brazing.
Generally the larger the value of 4> the smaller the heat
sink. In rectifier assemblies it is possible to find designs
which will give a natural convection performance as good
as 0.15Cjwatt and fabrications can be produced to give
almost any desired 4> at a price. However, relatively inex-
pensive heat sink assemblies using forced air cooling,
occupying approximately 4000 cm 3 , can dissipate at least
1kW.
TRENDS
High power semiconductor devices will always need some
form of heat sink, even if the junction temperature limits
are raised and the internal thermal resistance falls to a
negligible amount. Within the foreseeable future, the heat
sinks used to cool present day devices will be used for
84
higher power devices thus achieving a greater economy of
space. How long it will be before devices can be used without
a heat sink, or with a type of heat sink whose form and
mode of operation are as yet unknown, is a matter for
conjecture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Heat Transmission. W McAdam.
Compact Heat Exchangers. W M Kays and A L London.
Cooling Electronic Equipment. Allan D Kraus.
SCR Manual - Second Edition. Issued by General Electric
Co. USA.
The Controlled Rectifier, Vol 1 of series issued by The
International Rectifier Co. USA.
An Introduction to the Art of Heat Sinking. Electronic
Packing and Production. July, 1966.
9 Ways to Improve Heat Sink Performance. Electronic
Products October, 1966.
How to Measure Heat Sink Characteristics for High
Power Applications. EEE Magazine-July, 1965.
Torque and Thermal Resistance. Electronics 7th September,
1964.
Metals Reference Book. C J Smithells.
Silicone Zener diode and Rectifier Handbook. Issued by
Motorola Inc. USA.
Patents, Trademarks, Copyright and Industrial Design.
T A Blanco-White Q C and Robin Jacob.
 Chapter 10

Single-Phase
Rectifiers

J C McGill CEng MIEE

Weir Electronics Ltd

The overwhelming advantages of a.c. power generation

and distribution create an obvious need for rectifiers to
locally convert this a.c. power to d.c. for a multitude of
applications. High power requirements usually adopt
polyphase rectifiers to provide an even loading of the
generating equipment and low ripple. Far greater in
number, however, are the uses of the low power single-
phase rectifier. These are found in great abundance in both
industrial and consumer electrical and electronic equip-
ment. For example, radio, television, electric instruments,
desk calculators, computers, office copiers, battery elimi-
nators, etc.

The design and construction of practical ac/dc converters

requires considerable auxiliary equipment in addition to
the basic rectifier. For instance, transformers, chokes and/or
capacitors for smoothing are typical of those components
needed to arrive at a reliable working design.

The commonly used single-phase rectifiers, the half wave,

the biphase and the bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 1,
with their appropriate ideal waveforms. The voltage
doubler might be included in this list, but is dealt with
under a separate heading.

When considering the behaviour of any of the circuits it is

necessary to take into account the input impedance as well
as the load resistance, particularly when considering
certain types of output filters. This impedance includes the
resistance of the transformer winding and the reflected
impedance of the primary circuit, the forward resistance
of the rectifier and any additional series resistance. The
transformer leakage reactance has an effect but, unless
specifically designed-in to provide a surge limit capability,
can generally be considered negligible. The present trend
is for 'transformerless' power supplies that rectify the
mains directly and then use a high frequency d.c./d.c.
converter. In such cases only the supply impedance can be
accounted and, in general, it is imperative to insert series
resistance.

85
 ....
Vs
Rs

.
Vs

rm
HALF WAVE BIPHASE BRIDGE

Fig. 1. Commonly used single-phase rectifiers.

I 2R
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER Average output power= V0 I 0 = ~
1[

The circuit of a half wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 2 and the I 2 R

output waveforms illustrated. Since power is fed to the True output power = M
4 L

load for only half a period, the ripple voltage is high and
when considering filter requirements, it will be seen that
.
Input power to rectifier =
V. I
M M =
(R+
s
RJ I 2
M
the output voltage varies considerably with changes in 4 4
the load current. Such a circuit is often used for low power
applications where economy of design is of prime impor- Rectifier efficiency '1R = 0406 RL
tance and a high output ripple content can be tolerated. Rs + RL
Basic Circuit Ripple y = 1.212
The following basic parameters apply to the circuit shown
in Fig. 1 and may be obtained by analysis of the waveforms: Transformer design parameters

Average load current, I 0 = IM/n Secondary voltage Vs = 2.22 V0

1 V. R
Average load voltage, V0 = - M L
Secondary current Is = n I 0 j2 = 1.57 I 0
n Rs + RL
Effective load current I 0 rms = IM/2 Secondary voltjamp rating Vs Is = 3.49 V0 I 0

Hence the rectifier design parameters can be calculated. Transformer primary current. The primary winding can
contain no d.c. component. Hence :

Fig. 2. Half wave rectifier circuit with resistive load. Ip rms = 1.21 I 0 Ns where Ns is the turns ratio.
Np Np

Primary voltjamp rating, Vp Ip = 2.7 V0 I 0

The above derivations apply to half wave rectifier circuits

with resistive loads. The maximum rectification efficiency
of the circuit is 40.6% and transformer utilisation poor.

The ripple across the load is rather high at 121% of the mean
output voltage and it is for this reason that filtering is
generally adopted.

A----ffi--~--A- Half wave rectifier circuit with capacitive

input fdter
RECTIFIED OUTPUT WAVEFORM
' By connecting a capacitor across the load of the circuit,
energy may be stored during the rectifier conducting
period and released during the non-conducting period.
86
 The ripple voltage is at the same frequency as that of the
applied voltage and its amplitude is a function of the
input resistor R 8 , the load resistor RL and the capacitor C.

Considerable work has been carried out on the analysis of

rectifier circuits with capacitive input filters 1 but none have
provided a design procedure simpler than the graphical
IDEAL
analysis carried out by 0 H Schade3 in his paper on
'Analysis of Rectifier Operation'. Although this was
initially considered for vacuum diodes and mercury vapour
diodes, the method is equally applicable to silicon recti-
fiers. The design charts provided in this chapter serve to
illustrate his method.

Circuit behaviour. For a power supply, the required output

Fig. 3. Half wave circuit with capacitive input filter.
voltage, load current and ripple content conditions are
usually known. The design must ensure that the trans-
former, rectifiers and reservoir capacitor are not operating
in excess of their individual specified ratings. The following
By a suitable choice of component values, continuous
calculations provide the necessary information to select
current will flow in the load resistor. The capacitor will
appropriate components.
charge until the transformer secondary voltage is reached,
and, as the input voltage falls, the rectifier is reverse biased
The series of curves provided by 0 H Schade for half wave
and the capacitor discharges into the load until such time
rectifiers are reproduced in Figs. 4 to 7 inclusive, and give:
as the supply voltage again exceeds the capacitor voltage.
The mean output voltage and hence load current, is
1. Ratio of mean d.c. to peak input voltages (Fig. 4).
increased by the presence of a capacitive filter, but the
2. rms ripple voltage per volt of mean d.c. output (Fig. 5).
rectifier conduction time is reduced, resulting in high peak
3. Ratio of rms to average current per rectifier (Fig. 6).
repetitive currents.
4. Ratio of peak to average current per rectifier for a range
of supply frequencies, filter capacitances and source
Although the idealised waveforms shown in Fig. 3 indicate
resistances (Fig. 7).
an instantaneous rise of current, in practice this is limited
by the time constant formed by the impedance of the
From these graphs it can be seen that the effect of source
supply and the reservoir capacitor.
resistance on the performance of the circuit is considerable,
but whereas mean output voltage is enhanced by a low
Fig. 4. Applied d.c. output voltage versus peak input voltage input resistance, ripple peak current, rms and surge currents
in half wave capacitive input filters. increase dramatically.

Capacitor specification. Two factors determine the value

of capacitor specified for a given load current: the mean
output voltage; the ripple content.

The ratio of mean d.c. output to peak a.c. input voltage,

plotted against values of wCRL for various input to load
resistance ratios, provides a family of curves, Fig. 4. In
general they illustrate a marked decline in mean output
voltage for a given input below a value of wCRL of approxi-
~
a:: mately 20. This, therefore, provides a minimum value of
-25 '
a::~ capacitance that would provide a suitable design. Any
-35 increase in capacitance does not noticeably affect the
50 mean d.c. output level but will have a marked affect on the
-60 ripple content.
40 -so
-100 Fig. 5 shows rms ripple as a percentage of the mean d.c.
output level. The minimum value of wCRL previously
determined provides a ripple content between seven and
wCR, IC IN FARADS, RL IN ll)
eight pt:r cent and any improvement can only be attained
by an increase in capacitance, ie doubling the value approxi-
mately halves the ripple. If the requirement is for low
ripple voltage this will determine the capacitance value.
87
 .&_ o/o
CIRCUIT PARAMETER 6 nR
R5 /RL% LOAD 002

f"
A ,01
HALF-WAVE ~:- 10 5 005
--- 30
VOLTAGE- DOUBLER ---0 I 01
--- 10 <:::>
_-' 0 I I- 4
i!l1 --- I 0 <l 02
--- 10 ll:
w --- 30 05
(.!) ~
A
<l
~ 4
)3 I
0 2
> 5
10
2 30
100

OLI--~LLLU~I0~~~~~10~0~~-WU7~
nwCRL (C IN FARADS, RL IN.Q)
2000 n = I FOR HALF WAVE
n = 2 FOR FULL WAVE
Fig. 6. Ratio of rms rectifier current/average current per
Fig. 5. RMS ripple voltage for capacitive input filters. rectifier in capacitive input circuits.

Having defined the capacitance value the capacitor must
be capable of withstanding the maximum peak input
voltage and the ripple current. The capacitor is periodically
charged when the supply voltage exceeds the capacitor
voltage and discharged during the interim period. The
current flowing within the capacitor is defined as the ripple
current and can be calculated from the rms current flowing
through each rectifier and the mean d.c. output current:
Ripple current = .j(I'ft - I~).
The rms rectifier current can be estimated from the curve
Fig. 6 where again the input resistance has a marked effect.
In this instance a decrease in source resistance provides an
increase of peak current and thus rms value.
With an input resistance in the order of 5% the rms current
per rectifier will be approximately 2.4 times the average
current per rectifier and provide a ripple current within
the capacitor of 2.18 / 0 Whereas modem capacitor tech-
nology is providing single units capable of accepting high
ripple currents, in the past, the use of several units in
parallel has been necessary to satisfy the ripple current
rating.
Rectifier specificatioJL
Amongst the rated rectifier
parameters are mean currents, peak inverse voltage, peak
repetitive current and surge CJ.lrrent.
With a capacitive load, the cathode of the rectifier will be
maintained at near peak voltage while the a.c. input
swings to its most negative point. At this instant the rectifier
Fig. 7 shows the relationship of repetitive peak current
against average current. A peak repetitive current of
approximately 7 x 10 is obtained for the 5% Rs ratio
considered earlier, and although rectifiers are usually
specified for their mean d.c. output requirement, the peak
repetitive capability becomes dominant in this application.
The most critical of rectifier parameters is probably its
surge rating. Initially the capacitor is completely discharged
and the load on the rectifier at the point of switch on is
effectively a short circuit. The current through the rectifier
under this condition is limited only by the source resistance.
A device of suitable surge rating must be selected or the
inclusion of a small amount of series resistance must be
considered to limit the surge to within device capability ;
the latter also affecting the mean output voltage which,
in turn, necessitates a higher input voltage to maintain its
original level.
Fig. 7. Peak to average current per rectifier in capacitive
input circuits.
I FOR HALF-WAVE SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
n= { 2 FOR FULL-WAVE SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
'lz FOR VOLTAGE- DOUBLING CIRCUITS
C IN FARADS
R, INn RI R%
-~"""""" ~~~
-----------5
------------------------30
3141- ~

has approximately twice the peak supply voltage across

it and must be rated for such. In practice avalanche rectifiers,
~LL~I~I~Iull~luii~II~IILL~Iull~ll~l~llwll~1~1~1~1~11~1~11~1~111~1~1~11~11ui~ILWIIII
I 10 100 1000
nwCRL
or rectifiers of at least twice this rating ie 4 x VM are
considered necessary to withstand spurious spikes that
occur on mains supplies.

88
 under a single heading. They differ only in transformer
rating and rectifier peak inverse voltage.

Rectifier design parameters (Bridge and biphase)

08 Average load current, 10 = 21Min
~
I-
z
UJ
a: 2 R
a: Average load voltage, V0 = - R L VM
:::>
u 7t s + RL
0
<t
0

~;
~

Effective load current, 10 rms =

~L=IO
From these the rectifier design parameters can be calculated
I "'--L---.-J and give:
270 360
ANGLE
4
Fig. 8. The effect of change of inductance on the output Average output power. V0 10 = 2 1~ RL
7t
current watJeform with an inductive input filter. R 1, constant.

I 2 R
True output power. V0 rms = M
2 L

Transformer specification. As already mentioned the trans-

former utilisation is poor. With capacitive loading the Input power to the rectifier:
secondary rmsjmean current has increased from 1.57 to 2.4 (a) for a bridge rectifier,
resulting in a related increase of both primary and secondary
ratings for a given output power. The secondary peak p _ VM IM _ (Rs + RJ 1 2
input - - 2- - 2 M
applied voltage and rms rectifier current has been deter-
mined previously and thus primary and secondary ratings
can be calculated. (b) for a biphase rectifier,
VM IM (RL + RJ 1M 2
Half wave circuits with inductive input fdters pinput = --:J2 = ..;2
The disadvantages of the capacitor ftlter are the repetitive
currents and the initial surges that occur. An inductor is
Rectifier efficiency :
frequently used to reduce the inrush current and provide
further reduction of ripple.
(a) for a bridge rectifier,
On its own, an inductor would merely extend the time of
= 28 R . 812%
RL R ze . 0 max.
conduction through the load, requiring infinite inductance fiR
7t S + L
to provide continuous current. When the current is above
its average value energy is stored in the inductor; when the (b) for a biphase rectifier,
current is below the average value, the stored energy is
released. Fig. 8 shows the relationship of current and 4../2 RL .
ze 57.5 %max.
0
fiR =- 2- R
conduction angle with various values of inductive reactance. 7t s + RL
This illustrates the increase in conduction for increasing
inductive reactance-to-load resistance ratios. The ripple
increases with reduction of load which is the converse of Transformer design parameters
the capacitive input ftlter. By combining the two, therefore, (a) Bridge circuit
an improvement in filter characteristics can be obtained.
Secondary voltage, Vs = 1.11 V0
The simple inductive ftlter is seldom used on it own with a
half wave rectifier circuit. Secondary current, Is = 1.1110
Secondary rating, Ys Is = 1.23 V0 10

Transformer primary current, lp = 1.11 ~s 10

p

FULL WAVE BRIDGE AND Primary rating, Vp lp = 1.23 V0 10

BIPHASE RECTDITERS
The output voltage characteristics of both bridge and The peak inverse voltage across the rectifier is equal to the
biphase rectifiers are similar and are, therefore, dealt with peak value of the transformer secondary voltage.

89
(b) Biphase circuit
100 Rs/RL%
05

t::Jj.t
Secondary voltage, Vs = 1.11 E0
90
Secondary current, Is = 0. 785 I 0 Em 2
Secondary rating, Vs Is = 1. 74 Vo I 0 80
. N --6
Primary current, Ip = 1.11 ~ I 0 70
Np --10
Primary rating, Vp Ip = 1.23 I 0 V0 ae 60
E 15
>
A brief comparison of the two circuits is as follows : '
0
> 50
25
(i) The biphase rectifier requires a centre tapped winding
with each half conducting for only half a period and the 40 35

rectifiers have to withstand twice the peak voltage. The 50

circuit, however, requires only two rectifying units. 70
90
100
(ii) The bridge rectifier requires only half the reverse
rating of the biphase but the transformer utilisation is
improved as current flows in a single winding for the full 10

period.
0 I
wCRL ( C IN FARADS. RL JN.UJ
Single-phase full wave rectifier circuits with Fig. 9. D.C. output voltage versus peak input voltage in a
capacitive filters full wave capacitive input circuit.
The filter for the full wave circuit is similar to that of the
half wave, but smaller values of capacitor are usually Capacitive Ripple current I. = .J(2 IR 2 - I 0 2 ).
sufficient to obtain the same ripple factor since the capacitor I R is equal to the rms current flowing in each rectifier
is recharged every half cycle and the discharge period is
and can be determined from the relationship of rms rectifier
shorter. current and mean current plotted against roCRL for the
full wave rectifier Fig. 7 (n = 2). Since the mean current
The full wave rectifier is more commonly used than the
per rectifier is halved for a given load current the value of rms
half wave since rectification efficiency and transformer
rectifier current will be half that of the half wave circuit.
utilisation is superior. The ripple voltage is twice the
supply frequency and amplitude and is again a function of
The example quoted for the half wave rectifier showed the
load resistance, input impedance and capacitance value.
ripple current to be 2.18 I 0 whereas for the full wave circuit
The graphical analysis by 0 H Schade includes curves
this will be :
relating output voltage and transformer/rectifier currents
to the load time constant function (Fig. 9).

Capacitor specifiution. As for the half wave circuit the = 1.37 I 0

two factors that determine the value of capacitor for a given
load current are mean output voltage and ripple content.
The family of curves in Fig. 9 indicate that, for a value of
roCRL below a value of 10, the mean level falls rapidly and
the ripple increases. This therefore sets a minimum value of
capacitance. An increase above this value does not notice-
ably affect the output voltage level but does provide an
improvement in the ripple content as the curves in Fig. 5
show.
Circuit considerations do not, in general, limit the capaci-
tance value. This is limited by available space andjor,
cost considerations.
Having established the value of capacitance to provide the
necessary output level and ripple content, the ripple
current must be determined to ensure that an adequately
rated capacitor is chosen. To exceed ripple ratings reduces
capacitor life considerably and adversely affects reliability.
90
The requirements of the capacitor are therefore greatly
reduced compared with the half wave rectifier. Alternatively
greater output levels of voltage and current can be achieved
with a similarly rated capacitor.
Rectifier specification. At switch-on the capacitor has no
charge and therefore initially looks like a short circuit. The
current is limited only by the input resistance of the supply,
the transformer, rectifiers and any additional resistance.
The selected rectifier must therefore be capable of with-
standing this surge current for at least one half cycle while
the capacitor charges. Subsequent half cycles will have
reduced surges until the capacitor has reached steady
operating conditions.
Under steady operating conditions the rectifiers will only
conduct for a period determined by the load resistance and
input impedance. The peak and rms currents flowing in
the rectifier during the conduction period are high and
are normally the limiting factor of the rectifier rating. The
curves of peak current and rms current as ratios of mean
current in the rectifier (Figs. 6 and 7), provide the necessary
information to select the appropriate component.
Transformer specification. The transformer for the full
wave bridge and biphase rectifier differs only in the secon-
dary winding considerations. The secondary winding of
the biphase requires twice the voltage and is centre tapped;
current is flowing in only one half of the winding at any
one time. Since the mean current, and hence rms current
per rectifier, is identical in both cases, the secondary current
in the biphase is equal to the rectifier rms current whereas,
for the bridge rectifier, it is equal to ,J2 rms current. The
biphase secondary VA as described for the basic rectifier
circuit equals 2Vs Is. For the bridge it is ,J2 Vs Is. This
represents a difference of approximately 40% in secondary
utilisation which in turn means a 20% increase in trans-
former size for a given output requirement with a biphase
circuit. It is essential to use the bridge rectifier where it is
necessary to limit transformer size.
Single-phase full wave rectifier circuits with
inductive filters
As with the single-phase rectifier the inductive filter is
generally used in conjunction with an output capacitor to
form an L section filter. The L section filter combines the
decreasing ripple with increasing load of the series inductor,
with the increase in ripple with increase in load of the
capacitive filter.
Ideally the choke input filter passes only direct voltage and
attenuates all a.c. components. The inductor forms a high
series impedance to a.c. and the capacitor a low impedance
shunt path.
Assuming the choke has an inductance value L and neg-
ligible resistance, and that the shunt capacitor C has a
reactance very much less than the load resistance, then the
filter will have an attenuation factor:
K = aiLC- 1 If K ~ 1 then K ~ w 2 LC
The value of inductance should be such as to allow the
rectifier to conduct over one cycle of the fundamental ripple
frequency. The current transfers instantly from one rectifier
to another each time the supply voltage passes zero. As
the load current reduces the energy stored in the choke
reduces and, ultimately, is insufficient to maintain contin-
uous conduction in the load The inductance value to main-
tain conduction at a particular load current is termed
'critical inductance'. Reduction of load current below this
point causes voltage soaring which increases to the peak
value of the input supply at zero load condition.
It is fundamental to rectifier operation that the output
current cannot be negative and therefore, at the point
where the peak a.c. current in the filter is equal to the d.c.
load current, the inductive current must become dis-
continuous, and undirectional current flows into the
filter capacitor. This will result in an increase in its voltage,
and hence load voltage, until balance is obtained.
Determination of critical inductance. If it is assumed that
the attenuation factor is large ie XL ~ x. then the basic
rectifier output ripple will appear entirely across the choke.
The value of ripple component can be derived by means of
a Fourier Series giving:
. eI component amp1"ttude = -
Rtpp 4VM
n(n _ 1)
If the amplitudes of the higher harmonic are considered
negligible then :
Fundamental ripple amplitude = 4 ~M
Hence the amplitude of ripple current:
and critical inductance is reached when the peak a.c.
current equals the d.c.
. RL
Lc = 3w
Since the higher harmonics have been ignored it is neces-
sary to have a slightly higher value of inductance than that
calculated, but experience shows the error to be small and
can be adequately covered by designing an inductance of
some 20% higher.
Clearly to avoid voltage soaring at zero load current an
infinite inductance would be required and therefore the
practical design relies on maintaining current flow over
as wide a range as possible. This is achieved by two means.
The use of a swinging choke whose inductance increases
as the load is reduced, and by the inclusion of a bleeder
resistance such that the minimum load current is fixed
at a value that will satisfy the critical inductance condition.
Having determined the critical inductance value and know-
ing the maximum current level in the load, the choke must
be designed within the temperature rise allowable. These
two factors determine the size of the inductor.
Capacitor specification. Providing the condition<> are such
that continuous current flows in the load, the capacitor
ripple current is determined directly from the rectifier
ripple voltage and choke inductance. The demands on the
capacitor are therefore not as arduous as in the capacitive
input filter.
The value of capacitor must be such as to provide the
desired output ripple. Since the input ripple voltage is
91
known the attenuation factor can be determined:
K = ~ut ri~ple = w 2 LC _ 1
Output npple '
w, = 2nfr and fr = ripple frequency
Knowing the value of inductance the capacitance can be
calculated. In practice the load resistor in parallel with the
filter capacitor assists the ripple attenuation but for the
purposes of calculation this can be ignored, particularly as
it has been stipulated that X c ~ RL.
Precautions must be taken when variable loads are applied
to this circuit configuration since the capacitor forms a
resonant circuit with the choke. At resonance the output
impedance will be greater than the capacitive reactance
and high ripple voltages will be experienced.
Rectifier specification. Such a circuit provides the rectifiers
with a constant current, commutating each half cycle
between respective elements. Each rectifier rating can be
determined without resorting to curves or extended calcu-
lation, the mean current per rectifier being half the load
current with the mean and peak approximately equal
when th~ inductive reactance is high.
Transformer specification. The transformer design is deter-
mined by the output voltage and current requirements. The
secondary voltage can be calculated from the formula:
Where V 0 = mean output voltage.
Vc = mean forward volt drop ofthe rectifiers.
Rch = choke resistance.
10 = output current.
The value 1.125 allows for the slight distortion of the
input waveform from a sinusoid, due to the influence of the
rectifier.
The secondary current approximates to a square wave if
the choke inductance is high. As such the rrns value of
secondary current will be equal to the mean d.c. output for
the full wave bridge, or 1/J2 the mean d. c. output for the
biphase.
GENERAL CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS
Thus far basic circuit configurations have been discussed
which, given ideal conditions, will provide a suitable design.
In practice however, precautions have to be taken to protect
against mains borne voltage spikes, switching transients
and carrier storage of rectifiers. In addition series or
parallel operation of rectifiers may be desirable and the
circuit should be protected against overloads.
Protection against over-voltage transients
Transformers, chokes and capacitors are relatively tolerant
towards voltage spikes, particularly those of short duration
92
having very little energy consequence. The rectifiers how-
ever, are more susceptible to damage from this cause.
The reverse voltage across a rectifier unit should never
be allowed to exceed its peak rated voltage. In a bridge
rectifier this is J2 v. and for the phase or half wave can
be 2J2V. However, this can be subject to the following
errors:
Variations of supply voltage.
Transformer voltage tolerances.
Distortion of the input waveform from a pure sine wave--
particularly odd harmonic distortion.
Voltage surges.
The first three factors are, in general, small and can be
designed within the limits of the component. The fourth
factor however, is often difficult to determine and empirical
allowances have to be made, particularly for those spikes
transmitted down the supply lines.
The level of transient spikes passed by the transformer can
be greatly reduced by the inclusion of an electrostatic
screen between the primary and secondary windings. An
input filter may, in some circumstances, be desirable but
in many cases a purely capacitive filter will be adequate, as
the line presents an appreciable impedance to high fre-
quencies. Further work haS also been carried out by the
Electrical Research Association at Leatherhead, who have
published papers on the subject4
A further source of voltage surges is the transformer primary
inductance. At switch-off the interruption of primary
current can induce a high voltage sufficient to damage the
circuit on the secondary side. Since inductance cannot be
accurately maintained it is necessary to use empirical
means to determine the parameters of suppression networks.
In a bridge circuit the energy is absorbed by the output
tilter since one rectifier is always conducting. Half wave
suffers most with biphase almost at the bridge rectifier but
with secondary leakage inductance causing spike transfer.
In low voltage application, where the reverse rating of the
rectifier is often greatly in excess of the applied input
voltage, minimal protection is necessary and an electro-
static screen in the transformer with a low value of capacit-
ance across the rectifier is adequate. However, when the
supply voltage approaches the limiting values of rectifier
reverse voltage and high reliability is desirable, more
stringent precautions have to be taken.
The controlled avalanche rectifier provides the simplest
answer. With a reverse characteristic similar to that of a
Zener diode and with a capacity for absorbing a definite
amount of surge power, these devices provide their own
protection and, although in general slightly more expensive
than the conventional rectifier, they are cheaper than the
additional circuitry that would otherwise be required.
Alternative methods are surge suppressors, Zener diodes, SINGLE-PHASE
R/C suppressor networks and crowbar protection. The

