Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INDIAN
EDUCATION
Volume XXXIII Number 2 August 2007
CONTENTS
Editors Note 3
The Aims of Education 5
The Arts as Education ANJANA PURI 14
Why Arts Education Should be Included
in the Curricular Area
Constructivism and the Pedagogy of SAROJ PANDEY 21
Education for Peace
A Reflection on School Education Curriculum
Reform (NCF-2005)
Abstract
useful, but, very importantly, have this education must now be seen as fostering
other expressive aspect. A community values which constitute the well-being
traditionally assumes a degree of of the individual on the one hand and
continuity for itselfcontinuity of its the well-being of humanity on the other.
constituent structures of human But the difficulty here of course, is
relationships, which give it, to a large to clear about the notion of the
extent, its identity and meaning. Given independent of the complex matrix of
this assumption, the aims of education relationships in which an individual is
within what might, somewhat inevitably located? And what is this all
misleadingly, be called a communitarian inclusive humanity, as distinct from this
framework, have primarily to do with the or that specific variety of humanity?
communitys idea of well-being and The lack of clarity about the idea of
flourishing. The highest value that an individual and humanity as such is
education within such a framework was bound to create difficulties for us in
expected to promote and foster was, thinking about the aims of education in
perhaps, allegiance to the community. our times. Thus, for instance, we have
However, even though community to find a way out of a seeming
continues to be a powerful presence in contradiction such as: We must
our own times, and despite proliferation encourage children to cultivate the
of deliberately constructed communities, scientific temper (that is, the tendency
the world has for a long time been moving to follow their reason beyond the dictates
away from a community-centric view of of culture, tradition, and community)
human existence in two widely divergent and also teach them the unassailable
directions: the direction of the individual values of humanity. Also, we must find a
and the direction of the universal or the stable room for the nation between the
global. The well-being of the individual individual and the humanity.
is seen to be more important than the
well-being of the community. This Aims of Education
perhaps is the genesis of the idea of
Here are however, issues relating to
human rights as of many other central
education about which have a fairly clear
concepts of the modern world.
idea and about which there ought to be
Humanity is sometimes conceived as
general agreement to a large extent. It
the community of all individual human
would be helpful to seek an answer to
beings. But this is a serious
the question what ought to be the aims
misconstrual of the idea of a community.
of education? by way of our engagement
Our attachment to the notion of
with these issues:
community is profound and persistent.
In equating humanity to a community, (i) School education is a deliberate
we not only give expression to this and more-or -less external
attachment but also invest it with a intervention in the life of a child.
meaning it does not have. Although much learning and
Given the radical change of teaching takes place at home, in the
perspective that has taken place, neighbourhood community, and in
The Aims of Education 9
to do with moral life at all. For example, external to physical fitness. (The position
courage by itself can be put to incredibly taken here is distinct from the utilitarian
evil use; think of the courage Nathuram position epitomised in the dictum
Godse. The same thing can be said of honesty is the best policy.) In the moral
intelligence. As to temperance if it is sphere, the process is integral to the
tempered with the vital unity of moral life, product and the product is inalienable
it is in perpetual danger of degenerating from the process. Here, there can be no
into soulless, ritualistic disciplining of such thing as finding the most efficient
oneself. means of achieving a predetermined goal
What is it that breathes morality into (as in, say, matters of management), for
the virtues? It is we must have the the means in the pursuit of a moral end
courage to acknowledge truth and love, is not replaceable.
or, in terms of our own powerful tradition An important corollary of this is that
of moral thought, ahimsa. Truth means if value education must be a part of the
freedom from self-deception; here it is education system, values or virtues must
never enough to speak the truth be integral to the whole process of
occasionally. As Wittgenstein puts it, The education. Value education cannot be
truth can be spoken by someone who is imparted as a separate bit of education;
already at home in it; not by someone the whole of education has to be value
who still lives in falsehood and reaches education. Here, we need the powerful
out from falsehood towards truth on just reminders, in variety of ways, of the
one occasion.2 Courage, temperance, Gandhian ideas of ahimsa, peace, and
intelligence, and so on cannot come harmony.
