Maxwell, Hertz, the Maxwellians, and the Early History of Electromagnetic Waves Dipak L. Sengupta’ and Tapan K. Sarkar’ "Radiation Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science University of Michigan ‘Ann Arbor, Ml 48108-2122 USA E-mail: sengupdl@eecs.umich edu "Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science ‘Syracuse University ‘Syracuse NY 13244-1240 USA, Esai: thsarkar@mailbox.syt.edu Abstract In 1864, Maxwell conjectured from his famous equations that light is @ transverse electromagnetic wave, Maxwell's ‘conjecture does not imply that he believed that ight could be generated elactromagnticaly. n fac, he was silent about elec- tromagnetic waves, and their generation and detection. It took almost a quarter of a century before Hertz discovered electro- ‘magnetic waves and his brillant experiments confirmed Maxwoll's theory. Maxwek's ideas and equations were expanded, modified, and made understandable by the efforts of Hertz, FitzGerald, Lodge, and Heaviside, the last three being referred to a the "Maxwolians.” Tha early history of electromagnetic waves, up to the death of Hartz in 1894, is briefly discussed. The work of Hertz and the Maxwelians is briely reviewed in the context of electromagnetic waves. tis found that historical facts do not suppor the views proposed by some, in the past, hat Hertz’s epoch-making findings and contributions were “signe ‘any influenced by the Maxwelians.” Keyword: History: ight electromagnetic fields; electromagnetic propagation: electromagnetic waves; Maxwell equations; Maxwell; Hertz; Maxwelians 1. Introduction the year 1864, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) proposed hs "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” (1) ‘wherein he observed theoretically tht an electromagnetic distor bance travels in fee space with the velocity of light. He then con- {ectred tat light is transverse electromagnetic wave, Although the idea of electromagnetic waves was hidden in the set of equa tions proposed by Maxwell he had, infact, said virtually nothing shout elecromaetic waves athe than light, or did he propose ‘any idea for generating such waves clectromagnetically. 1 has been stated (2, Chapter . 24] that "There is even some reason to think that he (Maxwell) regarded the electrical production of such ‘waves a5 an impossibility." Heinrich Herz (1857-1894) discovered elecuomagnetic waves around the year 1888 [3, Chapter 7, pp. 107-123]; the resuhs of his epoct-making experiments and Wis related theoretical work confirmed Maxwell's prediction, and helped in the general acceptance of Maxwell's elecitomagnetc theory. However, i isnot commonly appreciated that “Maxwell's theory that Hect's brilliant experiments confiemed was not quite the same asthe one Maxvel et a his death inthe year 1879" [2 (Chapter 2, p. 24] I is interesting to note how the relevance of IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, electromagnetic waves to Maxwell and his theory, prior to Hers experiments and finding, are described in (2, Chapter 2, pp. 29- 30}: “Thus Maxwell missed what is now regarded as the most ‘exciting implication of his theory, and one with enormous practical ‘consequences. That relatively long electromagnetic waves or pet- haps ight itself, could be generated in the laboratory with ordinary clectrieal apparatus was unsuspected though most of the 1870's” Maxwell's ideas and equations were expended, modified, and made understandable after his death, mainly by the effors of Heinrich Herz, George Francis FitGerald (1881-1901), Oliver Lodge (1851-1940) and Oliver Heaviside (1880-1925), The last tree ofthese were christened as "The Maxwellians” by Heaviside 12, Chapter 2; 5) The history of electromagnetic waves up to the year 1894 is briefly reviewed in ths paper. A short discussion of Maxwell's ‘original equations, ad some brief comments on the work of Here and te Maxwellian, is given in the context of electromagnetic waves. His found tht historical fats do not suppor the views expressed by some in the past 4, p. 2] that Herta'sepoct-making findings and other conteibuions in electromagnetics Were “signe ‘antl influenced by the Maxwellian.”2, Speculations of Electromagnetic Propagation Before Maxwell ‘There were natural philosophers and. scientists “before ‘Maxwell who spoeulsted (5) on the manner in which elec and ‘magnetic influences or effects are transmitted through space, In 1855, the prince of mathematics, Kart Fridtich Gauss (1777- 1855), considered the idea that electric actions propagate between the charges with Finite velocity, but he cesolved not to publish his research because he could not design a mechanism to achieve that transmission, More Gian one attempt to realize Gauss’ aspiration was made by is pupil, Riemann. In 1853, Riemann proposed (5) to replace Poisson's equation for the elecuosiatic potential by & ‘wave equation, according to whieb the changes inthe