'fi m ~
latter is used only in extreme cases where long duration HALF-
WAVE
CENTRE-TAP FULL-WAVE
FULL-WAVE BRIDGE
surges are likely or where a controlled a.c. input may for
some reason fail and cause the supply voltage to soar to a
critical level. TYPE OF
RECTIFIER
CIRCUIT
b - 0 +

Overcurrent protection .
~ l~
v, v,
For low current supplies demanding circuit economy, par- SECONDARY A 8
ticularly those followed by voltage regulators containing INPUT VOLTAGE

some form of current limiting, the problems of overcurrent

PER PHASE
\}I \ "'0:.. 8

-fu M. TM
ACAOSS8C
protection are generally reduced to protection against
component failure. Under such conditions excessive current OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Vm

may be drawn from the supply and it is necessary to dis- ACROSSa-b

0
vo

connect the unit from the supply by means of a circuit a b a b a b

breaker or fuse in order to protect the supply and external
NUMBEROF OUTPUTVOLTAGEPULSESPERCYCLE(n) I 2 2
connections.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE

V0 IN TERMSOF rms INPUTVOLTAGEPER PHASE y1 045V1 090V1 090V1

In addition, the cost of protection should be compared V0 IN TERMSOF rms OUTPUTVOLTAGEYo rms 0636V0 rm 090V0 rms 090 V0rms
with capital cost of the rectifying equipment and, particu- V0 IN TERMS OF PEAK OUTPUT VOLTAGE Ym 0318 Vm 0636Vm 06361 Vm
rms OUTPUT VOLTAGE V0 rms IN TERMS OF Yo I 57 V0 I II V0 I IIEV0
larly in single phase applications where the power require- PEAK OUTPUTVOLTAGE Ym IN TERMS OF Yo 3 14V0 I 57V0 I 57 V0
ments are low, this cost can be disproportionate. OUTPUT CURRENT

AVERAGECURRENTPER RECTIFIERLEG Io o-5Io 0510

The most sensitive component in a rectifier equipment is IR PER RECTIFIER LEG
R 157 I 0785 I 078510
o 707
usually the rectifier assembly and to protect adequately L
R 31410
070710
I 571 0 1 571 0
I0

this assembly it is necessary to provide a special semi- IM PER RECTIFIER LEG

L Io Io
conductor fuse designed to be compatible with the rectifier TRANSFORMER RATING
rating, or to sufficiently under-run the rectifier so that a SECONDARYrms VOLTAGEPER TRANSFORMER I II V0 I II V0
222V0
standard fuse is acceptable. LEG v, (TOCENTRE-TAP) (TOTAL)
I II I 0
rms CURRENTPER TRANSFORMER R 157 10 07851 0
SECONDARY
LEG 11 L 07071 0 lo
It is sometimes difficult to find suitable fuse ratings which SECONDARY VOLT-AMP VA,
R 348V0 10 174V0 10 123V0 10

adequately protect against long term overloads, but do L

R 0287
I 57V0 10
0574
Ill V0 10
0813
not rupture on non-harmful surges, and compromise SECONDARY UTILITY FACTOR U,
L 0-636 090

solutions have to be employed. (TRANSFORMERRATIO I I )

LEG
PRIMARYVOLTAGE PER TRANSFORMER 222 111 Ill

PRIMARY CURRENTPER TRANSFORMERLEG R I 57 10 I II 10 I II 10

Due to the relatively low cost of single . phase rectifier (TRANSFORMERRATIO I I ) L Io Io

R 348 V0 10 I 23 V0 10 I 23 V0 10
elements and bridges, the designer normally relies upon an PRIMARY VOLT-AMP VA,
L I II V0 10 I II V0 10
input fuse only, with perhaps a d.c. fuse covering a continual PRIMARY UTILITY FACTOR Up
R 0287 0813 0813

overload condition. The input fuse basically provides L 090 090

protection for the incoming supply should failure occur Table 1. Idealised rectifier circuit performances with resistive
within the rectifier equipment. The rating of the fuse must and inductive load.
be such as to withstand:

1. Normal full load current.

2 Input surge of the capacitive input filter if used.
3. Input surge of the transformer.

Items 1 and 2 can generally be calculated with reasonable

accuracy, but 3 is very much dependent on the transformer
geometry. This input surge is a function of the remanent flux
density that may exist in the core when the equipment is
switched otT. If the applied voltage at the instant of switch
on is such as to increase the flux, core saturation can occur
and the surge current is then limited by the saturation
characteristic of the iron and the primary and source
impedances. This is particularly noticeable on transformers
containing a large ironjcopper ratio which tend to operate
at high flux densities. To avoid this surge the flux density
can be limited by selecting an appropriate core material of
low residual magnetism and slow saturation characteristic.
Regrettably such techniques do not provide a compact
design and so the primary fuse has to be increased to
accommodate the additional surge.
Slow blow fuses are often considered ideal for this applica-
tion but they are limited in their fault current carrying
capability.

93
An additional protective measure is the inclusion of a
thermal fuse or cut out within the transformer. For example,
a shorted turn may not be detected by the input fuse, but
it can cause the transformer temperature to rise dramatically
resulting in a local fire within the transformer and a fire
risk in the associated equipment. Where this is particularly
hazardous specially designed thermal fuses or thermal
cut outs can be fitted to switch off the supply should the
temperature rise beyond a safe level.
Commutation spikes. Commutation spikes are often ignored
in single phase rectifiers as they are short in duration and
relatively low in amplitude. They are caused by the inter-
action of the transformer leakage inductance and the
recovery time of the rectifier.
Following forward conduction of current, the rectifier
is not immediately capable of supporting a reverse voltage
due to the recombination time of the electrons. During this
period reverse current flows and, when recovery occurs, the
current from the transformer suddenly ceases. The rate of
decay of current is fast and, coupled with the transformer
leakage inductance, induces a voltage spike. This is particu-
larly apparent when some form of regulation follows the d. c.
supply where the spike is capacitively coupled through the
regulator element and may appear on the output terminal.
This spike may be reduced considerably by the addition of
a capacitor across the a. c. terminal of the rectifier to absorb
the inductive energy.
SERIES/PARALLEL OPERATION OF
RECTIFIERS
Manufacturers provide adequate information on the
detailed series/parallel operation of rectifiers, however, it
must be stated that techniques are available to do both.
In the case of series arrangements it is necessary to provide
both static and dynamic voltage sharing. The former by
resistors connected across each element sufficient to
94
swamp the leakage resistance of the rectifiers, and the latter
by capacitors to swamp the rectifier capacitance.
For parallel operation the forward characteristic is not
sufficiently predictable to allow the rectifiers to be con-
nected directly in parallel and therefore resistors are often
used to swamp variations in characteristics. When high
current rectifiers are used dissipation may be an embarrass-
ment and inductors are then used for the same purpose.
HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATION
The efficiency of rectification declines with frequency due
to the reverse recovery time discussed under the heading
of commutation spikes. Beyond a frequency of about 5 kHz
the efficiency of common low voltage rectifiers falls off
rapidly. To operate at higher frequencies, rectifiers with
a low recombination time are necessary and, in general,
available with recoveries in the order of 200 ns. This
provides for frequencies up to approximately 100 kHz.
Rectifiers are not normally required to operate at frequencies
higher than this.
REFERENCES
1. Weidelich D L, Analysis of full-wave rectifier and
capacitive input circuits. Electronics 1947. Vol 20 No 9.
2. Dayal M, Power Rectification with Silicon Diodes.
Mullard Technical Communication. Vol 7 No 68. January
1964
3. Schade 0 H, Analysis of Rectifier operation. Proc IRE
1963. Vol31 No 7
4. Pearce F S and Bull J H, High Frequency Transients in
Low Voltage Supply Systems. ERA Report VjT 152.
1962
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful for the valuable assistance and
suggestions from Mr R E Stephens and Mr D J Mitchell of
Weir Electronics Ltd.
 Chapter 11

Three-Phase
Rectifiers

K Parkinson BSc
Farnell Instruments Ltd

Whilst a large number of arrangements are possible for

three-phase rectifier circuits, the purpose of this chapter
will be to describe the action and performance of some of
those in common use.

The main benefits of three-phase rectifier circuits in com-

parison with single-phase circuits are:

(1) Higher d.c. output voltage for the same applied voltage.
(2) Lower amplitude ripple voltage. The output voltage
of a three-phase rectifier does not fall to zero at any point.
This means that little or no output filtering is necessary.
(3) Higher fundamental ripple frequency which simplifies
output filtering.
(4) Higher overall efficiency.

In general three-phase rectifiers systems are used where the

d.c. output power requirement is such that their size, cost
and performance is better than single-phase systems. This
occurs at power levels in excess of approximately 5 kW.

MODE OF OPERATION
Three-phase half wave rectifier
The most simple three-phase rectifier circuit is the half
wave arrangement shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a delta/
star transformer, the secondary winding of which is con-
nected to the anodes of rectifiers 01, D2 and 03. The
cathodes of the rectifiers are connected together and form
the positive d.c. output terminal to the load. The negative
return is connected to the star point of the secondary.

The action of the circuit is best explained by reference to

Fig. 2. When el is most positive, ie between wt = x/6 and
wt = 5x/6, Dl conducts and supplies current to the load.
This continues until e2 becomes more positive at wt = 5xf6.
Load current is transferred from 01 to 02 at this point.
D2 now conducts until at wt = 3x/2, e3 becomes more
positive. At wt = 2x + x/6 01 again conducts and the
process repeats.

95
 Each rectifier conducts and supplies load current for 120
or 1/3 of a supply cycle. The fundamental ripple frequency
Dl is therefore 3 times the supply frequency, and the output
3-PHASE voltage does not fall to zero every half cycle as with a
single-phase rectifier circuit. The maximum output voltage
SUPPLY is E and the minimum output voltage is E/2. The peak
reverse voltage which any rectifier must withstand is the
peak secondary line to line voltage or .)3E.

Fig.J. Three-phase halfwave rectifier circuit.

Three-phase full wave bridge rectifier

This is one of the most widely used circuits for high power
rectification. A circuit of this type is shown in Fig. 3, and
associated voltage waveforms in Fig. 4.

The star secondary is connected to the anodes of 01, 02,

and 03, as in the half wave circuit, and also to the cathodes
of 04, 05 and 06. The cathodes of 01, D2 and 03 con-
-OUTPUT VOLTAGE
--PHASE VOLTAGES
nected together form the positive output to the load. The
negative return is to the anodes of 04, D5 and D6.
Fig. 2. Three-phase halfwave rectifier waveforms.
When e1 is most positive, for n/6 < wt < 5n/6, D1 conducts
Dl and supplies load current as in the half wave case. The
negative return current from the load, however, is carried
3-PHASE

SUPPLY
+ ~'~o --~ by the diode connected to the phase having the most negative
instantaneous voltage. This is e2 for 0 < wt < n/2 and e3
for n/2 < wt < n/6. 05 conducts when e2 is the most
LOAD Edc
negative, 06 conducts when e3 is the most negative and

~---J
D4 conducts when e1 is the most negative. Similarly 01
conducts when e1 is the most positive, 02 when e2 is the
most positive and 03 when e3 is the most positive. Hence
each rectifier conducts for 120 or 1/3 of the supply cycle.
Fig. 3. Three-phase bridge rectifier circuit. The conduction periods of the 'positive' rectifiers 01, 02
and 03 are displaced by n/3 in phase from the conduction
periods of the negative rectifier D4, 05 and 06. The result-
ing output voltage is the difference between the instan-
eous value of the most negative and most positive phase
voltage. The maximum voltage is .)3E. The fundamental
ripple frequency is 6 times the supply frequency.

wt-
Three-phase double bridge rectifier
A development of the three-phase bridge rectifier for very
D4
DG CONDUCTS D5
low ripple voltage applications is shown in Fig. 5. This
CONDUCTS CONDUCTS comprises two three-phase bridge rectifiers feeding a
common load. The two bridges are driven from a three-
Fig. 4. Three-phase bridge rectifier voltage waveforms.
phase transformer with two secondaries, one star, the other
delta connected. The turns ratio of the transformer is such
that the line voltage of the two secondaries are equal.
Each secondary feeds a three-phase bridge rectifier. The
3-~ line voltages of the two secondaries are phase displaced
su~ by n/6 radians and since both rectifier bridges feed the
same output load, the voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 6
apply. These demonstrate that the composite fundamental
output ripple frequency is twelve times the supply frequency
and the ripple amplitude is reduced compared to the three-
phase bridge circuit. The maximum voltage is .)3E and
Fig. 5. Three-phase double bridge rectifier circuits. the minimum voltage 1.64 E. The fundamental ripple is
less than 1% of d.c. output voltage.

96
The arrangement of Fig. 7 produces the same result. In this,
the delta secondary of Fig. 6, is replaced by a zig-zag star
arrangement. The transformer ratios are again arranged to LOAD
VOLTAGE
provide equal line voltages. The n/6 radian phase displace- DUE TO
ment is produced by the zig-zag connection 1 . DELTA
SECONDAR

This type of connection is used on very high power conver-

sion systems, where the step nature of primary in put current
LOAD
would introduce harmonic distortion on the supply lines. VOLTAGE
The severity of the steps in input current is reduced as the DUE TO
STAR
ripple frequency is increased and it is common on 500 kW SECONDARY

and above systems to use double bridge arrangements. or--------------------------

t
RESULT I N G .....:::~ E"""'= /3.
i'v'"V"'-"'V'V"'.;"V"V"V"'....... E
LOAD Emn"" I 64 f'
Three-phase full wave centre tapped rectifier-or six- VOLTAGE

phase star rectifier

The circuit of Fig. 8 shows the connections for this rectifier
wt-
system. It consists of a transformer with centre tapped 6
7T
2
7T

secondary windings connected together to form a six-phase

Fig. 6. Three-phase double bridge ripple waveforms.
supply. The cathodes of the rectifiers form the positive
output terminals to the load. The negative return from the
load is connected to the star point of the secondary.

The secondary of the transformer may be regarded as two

antiphase star windings with common star points. The 3-P~
voltage waveforms show that the output ripple fundamental su~
frequency is 6 times the supply frequency and the percentage
ripple amplitude is the same as for the bridge circuit of
Fig. 3. The maximum voltage is E and the minimum is
.j3E/2.
Fig. 7. Three-phase double bridge--alternative secondary 2.
Three-phase double star rectifier
This is shown in Fig. 9 and consists of two antiphase star
secondaries, the star points of which are connected via a Dl
centre tapped choke, known as the interphase reactor. The
purpose of the reactor is to allow two diodes, one for each
secondary array, to share the load current. The instan- 3-PHASE
taneous output voltage is given by the average of the
instantaneous voltages of the two phases supplying the SUPPLY LOAD
current. Each rectifier conducts for n/3 radians, but since
two rectifiers share the load current at any instant the
rectifier peak current rating is less than for the full wave
centre tap arrangement, although the crest working voltage
is somewhat higher.
Fig. 8. Full wave centre tapped or six-phase star rectifier.
At low output currents, the choke action of the interphase
reactor ceases, and the circuit reverts to the same operating
mode as the full wave centre tapped arrangement. Dl D2

-P~A~
SUPP~
THREE PHASE RECTIFIER
PERFORMANCE
Table 1 gives a comparison of voltage and current relation- INTERPHASE
ships for the single-phase bridge rectifier, three phase half REACTOR
wave bridge, full wave centre tapped and double star
rectifier. The figures given assume ideal rectifiers and Fig. 9. Three-phase double star rectifier circuit.
transformers and resistive loading.

97
D
A more detailed treatment of three phase rectifier perform-
ance is given in Reference 2.

In practice the voltage output of the rectifier system will

be less than that given in the table due to forward drop in
the rectifiers, copper loss in the transformer and com-
mutation loss due to leakage reactance in the transformer.

Rectifier drop
The value of forward drop of a rectifier can readily be
obtained from the forward voltage/forward current charac-
teristics of the rectifier type. It must be remembered that
two diodes are effectively in series in any bridge circuit, and
two forward drops must be taken into account in any
calculation. Rectifier drop is usually small compared to
effective drop due to transformer losses and is of the order
Fig.JO. The effect oftransformer leakage reactance.
of 1 to 2 volts for silicon rectifiers.
Copper loss
The voltage drop due to transformer copper loss is given
Transformer leakage reactance prevents this transfer from
by Wsc/Idc, where Wsc is obtained from a short circuit
being instantaneous. During the commutation period two
test on the transformer. Reference 2 deals extensively with
rectifiers conduct simultaneously and the rectifier output
transformer testing, the subject of short circuit and open
voltage is the average of the instantaneous voltages of the
circuit testing is covered briefly under the heading Circuit
two phases. The shaded area in Fig. 10 represents the
Efficiency.
'missing' voltage, it extends from the time that the on-
Commutation loss coming rectifier begins to conduct to the time that the
This occurs as current transfers fnm one rectifier to another. off-going rectifier ceases to conduct.

Table 1. Rectifier circuit performance.