together in the vital unity of virtuous life
unless they are profoundly mediated by (iv) Cultural diversity is one of our
the love of truth. And the love of truth- greatest gifts. To respect and do
when we are talking of a moral life-can justice to others is also to respect
flourish in the supreme and active and do justice to their respective
presence of ahimsa. cultures or communities. We,
Secondly, in the context of moral life, therefore, need to radically change
the means and the end must form a the centre versus periphery
continuum such that, as it were, the perspective on intercultural
means and the ends make a wholesome relationships in our country.
unity? The distinction between the Cultures on the so-called periphery
means and the end in this context, if must receive as much attention as
there is one at all, is not the same as the cultures in the centre. As for
distinction where the means is merely education, its implications is that
instrumental in producing the end, for ways of life other than ones own
example, playing football as a means of must be imaginatively and
keeping physically fit. Morality is external effectively presented as deserving of
to a virtuous life in the way football is as much respect as ones own.
2
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1973. Culture and Value, Blackwell.
The Aims of Education 11
Some Implications for Pedagogy and understanding . He knew that it was not
Evaluation at all necessary for the boys to
understand literally and accurately, but
It may be useful to consider some of the
that their minds should be roused, and
implications of what has been said so far
in this he was always successful he was
for pedagogy and evaluation. The
not like other teachers, a mere vehicle of
strangeness of the school environment
textbooks. He made his teaching
can be mitigated by imaginatively linking
personal, he himself was the source of
the experience of school with the childs
it, and therefore it was made of life stuff,
experience outside it in the community.
easily assimilable by the living human
While school might have many new and
nature.3
exciting experiences for the child, it must
not appear as rejecting or eve ignoring Pedagogy must draw upon resources
the childs experience in the community. of creativity and exploration, such as
Pedagogy will gain but incorporating literature in its various forms and history
childrens experience of what the Greeks in its uncovering modes, e.g., unmasking
used to call oikos, and likewise and it can the mind of the colonisers as well as that
teach them fresh ways of experiencing of the colonised. It is important to
the world outside the school. For establish connections between
example, if a child has grown up in apparently discrete events and things,
intimate contact with the nature around between things and events close to one
him, as most children in tribal and those distant in time and space
communities do, school can enrich and connections which can bring sudden
enhance this intimacy by sharpening light to the workings of the childs own
the childs awareness of his own natural mind.
environmentsomething that sadly does If the world of education is, in a
not happen in most of our schools. The sense, moral education, and if means
role of the teacher here is absolutely and ends in moral matters are
crucial. One is reminded of the nineteen- organically or internally connected, the
year-old teacher who came to help Tagore teacher, who is the primary vehicle of
with the teaching in his school: education, must be seen substantially as
With him boys never felt that they an embodiment of virtues in his role as
were confined in the limit of a teaching a teacher.
class; they seemed to have their access Teaching should be in the
to everywhere. They would go with him conversational mode rather than in the
to the forest when in the spring the sal mode of authoritarian monologue. It is
trees were in full blossom and he would in the conversational mode that the child
recite to them his favorite poems, frenzied is likely to grow in self-confidence and
with excitementHe never had the feeling self-awareness and will more easily
of distrust for the boys capacity of establish connections between the
3
Tagore, Rabindranath 1996. My School. In Sisir Kumar Das (ed.) English Writings of Tagore,
Vol. II. Sahitya Academy.
The Aims of Education 13
have learnt through participation in the experiences are either inconsistent with
practices of our communities. In different or at a considerable variance from what
communities, the practices and we had gradually learnt to take for
traditions vary widely. granted. Such experiences are critical
The term tradition may be interpreted and challenging as they involve or require
in many ways. In its barest sense, it formulation of new concepts, revision of
means that which is handed down or preconceived notions, and new ways of
transmitted from generation to looking at and dealing with the world. It
generation in a community because it is this unique human ability that is
consists of devices and principles that called rationality, which is manifested in
have helped the community to make human behaviour in a wide variety of
sense of its experiences and activities. ways.