potential due to changing electricity would propagate outward from the charges with the velocity of light, Although tis isin agreement with the view that is now accepted as correct, Riemann's hypothesis was too trivial to serve asthe bass of a complete theory. tis now known (6) that in a deposition withthe Royal Soi- ety (London), entitled “The Original Views,” Michael Paraday (1791-1867) considered the idea that electric and magnetic effects “are progressive and roquire finite time for their wansmission.” Faraday did not find time to provide experimental evidence to sup- port his views and, hence, wished the deposition, submited 1822, 1 remain unopened for atleast 100 years It shouldbe noted that in bis I864 paper, Maxwell (1) commented on Faraday's ‘thought in this regard in the following manner ‘The conception of the propagation of transverse mag- netic disturbances 10 the exclusion of normal ones is itinetly set forts * [*Philesophicul Magazine, 1, p 4447) in bis “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.” The elec tromagnetic theory of tight, 38 proposed by him, isthe same in substance as that which T have begun (0 develop inthis paper, except tht in 1846 there were fo ata to caleulat the velocity of propagation. 3. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theoty of Light In his 1866 paper, read at the Royal Sosiexy (London), ‘Maxwell introduced 20 equations involving 20 variables [1] These cequtions together expressed mathematically vitually all that was then known about electricity and magnetism, Through these quae tions, Maxwell essentially summarized the work of Hans C. Geested (1717-1851), Karl F. Gauss (177-1855), Andre M. Ampere (1775-1836), Michael Faraday (1791-1867), and others, ‘and added his own radical concept of “displacement current” to complete the theory. ‘To place Hertz’s contributions in proper perspective in the context of Maxwells proposed “Dynamical Theory of the Ble ‘womagnetic Feld,” and hs conjecture therein regarding the nature ‘of light [1] — and also for historia! reasons it is appropriate 19 review the original 20 equations introduced by Maxwell, and how he arrived atthe crucial conjecture mentioned earlier. Fortis pur- pose, Maxwell's orginal variables and equations are recast under ‘modem notation. Table | shows the names and symbols used by ‘Maxwell forthe vatiables along with their ientilication by mod- em vectoriscalar notation, Observe thatthe sets of three quantities ‘appearing in each ofthe frst six entries in columa two of Table L respectively present the thre rectangular (x,y, =) components of the corresponding vector quantiies given’ in column three “ ble 1. Twenty variables originally Introduced by Maxw Ath p70. Variable Name Used by] Symbol Used | Modera ‘Maxwell Dy Maxwell | Equivalent Vector! Scalae Tresiromagaeae Momentum ; = (Magnetic Vector Potential) | Ht 4 Magnetic Force are = (Magnetic Field incensiyy | __ ae Flectromotive Foree non : (Blecvie Feld Intensity) Garrent Due to Trae Conduction (Coniueton Caren Dens) | P27 | J lecsic Displacement (Electric Flux Density) oes P Para (Conduction plus Displacement } ‘Carrent Density) | a} ‘Quantity of Free Eleciciy (Volume Density of Electric e ° Charge) Flezrie Potential = (Electric Sealar Potential) Maxwell also indieetly used another variable (not shown in ble 1) named “the magnetic induction.” Its three components in fan isotropic medium are sa, 8, and sty, with 4 being the “coefficient of magnetic induction.” We now call this the magnetic flux density vector, B= p with 4 being te permeability of the sev, With the variables given in Table 1 and for an isotropic medium, Maxwell introduced 20 equations in component forms rumbered (A)-(H), which formed the basis for his proposed “Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” [1]. In our modified notation, these equations may be represented by the fal- lowing: 7,08 “a a MH = B= VA, (8) ee 7,9D sli tay tel 7-2 vat 2| © pM) a gy, ” oc (xB) [ote: Maxwell ead Equation (D) the equation of elec force in a conductor moving with velocity Yin an isotopic medium] {EEE Anennas and Propagation Magezine, Vol 45, No 2, Aor 2008,E=KD, e where fis the “coficient of electric elatcty” as it was called by ‘Maxvell (Note: Compare Equation (E) with the modem Equation, De=eF, with © being the permittivity ofthe medium] Exp, © with being the “speci ia. [Note:(1.) Maxwell used the symbol p instead’. We are using.’ so a6 not to conflict with our notation for volume charge density, 2.) Compare Equation (F) with the moder equa- tion, J= oF with resistanca” of resistivity ofthe mate vib=p, o 5, vd Ba a “ Iv ie clear that there are 20 equations in Equations (A)-(H). i should be noted that Maxwell used the Gaussian system of tis, in Which the elecic and magnetic quantities are expressed in cps clectrstatic and egs clectsomagnetic units, respectively (ie, esu and ema, respectively). The appearance of the factor 4z in Equa- tion (C) isd tothe use of this unt. It is important to retain the original units used by Maxwell: they are essential fr appreciating how Maxwell asved a his famous conjecture ‘The use of the parameter in Equation (B) needs some exp ‘ation. From the eotsiderations of mechanical fores experienced by electri and magnetic charges, snd the relationship between est anders, Maxwell showed that [1] p. 569) baa’ ane, wo where K is the “inductive or specific inductive capacity” (oF the Aieteeric constant) ofthe medium, and cn one em of elecric charge ‘one esu of electric charge In Gaussian units, fo air (fre space), =I and K Maxwell assigned stong physical significance to the vector and sealar potentials, 4 and vy’, both of which played dominant roles in his formulation, He also assumed a hypothetical mechani cal medium to justify the existence of displacement curent in fee space: this assumption produced strong opposition to Maxwell's theory from many scientists of his time. Ie is wel Known now that Maxwells equations, as we know them now, do not contain any potential variables neither des his electromagnetic theory require ‘any assumption of an artfielal medi (as shown by Herts and Heaviside) to sustain is “displacement curent” in fee space. The friginal interpreation given to the “sisplacement curent™ by ‘Maxwell is no longor used: however, we sil eain the term in honor of Maxwell. Although modern Maxwell's equations appear in a modified form, the equations originally introduced by Maxwell in 1864 formed the foundation of electromagnetic theory, ‘which, together, may’ very well be referred to as Maxwell's ele (eomagnetic theory. (EEE Antennas and Propagation Magszine, VO. 48, No.2, Apt 2008, Maxwell sow atsuned that plane wave is propeatn through the ik, with velocity Pina diction Biven bythe unt ‘tor the dirstion cosines of whic inthe #92 estion are Im, 1, respestively. Then, al eletomagnei fanctions wil be fimetions of waletmy+neVe @ By using the magnetie-fore equation (B), Maxwell showed that stiviv=0, ® i.e, uA? 1%, which implied thatthe “diction of magnetization” ‘must be in the plane ofthe wave (i.e. inthe wavefront. Assuming an insulating and stationary isotropic medium (J =0, 7 =0), he ‘obtained the following from Equations (8), (C) nd (D): — fea, (av aviv -wap~-ane [EA vf fo Ui) Wal maae Foo SE, 2452.38 whore ves 92 4 28 nee ae Fay * Ae The three rectangular components of Equation (4) are the same as those given by Maxwell as Equation (68) in (1, p. $78 Maxwell then eliminated a and y from each ofthe three equa tions in Equation (8), and obtained three similar equations forthe thee rectangular components of #7, Sine this isnot obvious, we shal briefly outline the procedures involved. Afcr taking the di erence of the y and 7 derivatives of the = and y components, respectively, of Equation (4), and making use of Equation (B), it can be shown that the + component of sails the following 6 ‘Equations similar to Equation (S) were obtained for ff, and A and the three equations were show asa set oF equations numbered Equation (69) in . 579} Assuming that H1,, HH. are functions of w (given by Equation 2), it canbe shown that Equation (5) yields © ‘ich implies that i ves |4 °) Vine o Similarly, the other equations for Hf, yield the same value of V, so thatthe wave propagates in ier ditection + with velocity v. A this stage, we quote Maxwell (1, p. 579: ‘This wave consists emiely of magnetic distur- ances, the direction of magnetization being in the 6plane of the wave. No magnetic disturbance whose firestion of magnetization is not in the plane of the wave can be propagated as plane wave at all. Hence magnetic disturbances propagated through the electromagnetic Field agree with light in this, that the disturbance at any pont is transverse t the ditee- tion of propagation, and sich waves may have all the properties of polarized light. Although Maxwell considered only a magnetic disturbance in [1 he later [7] showed that £1 (i.e, Beit =0), and also that ELA, Thus, both the electric and magnetic disturbances le in the plane of the wave, they aro mutually orthogonal, and together they” propagate as. plane electromagnetic wave. We, quote ‘Maxwell again [7]; "The mathematical form of the disixbance therefore agrees with that of the disturbance which constitutes Vip, being transverse in the direction of propagation.” ‘With & given by Equation (1), Equation (7) yields © acl Tea Maxell considered alr (ee space, for which K Gin Gain nits) hs me unit of electric charge mn PC cre unit of elecre charge it exw Purely elesromagnetc measurements (8) yielded C= 314,740,000 rvs 6= velocity of light in fee space Maxwell then made his most significant conjecture (1, p. ‘S80}; "The agreement ofthe results seems to show that fight nd ‘magnetism are affections ofthe same substance, and tha ight is an cleetromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field secon