3- Phase, full
Single 3-Phase,
3-Phase 3-Phase wave
phase/ double
halfwave bridge centre
bridge star
tap

rutput
Max Output
Vohage
(EDC) 0.9
.J2
Erms
Erms
1.17
.J2
Erms
Erms
2.34 Erms
.J3.J2 Erms
1.35
.J2
Erms
Erms
1.17 Erms
.J3.J2 Erms
Output
Voltage (Vmax)
Voltage Erms 3.,/2/2 Erms .J3 .j2/2 Erms 3.,/2/4 Erms
Min Output 0 .,/2/2
Voltage (Vmin)

Rectifier
fve,.ge
rectifier
Cum>nt pe
IDC/2 IDC/3 IDC/3 IDC/6 IDC/6
Ratings lrms per rectifier 0.785 Ide 0.588 Ide 0.577 Ide 0.408 Ide 0.293 Ide
Ipeak per rectifier 1.57 Ide 1.21 Ide 1.05 Ide 1.05 Ide 0.525 Ide
Crest Working Voltage 1.57 Edc 2.09 Edc 1.05 Edc 2.09 Edc 2.42 Edc
Secondary RMS Voltage
(Erms) 1.11 Edc 0.855 Edc 0.428 Edc 0.74 Edc 0.855 Edc
Secondary RMS Per
Transformer Leg 1.11 Ide 0.588 Ide 0.816 Ide 0.408 Ide 0.293 Ide
Secondary VAs 1.23 Edc 1.50 Edc 1.50 Edc 1.81 Edc 1.50 Edc
Ide Ide Ide Ide Ide
Secondary Utility Factor
= Edc ldc/VAs 0.813 0.666 0.95 0.552 0.666
Primary Voltage Per Leg 1.11 Edc 0.855 Ide 0.428 Edc 0.74 Edc 0.855 Edc
(Ratio 1:1 Delta Primary)
Primary Current Per Leg 1.11 Ide 0.588 Ide 0.816 Ide 0.577 Ide 0.408 Ide
Primary VAp 1.23 Edc 1.50 Edc 1.05 Edc 1.28 Edc 1.05 Edc
Ide Ide Ide Ide Ide
Primary Utility Factor
= Edc ldc/VAp 0.813 0.666 0.95 0.78 0.95

N B. Erms is the secondary phase voltage

98
 Type of rectifier Advantages Disadvantages Areas of application

HALF WAVE (1) Simplicity--only three rectifiers
are used.
(2) Rectifiers have one common
electrode--allows rectifiers with
same stud connection to be
bolted to one heatsink.
(3) Ripple better than single phase
rectifiers (17% Edc fundamental).
FULL WAVE BRIDGE. (1) Ripple low (4% Edc
fundamental.
(2) Best transformer utilisation.
(3) Lowest crest working voltage.
FULL WAVE DOUBLE (1) Very low ripple at 12
BRIDGE. times supply frequency.
( <1% Edc fundamental).
(2) Input current 'smoothed' by
higher number of pulses per
supply cycle.
FULL WAVE CENTRE (1) Low ripple (4% Edc
TAP. fundamental.
(2) Rectifiers of one polarity
required (one common electrode
connection).
(3) Lower current/rectifier than
bridge circuit.
DOUBLE STAR WITH (1) Low ripple (4% Edc
INTERPHASE REACTOR. fundamental).
(2) Rectifiers of one polarity
required (one common
electrode connection).
(3) Lowest peak current/rectifier.
(1) Transformer utilisation poor Low power applications only.
compared with full wave bridge
rectifiers. including single phase
bridge.
(2) Highest current/rectifier (of
three phase systems).
(3) High crest working voltage for
rectifiers.
(1) High current/rectifier. Standard high power and
(2) Different polarity rectifiers medium to high voltage
required (anode to stud and rectifier
cathode to stud).
(1) Complex transformer. Low ripple and/or very high
(2) Large number of different power circuits.
polarity rectifiers.
(1) Poor transformer utilisation. Low voltage high current
(2) High crest working voltage. applications.
(1) Transformer secondary Low voltage high current
utilisation poor. applications where extra cost
(2) Highest crest voltage. of choke can be saved by
(3) Expense of additional choke. the use of lower current
rectifiers.

Table 2. Comparison ofthree-phase rectifier circuits.

CIRCUIT EFFICIENCY Where losses are: Woe+ Wsc +(Ide Yd x Number of

The efficiency of three-phase rectifier circuits depends
mainly on the transformer performance. In order to estimate
system efficiency it is necessary to carry out open and short
circuit tests on the transformer. The purpose of these tests
is to measure the core loss, copper loss and leakage reactance
of the transformer.
Open circuit test. This is used to measure transformer core
loss. With the secondary open circuit, normal line voltage
is applied to the primary. The current flowing is the sum
of the magnetising and core loss current components. Both
input current (Ioc) and input power (Woe) are measured at
nominal line voltage and frequency.
Short circuit test. This is used to measure transformer
copper loss. The secondary winding is short circuited and
input voltage is gradually increased until full load current
recirculates in the windings. The applied voltage Vsc and
the input power Wsc are measured. Wsc represents the
copper loss and Vsc is used to estimate the leakage reactance
ofthe transformer.
Overall efficiency is given by :
Output
'1- X 100
-Output+ Losses
rectifiers in series)
COMPARISON OF THREE-PHASE
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Table 2 gives a list of comparative advantages, disadvantages
and areas of application of the common three-phase
rectifier circuits. As mentioned before, for very high power
application (500 kW and above) it becomes necessary to
use rectifiers which 'spread' the discontinuity in load current
over the cycle, to avoid supply voltage distortion. It is
common on these very high power systems, therefore. to
use multi-bridge rectifiers giving ripple fundamental fre-
quencies of 12 and 24 times supply frequency. The trans-
formers required for rectifiers of this type are necessarily
complex, and phase shifting is achieved by suitable combina-
tions of zig-zag windings. For further reading on this
subject reference 3 should be consulted.
REFERENCES
1. Say M G, The Performance and Design of Alternating
Current Machines, Pitman, London, Third edition 1958
(reprinted 1963).
2. Dayal M, Power Rectification with Silicon Diodes,
Mullard Technical Communications Vol 7 Number 68,
January, 1964.
3. Say M G, The Electrical Engineers Reference Book.

99
 Chapter 12

Controlled
Rectification &
Inversion

F Mazda M Phil DFH CEng MIEE

ITT Components Group Europe

The principles of rectifier circuits were introduced in earlier

chapters in which the more popular arrangements were
described. It is not possible to control the conduction
period of such circuits since a diode will turn-on as soon
as its anode potential becomes more positive than its
cathode. There are several devices which are capable of
blocking forward voltage and this chapter will consider
the applications of these devices in rectifier circuit arrange-
ments. In the discussions which follow the thyristor will be
assumed to be the control element since it is currently the
most popular device in use. However, similar considerations
apply for other controlled elements, notably the mercury
arc valve from which most of the present theory has been
derived 1

SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTERS
Perhaps the most simple single-phase rectifier circuit is the
half-wave arrangement of Fig. 1. When the supply voltage
goes positive the load voltage will be negligibly small until
the instant (after delay IX) the thyristor is fired. It then rises
to the value of the supply voltage. For a resistive load the
current will follow the voltage waveform.

The mean value of the d.c. voltage for a delay of a: in the

firing angle is given by:

f
"
VD = ;;; EM sin wt. d(wt)
"'
(1)

The mean d.c. current is given by VD!R. In some loads (eg

lamps and heaters) it is the r.m.s. rather than the mean value
of the voltage which is of interest. This is given by:

"
fR = [ ;n f<EM sin wt) d (wt~t
2

"'
101
 Fig. I . Half-wave rectifier on
resistive load.

CSR 1

RMS
~---- RAT I O

0.8 MEAN
..,..____,,...---- RATIO

0.2

Fig. 2. Variation of output voltage for a half 1mve converter Fig. 3. Load waveforms for a ha/f- 1\.\:IVe rectifier on inductive
on resistive load. load 11ithout afree- llheeling diode.

EM~ IX 1 .
=-1--+-sm21X
2 n 2n
Jt
If the maximum mean and r.m.s. voltages be denoted by
VvM and VRM then these can be found from equations (1)
and (2) by putting IX = 0. Fig. 2 shows the variation of
Vv/VvM and VRfVRM with the delay angle IX. The change is
not linear, it being necessary to make allowance for this
in many control systems.
The waveforms shown in Fig. 1 will be modified when the
load is inductive. This is shown in Fig. 3. The thyristor is
switched on and after a delay of IX, the load current rises
from zero by a rate determined by the inductance and the
instantaneous supply voltage. As the voltage falls the slope
of the current curve also decreases. It reaches a peak when
the supply voltage is zero. Now the input goes negative.
(2) The simple half-wave circuit of Fig. 1 can be extended to
full-wave operation either by the use of a centre-tapped
or bridge arrangement. Fig. 4 shows a centre-tapped
converter and Figs. 5 and 6 its load waveforms. For a
resistive load the current follows the voltage contour, and
the mean value of d.c. voltage is clearly twice that obtained
from Fig. 1. For inductive loads it is assumed that the load
inductance is above the critical value 2 required to ensure
continuous load current. The following assumptions are
also made in these circuits: the thyristors are ideal switches,
with infinite otT resistance and zero on resistance: i.e. the
transformer has zero leakage reactance, d.c. resistance or
F ig. 4. C entre-tapped single-phase converter.
..
CSR I
~~

I 1+ 1
This places a negative voltage across the load and the
current starts to decay. When the energy stored in the load
inductance during the positive half cycle, has been returned l A

B
to the supply, the current falls to zero. Thyristor CSR1 can
now go otT and the load voltage returns to zero. If a free-
EM S1 n wt
~ LOAD
D

wheeling diode is placed across the load, the load current

r [ c
can flow even during the negative half cycle when the main
thyristor is otT. If the volt drop in this diode be assumed ..
small the load voltage waveform now resembles that CSR2
obtained with resistive load.

102
 this instance thyristor CSRl will be turned off and CSR2
LOAD
VOLTAGE will carry the load current In fact there are two stages in
any thyristor conduction period. During the first stage.
where load voltage is positive, it is feeding energy from the
supply to the load. During the second stage, at negative
load voltage, energy is fed from the load to the supply. This
is known as inversion.
In Fig. 4 it is clearly only possible to teed as much energy
back from the load as was stored in it during the rectification
stage. Therefore for a purely inductive load with no losses
the maximum delay angle is n/2. It is possible, however,
to have nett inversion- where the mean transfer of
energy is from d.c. to a.c.- by introducing a d c. . source as
Fig. 5 Waveforms for Fig. 4 on resistive load. shown in Fig. 7. The value of V, must be greater than the
LOAD peak a.c. voltage since it is this difference voltage which
VOLTAGE
feeds the current from the d.c. to the a.c. side. The mean
voltage from the converter is also negative indicating nett
inversion. It is important to note that in Fig. 7angle p has
been introduced. This is referred to as the commutation
angle, since it represents the duration for which a pre-
viously conducting thyristor is reverse biased before having
a positive anode voltage across it. Therefore at tl thyristor
CSR l is fired and CSR2 reversed biased. But at t2 the supply
LOAD
voltage reverses and CSR2 will again have a positive anode
voltage. It is essential therefore that p is greater than the
turn-otrtime of the thyristor.
The mean d.c. load voltage for Figs. 6 or 7 is given by:

f
" +~
CSR2 CSR I CSR 2 CSR I
Fig. 6. Waveforms for Fig. 4on inductive load. Jli> = ~ EM sin wtd(wt)
~

2E
magnetlsmg current. This means that a practical circuit =~COS (X (3)
1t
performance would differ slightly from the ideal conditions
described here. = vi>M cos (X (4)

Consider the operation of Fig. 4 on inductive load. At time
tl end A is positive and thyristor CSRl is tired to carry load
current. This imposes the voltage CA (which is twice the
load voltage, i.e. 2EM sin OJt) across the non-conducting
thyristor CSR2. At time t2 the supply voltage reverses but
load inductance maintains CSRl in conduction, and load
voltage consequently goes negative. At t3 thyristor CSR2
is fired. Since end C of the transformer is positive to A at
Where VDM is 2EM! n the peak value at (X = 0. Equation 4
is shown plotted in Fig. 8. Clearly the mean output voltage
is zero for (X = n/2 when the rectification and inversion
periods are equal. In the foregoing discussion on inverter
operation it is important to keep in mind that the a.c.
supply has been assumed to be 'stiff', ie it has negligible
impedance and is therefore not affected by power transfer
between a.c. and d.c. supplies.

Fig. 7. Inversion in a centre-

CSR I
tapped converter.
SMOOTHING
REACTO R
MEAN

CSR 2

103
 Common anode connection has the advantage of a single
heatsink for both devices, whereas when the cathodes are
connected together isolation between their gate signals is
w
(.9 not essential. The operation of the circuit can be explained
<(
1-
_J
with reference to the accompanying waveform. At t 0 , line
0
> A goes positive to B. Thyristor CSR2 is fired after a delay a.
X
<(
Therefore at t2, load current flows via CSR2 and 02, the
DELAY
:;:;;
ANGLE a load voltage rising to the input voltage. When the supply
"w
(.9 reverses at t2, thyristor CSR2 is maintained in conduction
by the load inductance current free wheeling in CSR2 and
<(
f-
_J
0
> 02. The load voltage is now negligibly small. When CSR 1
- 10
is fired at t3, current commutates from CSR2 to CSR1, the
load again being supplied with energy. The waveforms
show that each rectifier conducts for 180 in a cycle and this
Fig. 8. Variation of mean d.c. voltage for a full- nuve converter period does not change with the delay angle. This is very
on inductive load. satisfactory since it simplifies the design parameters for the
devices.

An alternative form of converter circuit is the bridge
arrangement. There are many versions of this system
depending on the position of controlled and non-controlled
elements. A few of these are shown in Fig. 9. The most
widely used configuration for general purpose applications
is the half-controlled bridge shown in Fig. 9a. The thyristors
may be mounted at the top or bottom half of the circuit.
The circuit shown in Fig. 9a has a serious limitation on
inductive loads, in that it cannot be shut down quickly.
Assuming the bridge to be delivering full power with a at
a very small angle, considerable energy is stored in the load.
If the gate pulses are now. removed, inductive load current
will keep the thyristor that was on at this instant in its
conduction mode. Due to the large inductive energy this

Fig. 9. Variations on a
single-phase bridge CSR I CSR 2
converter .
A LOAD
8
o, 02

(A ) o,
I 02 o,

D,

A
LOAD
8

02

(8) CSR2 ~
o,

CSR 2

LOAD

CS R 4

CSR 2 CSR I - t - -csR 2

CSR 3 CSR 4 CS R 3

104
thyristor will conduct during the full 180 negative supply
period and will again supply half a load cycle of current
when its anode voltage goes positive. The system therefore
behaves as a half wave rectifier.
To turn the half-controlled bridge otT, its gate pulses must
be slowly retarded to progressively reduce the load energy
until it is insufficient to provide free wheeling current for a
full half cycle. This effect can be overcome relatively easily
by connecting a free wheeling diode across the load. The
current then prefers this path during the free wheeling
periods and both thyristors can turn otT.
A bridge circuit which has a quick response and does not
require an additional freewheeling diode is shown in Fig. 9b.
In effect series connected diodes 01 and D2 act as the
freewheeling elements and permit the conducting thyristor
to turn off. The operation of this circuit can readily be
followed with reference to the waveforms shown It should
be noted that the thyristors conduct for a period (n - 0()
and the diodes for (n + 0(). This can be a serious handicap
in higher power circuits which are required to work over a
wide range of delay angles. The current rating of the diodes
is then required to meet the worst expected conditions, and
their utilization at other settings is low.
Since all the bridge circuits described so far have a free
wheeling current path they are not capable of inversion.
If it is desired to feed back load energy to the supply (either to
invert from a d.c. to a.c. source or to rapidly kill the energy
in an inductive load) then a fully controlled bridge must be
used as in Fig. 9c. Thyristors CSR2 and CSR3 are fired at
t1 when line A is positive to B. At t2, even though the a.c.
voltage reverses, inductive energy in the load maintains
these thyristors in conduction and the energy is fed back
to the supply. To reduce the load current to zero 0( will be
increased to almost 180. The mean output voltages from
the bridge circuits are either twice the value given in
equation (1) or the value of equation (4), depending on
whether or not free-wheeling is used.
Two basic types of single phase circuits have been discussed,
namely centre tapped and bridge. Centre tapped converters
need a supply transformer which can be bulky in certain
high power applications. However, if it is required to step-
up the voltage between supply and load, or to provide a
low output-to-input voltage ratio, transformers are often
essential. A bridge circuit uses twice the number of devices
as its centre-tapped counterpart, but the voltage rating of the
devices is halved, so that the cost increase is not doubled.
Generally a bridge is used for application when an input
transformer is not essential. When a transformer is essential,
or when the operating voltage is low, so that two series
rectifier voltage drops cannot be tolerated, a centre-tapped
system is preferred. Since mercury values have a relatively
large arc volt drop centre-tapped circuits are often used in
conjunction with these devices, although bridge arrange-
ments are more popular for semiconductor converters.
Bridge and centre-tapped circuits are also called double
and single-way respectively. This refers to the fact that if
a transformer was used to feed a bridge circuit the current
would flow in both directions through its windings, whereas
for centre-tapped circuits the winding utilisation is much
lower. This again underlines the preference for bridge
circuits in many applications.
THREE-PHASE CONVERTERS
Every single phase circuit has its three phase counterpart
and the performance of both sfstems are similar. In the
present section a few of these will be described briefly. Fig.
10 shows a fully controlled double way bridge converter.
Since all the devices are controllable, and no freewheeling
diode is used across the load, the converter is capable of
rectification and inversion. Fig. 11 shows the circuit wave-
forms as the delay angle is progressively increased. The
thyristor conduction periods are also indicated, it being
borne in mind that current can only flow from a positive
phase to one that is at a lower potential. The effect of
delaying the firing point beyond 90 is clearly seen. The
mean voltage is now negative, there being a net transfer
of energy from d.c. (which must be provided for this mode)
to a.c. The device waveforms also illustrate the progressively
diminishing negative voltage across the thyristors. After
a device has been conducting (ie zero voltage region on the
waveforms) its anode potential must be negative for a period
greater than its turn-off time to ensure that it is successfully
commutated. Once again this places a limit on the minimum
value of {3.
Assuming equal phase voltages the mean output voltage is
given by:
f
(1t/2)+<Z
VD = ~ EM ~in wt- sin(wt- 2; )Jd (rot)
(o:/6)+<Z
3J3
=--EM cos 0( (5)
1t
= VDM cos 0( (6)
Where VDM is now equal to (3J3/n) EM. Therefore the effect
of phase control on this converter is identical to single-phase
operation, as given by equation (4).
Fig. 10. Three-phase double-mzy converter.
,,.CSR 2
'7CSR4
7csR6
A ~
B LOAD
c []
,7CSR3 CSR5
~7 CSR I
105
Fig. 12 shows a six-phase system, as obtained with a star
connected output transformer. The load waveforms are
shown in Fig. 13, for two stages of rectification and inversion.
Clearly the output voltage ripple has been reduced (due to
the higher frequency obtained) and the formation of a
common cathode connection gives a simplified thyristor
firing circuitry. However the system suffers from the usual
limitations of half way circuits, principally poor transformer
utilisation. The mean load voltage is given by:
cannot be inverted. They follow similar lines to the single
phase circuits and are not considered here.
SOURCE REACTANCE
In the foregoing circuit discussion it has been assumed that
the a.c. source is infinitely 'stiff. It is therefore capable of
passing current in either direction without modifying the
terminal voltage. In practice even the largest of systems

f
(21</3)+1X has some source reactance and for converters working
l'I, = ~ EMsinwtd(wt)
from a dedicated alternator the effect is much greater.

(1</3)+1X The influence of source reactance can be explained by

3EM considering the centre-tapped single-phase converter shown
=--cos ex (7)
1t in Fig. 4, and redrawn in Fig. 14 with series reactors X1
and X2. At time t0 thyristor CSR2 is conducting and feeding
There are of course many more three-phase rectifier systems, back d.c. energy to the supply. After a delay ex at t1, the
notably of the half-controlled variety, where the load voltage positive thyristor CSR1 is turned on. Ordinarily, the load

Fig. 11. Circuit waveforms for the converter ofFig.lO. Fig.12. Six-phase single- way converter.

az3QO

E
LOAD

(A)

Fig.13. Circuit waveforms for the converter ofFig.12.

~ a=90 ~~~
~!'t
I"
0

r~~~~~~~~~~
~ ~~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ 1':,"
o " " \l \l .,.
!'>.I'>.. I'>..
\1
I':,
\1
1':, [':., 1'>. I">.. I'
.,. ~ \1 ,. ,. Jvo a=30"

(B)
(A)

~ a= I 50"

0~, ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' ~ ~

a= 120"

(C)
\.J'J'\J \J <:J\J'J'l"J"J 'I F IS IS IS IS 1\~~1\ "IS 1\ IVo
\j 'I \1 'I \J \1"1'01 " " "' '
(B)

106
 LOAD
VOLTAGE

Fig. 14. Centre-tapped single-

phase converter 11tth source
reactance.

current would commutate instantaneously from one thy- phase circuits. 14 is the d.c. current. Therefore for any
ristor to the next. However, the presence of series reactors circuit the mean output voltage can be calculated as
now means that current has to decay in X2 while building V0 - V,..
up in Xl. This cannot occur instantaneously. So, for a short
duration, both thyristors conduct while the current in The overlap angle is clearly related to the source reactance,
CSR1 builds up, in a form resembling a short circuit rise peak supply voltage and d.c. current. It is given by:
(since the two ends of the output are essentially short-
circuited), and the current in CSR2 decays in the same pro- Id
portion, thus maintaining constant load current. At t 1a
COSJJ.= 1 - - - - (9)
. 7t
EMsrn-
the current transfer between the two reactances is complete. p
Thyristor CSR2 goes off and CSR1 supplies the full load
current. The load voltage now equals the value of the source
voltage. Fig. 15. Effect of source reactance on inversion within a
converter.
Source reactance has two important effects on the operation
of the phase converter. Firstly it reduces the mean output
voltage by, in effect, removing a slice from the output wave-
form. And secondly it makes it necessary to increase the
safety angle f3 during inversion. This last factor is illustrated
more clearly in Fig. 15. Under normal conditions the
thyristor, when turned off, would have a p.eriod f3 during
which it is reverse biased, with source reactance it is kept
conducting for a further time JJ., so that the turn-off time
is reduced to a factor of (/3 - JJ.).