Perhaps, it was for this reason that Our attempts to make sense of our
Wittgenstein had rightly remarked, experiences, to comprehend the world
tradition is nota thread he (man) can that we live in, require that we recognise
pick up when he feels like it any more patterns, structures, and order in the
than a man can choose his own world. Without such recognition, we
ancestors.4 would not be able to make any
Education as a planned endeavour, judgements; we could not be in a position
at a personal level on a small scale or to be certain about anything. This quest
institutional level on a large scale, aims for certainty, taken to its extreme, may
at making children capable of becoming become a demand for a monistic and
active, responsible, productive, and absolute criterion by which it would be
caring members of society. They are possible to draw sharp lines between the
made familiar with the various practices rational and the irrational, knowledge
of the community by imparting the and a lack of it. In becoming captives of
relevant of skills and ideas. Ideally, such a restricting vision, we forget
education is supposed to encourage the that there are numerous ways in which
students to analyse and evaluate their we learnt to know and to reason about
experiences, to doubt, to question, to the world. This forgetting leads us to
investigate in other words, to be reduce rationality to mere formulas of
inquisitive and to think independently. deductive reasoning, placing greater
As we grow, we face new and value on theory over practice, natural
unfamiliar experiences which question sciences over art, and information over
our old ways of thinking as these knowledge.
4
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1973. Culture and Value, Blackwell. P.76.
14 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
Abstract
Although the arts are as old as mankind and are as complex as the ways of
human beings, they have not yet been given the same status as the sciences and
the humanities have been given, within the frame of school education. One has yet
to understand the inherent link that connects the arts to other subjects, giving
them their inter-disciplinary character. Each of the arts irrespective of whether
they are performing, non-performing, visual has inherent values that make it a
source for education, holistic in nature. It thus becomes significant to examine
performance holistically, because within the concept of holistic performance are a
large number of areas that might be diverse in nature, but are closely linked to
each other within as well as outside the bounds of the art form. It is, therefore,
required to look for the relationship between the performing arts and the other
subjects. One could investigate to what extent the arts have been integrated in the
text of specific subject areas or one could look for different subject areas in the
performing and visual arts. This would need analysing the arts in a manner that
would highlight various fields associated integrally with the arts. The arts have to
be considered as something beyond immediate performance, comprehending the
difference in concepts such as arts in education, arts and education and art as
education.
which human society functions and are on to the most complex musical patterns
therefore integrally linked with rendered in performances. In a backdrop
sociological study; they are expressed as colourful as this, it would be of the
through sound, word and script, and are essence to understand the intra- and an
therefore linguistic manifestations; they inter-disciplinary character of the arts.
are mental images, which are given
physical expression through a The Arts and their Different Streams
psychological process; converting what Performing and visual arts are
is concealed within into visible outer expressions of inner reactions to the
images through psychological and surrounding environment. Regardless of
physiological acts involves scientific whether it is a childs scribbling or its
analysis; drawings are geometrical vocal sounds devoid of meaningful words,
impressions; colours are the play of light they are effective articulations of what
and shade; and the aesthetics of colour, is veiled within. These at a later stage
sound and form give the arts an develop into disciplined arts of
enhanced status that actually makes expression, the mediums of which might
them unparalleled. If this is not enough be varied. What a child passively imbibes
to give the arts the stature they deserve from its surroundings includes a
in the academics, what is? diversity of areas that might or might not
True, the arts are as complex as the be connected to music, dance, acting,
ways of the human being all painting, various crafts or sculpting. Yet
expressions is complex. The development the arts do become the means to express
from rock art drawings where the legacy the content, relationship and inter-play
of mankind [that] captures experience of of different subjects.