ing to electromagnetic laws.” ‘Thus, the most important consequence of Maxwell's peo posed equations was to establish the possibility of an electromag netic wave propagating with a velocity that could be calculated From the results of purely electrical measurements. Indeed, as ‘mentioned earlier, electromagnetic measurements [8] indicated that the velocity equaled tha of light in fee space. This led Maxwell to his famous conjecture that light i wansverse electromagnetic ‘wave, a conjecture ater verified by Hertz, However itis important to note that Maxwell didnot make any comment about the genera- tion of light waves andor electromagnetic waves of lower fv ‘quencies by electromagnetic means. There is no indication left ‘behind by him that he believed such was even posible. Maxwell did not ive to see his prediction confirmed experimentally and bis electromagnetic theory fully accepted. The former was confirmed by Hertz’ briliant experiments. Maxwell’s theory received un- versal acceptance, and his original equations ~ in a modified form hecame tho language of electromagnetic waves and electromag netes, mainly dve tthe efforts of Herz and Heaviside. 4, Acceptance of Maxwell's Theory ow the investigations of Hertz and the Maxwellian, dating the years 1879 (the year Maxwell died) to 1894 (the year Her died), finally led tothe acceptance of Maxwell's theory by the sci 6 cntfic community is well doctiented, The consbutions of the Maxwellians were described in [2,4] and those of Heaviside in (2, 9}, Hera’s orginal contributions can be found in (3, 10-11]: descriptions of Heora’s experimental arrangement sere given ia [12, 13}, and of Hers biography and workin (14). Since this has heen discussed in detail inthe literature, in the following we give conly short comments 0a some appropriate items in the context of {he topic of ur interest 4. Maxwell’s Equations Maxwells original equations were modified and ter expressed inthe form we now know as "Maxwell's Equatio independently by Here and Heaviside. Their work discarded the requirement of a medium for the existence ofthe “dispacement current” in ee space, and they also clminated the vector and se Tar potentials fom the fundamental equations. Thus, Hen and eavsie, independently, expressed Maxvells equations involy= ing ony the four fctd vectors, 2, B. Band 11. Although pior- iy is piven to Heaviside forthe vecior form of Maxwell's cque tions, is important to roe that Here's 1884 paper [15] provided the rectangular form of Maxwell's equations, which also appeared in is late paper of 1890 [16] It 10 be noted thatthe cordate form ofthe equations given in [25] were first abteined by Hertz It is appropriate to mention here that the inportence of Hertz's theoretical work (15] and its signiticance appear not © dave been fully recognized (17). In his paper, Hertz stated fiom the older actin-at-a distance theories of electromagnetism and proceeded to obtain Maxwel’s equations in an allemate_ way, ‘which avoided both the mechanical models Maxwell bad originally ‘sed and his formulation of displacement curent. In fact this paper formed the basis forall of Herts future theoretical and ‘experimental contributions to electromagnetism. D'Agostino [18] as the frst fo point out the importance of this pape inthe devel- ‘opment of Herz’ ideas. New insights into Hert2"s theory of eee- ‘womagnetism were discussed in [17], where the entre work was recast in modern notation for case of understanding, The authors of| [17] en concluded, “ts remarkable that an siterate method was available to derive Maxwell's equations based on quite a different ‘approach The piysical insight of Here's work seems not have been well appreciated inthe past. The contents of Herts theory probably had a great impact years later on his design of expe ‘ments. D'Agostino points out [18] Ct in is 1884 paper, Hertz developed a theory of ree propagation of electromagnet forces that was inspired by purely electromagnetic not optical — phe- fnomena, ‘The fundamental conebution of Her’s development was theory of the source-ield relation, unknown to Maxwell In contrast to the 1886 paper, in his 1890 paper [16], Hertz postulated Maxwell's equations, catber than deriving them in an temative fom. The equations written in component forms, rather than in vector form as done by Heaviside (9), brought unparalleled clarity to Maxwell's theory. After reading this 1890 paper by Hertz, Arnold Sommerfeld had this to say: "It was es though seales Fell ftom my eyes when I read Hera's great paper” [19], The ‘paper, entiled “On the Fundamental Equations of Flectrodynamics for Bodies at Res," served as a model for Sommerfeld’ lectures ‘on electrodynamics since his student days [19.4] 4.2 Electromagnetic Waves A few moaths befor the death of Maxwell, Lodge begun to took into the possibility of producing electromagnetic waves [2 p. IEEE Anlonos ond Propagation Magazine, Vol 45, No.2, Apri 2003