The effect of source reactance on a three-phase bridge is

shown in Fig. 16. The delay angle has been progressively
increased through the cycles to show its effect. Since source Fig. 16. Source reactance in a three-phase bridge converter.
reactance prevents the instantaneous change over of load
current from one phase to the next there will be a short
circuit between the corresponding phases for a duration of
IL The load voltage will not now be zero, but will take up a LOAD
A _r:lll!l!llll"-_ .
value intermediate between the two phase voltages. Once
B --"~G"--+----+
again the effect on the converter is to reduce the mean load c -'omiG'--+- - -+-----+
voltage and to require an increased safety angle f3 for
reliable operation as an inverter.

It can be shown 1 that the mean output voltage is reduced

by a factor:

l 4 Xp
V=- (8)
" 2n
where p = 2 for full-wave single-phase and 3 for three-
107
CYCLOCONVERTER FREQUENCY
CHANGERS
Cycloconverters are in essence two rectifier systems con-
nected in inverse parallel 3 . They are used to convert a
fixed frequency input into a lower, variable frequency
output. Only the operating principles of a cycloconverter
are considered here as they constitute an interesting
application of controlled rectifier circuits discussed in
previous sections.
Fig. 17 shows a centre-tapped cycloconverter. As seen it is
really two converters in parallel. When end A of the supply
goes positive, either thyristor CSR2 or CSR4 can be fired.
In the first case load current flows via AB and is positive,
whereas when CSR4 is fired the current path is BC and is
reversed. Similarly in the corresponding half cycle with C
positive to A thyristors, CSR3 or CSR1 can be tired. There-
fore in any half cycle the load voltage can be made positive
or negative as required in order to give an output frequency
independent of the input. The waveforms given in Fig. 17
illustrate a firing sequence which produces a step down
ratio of three between input and output. It is, of course,
possible to delay the firing pulses in each half cycle as
required. If a variable delay is employed between half
cycles the output voltage can be made to approximate more
closely to a sine wave. This is shown in Fig. 18 with reference
to a bridge connected cycloconverter. Once again it is
evident that the circuit is essentially two inverse parallel
bridges supplying the load. It is essential that all the
elements of the bridges are controllable otherwise a short
circuit path would exist between rectifiers in the separate
bridges. It is emphasised that the waveforms in Fig. 18 are
those for resistive load, since inductive currents would
cause conduction into negative half cycles, feeding back
energy from the load to the supply.
Gate control circuitry
In order to control the phase converters it is necessary to
have a sensor which detects the zero line voltage periods,
a delay which varies the angle oc from this point and a pulse
circuit which fires the required thyristors. An inexpensive
version of such a system is illustrated in Fig. 19 4 . When
line A goes positive to B, capacitor C1 charges through R1
and R2. The position of this circuit therefore corresponds
to detection. When C reaches the trigger voltage of diac D6
it breaks over and supplies a pulse via T1 to thyristors
CSR1 and CSR2. The polarity of the transformer windings
are such that only CSR2 turns on. Variable delay is obtained
by the setting of R 1.
Although relatively simple the circuit of Fig. 19 sutlers
from two disadvantages. First, the delay is obtained by a
resistance setting. This is inconvenient since it is often
desirable to have a voltage level determine the delay angle.

Fig. 17. Centre-tapped cyclocon verter. Fig. 18. Bridge connected cyc/oconverter on resistive load.

c
CSR2
CSRI CS R2 ~ CSR5 CS R 6

LOAD ' ' ~ :

A
B
R
B ~
4 CSR 3 CSR4 7 csR 7 ~ CSR8
D

CSR4

( \ ( \ ( \ VAC

(\ (\ (\ VAS

v~v
. . .

j c sR~SR 3 CSR
...
~SR 0 CSR 4 CSR
Voe

~
I~sRrcsR;-1 CSR~ h-SR7
~~s~~ ~ ~sR ~ I cs~!l ~ ~~R6

108
 D,

LOAD

a. c.
LINES
CSR I CSR 2
Fig. 19. Firing circuit for a
bridge converter.

The voltage can of course be obtained from some form of
closed loop system. Second the circuit provides a series of
low frequency pulses to the thyristors and if the load is
inductive it is quite possible that the current would not
reach the device holding current during this time. Fig. 20
shows a better system where zero voltage sensing is done
by a unijunction transistor, Tl. The voltage across AB is full
wave rectified and every time this falls to zero C1 dis-
charges through the emitter base 1 region of Tl. Therefore
C1 commences to charge at the beginning of every half
cycle at a rate determined by the voltage on the base of R3.
This voltage thus determines the variable delay. When the
capacitor charges to a certain value the gate drive oscillator
is operated and a string of high frequency pulses are fed to
the required thyristors. There are several types of oscillators
that may be used and these operate from a d.c. voltage as
provided by D2 and C2.
APPLICATIONS
The ability to rectify a.c. to d.c. and to control the magnitude
of this d.c. finds use in a variety of applications, only a few
of these being discussed here.
Power rectification has had more impact in the field of
machine control than any other single application. Fig.
21 shows an elementary control system for a series d.c.
motor. It is capable only of half-wave control, thus the
motor would require special design to develop full power
from this supply. For a given setting ofR1, which represents
the demand speed, the capacitor C1 will charge at a rate
dependent on the motor back emf. This therefore represents
the sensed speed. When the capacitor voltage reaches that
of trigger diode D2, it breaks over and fires thyristor
CSR1 (a trigger diode is used here in preference to a disc
since, due to half wave operation, only a unidirectional
pulse is required). The higher the speed the greater the
motor back emf, so that the charging voltage for C1 is
less giving a greater delay in the firing of CSRl. This reduces
the motor voltage and therefore its speed.
Fig. 20. Firing circuit to provide high frequency gate drive
pulses.
A
GATE
DRIVE
OSCILLATOR

The production of stabilised power supplies has tradition-

ally relied on rectifying the a.c. to d.c. and then using series
or shunt regulators to produce the output at the designed
voltage level. Feedback signals between the output and 8
input provides the stabilising effect required. The control
element in these systems is usually a transistor which
operates in a linear mode, hence the efficiency is poor. For
Fig. 21. Half-wave series motor control with back emf
larger supplies alternative methods are required, such as feedback.
rectifying the a.c. to d.c. and then using series switches, in
an on-or-off mode, so as to control the mean output. This
is known as chopping and is described in a later chapter.
An alternative method is clearly to use controlled rectifica-
CSR I
tion to convert a.c. directly to the d.c. voltage level required.
Since the thyristor is capable of being fired by low level a.c. R,
INPUT
signals, a closed loop system which gives stabilised output
ARMATURE
can readily be designed. Although such a method suffers
from several disadvantages, notably the low frequency
ripple in the d.c. supply, for high power requirements it is o, FIELD
often the only available system Depending on the input
supply available any of the phase controlled circuits pre-
viously described may now be used, the greater the number
of phases the lower the filtering requirements.
109
 !fSRZ ~SR~
CSR I ~~CSR 2 ' ~CSR3 CSR7 ~ 7csR9
~ D41
',1 D5 hRI ~
D34 ..__

.
Ds D7
D, 1,1 D2 ~
ARMATURE
~SR5
1 ~SRI~
~
~rbRJ ~
~CSR6 CSR 10 7
I
CSRIZ

Fig. 22. Half-controlled bridge for d.c. shunt motor control.

<,1 D,

~D3
D2

ARMATURE

UD4
i
FIELD ~ --
4~CSR I ; ~CSRZ

~
4 ~CSR3;~

CSR4
L__
4~D,

4~04
' ~D2

~D5 ~ ~D6
j ~D3
l
I FIELD

Fig. 23. Field control for limited speed change. Fig. 24. Reversing drive for ad.c. motor.

A popular control method for a shunt motor is shown in
Fig. 22. The field is supplied separately by a diode bridge
whereas the armature works from a half-controlled thy-
ristor circuit. A modification which gives a common
rectified input for both field and armature is possible and
employs only one thyristor having a current rating twice
that of those used in the circuit of Fig. 22.
Armature control is the most usual method for changing
the speed of a d.c. motor. For a limited operating range
the armature may be supplied via a diode bridge and the
field through a fully controlled thyristor arrangement, as
in Fig. 23. The use of the thyristor bridge allows the field
current to be rapidly decayed in the highly inductive load,
by feeding it back to the supply. However this must not be
confused with reversal. Operating the bridge in its inversion
mode would decay the field current but would not change
its direction of flow. To reverse the rotation of the motor
two anti-parallel bridges must be used, as shown in Fig. 24.
Thyristors CSR1-CSR6 operate for one direction of
rotation and CSR7-CSR12 for the other. Rapid and
efficient reversal is possible by feeding motor back emf to
the a.c. supply just prior to reversal, although care must
be taken to sense motor current so that the thyristors in
the two bridges do not conduct simultaneously.
REFERENCES
1. Rissik, H, Mercury Arc Current Converters, Sir Isaac
Pitman & Sons Ltd., 1960.
2. Storr-Best, J L, Critical Inductance for Half-Controlled
Thyristor Rectifiers. Part 1, Electronic Engineering,
Apri11966; Part 2, Electronic Engineering, May 1966.
3. Mazda, F F, Frequency Converters, Electronic Compo-
nents, 16 Apri11971.
4. Mazda, F F, Controlled Rectification, Electronic Compo-
nents, 22 January 1971.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Christensen, Willis & Herskind, Analysis of Rectifier
Circuits, AlEE Trans, Vol. 63 1964.
Howell, E K, Better SCR phase control in control systems,
Electronic Design, 3 February 1964.
Hoelters, F, Current and voltage conditions from no-load
to short circuit in three-phase bridge circuits. Direct Current,
March 1961.
Freris, L L, An analysis of the three-phase bridge converter,
Direct Current, January 1963.
Feinberg & Chen, Commutation reactance of the trans-
former in a static power converter, Pro c. IEEE, Vol. 111
No. 11964.
Ludbrook, A, and Murray, R M, A simplified technique for
analyzing the three-phase bridge rectifier circuit, IEEE
Trans, Vol.IGA-1 No.3 1965.
Geissing, H, and Holtgen, G, Thyristor Converters for d.c.
reversing drives, Siemens Rev., October 1965.
Dortart, I K, Phase shifting of harmonics in a.c. circuits of
rectifiers, IEEE Trans., Vol. IGA-1 No. 6 1968.
Reeve & Burdett, Accelerated recovery from commuta-
tion faults in bridge connected a.c.-d.c. converters, lEE
Conference Publication, No. 53 Pt. 1 1969.

110
 Chapter 13

Po\Ner
Choppers

J E Crowe
Advance Industrial Electronics Ltd

SERIES CHOPPERS
Series choppers are used where a requirement exists to
convert a d.c power source to a power source at some lower
voltage level. The basic circuit diagram of a series chopper
is shown in Fig. 1.

If the switch is opened and closed at a frequency which is

sufficiently high. the load will see a voltage whose magnitude
is dependent on the ratio between the opened and closed
durations of the switch. By varying this ratio it is possible
to vary the magnitude of the load voltage. Further. it will be
seen that no power is dissipated in the switch. since because
the switch is at any moment either opened (zero current).
or closed (zero voltage). the instantaneous product of
current and voltage in the switch is at all times zero. The
frequency of operation of the switch should be sufficiently
high so that the load is unable to respond to the rapid
fluctuations of voltage applied to it, and sees only the mean
value of the applied voltage. In some cases, load inertia is
so low that this is not possible, and in these cases, the output
of the chopper must be filtered to remove its a. c. component
before being applied to the load. A circuit diagram of a
chopper with such a filter is shown in Fig. 2. In this the
switch is drawn as a transistor.

The action of the filter is as follows: with the switch VT

closed. a constant positive voltage appears across L, whose
current rises linearly with time as shown in Fig. 3; when
VT opens, the polarity across L reverses, D commences
conduction. and the current in L starts to decrease linearly;
the current in L therefore approximates to a triangular
wave fluctuating about the mean load current level. The
amplitude of this triangular wave is such as to cause only
a small voltage waveform to appear across C. thus accom-
plishing the filtering action. Inductor L and capacitor C
may be regarded as a potential divider whose attenuation
at the frequency of operation of the switch is designed to be
very large. so that only a small proportion of the a.c.
component of the chopper waveform appears at the load.

111
 $
o-----~' o..._!\
-----, INPUT VOLTAGE
TO CHOPPER

I
I Vour(AMPLITUDE
0
- EXAGGERATED FOR
I CLARITY)
Fig. 1. The basic series chopper.

VT <.:)
z
If=
u
::::>
0
z
0
u
z' u
1- I~ I
I~ ,w w

Fig. 2. Series chopper with LC.filter. Fig. 3. Waveforms for an LC filter circuit.

The attenuation of the filter at the fundamental of operating During transistor conduction energy is stored in L. When
frequency of the transistor is given by: the transistor switches off, L rings up until D becomes
forward biased at which point the energy in L is released as
Zc + Zl load current. The purpose of C is to supply load current
Zc during the conduction time of the transistor.
where Zc = capacitor impedance and Zl = inductor im-
pedance Because of the dependence on the energy storage character-
istics of L. this circuit is often considered as a form of
since 1 single-ended converter rather than a chopper.
Zc=-
jwC
where w = operating frequency in radians/second
SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES IN
and Zl = jwl
CHOPPER APPLICATIONS
then the attenuation :
The central component in all chopper circuits is a switch.
1
-:--c + jwL The requirements for such a switch are that it has a high
.JW resistance when 'off and a low resistance when 'on' and
(j = 1
be fast in operation, silent, and reliable. These require-
jwC ments are met in varying degrees by thyristors and power
transistors. and in fact nearly all chopper circuits are
= 1 - w 2 LC
designed round one or the other of these two types of
= - w 2 LC for large values of cr
switch.
The minus sign indicates a change of phase which will be
neglected since it is not of practical significance. The
attenuation cr = w 2 LC is known as the ripple reduction
factor of the filter. and its strong dependence on w shows the
Fig. 4. The basic circuit for a shunt cflopper.
desirability of operating the chopper at as high a frequency
as possible.

It must be pointed out that in practice, cr will be modified by

the internal series impedances of the filter capacitor. and
for the same reason. the output ripple waveforms may
depart from those shown in Fig. 3.

c
SHUNT CHOPPERS
The shunt chopper is a form of chopper which may be used
where it'i~ required to convert a power source to one at a
higher voltage. The basic circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 4.
112
Thyristors
The thyristor is a device which is normally nonconducting
but may be triggered into conduction by a short gate pulse,
conduction continuing after removal of the gate pulse.
Thyristors capable of handling currents up to many
hundreds of amperes are available, which makes the
thyristor useful for heavy current chopper applications.
However. in order to commutate (turn-oft) a thyristor.
it is necessary to reduce to zero the voltage across the
device for a certain minimum time, this being of the order
of 10 to 15 J1S for fast devices. In generaL since there are
pulse currents flowing in the commutating components
which are of the same order of magnitude as the peak load
current. the need for commutation is a source of power loss,
this power loss fairly obviously being a function offrequency.
Further. in most thyristor choppers commutating current
flows in the load during the turn-off interval. An effective
minimum conduction time of 10 to 15 J1S is imposed on the
circuit. which in itself sets a maximum frequency of opera-
tion for the chopper. For currently available fast thyristors,
the maximum practicable frequency of operation is limited
to frequencies of the order of a few tens of kilohertz.
Recourse to circuits of some degree of complexity may allow
this limit to be extended. In one such circuit the commuta-
tion action is designed such that commutation current does
not flow through the load. In this case, the turn-off interval
of the thyristor does not form part of the effective conduc-
tion period of the chopper. It is then possible to increase the
frequency of the pulses applied to the load by means of a
system as shown in Fig. 5. In this system. the choppers are
operated sequentially by the counter, each chopper having
the capability of being operated during the turn-off interval
of the previously operated stage.
Because each chopper stage of this type is likely to contain
at least three thyristors. and because a doubling of the
number of stages is necessary in order to obtain each
doubling of the maximum attainable operating frequency.
it follows that attainment of very high operating frequencies
by the use of sequential choppers is accompanied by a high
degree of circuit complexity and expense.
Fig. 5. A sequential chopper circuit.
E
COLLECTOR
CURRENT
II
I It, 1I 1
t5 I t 1 1
td --, ,_ 1 I 11 I
11 I I I
Fig. 6. Power transistor base and collector current waveforms.
Fig. 7. Flywheel diode used in con;unction with an LC filter.
Power transistors
Unlike the thyristor. the transistor is a device which must
be continuously driven by base current in order to sustain
conduction. For a transistor in a typical chopper cil'cuit.
the ratio of conducted load current to base drive current is
of the order of 5 or 10 to 1. thus incurring dissipation of
power for the entire conduction time of the transistor. The
great advantage of the power transistor, however, is that
commutation may be achieved simply by interrupting the
flow of base current.
Switching times for a typical power transistor are shown in
Fig. 6. which shows pulses of base current and resulting
collector current plotted against time. The delay time t11
is typically small enough to be negligible in the context
of chopper operation, while t, and t. will be of the order of
tens to hundreds of nanoseconds, t. is dependent for a
particular transistor on the magnitudes of Ib and I and
may be minimised by causing reverse base current to flow
during the storage period. In a typical circuit using readily
available fast power transistors. t 5 will have a value of
approximately 1 J.lS. These switching times allow an upper
limit on the frequency of operation of at least an order of
magnitude higher than for non-sequential thyristor chop-
pers and in fact. transistor choppers have been described
which operate at frequencies in excess of 1 MHz.
One problem which may arise in the design of high frequency
transistor chopper circuits concerns the phenomenon of
reverse recovery which is exhibited by the flywheel [free-
wheeling] diode used in conjunction with an LC filter.
With reference to Fig. 7, just before the initiation of transis-
tor conduction. the inductor current flows through D. When
the transistor switches on it attempts to reverse- bias D.
which. due to minority carrier storage, appears as a short
circuit. The transistor is thus severely loaded immediately
113

I
'r--
1
- The circuit shown in Fig. 9 is a simple open loop thyristor
TIME-
Fig. 8. Plots of collector to emitter voltage and collector
current during the diode recovery timet,.
after switch-on. and is likely to fail to enter saturation until
the end of the diode recovery time. Current and voltage
waveforms for a transistor in this situation are shown in
Fig.8.
It will be seen from Fig. 8 that during the period t, both
current and voltage are applied to the transistor. and if t,
forms an appreciable proportion of the total cycle time,
heavy dissipation may result. For this reason, devices used
as flywheel diodes must exhibit low storage times. Storage
times of some tens to hundreds of nanoseconds are achieved
by means of techniques such as gold-doping, which however
incurs penalties of increased forward voltage and high
price.
The problem of reverse recovery may be overcome in low
voltage circuits by the use of Schottky barrier rectifiers
which. being majority carrier devices, do not exhibit the
phenomenon of reverse recovery. At the moment, however.
this type of rectifier suffers from limitations of peak inverse
voltage and maximum junction temperature.
COMMONLY USED VARIATIONS
Choppers may be categorised as indicated in the previous
section according to whether the switching element is a
power transistor or a thyristor; thyristor choppers may be
further categorised according to the method of commuta-
tion employed, the usual method being to use an auxiliary
thyristor to commutate the main load-carrying device.
A further area of classification lies in the method of pulse
width control. For instance, a variable mark-space ratio
may be obtained by holding the frequency constant and
varying the conduction time; by holding the conduction
time constant and varying the frequency; by a combination
of both; or by a self-oscillating type of circuit in which the
chopper element is switched on and off as the output
voltage makes small fluctuations about its regulated
voltage according to the demands made by the load.
Choppers may also be classified according to whether the
control produces a steady output voltage, as in the case of
a stabilised power supply, or a rapidly varying output
voltage.. as in the case of a high-frequency amplifier.
114
As examples of some of these types. descriptions will now
be given of several representative types of chopper circuit.
Low-power thyristor chopper for d.c. motor control
chopper in which the main chopper element, SCR 1, is
turned on by a pulse from a multivibrator which also triggers
a monostable into its quasi-stable state. At the end of the
monostable period, which is determined by an input control
signal, the monostable reverts to its stable condition, and in
doing so triggers SCR2. SCR2 then reverse biases SCRl via
C and turns it off. thus ending the chopper conduction
period. When SCRl is again turned on by the multi-
vibrator at the commencement of its next conduction
period it similarly commutates SCR2, again via C. so that
SCR2 is ready to play its part in the next commutation of
load current.
The circuit does not use an LC filter because, in general.
motor loads possess sufficient inertia to reject the ac com-
ponent of chopper output waveforms.
This method of commutation is inefficient, and the circuit
of Fig. 9 is probably limited to low power applications.
An alternative form of thyristor chopper
For the control of higher powers, or for operation at higher
frequencies. a large number of circuits have been described,
typical of which is the one shown in Fig. 10. The timing
circuit may be as shown in the previous circuit, the sig-
nificance of this alternative arrangement being in the
method of commutation.
SCRl is the chopper element, SCR3 is the auxiliary com-
mutating thyristor, and the purpose of SCR2 is to charge C
to the polarity required to reverse bias SCRl when SCR2
fires. Briefly. the action is as follows: assume C is charged
to the polarity shown, the start of the conduction cycle
occurs when the multivibrator fires SCRl and SCR2;
SCRl energises the load, while SCR2 has the effect of
reversing the charge on C by means of an oscillatory dis-
charge with L; SCR2 then turns off. When SCR3 is fired by
the monostable at the end of the conduction period SCRl is
reverse biased by C, and turns off and C is then charged
again to its original polarity by SCR3 and the load. When C
is so charged SCR3 turns off and the circuit is ready for the
next conduction cycle.
Fig. 9. Simple open-loop thyristor chopper.