the life phenomena of man1 to the lines Although all the arts within the
of abstraction and representation Indian context might together broadly be
stimulating the imagination to think in categorised as performing and non-
terms of serpentine lines, circles, curves, performing art forms, or performing and
squares, form and non-form, illustrates visual arts, there is in fact a line, nearly
the most modern of 20th century art invisible, that separates one from the
expression. Think of surrealism,2 which other. What might seem visual in the
has traced a significant route from inner form of a painting or other craft has more
reality to outer physical manifestation. often than not had a link with
It is true, though, that while this is performance. One, does not, after all,
evident of the visual arts, it is more hear the lilting recitation of arithmetic
difficult to define, say, music and the that the weaver sings to him/herself
musicality of the voice. Music and while he/she weaves a motif. The mask
musicality are at once oral and aural, does not bring alive the character central
formless unless transcribed palpably to a performance as it does in a ritual or
even though they are as physical as dance, when it hangs on a wall far
breathing. They are a canvas that removed from context. What might
displays sound-shapes beginning with decorate the walls of a drawing room in
the sound of the childs first cry and going urban settings could very well be
16 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
something steeped in belief, ritual and Manganiar singers create both images
philosophy in the rural milieu. Be it the and imagery. Then, in its stillness a
par3 which becomes the focal point in the painting moves, speaks, performs and
performance of a Rajasthani folk creates imagery. It is a visual, which
narrative, or the Puruliya Chau4 mask might change every time one turns to look
without which the Puruliya Chhau at it. The peformative element seems,
performance is meaningless, the indeed, to exist in everything. In order to
performative and the visual are well- recognise this performative element it is
knit. These objects of craft may not be necessary to develop a discerning eye, a
meant to be considered in isolation. But receptive ear and a sensitive mind. To
a curious mind might want to inquire understand and appreciate the arts
what it is essentially or whence it came. needs preparation. The required
It is, of course, beyond doubt that while preparation would no doubt be holistic
on the one hand one does recognise the in nature a preparation most
close link between performance and appropriate for the comprehensive
visual, the difference between the two is development of the child.
sufficiently discernible to consider them
independently. Validating the Arts
In the performing art forms such as What has been the purpose of these
the Siddi Dhamal 5 and Teyyam 6 , performing, non-performing and visual
performance and the visual fuse, art forms? Why have they always been a
inseparably. There are the classical part of the psyche? What is it that makes
performing art forms, where the them so important within the Indian
performance itself becomes the visual. social structure? And if they are as
The visual is the performance. The important as they do seem, why is one
element of visual performance is, of so hesitant in accepting them as a part
course, more prominent in dances of academics?
like Kathakali, Odissi, Kathak, Looking for a purpose in the arts is
Bharatanatyam, Mohiniattam and like wanting to know what the purpose
Manipuri. The visuals that music creates might be in daydreaming. Why should
are varied and very different from the one desire to reach the tip of Mount
visuals that a dance creates. A singer Everest or why would one want to fly
like, for instance, Gangubai Hangal, who beyond the stars? What urges the
is a small-built person off stage, would boatman to sing while he rows his boat
gain a giant size during performance. and what makes a grandmother want to
The visual that the Shehnai maestro, take a child into the fantastic world that
late Ustad Bismillah Khan, created in her stories weave? While analysing
performance with his entire group of co- daydreams might shatter their non-
performers was a powerful picture, being, the arts often make analysis
difficult to forget. The performances of necessary. Daydreams could be
the kabeerpanthis 7, Prahalad Singh described as pleasant, wandering
Tippaniyas troupe, are spell-binding. thoughts that distract ones attention
The colourful turbans of a group of from the present, whereas the arts are
The Arts as Education 17
integrated in the text. The drawing below their philosophy and world-view, and the
shows how it might be possible to do this. social circumstances that designed their
Some difficulty might be encountered performance. It might also be of interest
since the sciences and humanities, as for the student to understand how a way
well as commerce and economics, are of life could become an art form, and how,
today highly specialised subjects. How by turning into an art form, it could
much space do they really leave for acquire commercial value. This might
incorporating the visual and performing explain also to some extent the
arts? connection of the arts with economics
There is also another way of doing and commerce.