MONO-
STABLE
SCR3
SCR I
SCR 2
Fig. 10. Thyristor chopper for use with higher powers or
frequencies.
A regulated power supply using a high frequency
transistor chopper
The circuit of Fig. 11 shows an a.c to d.c. current and
voltage stabilised power supply.
Incoming mains is transformed rectified and partially
smoothed by 7R, D and Cl. Conversion to the required
output voltage is done by the chopper transistor V T L
followed by the smoothing filter LC. VT2 is an emitter-
follower driver using a tap on the smoothing choke for its
collector supply voltage. The function of R2 is to assist the
turn-off of VT1 by providing negative base current during
the transistor storage time.
Voltage control is achieved by means ofthe closed feedback
loop containing the voltage amplifier, and current control
for overload protection is achieved by means of the current
amplifier loop. Output current is sensed by means of series
resistor Rl.
Choppers such as this have been used for power outputs up
to about 500 to 1 000 watts, operating at frequencies up to
50 or 100kHz.
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
It will be obvious from the preceding discussions that the
overriding characteristic of the series chopper is the ability
to convert with maximum efficiency a d.c. power source to
some lower voltage level whose amplitude may be nearly
the maximum value of the input power source. As an
example of this, the following compares the efficiencies of a
chopper and a linear regulator in a hypothetical power
supply application.
It is required to derive from 240 V rms 10% 50 Hz mains
supply a stable voltage of 250 V d.c. in order to power a
d.c.-to-d.c. converter taking a constant input current of
1 ampere. The first step is to rectify the mains supply, and
smooth the 100Hz content ofthe rectified output. A reason-
able value of capacitor to use for this would be about
200 J.tF giving a peak-to-peak ripple voltage of about 45
volts.
Rl
CURRENT
AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR C2
Cl
R3
Fig. 11. a.c. to d.c. current and voltage stabilised supply.
In the case of the series regulator, shown in Fig. 12, the
voltage appearing across the series transistor at maximum
mains is as shown in Fig. 13. The average value of this
voltage is approximately 100 volts, giving rise to a dissipa-
tion of 100 watts in the series transistor (neglecting base
drive losses. etc). This can now be compared with a chopper
and LC filter circuit as shown in Fig. 14. The dissipation
occurring in the transistor and diode may be divided into
two parts: (a) steady state dissipation, (b) transient dissipa-
tion. The steady state dissipation is that incurred by the
inductor current of 1 amp flowing alternately in the
transistor and the flywheel diode. Because the voltage
across these components during conduction is typically less
than 1 volt. the steady-state dissipation will be less than
1 watt for a 1 amp load current. The transient dissipation
is that caused by the fact that during the finite rise and fall
time of the transistor, both current and voltage (and there-
fore instantaneous power dissipation) are present. This
situation is aggravated by the phenomenon of diode
reverse recovery. At a typical high-speed chopper frequency
of 20-30 kHz. the transient dissipation in the circuit of
Fig.12. Series regulator.
SERIES
~----~--~EL~EMrE_N_T______.-~
SMOOTHING
ac IN CAPACITOR
250V
ac OUT
Fig. 13 Voltage output waveforms from the series regulator.
SHADED AREA SHOWS VOLTAGE ACROSS
SERIES ELEMENT AT MAXIMUM MAINS,
NEGLECTING RECTIFIER DROPS
TIME-
115
 These precautions may include the use of fast r~co~ery
diodes. Schottky diodes, or the use of current-nsetrme
limiting devices eg inductive networks in series with the
rectifier.

(c) The use of screening, either round the .entire c~opper

circuit, or round those components associated with fast
Fig.14. Chopper and LC filter. current risetimes.

Noise fed back onto the supply lines is due mainly to the
manner in which a chopper draws its current from the
Fig. 14 is of the order of magnitude of 10 watts, giving rise.
supply. Reference to Fig. 15 will show that supply curr~nt is
together with the steady-state dissipation of 1 watt, to an
drawn only during conduction of the chopper transistor.
overall efficiency of 90%. This compares with 50% for the
and therefore flows as a series of pulses. Any impedance in
linear regulator.
series with the supply, will give rise to inductive and resistive
transients associated with these pulses appearing at the
It will be seen from the preponderance of transient dissipa-
supply terminals. For this reason it is invariably nece~sary
pation in the total chopper dissipation that an upper limit
to decouple the input supply terminals of choppers with a
is set to the operating frequency of the chopper by the
capacitor large enough to supply the load current at the
switching times of the transistor and diode.
frequency of operation.

A further characteristic is the ineradicable presence of an

Noise generation
a.c. component of output voltage at the chopper frequency,
One characteristic of the chopper which may prove dis-
due to the finite ripple reduction ratio of any filter. Although
advantageous in some circumstances is the generation of
it is true that, in general. a filter may be designed to have
high frequency electrical noise, which may be either radiated
as high a ripple reduction ratio as is required, very high
into the vicinity of the chopper, or conducted directly onto
reduction ratios may prove an embarrassment in some
the power input and output terminals or both.
circumstances. This is because the rate of response of the
filter to changes in input pulse-width is a function of ripple
Radiated emissions occur whenever a rapid change of
reduction; the higher the reduction ratio, the slower the
current occurs in a component containing stray inductance.
filter response. This may be important in stabilised power
which at the operating frequencies of choppers can include
supplies where closed loop control is employed. In such
small lengths of wiring. In a chopper using fast transistors.
circuits, a filter with a slow response time would produce
these radiated emissions are likely to contain frequencies
a slowly responding loop characteristic, with a resultant
ranging from the fundamental operating frequency up to
poor response of the output voltage to rapid changes of
several tens of megahertz.
load current raw input voltage etc.
Precautions which may be taken against the emission of
unwanted radiations include: APPLICATION AREAS
The application of power choppers falls into three main
(a) Keeping to an absolute minimum the length of all
areas:
wiring carrying rapidly changing currents. such as that
which is directly in series with the chopper transistor and (a) d.c. motor drives
flywheel diode. (b) Stabilised power supplies
(c) Amplifiers.
(b) Taking precautions against the generation of large
amplitude current pulses such as those flowing in the fly- D.C. motor drives. These generally use a thyristor chopper
wheel diode at the commencement of transistor conduction. as the switch element because of the high currents often
involved in such drives, and because the high inertia of most
motor loads permits operation of the chopper at a relatively
Fig. 15. Current paths in a series chopper circuit.
low frequency.

Stabilised power supplies. These may drive loads of very low

inertia, and the consequent requirement for filtering !he
output voltage leads to a desirability for operation at a high
frequency. For this reason, most power supply choppers
employ high speed transistors as the switch element.
Obvious applications, which take advantage of the good
CURRENT FLOW FOR
CHOPPER"ON"
CURRENT FLOW FOR
CHOPPER "'FF"
efficiency over wide control ranges of the transistor chopper,
are airborne or satellite power supplies or indeed any power

116
supply which has to stabilise the wide possible variation in
the voltage of a battery (10.5 V to 15 V typically for a 12 cell
lead-acid battery). Transistor choppers are also frequently
used to prestabilise the raw input voltage to a series regu-
lated power supply, thus reducing the dissipation in the
series regulator element while preserving the highly stable
output characteristics of the series stabiliser.
Amplifiers. The use of choppers in amplifiers is one which
has only recently been realised. It will be apparent that the
usefulness of the chopper technique lies in eliminating the
inefficiency inherent in the conventional Class A and AB
techniques. The availability of transistors capable of
switching at speeds great enough to allow modulation of
the output voltage at frequencies extending well beyond the
audio range. has stimulated interest in this technique for
audio amplification. The use of choppers in this manner is
sometimes referred to as Class D amplification.
In conclusion it must be said that although the principal
broad areas of application of choppers are as described in
this section, it will be obvious that in any application where
efficient voltage conversion is required, whether at d.c. or
frequencies of up to hundreds of kilohertz, the use of a
power chopper must merit serious consideration.
BffiLIOGRAPHY
Gutzwiller, F W, Silicon Controlled Rectifier Manual. 4th
Edition. General Electric.
Silicon Power Circuits Manual. RCA, New York.
Kossov. 0 A, Comparative Analysis of Chopper Voltage
Regulators with LC Filter, IEEE Transactions on Mag-
netics. Vol. Mag-4, December, 1968.
Hauser, J A. Get With Switching Voltage Regulators, Elec-
tronics Design., 25 April. 1968, pp 62-66.
117
 Chapter 14

DC Stabilisers

A R Leaverland and A Marchant

ITT Components Group Europe

A d.c. rail derived from a mains supply via a transformer,

rectifier and smoothing components only, is likely to have
a total variation of at least 15% when mains changes.
regulation and ageing effects are taken into account.
Although it is ditlicult to imagine a case where it would be
impossible to design a circuit that would not continue to
function with supply variations of this order, it is fairly
easy to demonstrate that circuit performance could be
unacceptably changed.

The use of stabilised rails greatly simplifies circuit calcula-

tion concerning worst case performance and enables the
ratings of components to be quickly determined ensuring
a reliable performance.

Unfortunately a stabilised power supply is often used to

compensate for an inadequate circuit rather than to
optimise the performance of a basically sound design. The
circuits shown in Fig. 1 serve as a simple illustration.

Both circuits perform in a similar way with a 12 V supply

line and have similar input and output impedances and
gain characteristics. Both will accept a wide range of
transistor parameters. The circuit Fig. 1(a) will operate
satisfactorily with a supply voltage in the range 10 to 18
volts whereas the circuit in Fig. 1(b) will operate as a small
signal amplifier with a supply voltage in the range 5 to
60 volts. In fact the high voltage limit in Fig. 1(b) will be
determined by power dissipation of components and the
breakdown characteristics of the transistors, rather than
performance degradation, it will also be cheaper to manu-
facture.

The justification for stabilised power lines is greater when

components are operated close to their limits of perfor-
mance. The circuit shown in Fig. 2 is a good example of
this. A J.lA 700 is shown connected in a typical application
and the 10mV d.c. input has been arranged to give full
scale deflection of the meter.

119
 ----~----~-------~--~~------- ~
82k.O. 10kS2 lk.O.
91k.O.
33k.O.
330.0. 12kS2
(a)
Fig. 1. Two basic circuits with widely differing input requirements.
Such a circuit has a zero otiset of 150 J.lV/V change of the
input so a change of 1 V on the supply rail could give a
zero error of 1.5% worst case. The error could be further
aggravated if the IC also had a worst case offset voltage of
5 m V, because the compensating offset would change by
5 mV/12 = 416 J.lV, giving a total of 556 J.lV or 5.66% zero
error if they happened to be additive.
Clearly for even a medium performance system at least an
order improvement would be required so that a total
excursion of less than 100 mV on the supply lines would be
necessary.
Similarly it is easy to show that it is possible to design
circuits with a high degree of ripple and noise rejection.
On those occasions when even a well designed circuit is
unable to adequately reject say 0.5 V pp ripple on a 12 V
line, the use of a high attenuation power filter can give
rise to unexpected problems. The circuit in Fig. 3 illustrates
a common pit-fall.
The circuit is designed to allow an output ripple of 1 m V pp
and will achieve this aim under steady state conditions.
Unfortunately the effect of rapid load change has been
overlooked. When the load current is reduced rapidly the
energy stored in the smoothing inductance is discharged
into the output capacitor and causes a rapid and substantial
rise in the supply rail, this may in turn cause irrepairable
damage to the load circuit.
The problems associated with power distribution are
greatly simplified by the use of a stabilised power source.
Fig. 2. A circuit in which components are operated close to
their performance limits.
+12V
10.0.
-12V
120
V,
82k~lk.O.
47k.O.
I ..
. ,. 33k.O.
. 100.0.
II
;:
330.0.
"
91k.O.
(b)
Remote sensing can be used to maintain the supply rails
constant, independent of voltage drop in the supply leads
from the power section, and by using a stabilised power
supply with a low output impedance, undesirable coupling
between circuits can be drastically reduced. The power
distribution system must then be designed to ensure that
common supply lead impedances are not allowed to
degrade the supply performance.
STABILISATION AGAINST MAINS
VARIATION
A major function of the stabilised power supply is to act
as a buffer against variations in the mains supply. When
taken in its widest sense this means transient fluctua-
tions in addition to the slower changes due to trans-
former tap changes and cable loading problems. The
attenuation of mains changes is usually known as the
stabilisation ratio, this is the ratio of the percentage change
of the mains supply to the resultant percentage change of
the output voltage from the power supply. Thus a power
supply having a stabilisation ratio of 1000:1 would show a
change in output of 10%/1000 = 0.01% for a mains
input change of 10%. The stabilisation ratio under transient
conditions can also be similarly defined but will be dealt
with as a separate issue. There are a number of different
methods for determining the stabilisation ratio of a power
supply but the one most commonly used is to set up a
constant load condition, usually half load, and note the
variation in output voltage of the supply when the mains
input is varied. A more sophisticated variation is to modu-
Fig. 3. A circuit designed to allow minimum ripple but over-
looking the effects of rapid load change.
015
25000
,.F
late the mains supply with a low frequency component,
say 1 Hz, and note the value of this 1 Hz component
present in the output. However, such a test can give a
flatteringly high value which may be several times the true
value obtained in practice.
A more satisfactory way is to load the power supply to
full load at nominal mains input and allow a steady state
condition to be reached. This may take several hours. With
the exact load conditions maintained the mains input can
be changed by a convenient amount, say 10%, the power
supply is then allowed to attain a steady state condition
before a further reading is taken. The dift'erence between
the two steady state readings should then be used to
calculate the stabilisation ratio.
It will usually be found that there can be an order of dif-
ference between the two basic measurements and the
reason for the discrepancy is quite straightforward. It is
best explained by considering a typical series regulated
power supply with an output of 12 V at 5 A. The efficiency
of such a unit will probably be around 60% with nominal
mains input. The input power will be approximately 100
watts and with a dissipation of 40 watts within the unit it is
unlikely that the temperature rise of the components,
including the reference element, can be kept below 10C.
When the mains voltage rises by 10% the input power will
rise to 110 watts and the dissipation to 50 watts; under these
conditions the proportional temperature rise of the
reference element will by 12.5C.
If the reference element has a temperature coefficient of
0.02 %tC the reference voltage will change by 0.05% and
the stabilisation ratio due to this eft'ect alone will then be
10%/0.05 = 200:1. It will be seen, therefore, that stabili-
sation ratios better than 100/1 are quite difficult to achieve
and that, where claims in the region of 10,000:1 are made,
either the reference element has been temperature com-
pensated or the heating eft'ect, due to increased power
dissipation within the unit, has not been included.
Stabilisation of output against mains transients is often a
problem to the inexperienced power supply designer and
can arise in a number of ways, some of these are far from
obvious.
Spikes up to 1 000 V and more with widths of a few micro-
seconds appear quite regularly on normal mains supplies.
They can occur between the live and neutral, or between
the live and neutral combined and the incoming earth.
They can also occur between the incoming earth and the
local earth. Each type of interference causes its own
problems and needs to be dealt with separately.
Spikes which occur between the live and neutral can in
certain conditions appear almost unattenuated on the
output of a low voltage power supply. An example of this
effect on a badly designed power supply gave output
spikes of nearly 500 V and this from a supply normally
delivering 24 V at a maximum output of 50 A.
tI"T~~
--::---1
cl~~5:
1
Fig. 4. A low voltage supply circuit.
The unit was fitted with a transformer in which the lead to
the screen between primary and secondary was uncon-
nected. The screen was wound next to the live end of the
primary winding and thus a high capacity existed between
the two points. The secondary winding was of copper foil
and as such provided a high capacity between its start and
the screen and also to the live side of the primary winding.
To aggravate the situation a high permittivity polyester
tilm had been used as the insulating medium and the
whole transformer vacuum impregnated with a thermo-
setting polyester resin. A capacitance of several hundred
picafarads was thus formed between these two points.
Electrolytic capacitors had been used throughout and
these exhibit highly inductive characteristics at high
frequency. As will be seen in the equivalent circuit diagram,
(Fig. 4) under these circumstances there was an almost
direct path for fast rising mains transients which appeared
virtually unattenuated at the output on light load. The
example was an extreme condition but one or more of the
faults described can easily occur if consideration is not
given at the design stage.
It is wise not to assume that all the mains spikes recorded
are being transmitted from the mains supply, since ex-
tremely high and damaging voltages can be generated by
the act of switching the apparatus oti If the switch is
operated at the point of peak current the energy stored in
the supply transformer is often transferred to stray capacity
before it is finally dissipated. On large power supplies
spectacular breakdowns can occur due to this cause.
Another form of internal spike generation occurs when the
mains input fuse blows and, as the mains transformer is
often drawing many times the full load current at this time,
a considerable amount of energy is involved. Under this
condition the majority of the energy is contained in the
leakage inductance of the transformer.
Fig. 5. A power supply design paying particular reference to
spike suppression.
121
These mechanisms, once recognised are fairly easy to deal
with and the circuit in Fig. 5 shows a typical solution. The
solutions apply equally well to power supplies without d.c.
stabilisation and these or similar methods can be seen on
most well designed equipment.

The example shown is, of course, an extreme case, and it is

unlikely that the designer would be unfortunate enough to
be faced with a similar problem. A 100 V spike on a 5V
Fig. 6. Preventing mains-borne transients from reaching the
supply would be nothing short of disaster. load.

Even precautions of modest proportions can bring about

drastic improvements but there are occasions when a
==i
__ ~EiJS_E:
_hE_fiQ. _____ _
whole range of transient suppressive circuits has to be POWER LEAD

_-:~~fi~!:- ____ -~LOAD

employed. POWER
SUPPLY

As previously stated a steep voltage wave front appearing -------------

on the primary of the mains transformer can be either
Fig. 7. Employing remote sensing.
internally generated, by for example, an input fuse blowing,
or originate from external sources. In either case atten-
uation may be achieved by shunting the primary with a
voltage dependent resistor, or by using a capacitor of a
suitable a.c. rating. When employing shunt elements it is
wise to incorporate some series component such as a
small RF inductor, otherwise the filter elements will
attempt to suppress transients in the whole mains supply z
instead of just that being used by the equipment. When a
capacitor is used the value is normally chosen so that its
impedance is approximately equal to the primary induc-
FREQUENCY
tance of the mains transformer. In the event of a fuse
blowing, the two components will tend to ring at the Fig. 8. Uncorrected output impedance versus frequency
mains frequency. However, in practice, it is found that a characteristic.
capacity somewhat lower than that indicated can be used
without a deterioration of performance. This is because
losses in the primary circuit have a limiting etlect ie the
fuse does not break instantaneously and some impedance
is apparent in the arc.

A residual transient across the primary is further attenuated

by the step down ratio of the mains transformer and the
leakage inductance can be used to provide the series
impedance for a second stage of filtering. Fig. 6 shows a
circuit which should adequately prevent mains-borne
transients from causing damage to a load.
Fig. 9. Shunting the load with an electrolytic capacitor to
extend the impedance/frequency characteristic.

STABILISATION AGAINST LOAD

VARIATIONS
The load of a power supply is often an appreciable distance
z
from the output terminals and it is therefore important to
ditl'erentiate between the voltage appearing at the terminals
and the voltage that eventually appears at the load. Clearly
the normal requirement is for maintenance of the latter,
not the former. A facility to measure this remote voltage is
FREQUENCY
usually provided on the stabilised supply and enables the
user to compensate for unavoidable cable drop between Fig. 10. Shunting the load with a parallel capacitor arrange-
the power supply and the load. In this way the steady ment.
state regulation of the power supply will often be found to
be as low as 0.1% from no load to full load.

122
Even when using the facility of remote sensing (Fig. 7), it
is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to maintain a
constant voltage across the load in all circumstances; this
is particularly true of those loads requiring large and rapid
changes in current, even though power supply manufac-
POWER
turers take care to ensure that the low output impedance SUPPLY
of the supply at low frequency is maintained up to a tew
hundred kilohertz at least.

The low output impedance of a power supply which is

apparent at low frequencies is usually the result of negative
feedback and can be maintained only up to frequencies Fig. 11. Measuring output impedance.
where this feedback remains effective.

Other considerations such as noise and instability usually

force the frequency response of the power supply to be
restricted to a few kilohertz and give the typical uncorrected
output impedance versus frequency characteristic shown
in Fig. 8. A power supply with this type of characteristic
would give undesirable coupling between load circuits.
The low impedance may be extended to higher frequencies
by shunting the output with a high value electrolytic
capacitor and, if this capacitor is correctly chosen, the
characteristic may be retained to values of 100 kHz or
more, as shown in Fig. 9.
Unfortunately electrolytic capacitors have a series induc-
tance which is high enough to render them ineffective above
about 100kHz. A further extension of the frequency range
can however, be obtained by shunting the electrolytic
capacitor with a low inductance ceramic capacitor. In
this way the overall response shown in Fig. 10 can be
obtained.
In Fig. 10 the steep rise of impedance at 'C' is the result of
the series inductance of the electrolytic capacitor forming
a parallel resonance with the smaller shunt capacitor. This
effect limits the improvement that can be obtained by the
use of simple shunt capacitor circuits and additionally the
capacitors are only etlective at the supply terminals and
not at the load. For this reason many manufacturers
suggest that where long leads are used the output shunt
capacitors should be removed from the power supply and
fitted instead at the load end.
Due to the very low output impedance of modern supplies
it is often extremely ditlicult to determine their actual
value. A method usually adopted by the manufacturers is
illustrated in Fig. 11. It can be used to measure the output
impedance under various load conditions, and also enables
a characteristic curve of output impedance versus frequency
to be constructed. The output impedance is then given by
E/I. A power supply capable of supplying 5 V at 1 Acould
easily have an output impedance as low as 1 mQ so that
an injected a.c. current of 100 rnA r.m.s. would produce a
voltage of only 100 JN across the terminals. This value may
be well below the ripple and noise present in the system,
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE
The problems surrounding the maintainance of a constant
voltage across the load, even when rapid changes of mains
supply and load current occur, have already been discussed.
There is, however, another and often conflicting require-
ment of the modern power supply; this is the ability to
change the voltage across the load in a controlled fashion
at:
(a) switch-on
(b) switch-otT
(c) under overload conditions
(d) when circuit requirements demand a change of voltage.
When a power supply is switched on it is important that
the output is quickly and smoothly established, free of
oscillation and without overshoot. This is particularly
significant when two or more power units are used in
conjunction since they are usually required to operate
either simultaneously or in a strict sequence. Conversely,
when switch oft" occurs, the requirement may be either a
smooth decay or, where multiple power units are involved,
a sequential shut down.
It is easy for the power supply designer to be trapped into
steady-state thinking, totally forgetting the sequence of
events when switch-on and switch-otT occur. Fig. 12 is a
typical example of steady-state thinking.
A circuit of moderate performance under steady state
conditions exhibits a severe overshoot when switched on
particularly where C is large, viz. Fig. 13, curve (a). This
Fig. 12. A circuit which does not cater for switch-on variations.
REGULATED
UNREGULATED d c
OUTPUT

so it is desirable that the voltmeter should be frequency c

selective. The use of a wave analyser or a transfer function
analyser is highly desirable if accurate measurements are
to be made.

123
 simplify the protection circuit, completely forgetting the
action of the capacitor C. This capacitor is used to improve
transient stability against load and also to improve the
> output noise and ripple, its effect, when the supply is short
1-
:::l
circuited, is to substantially increase the drive to the input
Q_
1-
:::l
circuit. A current limit signal applied at this point would
0 have to overcome the increase in drive before the action
would become effective, so introducing an unnecessary
delay.
TIME
Although a power supply appears to have a satisfactory
Fig. 13. Responses at switch-on.
steady state performance when designed in this w~y, under
transient conditions it will deliver an extremely high pulse
of current into a short circuit with the possibility of per-
characteristic could, of course, have disastrous etlects on
manent damage to itself.
most equipment. By changing the position of the shaping
capacitor (required for stabilisation) to the position shown
dotted, a supply of similar characteristic is obtained but
with the start up curve (b).
PROGRAMMING
Although a power supply is normally required to maintain
An analytical approach to the dynamic performance of a
the output voltage constant regardless of changes in
power supply is important, particularly when considering
supply volts and load current, it may also be requi~ed t.o
the performance under overload conditions. When a
change its output on demand. A power supply wh1ch ts
power supply delivering full power is sho~ circuit~d,
capable of accepting signals from an external source and
extremely heavy dissipation is likely to occur m the ~enes
using them to determine the output voltage is said to be
elements until the overload protection provided becomes
programmable.
effective. It is essential, therefore, that the current through
the series elements is reduced to a safe value as quickly as
If a slow rate of change, or 'slew rate', of output voltage
possible to protect not only the power s~pply but also t~e
is acceptable, little change to the basic power supply circuit
equipment. A typical overcurrent protection arrangement 1s
is required and settling times of a few tens of milliseconds
shown in Fig. 14.
can be expected, but if output changes in the order of
microseconds are required without substantial under or
The protection circuit measures the voltage across a
overshoot, greater care needs to be taken with the design
shunt in series with the main control elements and when
of the control amplifier.
this voltage exceeds a predetermined level it short circuits
the current drive from the control amplifier. The voltage
Often the basic restriction on a fast slew rate is the charac-
level across the shunt is kept to a minimum to reduce
teristic of the load itself. If the load is highly capacitive
losses, an important consideration when designing high
the slew rate will be determined by the maximum current
current low voltage supplies, and necessitates a fairly
available from the supply. Thus if the load has an effective
high voltage gain in the protection circuit.
capacity of a 1000 J.l.F and the supply has an overload ~ircuit
limiting the maximum current to 10 A, then the maximum
Designers are often tempted to feed protection signals into
rate of voltage rise from say 2 volts to 12 volts is limited
the input of the control amplifier, shown A, in order to
by dv/dt = 1/C = 10/1000 x 10- 6 = 10,000 volts/sec or
10 V/ms.
Fig. 14. Overcurrent protection arrangement.
The voltage fall is often determined by the time constant
c of the load unless the power supply has the unusual capacity
for accepting current from the load. If the load is resistive
or inductive the load voltage is determined by the charac-
teristics of the power supply. If a very fast response is
required the normal practice of directly coupling the output
A and input of the control amplifier, to reduce the noise and
ripple, must be avoided.
UNREGULATED
de

BASIC STABILISED POWER SUPPLY

c___---'VWV'--- REF
CIRCUITS
Although power supplies may employ many ditTerent
types of components such as transistors, valves, trans-

124
 When calculating the change of output voltage for changes
of load and supply it is again important to remember that
the amplifier input voltage and current will both change,
not necessarily proportionally, with load demand and
supply input change.

LOAD Typical curves for the d.c. gain characteristics of a medium

performance 5 V 5 A power supply are shown in Fig.
16(a), (b), (c), and these can be used to calculate the regula-
tion and stability of the power supply.
Fig. 15. The three basic elements of a stabilised supply.

If a reference voltage of 5.6 V is used values of 5.6 ill for

R 1 and 5 ill for R 2 would be reasonable choices for a
ductors, thyristors and even rotating machines, three basic nominally 5 V power supply.
circuit requirements are always present:
From Fig. 16(a) it can be seen that an input change of
(a) a reference 3.6 mY at the amplitier input is required to maintain the
(b) an amplifying function output at 5 V from no load to 5.A. This signal is provided
(c) a power converter. by a small drop in the output voltage and is given by:

In some instances these three basic requirements are

ditlicult to recognise, viz in a constant voltage transformer
supply, but with rigorous mathematical analysis they can
always be isolated.
Fig. 16. Typical curves for the d.c. gain characteristic of a
The normal arrangement of the three elements is shown in medium performance 5 A. 5 V power supply.
Fig. 15. The steady state stability of the load voltage depends
on the combination of reference stability, amplitier drift
and overall gain.

The change of output voltage due to reference change is

easy to calculate because it is a proportional effect, a 1 % MAINS NOMINAL
change of reference voltage giving a 1% change of output
voltage. When making this calculation the effects of changes
in the value of the connecting components, R 1 and R 2 in
Fig. 15 must not be forgotten.
mV
(a)
The input current and the voltage ofTset of the control
amplifier can drift at independent rates with time and
temperature and cause a resultant drift of output voltage.
Both these effects must, therefore, be considered inde-
pendently. If the offset current drifts without a change of
input voltage, all the change of otlset current flows through
R 2 so that the change of output voltage is IaR 2 where Ia is
the change of offset current.

Voltage ofTset change has a similar efTect on the output. mV

If it is assumed that the circuit is initially at steady state (b)

with both zero current and voltage offset then V2 /R 1 =

E 0 /R 2 where E0 is the output voltage and V2 the reference
voltage. If the otlset voltage changes by 11 va then to restore
zero input current:

L_ + !1Va = E0 + 11E0 - !1Va

Rl R2
Simplifying to:
mV
(c)

125
which in the example is:
3.6 X 10 -3 5.6 + 5
5
= 3.6 = 7.6 mV approx.
x 10- 3 x 2.12
giving a regulation of:
Similarly the stability against mains change can be calcu-
lated by using Fig. 16(b). In this case a change of 300 Jl V
is required to stabilise the output against a mains change
of 10% which gives an output error of:
= 0.3 X 10-3 X 5.6 5+ 5
= 0.3 x 10- 3 x 2.12 = 0.632 mV approx.
giving an output change of 0.0127% or a stabilisation ratio
of 10/0.0127 = 787, neglecting changes due to differential
heating.
When plotting the gain characteristics of a power supply
a curve similar to Fig. 16(c) is sometimes obtained. This
will be seen to be a zero offset and not a gain change and
is normally found to be due to the effects of auxiliary
supply variations on the control amplifier. However, this
change will have an effect on a fixed voltage supply similar
to the gain variations shown in Fig. 16(b).
Although the basic circuit shown in Fig. 15 can be designed
to have suitable d.c. characteristics it would almost cer-
tainly oscillate if assembled without the addition of suitable
frequency compensation components.
126
t 40
z 30
~ 20
10
OL-----------------------~~---
FREQUENCY-
Fig. 17. An idealisedfrequencyfgain characteristic.
In the uncompensated power supply the major con-
tribution to phase shift with increasing frequency is found
in the power stage and this normally limits the upper fre-
quency response. To ensure that the power supply is stable
under all conditions of load, care must be taken to ensure
that the overall gain has dropped to unity before a phase
change of 180c occurs.
Ideally one aims for a frequency/gain characteristic shown
in Fig. 17, unit f0 being as high as possible. To achieve this
the designer often has two choices, either to shape the
control amplifier as shown in Fig. 17 making sure that the
curve crosses the 0 db line before the first break frequency
is reached, or to introduce a phase shift into the control
loop which is similar but opposite to that of the power
stage.
The tirst method, although always enabling the design
of a stable supply, usually gives a poor response to transients,
whereas the second method can give problems when trying
to calculate the precise gain/phase characteristics of the
output stage.
 Chapter 15

Short Circuit
Techniques

R G Dancy MIEE
International Rectifier Co (Great Britain) Ltd

Rectifier systems may be subjected to short circuits at

any time, and consideration ofthe consequences is necessary
during the design stages. The term rectifier systems includes
all types, but most directly those containing silicon diodes
or thyristors.

Short circuit is a term used generally to describe a condition

in which two or more points, normally electrically isolated,
come into electrical contact with one another via a relatively
low impedance path. This is a very loosely -worded definition,
and applies to a wide range of faults in electrical equipment;
from an earth-loop fault on an amplifier producing a
few micro-watts of power to a prospective fault measured
in megawatts on a high-voltage power distribution system.
Both of these examples of short circuits are to be avoided
as far as possible. Sometimes operation under short-
circuit conditions is a requirement for specialised processes;
this will not be considered here, but similar techniques may
be used to analyse rectifier circuits subjected to accidental
short-circuits or to very low impedance loads.

When power in excess of a few watts is being dissipated some

provision must be made to clear the fault or disconnect the
supply before unwanted effects are felt. The time-scale
involved to clear may be from microseconds to several
hours depending upon the type of equipment and applica-
tion requirements.

SHORT-CIRCUITS
No short-circuit has zero impedance, although for simpli-
city it is often assumed so.

The concept of a zero-impedance short-circuit is justifiable

in many instances such as:

(a) When the source impedance is high

(b) When total circuit impedance is high
(c) At low power levels

127
(d) When operating at high voltage and low power.
(e) When worst-case design philosophy has been adopted.
(f) When no other information is available.
The nearest a fault is likely to become to zero-impedance
is when a wiring error has been made on a low-power unit,
or a bus-bar connected incorrectly on a high-current supply.
Both cases have happened but by an independent check of
connections before switching on, most of the more spec-
tacular displays can be avoided.
It is quite common for the tests specified for equipment
prior to shipping and installation, to be considerably more
stringent than any condition imposed on it during its work-
ing life. This has its advantages, but sometimes is carried
to excess and results either in unnecessary failures during
testing or to uneconomical designs.
Short-circuits which occur during the operating life of an
equipment usually have appreciable impedance. They are
more likely to occur near to the load than close to the
equipment terminals, adding the output cabling between
the two points to the total circuit impedance. The fault
itself is unlikely to be a bolted short-circuit, and may have
considerable impedance. In the case of a heavy metallic
object being dropped accidentally across the d.c. output,
the fault is likely to be a combination of an initial surge
followed by interruptions due to bouncing, with subse-
quent arcing, finally stabilising as a firmly welded resistive
short-circuit. The time period taken for this to occur may
be shorter or longer than the operating time of the protective
apparatus. There is a wide range of uncertainty in the
conditions imposed by a fault, and no two faults will be
identical.
EFFECTS OF SHORT-CIRCUIT IN
RECTIFIERS
When a fault develops due to a short-circuit in a rectifier
unit, one or more of the following effects might be experi-
enced:
1. Protecting fuses and circuit-breakers will operate
2. High 12 R losses will give rise to high temperatures
(constituting a fire risk)
3. Malfunction of the rectifier may cause a serious disturb-
ance of the electronic equipment or industrial process into
which the rectifier normally feeds.
4. High electro-magnetic forces due to the high currents
may cause mechanical stresses, and possibly damage
(mechanical stresses are proportional to / 2 .)
5. Rectifier devices might be damaged or destroyed if not
correctly protected.
Position of fault
Faults can occur at any points of a rectifier unit, the most
common heing :
(a) A short-circuit across the d.c. output.
128
(b) A short-circuit across one arm of the rectifier (anode-to-
cathode).
(c) A short-circuit between phases of the a.c. input.
The latter case (between the phases of an a.c. input) can be
considered as a normal distribution system fault, which
can be cleared by means of fuses and/or circuit-breakers,
and will not be described here.
A short-circuit across the d.c. output (case (a)) is very com-
mon, and in some applications may occur many times a
day. Depending upon the instant in time at which the
fault occurs, any of the rectifier elements and transformer
windings might be under abnormal stresses. If the fault is
sustained for more than 20 milliseconds all components
in the system will be affected as the fault current will be
carried by each element in turn hy natural commutation.
A fault across one arm of the rectifier is almost certain to
be due to the failure of a semiconductor rectifier, as it is
within an enclosed cubicle which should normally prevent
external accidental short-circuits.
Failure of a rectifier might be due to:
1. A faulty device (uncommon)
2. A rectifier failing because of excessive applied transient
voltages (fairly common).
3. Continuous over-running of the equipment on output
current causing a degradation of components (fairly
common in some industries).
It can be assumed that all power semiconductor rectifiers
fail to short-circuit.
The effect of a short-circuited rectifier depends on the circuit
configuration, but invariably the output current and
voltage become severely disturbed (if not reverting to raw
a.c.) and the equipment must be assumed to be out of
commission unless it is designed to take automatic action
to isolate the faulty component(s). It is relatively easy to
design-in sufficient rectifier capacity with parallel rectifiers,
each fused individually, so that any faulty components
cause the fuse to clear, leaving the good devices to continue
operating.
In single-way rectifiers, ie single-phase half wave, single-
phase centre tapped, three-phase half wave, and six-
phase star, a short-circuit device causes high fault current
to flow in each rectifier arm in turn, by-passing the load,
and possibly damaging the other rectifiers in the circuit,
as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Fault current in a single-way rectifier

PHASE- TO- PHASE
FAULT CURRENT INFEED
LOAD
Fig. 2. Fault current in a double-way rectifier.
In double-way rectifiers not all components are jeopidised
by the failure of one arm, as can be seen in Fig. 2. Considera-
tion of the circuit shows that one short-circuit rectifier
device allows forward current to flow in each of the other
two arms of the rectifier in turn, unimpeded by the resistance
of the load. Only the phase-to-phase reactance of the trans-
former, cabling and rectifier resistance is limiting this
current and damage to the other arms of the rectifier can
only be avoided by fast-acting fuses. The rectifiers in the
opposite arms of the bridge are not subjected to any over-
load under these conditions. This can sometimes indicate
the nature of a fault : if rectifier devices connected to both
the positive and negative output sides are damaged the
fault is a short -circuit on the output; if two or more devices
all connected to one or other d.c. terminals are damaged,
one device has become short-circuit and caused the failure
of the other(s).
PROTECTING RECTIFIER EQUIPMENT
FROM SHORT CIRCUITS
It is inevitable that short-circuits will occur on rectifier
equipment. The effects of short-circuits can range from
merely annoying to positively dangerous, and it is essential
that protection is designed into the system from the start.
Precautions which may be taken to ensure a safe installation
are:
1. Design for short-circuits.
2. Protect with circuit-breakers.
3. Use semiconductor fuses.
4. Sense electronically and control via feedback path
(thyristor units).
Design for short circuits
If sufficient total impedance is practical, the short-circuit
may be considered as a normal overload, and a sufficiently
large transformer/rectifier/protection system may he used
to supply the overload current on a continuous basis.
Alternatively the equipment can be designed to sustain the
output only for a limited time and a temperature over-ride
can operate the circuit breaker to disconnect the supply.
providing the necessary safety from overheating.
If the fault is not sustained the rectifier may not be seriously
affected. If the thermal time constant of the rectifier is in
excess of the fault duration, the equipment will not be
overstressed unless the short-term overload ratings of the
rectifier devices and other components are exceeded.
Time-constants of rectifier units are approximately: forced
air-cooled 1 to 5 minutes; natural air-cooled 15 to 30
minutes; oil-cooled 15 minutes to 1 hour. In each case.
the rectifier junction temperature rise at a given power-
loss is dependent upon the total thermal mass in contact
with the rectifier (ambient is always assumed to be infinite-
safe enough on technical grounds, if not in terms of anti-
pollution!).
Contrary to first thoughts on the subject perhaps is the fact
that the forced-air cooled unit has the shortest thermal
time-constant. The forced-air cooled rectifier will have a
smaller heatsink than the less efficient natural cooled
rectifier for a given wattage dissipation. Hence the forced-
cooled unit has a shorter time-constant than the natural
cooled rectifier.
Fast-operating circuit-breakers
These circuit breakers may be on the d.c. output, particu-
larly if multiple loads are connected to the rectifier. In this
case it is necessary to isolate only the section of the load
subjected to the fault. D.C. circuit-breakers are inherently
more expensive than a.c. breakers, so that the choice in
most cases will be to use an a.c. circuit-breaker. The most
convenient point is normally between the incoming supply
and the rectifier transformer. Current sensing may be by
means of a shunt or d.c. current-transformer on the output,
or by current transformer(s) on the a.c. side.
High speed fuses
Special fuses are widely available for use with semi-
conductors. Normal HRC fuses are not generally suitable
for semiconductor rectifier protection hecause they have
excessive 12 t energy let-through and are not designed to
limit arcing voltage to a degree acceptable to normal recti-
fier peak inverse voltage safety margins (normally 2 to 2.5
times crest working voltage).
A semiconductor rectifier and a fuse both have similar
thermal and electrical characteristics which are: high tem-
perature operation of their active components (the silicon
wafer and silver element); low thermal mass (small active
elements in relation to the power loss); small margins
between normal operating temperatures and destruction
temperature (fuse rupture or silicon wafer destruction).
The problem with co-ordination of rectifier devices and
fuses is to design a combination fuse which will not rupture
whilst the rectifier is within its rating, but which will blow
extremely quickly when a fault occurs, before the rectifier
is damaged. Because the two devices are so similar in
character this is not an easy task. (The selection procedure
relating to semiconductor fuses is given in detail in a later
section of this chapter).
129
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
The impedance of a transformer is normally quoted in
percentage reactance (resistance being ignored as it is
often only about one tenth the value of the reactance at
50 Hz). The percentage reactance is defined as the voltage
drop due to the leakage reactance at rated current, expressed
as a percentage of the voltage. It is usually most convenient
to express this in terms of secondary voltage. being deter-
mined by measuring the terminal voltage off-load and with
the rated load connected.
Voc- VI.
Percentage reactance = x 100
Voc
(ignoring resistance)
If the resistance of windings. iron losses. etc are significant.
the equivalent circuit has both series reactance and resist-
ance. and voltage dropped includes two components in
quadrature.
Percentage impedance = J(%reactance) 2 + (%resistance) 2
Resistance can normally be neglected for transformers of
more than 10 kVA rating. but the smaller the transformer.
the more significant the resistance becomes.
Fig. 3 gives typical values of percentage reactance (X)
resistance (R) and total impedance [Z = J X 2 + R 2 ] for
standard 50 Hz transformers. For more specific figures the
transformer manufacturer's information sheet should be
referred to.
:Jj~~~--------~~~~----------~-~-~-TI~FIER
iO KVA
3%
I KVA
4%
USING T3 AS REFERENCE ( 1 e 50 VA)
50 50
Z =3x4 + 4x3 +7=7215%
TOTAL 10 10
Fig. 4. Calculating overall regulation.
impedance (regulation) as an inverse ratio of its VA rating
to that of the reference transformer (the final transformer
feeding the rectifier). In Fig. 4 three transformers having
different impedance characteristics and VA ratings are
added to give the regulation at the final rectifier input
terminals.
In a distribution network consisting of many interconnected
generators and transformers. the impedance at any one
point may be determined by converting all impedances to
the common reference VA rating. Most rectifiers in elec-
tronic and electrical equipment are at the end of a distribu-
tion spur. and power flows one-way. simplifying the network
analysis. As shown in Fig. 4, the rectifier transformer is
likely to provide the majority of the circuit impedance.
as each larger transformer has lower regulation and its
effective control of short-circuit current is in inverse propor-
tion to its VA rating.

Transformers having exceptional step-up or step-down

ratios or ones specifically designed. can have widely
different values to the typical ones given in Fig. 3.
Addition of Transformer Impedances
When power for a rectifier is derived from several trans-
formers in cascade each transformer adds its percentage
Fig. 3. Typical ualues of R. X and Z for 50 Hz transformers.
N 20 "
0 physical damage might not be restricted to the electrical
z
<(
[l:
CALCULATION OF PROSPECTIVE
FAULT CURRENTS
Analysis of any of the short-circuit conditions likely in
rectifier equipment operation will show that the calculation
of prospective fault currents is fundamentally simple. The
major problem is to derive sufficiently accurate data for
engineering decisions to be made. Experience shows that
the assumptions made are invariably pessimistic. but the
large figures for short-circuit currents which are obtained
by calculation are bound to frighten the average engineer
into being pessimistic~ A mistake could lead to some
expensive damage and could be a considerable risk to
personnel due to the high power levels concerned. The
equipment; possible subsequential damage by explosion or
fire must also be taken into account.

w
The data required in order to determine prospective fault
~
zw conditions are:
u
[l:
w
Q (a) d.c. voltage output of the rectifier
5 (b) d.c. current output
(c) approximate equipment efficiency
(d) a.c. supply k \ A capacity
10 10 2 10 3 (e) supply impedance
TRANSFORMER VA RATING (f) rectifier transformer impedance
(g) rectifier, digu 1a tion

130
From this information the equipment kVA (or MVA) considered as a d.c. component of current superimposed on
capacity can be determined : the steady-state sinusoidal short-circuit current, decaying
exponentially in about four cycles, ie the peak asymmetrical
.
E qmpment kVA d.c. volts x d. c. amps x 100 current occurs for only the first half-cycle, dropping to the
= -----.----=-----,~ steady-state symmetrical fault level in about 80 milli-
% efficiency x 10 3
seconds.
Total impedance referred to equipment kVA = equipment
% impedance + (supply % impedance x equipment kVA/
supply kV A). SELECTION OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR
FUSE
From the appropriate rectifier configuration line in Table 1
When selecting a fuse for a rectifier, seven factors must be
take the factor from the column giving the transformer line
taken into account:
current. Assuming the transformer is designed for the stated
impedance at the rated output, this line current (I rms) is 1. Current flowing under steady-state conditions (rms)
used as the basis for the calculation of peak short-circuit 2. Voltages of supplies and devices
current: 3. Temperature range of operation
4. Overload current amplitude and duration
/rrns X 100 5. Prospective short-circuit current
I = . Ampsrms 6. Energy let-through of the fuse and / 2 t rating of the
sc Total %impedance
rectifier
or 1sc =
/rms X 100 X
%. d
X 1.6 J2 k
amps pea asymmetncal
7. Peak current cut-off of the fuse and peak current rating
Total 0 1mpe ance ofthe rectifier.