this. Would it not be simpler to look for The student may also be interested
different subject areas in the performing in discovering how deep-rooted sociology
and visual arts? This would need is in community arts. Innumerable forms
analysing the arts in a manner such that of expression emerge because of social
various fields associated integrally with reasons, because of integration with the
the arts are highlighted. This would environment in which a community is
enable teacher and student to view an located, and are representational of
art form beyond immediate performance. cultures and worldviews unique in
For example, the Sidigoma dancers nature. They might be occupational by
hail from Africa and are followers of the nature, and at the same time symbolise
Sufi mystic Baba Gaur. It should be a way of life that supports their very
interesting to trace not only the history existence. For instance, the Tippani
of this community but also the dance of Chorwad in the coastal area of
geographical route the community took Saurashtra is in fact the consequence
to come to India. It should be of of an occupational behaviour pattern.
considerable interest to the student to Floors and ceilings of houses in olden
analyse the language in which they sing, days were not made of cement but of
finely pounded limestone, or chuna.
Women pounded it rhythmically with a
Language stick to which was attached a disc called
tippani, in order to turn the chuna into
History
fine powder. Songs accompanied the
Economics
rhythm of the pounding, making the hard
work relatively easy. When cement and
Commerce Arts Sociology other material replaced this traditional
mortar or chuna, what remained of the
pounding-work were its movements and
Technology accompanying songs. The tippani is
Geography
now a musical instrument. This dance
Environmental form danced by women is called
Science Studies Tippani Naach.
It thus becomes significant to
Fig. 2: Looking for other subjects in the arts examine performance holistically,
The Arts as Education 19
ENDNOTES
1. LORBLANCHET, MICHEL (ed.). 1988. Rock art in the Old World. Papers presented in
Symposium A of the AURA Congress, Darwin (Australia). Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts, New Delhi 1992, p. iii.
2. STITES, RAYMOND S. 1940. The Arts and Man. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
New York. p. 154
3. http://kalarte.com/india/ra-c/ra-ctext.html Kalarte Gallery: India Par
(paintings on cloth) from Rajasthan
The Rajasthani par (sometimes spelled phad) is a painting on cloth that is a
visual accompaniment to a ceremony involving the singing and recitation of
the deeds of folk hero-deities in Rajasthan. Pabuji ki Pars depict exploits from
the life of the folk hero Pabuji Rathor. The legends are painted on long
rectangular cloths that may be 35 feet long by 5 feet wide. The bard-priest
known as bhopa recites incidents describing the exploits of Pabuji from the
epic and is assisted by his wife and son or another person who points to the
scenes on the par about which he is singing.
4. http://www.accu.or.jp/ich/en/arts/A_IND7.html AsiaPacific Database on
Intangible Cultural Heritage Purulia Chhau is a vibrant and powerful folk dance
form with an inclination towards theatre. The use of mask in the dance makes
20 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
it more attractive for the audience. The use of masks in this form of Chhau,
remains to be its focal point even today. The making of these masks is an
independent art altogether. It needs a gifted artist to visualise the mask and
then give shape to it.
5. The Siddhis are a unique community settled along the coast of Gujarat in
Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Junagarh and Surat. Descendants of migrants who were
brought here in the 12th century from Africa, the Siddhi still retain their native
sense of rhythm and fluid grace. Dressed in grass skirts and adorned with
peacock feathers, they perform the Dhamal on the eve of the urs of their
prophet Baba Gaur. As the dance gains tempo the dancers perform various
feats of skill. The climax of the performance culminates in the Siddhis tossing
coconuts in air only to break them on their heads. They even walk on fire.