The factor J2
brings the rms current to peak current. 1.6
Steady-state current
is the asymmetry factor most commonly used (1.5 or 1.8
Rectifier data are normally presented in terms of average
may sometimes be seen) and takes account of the worst-
rectified d.c. current obtainable, as this is considered to be
case oscillatory current overswing likely in practice
the most important parameter to a design engineer.
(corresponding to an r/x = 0.1). This overswing may be
Because of the non-linearity of the forward conduction
characteristic the power loss within the semiconductor
Table 1. Rectifier configurations and data.
rectifier is proportional neither to the average d.c. nor
Rectifier Arm Line rms value of the forward current, and hence data are also
Conduction Fuse Fuse included giving a graphical presentation of power loss
Angle
lrms lrms versus rectified forward current. However the fuse in series
Ide Ide with the rectifier, is purely resistive within the normal
operating current range, and it is most important to rate
Half-wave 180 1.57 1.57 the fuse for the rms value of current. Figs. 1 and 2 are useful
Q)
(/)
Resistive or aids to determining the rms current in the common rectifier
"'
.c
a..
Inductive load
configurations. A thyristor rectifier equipment presents
Full-wave 180 0.785 0.785
Q)
0> Centre Tap (1.11in additional problems if the load is not constant. Care must
c
Vi centre-tap) be exercised to avoid a high mean d.c. current at reduced
Bridge 180 0.785 1.11 conduction angles, as this gives rise to a high ratio of rms
to average current. Fuses must be capable of operating
Wye 120 0.577 0.577 without excessive temperature rise and without rupturing
Q)
(/)
Triple 60 0.236 0.236 when the operation of the equipment is within normal
"'
.c
a.. Diametric design requirements.
Q)
Q)
Bridge 120 0.577 0.836
~
f- 0.289
Double Wye 120 0.289
Voltage ratings
Star 60 0.408 0.408 Voltage ratings of the semiconductor rectifier devices must
Parallel 60 0.408 0.577 be in excess of the voltages produced as the fuse clears. The
Q)
(/)
Bridge fuse must be selected to have sufficient voltage clearing
(Without IPT)
"'
.c
a..
capability; excessive supply voltage may result in a con-
Parallel 120 0.289 0.408 tinuous arc under fault conditions with subsequent loss of
.!!5
en Bridge protection.
(With IPT)
Series Bridge 120 0.577 0.816
Fig. 5 shows the typical maximum arcing voltage versus
supply voltage to be expected from a semiconductor fuse.
lrms = rms current carried by fuse It will be seen that the peak transient voltage during fuse
Ide= Total rectified d.c. output
Arm Fuse = Fuse in series with each arm of the rectifier arcing is only a little above the normal steady-state repeti-
Line Fuse = Fuse in series with a.c. input to rectifier from transformer tive voltage (V rms x J2).

131

1250
0 t-
Fig. 5. Maximum arcing voltage versus supply voltage for
a semiconductor fuse.
Temperature range
The rms current rating of fuses is based on a 25C ambient
temperature, and derating is necessary for operation at
elevated temperatures. The junction temperature of any
semiconductor device should always be maintained as low
as is economically feasible. Similarly, the end-cap tempera-
ture of a fuse should always be kept as low as possible, if
necessary by mounting the fuse on substantial busbars or
heatsinks. Mounting fuses in a cooling air stream of 5
linear metres per second allows an increase in steady-state
rating of up to 40% without changing, the fuse 12 t energy
let-through under fault conditions.
Overload current amplitude and duration
An overload current is one which can occur as a result of
the normal operation of the circuit. For example, the
starting surge of a motor imposes a normal overload
condition on a rectifier unit. It is vital that any fuses in the
circuit are capable of carrying the overload current for as
long as required without failure or fatigue. Curves are
given by fuse and rectifier manufacturers relating the
maximum overload capabilities to the overload duration.
Silicon diodes are usually capable of operating at a virtual
junction temperature of 200C under overload conditions.
As the saturation-current component of reverse leakage
of a silicon diode approximately doubles for every goc
increase in junction temperature, the major restriction of
temperature is based on the voltage blocking capability.
If excessive current at high voltage is allowed to flow in a
silicon rectifier, the resultant power loss can cause reverse
thermal runaway with very rapid destruction of the silicon
junction.
Thyristors are also capable of operating at peak junction
temperatures of about 200C but will not be able to main-
tain control of forward condition. It is usual, therefore,
to limit the junction temperature during overloads to
132
PEAK PROSPECTIVE
CURRENTS (TWO
/--~, DIFFERING CONDITIONS)
I
I
I
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I _,...- ' \
I / "- \ FUSE PEAK
r-~~------~~~-CURRENT
\ DURING RUPTURE
\ \
\ \
\ \
\\
\~
t; AND t 1" ARE PRE-ARCING TIMES OF FUSE
t~AND t2 ARE TOTAL CLEARING TIMES OF FUSE
Fig. 6. Prospective short circuit current.
105C, 125C or 150C typically. This limitation is only
imposed as it is assumed that control of conduction is
required during any overload condition. The reverse
voltage blocking capability of a thyristor at this temperature
should cause no concern.
Prospective short-circuit current
When a fault occurs on a rectifier system, it is necessary
to know the level of fault current which would occur if
the current was allowed to flow. This is the prospective
short-circuit current. In practice this level should never
be achieved as protecting devices should operate well
hefore the current is allowed to flow, as shown in Fig. 6.
As described in an earlier section, the prospective fault
current can be quoted in terms of symmetrical rms current
or peak assymmetrical fault current, and fuse data is
published by manufacturers using both terms. However,
one is derived directly from the other by a constant factor;
care must be exercised to avoid mistake on this point.
(Peak asymmetrical = symmetrical rms x x 1.6). J2
The higher the prospective fault current the greater the
peak current prior to fusing, but the shorter the pre-arcing
time.
Energy let-through oftbe fuse (1;1 t)
Energy is equal to J2 Rt, but R in a fuse is indeterminate,
hence it is usual to use 12 t as a basis for comparison of the
energy let-through of a fuse and the capability of the semi-
conductor device being protected.
To be strictly correct, 12 t should be expressed as .f~f(J) 2 dt
but the simpler expression 12 t has become widely used and
accepted.
Fig. 7 gives a typical family of fuse 12 t characteristics against
prospective fault current.
 mm !000-500 LIMITS OF CUT-OFF CONDITION
(f)

~ a.
:::?;
<t 4
mm!000-400 1-
z
~ UJ
~
::>
2
u
mm !000-'100
~ 104
mm 1000-275 ::>
lJ_
:.::
------- mm!000-235 <t
N
+-
-------------~~~ ~ 4
::;;:
::>
:::?;
x 2
<t
:::?;
104~---L~-L~~~---L~~~~uu
!03 4 104 4 105 10 3 ~---L~~~~~~~--~~-W~
PROSPECTIVE FAULT CURRENT 103 4 104 4 105
(SYMMETRICAL rms AMPS) PROSPECTIVE FAULT CURRENT
(SYMMETRICAL rms AMPS J
Fig. 7. Typical fuse Pt characteristics against prospective
current. Fig. 9. Peak juse current versus prospective fault current.

The 12 t energy let-through of a fuse is also dependent upon
the operating voltage, which has a significant effect on the
arcing characteristic. As noted earlier, the arcing voltage
is deliberately designed to be low in a semiconductor fuse
in order to limit the peak reverse voltage applied to the
semiconductor rectifier, but this is at the expense of I 2 t.
(The restrictions in a pure silver element are designed to
cause the arc to extinguish relatively slowly). Fig. 8 gives
typical curves for I 2 t (at maximum prospective fault-
current) versus working voltages, showing the decrease in
energy let-through as the voltage is reduced.
The I 2 t rating of a semiconductor rectifier is usually
given as a constant value over a time period, for example,
5 to 10 milliseconds. This rating decreases below 5 milli-
seconds, and is sometimes presented graphically for shorter
Fig. 8. Typical curves for / 2 t at maximum prospective fault
current versus working voltages.
time intervals. In practice it is found that the semiconductor
cannot survive if the peak current flowing during fault
conditions exceeds a characteristic value for each type of
rectifier, however short the time interval. Hence peak
current during fusing may be quoted for a device. It will
be found that for time intervals below about 5 milliseconds
this is effectively the same as reducing the I 2 t rating of the
rectifier. The / 2 t rating of a rectifier is determined empirically
since it is an extremely complex function of the forward
volt-drop, the junction area, junction technology, mechani-
cal construction. thermal mass and thermal stress capability.
Production testing of devices usually includes a surge test
of one cycle of fault-level current, ensuring that devices
are 100% capable of sustaining the rated fault current.
To derive the I 2 t rating from the peak sinusoidal single-
current capability, it can be shown that :
I 2 t = (1)2/200 amp 2 seconds for 10 milliseconds, where
1 = peak single-cycle sinusoidal current rating (50 Hz).
Peak Current
During fuse rupture the peak cut-off current of the fuse
must be below the peak current rating of the semiconductor
rectifier. The latter is substantially constant from 0.5 to 5
milliseconds (the time interval of most importance) but
the fuse cut-off current varies with the magnitude of pros-
pective fault current and, to a lesser extent, on operating
voltage. A presentation of peak fuse current versus pros-
pective fault current is given in Fig. 9.

0 Peak fuse current is also dependent upon frequency : as

0
ICl
r<l
8..,. 0
ICl frequency increases, peak current increases under worst-
I I I
0
0
0
0
0
0
case conditions because the di/dt of the fault current is
Q Q Q increased. If operating at a frequency other than 50 or 60
E E E E
E E E E Hz, this may have to be taken into account.
FUSE TYPE
Typical ratings for silicon rectifiers are given in Table 2.

133
 the peak fusing current. Therefore, the addition of reactors
Nominal Current
Rating 1A 6A 70A 250A to artificially increase the regulation of the supply can he
Fault Current beneficial. Typical values are 20 to 50 JJ.H and the reactors
(Peak one should be air-cored. (Iron-cored reactors, whilst less bulky,
cycle
sinusoidal) 50 A 120A 1250A 5500A are liable to saturate, with a resultant rapid decrease of
l2 t 12.5 A 2 72A2 7800 A2 150000 A2 inductance at high current levels, just when the high
sees. sees. sees. sees. inductance is needed.)
Peak Fusing
Current 50 A 170A 1900A 7750A At 50 Hz, every 10 J.I.H added increases the series impedance
by 3.14 mO. On a typical240 V 100 kVA single phase supply
Table 2. Typical ratings for silicon rectifiers. a 50 J.I.H reactor increases the percentage impedance by
2.6 %. which is approximately the same as the reactance
of the supply transformer. The addition of a reactor can
therefore be a very useful component for improving the
overall protection scheme.
MANIPULATION OF FUSING
PARAMETERS ELECTRONIC SENSING AND FEEDBACK
CONTROL
After detailed analysis of a particular fuse selection problem
it often occurs that correct protection is impossible to When thyristors are used in a rectifier system. advantage
achieve. Manipulation of the parameters must now be can be taken of their control characteristics. Electronic
resorted to, and methods available are: sensing of an incipient fault can be achieved in micro-
seconds, and a signal generated to provide a controlling
1. To increase the cooling efficiency of the fuse mounting feed hack path.
thus increasing the steady-state rms current carrying
It is then possible to protect the rectifier by inhibiting the
capability of the fuse. This does not affect the energy let-
firing pulses to the gates of the thyristors. This does not
through (I 2 t rating) of the fuse when fault conditions occur.
prevent the thyristor(s) carrying current at the instant the
fault occurs, and care should be taken to protect thyristors
2. To derate the semiconductor rectifier steady-state
by fusing and/or by limiting the fault current.
current. This usually means using a larger device at the
same current (this is particularly applicable to electronic Bridge rectifiers with diodes and thyristors feeding highly
supplies) or using more devices in parallel. inductive loads can present difficulties leading to device
failure if the firing pulses are removed suddenly when a
Total steady-state current = (current rating of one rectifier). high load current is flowing. If the inductive load continues
x (number in parallel) x 0.8. The factor 0.8 for steady-state to free-wheel via a diode and thyristor for a full period, the
current takes into account mismatch of forward volt-drop thyristor will remain in the 'on' state and fail to block the
for typical parallel-operating devices. line voltage as the next forward cycle commences. Full
current will therefore be drawn from the supply, and the
= (I 2 t of one rectifier) x (number in parallel)2
J2 t
thyristor will be unable to regain control of conduction.
P = (1 of one rectifier) x (number in parallel) Half-controlled bridges (single phase or multiphase) should
3. To use smaller fuses in parallel. Total steady-state therefore be controlled by a relatively slow retardation of
current = (current of one fuse) x (number in parallel) firing angle if feeding a highly inductive load. This objection
X 0.9. does not apply to fully-controlled bridges, or to half-
controlled bridge feeding resistive or capacitive loads.
The factor 0.9 is a typical figure to take into account mis-
match of the fuse operating resistances; manufacturers data Use of Crowbar techniques
may vary this figure. A thyristor placed strategically (for example directly across
the output of a bridge rectifier) can act as a robust resettable
'crowbar' in order to operate a fuse or cut-out when given
I 2 t let-through of fuses in parallel = (I 2 t of one fuse) x
a command signal. This technique is particularly appro-
(number in parallel)2
priate to power supplies with transistorised regulators
1' = 1 x (number of fuses in parallel). following the rectifier. When the load current exceeds the
rating of the power supply, a signal is fed back to fire the
It will he found that the use of two parallel fuses of half the
crowbar thyristor, which turns on in about 3 to 5 micro-
steady-state rating will very substantially reduce the I 2 t
seconds, collapsing the rectified voltage and bringing out
energy let-through. The larger the number of fuses in
the protecting fuse or circuit breaker.
parallel, the greater the improvement in I 2 t for any given
steady-state current. Considerable scope now exists for using different combina-
tions of techniques when designing short-circuit protection
4. To add series reactors. A reduction of prospective fault schemes, and modem rectifiers should be as safe as any
current improves both the I 2 t let-through of the fuse and other power systems in use in industry today.

134
 Chapter 16

Harmonics

G Duddridge
General Instrument (U.K.) Ltd

For the purposes of this chapter it can be said that: a

harmonic is a sinusoidal frequency appearing at the output
side of the rectifier, or, a sinusoidal frequency producing
phase shift or distortion of the incoming 50 Hz supply
waveform.

The most important harmonics are normally multiples or

submultiples of the supply frequency, but exceptions will
be found, particularly with thyristor equipment.

From a brief consideration of the operation of the simplest

rectifier system ie halfwave 50 Hz rectifier, whose output
is used to feed a resistive load, it is possible to guess that
harmonics are present. The input to this system is a sine
wave of perfect symmetry and the output is the positive
going portion of this waveform. It can be deduced that
only a complex multiple of sine waves can produce such
an output waveshape and thus harmonics are present.

Having shown that harmonics are present in the output, it

also follows that the effect of the rectifier (and possibly
the load) is to induce harmonics on the input supply
waveform. This, in fact, happens and frequently the
harmonics on the input side of a rectifier equipment are
more important than those on the output side.

Harmonics in rectifier systems can be neglected or used,

much depends on the application and situation and these
factors are considered later. The important thing, however,
is to realise that harmonics are present.

Harmonics in rectifier equipment occur as both multiples

(high frequency) and submultiples (low frequency) of the
supply frequency. The causes and origins of high frequency
harmonics are well understood (rectifier action) but low
frequency harmonics (except 50 Hz) are not. High frequency
harmonics are most easily removed by passive filtering.

The causes of low frequency harmonics in a rectifier

equipment can be either characteristic of the supply

135
(adjacent equipment distorts the supply) or a complex
function of the whole rectifier equipment. Where the latter
is the case such factors as small transformer thermal/
magnetic/physical size changes can occur cyclically at a
low frequency, thus causing changes in the electrical
characteristics of the equipment. These factors plus any
resistive/impedance imbalances between the arms of a
rectifier system can cause low frequency effects which are
extremely difficult to predict at the design stage and to
overcome later. Fortunately serious problems of this
nature do not often occur.
The characteristics of the load will sometimes play a part
in determining the characteristics of the low frequency
harmonics present in a particular equipment. It is normally
impossible to remove low frequency harmonics by passive
filtering. For high power equipment, low frequency har-
monics can present considerable difficulty to control systems
engineers, because they can interfere with the response
characteristics of the closed loop control system.
A simple example of low frequency harmonics can be
seen in the output waveform of a bridge rectifier feeding a
single thyristor and a slightly inductive load. The conduc-
tion angle of the thyristor will be found to vary with each
half cycle of the supply waveform. This variation is slight,
but fQr small conduction angles a very significant power
change is occurring.
Unwanted harmonics in rectifier systems can cause some
of the following problems:
(1) High equipment transformer losses (and hence costs).
(2) Radiation of interference on broadcast bands.
(3) Adjacent equipment malfunction.
(4) Output filter malfunction.
(5) Load malfunction.
(6) Supply lines standing waves.
In case (1) the transformer losses can increase, because of
the increased iron losses at high frequency, additionally
the rectifier characteristics (hole storage) can in some cases
cause high frequency ringing. Case (2) is a particular
hazard with thyristor equipment and can arise with
normal silicon rectifiers. Case (3) is caused by harmonic
distortion of the input waveform and is often load related.
In case (4) the filter system, if complex, can resonate at a
particular non-design frequency, thus allowing a high
value of a particular harmonic to be present on the output
side of the power supply. In case (5) harmonics can cause
load problems particularly where the load is inductive, or
a d.c. commutating motor. In case (6) instances have
occurred where the supply line has the correct length and
impedance to allow a standing wave to exist, and thus very
high voltages can appear at junction boxes or other termi-
nations. This is fortunately rare, because up to 6 kV can
be present across 415 V terminals.
It will be appreciated that unwanted harmonics in rectifier
systems present a considerable challenge to the design
ability of the engineer concerned, and efforts must be made
to utilise harmonic effects.
136
Wanted harmonics in rectifier equipments are of higher
frequencies (6 to 12 times the supply frequency) such as
those achieved with six-phase and twelve-phase power
equipments, because these enable relatively small and
low cost filters to produce a very smooth d.c. output.
HARMONICS IN THE INPUT OF POWER
SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Harmonics in the input of rectifier systems arise from two
sources. The first and most usual source, is the rectifier
action within the equipment. This produces harmonics
which are calculable and provided that the supply waveform
is not distorted by more than 1% the equipment can he
declared satisfactory. The normal 50 Hz supply waveform
varies over a range of 3% for voltage over a period of
24 hours and swings of 6% are possible. However, the
factor which is relatively unknown is the harmonic dis-
tortion of the wave-shape. With the increasing usage of
harmonic inducing thyristor equipments supply harmonics
are becoming extremely common. These can take the form
of waveform distortion or phase shift, and may affect one
or more phases of the supply. Waveform distortions at
high frequencies (transients) can be reduced to an accep-
table level by passive (LC) filtering. Low frequency distor-
tions and phase shifts can cause rectifier commutation
problems and hence unbalance in multiple-phase rectifica-
tion systems. There is no fully satisfactory way of curing
these problems.
There is one case where the equipment generates particularly
excessive input-side harmonics, and this is where phase
angle control of thyristors is employed. Because of the
very fast turn-on time of thyristors and the power levels
involved, very large quantities of high frequency (> 100
kHz) harmonics are generated, these harmonics can be
filtered to an acceptable level (using LC filters) but the
expense of doing so is considerable.
For rectifying applications, phase control of thyristors
should be avoided if possible. At power levels < 500 watts,
phase control is acceptable, but at higher power levels
some form of burst firing should be used. Burst firing also
produces harmonics, but at very much lower levels, and
lower frequencies.
If it is necessary to use phase angle control at high power
levels, considerable emphasis should be placed upon
using high impedance equipment transformers and heavy
capacitative suppression in order to reduce the high
frequency harmonic propagation into the main a.c. supply
system.
HARMONICS IN THE OUTPUT OF POWER
SUPPLY SYSTEMS
The relative importance of harmonics on the d.c. side of
power supply systems is, in general, directly related to the
complexity of the electronic system which is being supplied.
Table 1 gives some examples for guidance.
 System Significance of Problem In traction applications d.c. motors are normally used.
harmonics With d.c. motors considerable interaction between com-
mutation currents and harmonics can occur, causing
1. Battery charging Low
flashover of the motor and/or failure of the rectifier system.
2. Electroplating Low It is normal practice to increase the supply inductance as
far as is economically possible to reduce the higher har-
3. Stabilised power
supplies up to
monics in the output waveform. Unfortunately this also
500VA Medium Frequency response increases the harmonic content of the supply, so a compro-
of control loop mise solution has to be used.
particularly for low
frequencies
There is one case so far not considered, and that is of a
4. Low power rectifier equipment in close proximity to a telephone or
logic supplies Medium Switching spikes
signalling circuit. In this case the designer can only hope
5. Telephone systems High Audible noise that the user has enough knowledge to state this operating
requirement in his purchase specification. Unfortunately
6. Broadcast systems High Low frequency video
noise this is unusual and the designer should always determine
where the equipment will be used and where the nearest
7. Traction High Motor Commutation signal carrying lines are located.
Table 1. The significance of harmonics in systems of differing
complexity.
ANALYSIS OF RECTIFIER EQUIPMENT
In the cases shown in Table 1, experience shows that in HARMONICS
battery charging and electroplating systems the applied
One of the problems regularly presented to engineering
waveforms are not particularly critical. Therefore, for the
students is that of applying Fourier analysis to various
moment, output harmonics in these applications can be
waveforms and demonstrating that if a waveform has a
disregarded.
repetition frequency 'f then it can be shown to be composed
of varying quantities of frequencies which may additionally
When the next two groups are considered, the harmonic
have phase shift.
content can play a significant part in the overall design of
the system and must be considered. In case (3) the frequency By application of Fourier analysis to rectifier waveshape
response of the control system must be capable of reducing
the content of various harmonics can be calculated.
the harmonic content to an acceptable leveL and in case
(4) switching spikes must not be introduced into the
Thus for any arm of any rectifier system the output wave-
electronic system.
shape can be written in the form:
It is in cases 5, 6 and 7 however, that harmonics produce Vwt = V1 (9 + <1> 1) + V 2sin(39 + <1>3 ) Vnsin(n9 + <l>n)
the worst effects. Telephone systems consist of large
These conditions have been calculated and Table 2 gives
numbers of amplifiers having non-linear band pass charac-
values for various rectifier connections and resistive loads.
teristics, and any frequency produced by the power supply
In this table the 'harmonic factor' is the ratio of the total
and falling within the amplifier band width, can appear
rms harmonic content to the mean value of the output
(via stray coupling, faulty isolation etc) on the telephone voltage.
system. In this application considerable design effort has
to be put into the power supply system and complex The rms harmonic content is the important factor because
filtering is often used. To make this design problem more
this is the portion giving power to the load.
apparent the telephone companies have their own standard
for the harmonic contents of rectifier power supply systems
In a similar manner to that described for rectifiers, the
and specify this in their contracts. The harmonic content waveshape for thyristors equipments can be subjected to
is specified as a ripple level of millivolts against frequency Fourier analysis. Here the problem is rather more difficult
(eg 1 mV at 800Hz). This is also sometimes specified in
because the waveshape is a function of the thyristor con-
bels where the bel is the standard unit of audible noise in duction angle. If the load is resistive then the harmonics
a telephone system. again take the form:
Broadcast systems are, in many respects, similar to tele- V wt = V1 sin(9 +<I>)+ V2 sin(39 + <1> 3 ) Vnsin (n9+qm),
phone systems and have similar amplifier and long distance but because the leading edges of the waveshape are ex-
cable propagation problems. Here also harmonic contents tremely fast there are large amplitude harmonics present at
have to be kept to a low level. In broadcast systems, low high frequencies. These high power harmonics are extremely
frequency harmonics can be troublesome causing slow easily radiated and are best attenuated close to the thyristor
changes in low level video signals. This fault is particularly by a combination of inductive/capacitative choke filtering
annoying in the final picture and extremely difficult to on the input side and screened enclosures wherever
remove. possible.
137
Where the rectifier equipment load is capacitative or
inductive the harmonic content is extremely difficult to
specifY theoretically, and the use of a waveform analyser
is recommended. If, in fact, the equipment is a very large
installation, design studies using a low current, actual
voltage model of the system will usually give sensible
results.
In the cases considered thus far, the rectifier action has
been considered to be the sole origin of the harmonics.
However as the rectifier has a forward conduction charac-
teristic of the form:
Vp = V0 + RpiF
the resultant effect is a further increase in harmonic
content. The harmonic content from this source is most
pronounced in low voltage equipments.
The normal method of ripple reduction on the d.c. side is
to use LC filtering. This must be used with considerable
care, particularly where the LC network is designed to be
resonant. As the inductance is increased in value, so the
harmonic content of the input line increases. Where two
inductances are used in an output filter, care must be
taken to keep the coupling factor between them to low
value (< 0.1 %). If this is not done, the higher harmonics
can appear as ripple in the output. If this occurs a suitable
re-orientation of the cores will normally rP.move the
problem.
One other source of harmonics in rectifier systems is an
arc load. This again is difficult to analyse theoretically,
particularly during the striking period. Normal practice
is to use a high transformer impedance to reduce the
proportion of high frequency harmonics in the arc current.

When the transformer is considered in detail, it will be HARMONICS AND MEASUREMENTS

found that the magnetising current is far from sinusoidal.
IN RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
This causes a small increase in the harmonic content at Considerable care must be exercised when measuring
both the input and the output side of the equipment. instruments are applied to rectifier systems. Because of

Table 2. The rms value of harmonics for various rectifier connections and resistive loads.

rms harmonic. Vh. as a percentage of Vdc :

Number of Rectifier 1c!IHW 1 ell BR 3cll HW 3cll BR 2. 6cll

Phases 1 2 3 4 6 12

1 111.07
2 47.13 47.13
3 17.71
4 9.44 9.44 9.44
5
6 4.05 4.05 4.05 4.05
7
8 2.25 2.25 2.25
9 1.77
Order 10 1.43 1.43
11
12 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
of 13
14 0.73 0.73
15 0.63
Harmonic 16 0.56 0.56 0.56
17
18 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44
19
20 0.36 0.36 0.36
21 0.32
22 0.29 0.29
23
24 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
25

Voltage ratio V/Vdc 2.221 1.111 0.855 0.785 0.740 0.715

Form factor F 1.571 1.111 1.016 1.008 1.001 1.000

Harmonic factor h 1.211 0.484 0.179 0.125 0.042 0.010

v = rms input voltage.

Vdc = mean d.c. output voltage.
F = Form factor.
vh = rms value of a particular harmonic as a percentage of Vdc

138
the harmonic content only true rms instruments, such as
thermocouple and moving iron instruments should be
used and these should not incorporate transformers.
Normal moving coil instruments should be avoided where
possible.
The harmonic content of any rectifier equipment can be
very quickly established using commercial waveform
analysers, and a few hours work at the proving stage of an
equipment design can save weeks of work later if objec-
tionable harmonics are present. This is particularly true
for thyristor equipments.
HARMONIC ENHANCEMENT IN
RECTIFIER APPLICATIONS
The harmonics appearing in rectifier circuits are only
occasionally utilised. Probably the best known case is the
use of the supply transformer third harmonic content in
high voltage (EHT) systems. By designing the supply
transformer to have a high leakage inductance, and
arranging that this can resonate at the third harmonic of
the supply frequency, it is possible to achieve a higher
output voltage than the turns ration would suggest. This
also gives a high impedance to the high voltage supply.
This effect is used specifically in television EHT systems.
The problem which arises, of course, is that the primary
current also has a significant third harmonic content and
hence waveform distortion occurs. When voltage multi-
pliers are used the system is designed to resonate at the
5th harmonic of the supply frequency. This gives a much
lower supply impedance and better regulation. This
latter system is widely used in colour television systems.
Once again it can be seen that output harmonic utilisation
gives supply line problems.
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has been deliberately kept on a general level.
The whole subject of harmonics in rectifier systems is
extremely complex and if a particular application is
considered likely to give trouble, then a full stage analysis
of the application is required. The literature on rectifier
harmonics is sparse and the best approach for the practising
engineer is to examine the problem from rather basic first
principles and confirm the answers with a waveform
analyser and oscilloscope.
139

Alloyed diodes: semiconductor junction
diodes usually fabricated using
aluminium as a p-type dopant on an
n-type crystal.
Anti-paraUel: (electronics) two rectifier
systems connected in parallel in such
a way as to provide an arrangement
capable of conduction in either
direction.
Arc back: (electronics, valves) the
passing of unwanted current (usually
from anode/cathode) during a
normally non-conducting period.
Avalanche breakdown: (electronics,
semiconductors) the mechanism for
current increase in a reverse biased
junction where electrons gain sufficient
energy between collisions to ionise
atoms on collision and thus provide
additional charge carriers.
Axial lead diodes: plastics and epoxy
axial lead semiconductor diodes,
inexpensive and reliable and becoming
increasingly used for domestic and
industrial applications with ratings up
to 3 amps.
Blocking voltage: (rectifier circuits) the
forward or reverse voltage which the
semiconductor can stand without
breaking down.
Buried layer mask: (electronics, semi-
conductors) buried layer mask, buried
layer deposition and diffusion, are all
processes in integrated circuit manu-
facture concerned with the formation
of layers of n or p-type.
Cadmium: a metallic element, bluish
white in colour. Atomic No. 48.
Caesium vapour rectifier: a gas-filled
electrode rectifier, employing caesium
vapour.
Cathode foUower: an electronic valve
circuit in which the load impedance is
placed between the valve cathode and
earth and the output taken across
this resistor; c/ emitter follower.
Glossary of Terms
Characteristic impedance: (of a trans-
mission line) the a.c. resistance at
every point of a reflection free line.
Coaxial line: (electronics) a transmission
line in which the inner conductor is
mounted coaxially with respect to the
outer conductor which also serves as
a screen.
Commutation: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) the process of turning a
device off by reducing its current to
zero.
Commutation angle (.8]: safety angle
(q.v.)
Commutation spikes: (electronics,
rectifiers) a voltage spike caused by
the interaction of the transformer
leakage inductance and the recovery
time of the rectifier.
Controlled rectification: (electronics)
full or half wave rectification with a
controllable d.c. output.
Critical grid voltage: (electronics,
thyratron) is the voltage at the grid
which will just prevent conduction at
a given anode voltage.
Delay angle [a] [or phase control angle]:
(electronics, rectifier circuits) the angle
of delay between the start of a
positive half cycle and the instant of
applying this to the load.
Depletion layer: (electronics) the inter-
mediate region, between p and n-type
regions, which is kept clear of free
charge carriers due to the internal
field.
Diac: (electronics, semiconductors) a
bidirectional trigger diode (see Trigger
diode).
Diffusion capacitance: the small signal
capacitance derived from the variation
of charge stored with applied forward
bias.
Double wound coil: (electronics) an
induction coil which has two separate
coils wound on a common core.
Dry-disc rectifier: a rectifying unit
comprising a series of discs of a
metal oxide, or metal, mounted
through their centres on a rod.
Efficiency diode: a term often used to
describe the diode rectifier circuit
included in a television receiver
circuit to increase beam deflection.
Electron diffraction: (electronics) the
behaviour of electron streams when
directed onto the surface of a crystal
or metal foil.
Electrostatics: the phenomena associated
with the retention of static charge by
insulating materials.
Emitter mask: (electronics, integrated
circuits) a device for opening up
windows in the base oxide to allow
diffusion to take place.
Energy gap: (electronics) the energy
difference between the lower edge of
the conduction band and the upper
level of the valence band.
Epitaxy: (electronics, semiconductors)
the process of forming a thin layer of
doped semiconductor on top of a
substrate of differing doping level.
Excitation anode: (electronics) an
auxiliary anode used in mercury pool
valves to maintain a cathode spot.
Firing circuit: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) the circuitry which supplies
the current and voltage to the gate of
a semiconductor switch to cause it to
conduct (also called trigger circuit).
Flip-chip device: (microelectronics) a
term coined to describe a semi-
conductor device produced by
mounting a chip of silicon down on
to a thin film circuit using mounting
pads.
Forward recovery time: (electronics,
semiconductors) the time during
which a diode exhibits high im-
pedance on being abruptly switched
to the forward conducting state.
141
Full controlled: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) a converter in which the
input transformer windings carry
currents in both directions.
Full way: (electronics, rectifier circuits)
a converter in which the input
transformer windings carry current
in both directions.
Fuse characteristic: the basic relation-
ship between the current through a
fuse and the time taken for it to open
circuit.
Gate circuit: (electronics) a general
term for a circuit with more than one
input but only one output.
Gate trigger voltage and current: the
voltage and current required to
switch a semiconductor from non-
conduction to conduction.
Gate tum-off switch: (electronics) semi-
conductor switch with controlled
turn-on and turn-off, and unidirection
operation.
Gold bonded diodes: semiconductor
diodes employing germanium,
consisting of a water of n-type
germanium into which is fused a fine
gold wire, alloyed with a p-type
impurity.
Gold doping: (electronics) the process of
diffusing gold impurity atoms through
a crystal to reduce the minority
carrier lifetime and improve high
frequency operation.
Half controlled: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) a converter having half its
devices as diodes and the other half
controlled switches.
Half way: (electronics, rectifier circuits)
a converter in which the input
transformer windings carry current in
one direction only.
Hard valve: (electronics) thermionic
valve containing a high vacuum.
High speed fuses: fuses available for
special duties normally involving very
high instantaneous currents; charac-
teristics are the high temperature
operation of the active component,
low thermal mass and small margins
between normal operating tem-
peratures and destruction.
Holding anode: (electronics, rectifiers) an
auxilliary anode used in mercury arc
rectifiers to hold the ionised operating
mode.
Holding current: (electronics) the value
of forward current below which a
semiconductor switch will assume its
non-conducting state.
Hollow cathode valve: (electronics) a gas
discharge valve in which the radiation
is emitted in the form of a cathode
glow from a cylindrical cathode
closed at one end.
Ideal transformer: (electronics) a. trans-
former concept in which the ideal
tranS"ormer would inductively couple
two circuits and would have no
capacitive losses, an infinite reactance
and a coupling coefficient of unity.
Ignitron: (electronics, valves) a single
142
anode, water cooled, mercury pool
valve.
Indirectly heated cathode: (electronics,
thermionic valves) a cathode heated
by a separate heater, usually
electrically insulated from the cathode.
Intrinsic charge concentration: (elec-
tronics) the density of holes or
electrons which is found in an on-
doped semiconductor in equilibrium.
This is dependent on the material and
the temperature.
Inverse parallel: (electronics) a method
of connecting a pair of thyristors
back-to-hack for the variable voltage
control of power loads.
Inversion: (electronics) conversion of
d.c. into a.c.
Ionising potential: (electronics) a measure
of the energy required to detach one
electron from an atom of the material
concerned.
Isolation areas: (electronics, integrated
circuits) those areas which provide
insulation between individual com-
ponents which must act independently.
Line commutated inverter: (electronics)
d.c. to a.c. converter which relies on
the power available from a reference
a.c. input to turn-off its power devices.
Main anode: (electronics) the anode
which, in mercury pool valves
conducts the load current.
Mean free path: (electronics) the average
distance that a particle will travel
before colliding with another particle.
Mercury pool valves: (electronics) a
rectifying valve relying on electron
emission from a pool of liquid
mercury; capable of sustaining a very
high peak and mean anode current.
Minority carrier Hfetime: (electronics,
semiconductors) the average time'for
which a minority carrier remains free
before recombination.
Mismatch: (electronics) a condition in
which the impedance of an electrical
load and the impedance of the source
supplying the load differ.
Neon: an inert gaseous element with a
characteristic red glow when ionised;
Atomic No. 10, Symbol Ne.
n-type conductivity: (electronics) con-
ductivity due to electron conductance
in a semiconductor material.
Open circuit test: (electronics, trans-
formers) used to measure transformer
core loss and conducted with the
secondary open circuit and normal
line voltage on the primary winding.
Overlap angle: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) the short circuit period
between the condition of two phases
of a converter, caused by source
reactance.
Parallel regulation: (electronics) a d.c.
voltage supply circuit, provided with
an unstabilised input current and
having the control element in parallel
with the load impedance.
Peak inverse voltage [PIV]: (electronics,
valves) the peak value of negative
voltage relative to cathode potential.
Usually refers to anode voltage during
a negative half cycle period.
Phase control: (electronics, rectifier
circuits) a system for changing the
magnitude of the output voltage by
varying the delay angle at which the
controlled devices are turned on.
Phase control angle [a]: delay angle
(q.v.)
Photo-conductive cells: a form of
electronic sensing device by which the
intensity of the radiating source is
measured as the increase in con-
ductivity produced in a layer of
semiconducting material.
PIV: peak inverse voltage (q.v.)
Planar construction: (electronics, semi-
conductors) process whereby a
junction is formed by diffusing
impurity atoms into a crystal from a
gaseous state.
Point contact diodes: diodes in which the
rectification action is due to the
potential developed between the bulk
region of a doped semiconductor and
its surface in contact with a metal
point; tend to have very good high
frequency characteristics.
Press fit diodes: stud mounted and press
fit diodes are used extensively for high
current applications; their con-
struction allows easy heat dissipation.
Rectifier meter: (electronics) a basic
meter circuit used for measuring
sinusoidal alternating currents from
about I rnA at frequencies up to 10
kHz.
Regenerative gate: (electronics) a special
thyristor construction which permits
rapid rate of rise of forward current.
Reverse recovery time: (electronics,
semiconductors) the time during
which a diode exhibits low impedance
after being switched from forward
conduction.
Ripple current: an alternating current
imposed on a direct current and which
is small in comparison with the direct
current value.
Rotary converter: (electronics) a
rotating slipring machine used to
convert a.c. to d.c.
Rotary transformer: a rotating d.c.
machine operating from a low voltage
d.c. source and supplying one or
more high d.c. voltages.
Safe operating area: (electronics, semi-
conductors) the voltage and current
area within which a power transistor
must remain for reliable operation.
Safety angle {3 [or commutation angle]:
electronics, rectifier circuits; the angle
between the instant offiringa thyristor
and the end of the half cycle
([3 = '"-a) during which an inverter
device must regain its blocking
capability.
Secondary emission ratio: (electronics)
the average number of electrons
emitted from a surface due to the
impact of one primary electron.
Self bias: (electronics, thermionic valves)
that cathode bias caused by the action
of current through a secondary circuit
component, ie a cathode resistor, and
not by the direct application of a
separate biasing potential.
Series choppers: (electronics) series
choppers are used where a require-
ment exists to convert a d.c. power
source to a power source at some
lower voltage level.
Series regulation: (electronics) a d.c.
voltage supply circuit, provided with
an unstabilised input voltage and
having the control element in series
with the load impedance.
Short circuit test: (electronics, trans-
formers) used to measure transformer
copper loss and conducted with the
secondary winding short circuited.
Shunt choppers: (electronics) a form of
chopper used to convert a power
source to one at a higher voltage
level.
Shorted emitter: (electronics) a special
thyristor construction which permits
rapid rate of rise of forward voltage.
Signal diodes: diodes utilised in the
transmission, detection and processing
of electronic signals containing in-
formation.
Silicon: a non-metallic element which is
an intrinsic semiconductor. Atomic
number 14.
Single phase: a general term applied to
circuits or equipments employing a
single alternating voltage.
Sllce probing: (electronics, integrated
circuits) due to the large numbers of
die per slice of manufactured circuit,
slice probing, a form of computer
controlled probing and final testing, is
employed.
Space charge: (electronics, thermionic
valves) a cloud of electrons between
cathode and anode which tends to
repel electrons from the cathode.
Spreading resistance: (of point contact
semiconductor diodes) the effective
resistance from the barrier layer to the
base of the chip.
Stabilised voltage supply: a supply circuit
delivering a constant output voltage
despite variations of input voltage or
current and output current.
Star connection: (electronics) a circuit
arrangement of three or more
branches with one end of each
connected to a common point.
Starter voltage: (electronics, gas filled
valves) the voltage of a starter unit
with respect to the cathode of a cold
cathode valve.
Starting anode: (electronics) an electrode
of an arc rectifier used to establish the
initial arc.
Steel tank rectifier: (electronics) a less
commonly used mercury arc rectifier,
the anode of which is a steel tank.
Striking potential: (electronics) the
minimum potential required to strike
an arc between electrodes.
Suppressor grid: (electronics, thermionic
valves) the grid inserted between
anode and its nearest positive grid to
suppress the effects of secondary
emission.
Tantalum rectifier: a rectifier in which
the electrodes are tantalum and lead
and the electrolyte dilute sulphuric
acid.
Temperature limited emission: (elec-
tronics, thermionic valves) a point in
valve operation at which all the
electrons emitted by the cathode are
collected by the anode and other
positive electrodes and further in-
increases of potential have no
appreciable effect on anode current.
Thermal battery: a unit comprising a
number of junctions of dissimilar
metals which, upon being heated,
generate a voltage.
Thermal resistance: (electronics, semi-
conductors) the measure of increase
in junction temperature in a device as
a function of power dissipated.
Thermal runaway: (semiconductor power
diodes) a condition occasioned when
reverse voltage is allowed to increase
indefinitely causing an increase in
junction temperature and corres-
ponding increase in current.
Thermionic work function: (electronics)
the energy required to eject an
electron from heated material.
Thyristor: semiconductor switch with
controlled tum-on and unidirectional
operation.
Transformer impedance: normally
quoted as percentage reactance and
defined as the voltage drop due to the
leakage reactance at rated current,
expressed as a percentage of the
voltage.
Transmission line: (electronics) a system
of two parallel conductors whose
electrical properties are distributed
uniformly throughout its length.
Transition capacitance: (electronics,
semiconductors) the capacitance due
to the charge separation in the
depletion region.
Trigger circuit: firing circuit (q.v.)
Trigger diode: (electronics, semi-
conductors) a two-terminal device
with guaranteed breakdown voltages
and negative resistance characteristics;
if these characteristics are the same in
both directions, ieelectricalsymmetry,
it is known as a bidirectional trigger
diode or Diac.
Tungar rectifier: a special form of
rectifier used for low voltage
applications.
Unijunction transistor: (electronics,
semiconductors) a three terminal
device exhibiting a stable incremental
negative resistance region under
certain conditions.
Vibrator: (electronics) a mechanical
device for changing d.c. into a.c.
Voltage multipliers: voltage multiplier
circuits using a diode as a switch to
charge parallel capacitors, are utilised
as a d.c. source supplying very low
currents; no standby power consumed.
Voltage stabilisation: a term used to
express how well a power supply
maintains a constant voltage output
with variations in supply voltage and
current; given in percentage values.
Weston cell: (electronics) a primary cell
of constant terminal voltage used as
an emf reference source; uses mercury
and cadmium.
Zener breakdown: (electronics, semi-
conductors) the mechanism for
current increase in a reverse biased
junction when the field is sufficient to
cause disruption of inter-atomic
bonds.
143