6. Teyyam is a ritualistic dance in Kerala With its rare and fantastic make-up
and costume, lively foot work, gymnastic fervour and ritualistic vitality it
represents the folk life of Kerala.
7 Followers of Kabeer, who sing his verses.
8. http://orissagov.nic.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/nov2004/englishPdf/
raghurajpur-craftvillage.pdf.
The patachitra as the folk painting of Orissa is called has a history of great
antiquity. Raghurajpur, a small village in the Puri district, is known for its
patachitra artists and has therefore made a unique place for itself on the
cultural map of India. They exhibit the use of strong lines and striking colours
on pieces of treated cloth, dried palm leaves or paper painted by the chitrakaras.
The paintings depict themes of Indian mythology.
9. This is the art of singing out a narrative giving, it a balladic structure. It is the
recital of a mythological story or a folk tale.
10. http://indiaheritage.org/perform/folk_pandavani.htm
Pandavani is the form of story-telling belonging to Chhatisgarh, which serves
as a means of both entertaining and educating the people. It narrates the
story of the five Pandava brothers (protagonists of the epic Mahabharata). A
team of Pandavani performers consists of one main narrator-singer and one
or two musician-cum-singers, who play on the tabla and the harmonium. The
main narrator-singer holds a tambura (stringed musical instrument), decorated
with small bells and peacock feathers in one hand and kartal (a pair of cymbals)
on the other.
11. Vatsyayan, Kapila Traditions of Indian Folk Dance Indian Book Company, New
Delhi, 1976 (pg. 9).
Constructivism and the Pedagogy of Education for Peace 21
Abstract
This paper has been developed against the backdrop of National Curriculum
Framework 2005, which envisages major paradigm shift from behaviourist
approach to learning to constructivist approach that lays stress on the personal
experiences of learner in the process of knowledge construction. The role of teacher
in this approach has shifted from the transmitter of knowledge to facilitator of
knowledge. The NCF 2005 also emphasises on education for peace, not as a
part of value education as traditionally been integrated in schools, but, as an
independent value in itself. The paper highlights the implication of this paradigm
shift in the approach towards learning for promoting the culture of peace as, both,
the constructivist approach and peace education are associated with the humanistic
philosophy which is dedicated to developing more mature and self-directed
learner a pre-requisite for living together. To develop a culture of peace, the
pedagogy of education needs to be broad, diverse and oriented towards lifelong
learning. Active listening, problem-solving, and conflict resolution skills help in
inculcating feeling of living together, which are also basic to the constructivist way
to learning. Therefore, the epistimological shift suggested in the NCF 2005
provides greater opportunity to promote the culture of peace than ever before.
Peace has been one of the most desired and a better quality of life. A strong need
necessities of human life since time is being felt by educationists,
immemorial. Since the advent of philosophers, scientists and political
organised society human beings have leaders to rejuvenate the human values,
strived for it, and are even more united which may bring long lasting peace on
today in their quest for peace, harmony this planet. The insistence of Delors
Committtee (1999), etc. make important the five core values that were promoted
recommendations for incorporation of through education
value education at all levels of education.
Consequently, the National Curriculum The Constructivist pedagogy and
Frameworks of 1975, 1988 and 2000 had NCF 2005
adopted a value-oriented approach to Besides the thrust on education for
integration of peace concerns in peace instead of value education, the
education. NCF (2005) can also be distinguished
A major shift in this approach is from earlier frameworks in the
witnessed in the National Curriculum epistemological approach adopted for
Framework 2005, which considers that education of learners. The earlier
value education is subsumed in Education behaviourist approach to learning has
for pace, but is not identical with it. The been replaced by the thrust on
National Focus Group on Peace constructivist based learning. The
Education constituted in the context of constructivist epistemology is based on
NCF2005 in its Position Paper on the premise that learning does not
Education for Peace says, Peace is a involve discovering the reality, but
contextually appropriate and peda- constructing the reality.
gogically gainful point of coherence for According to the constructivist
values. Peace concretises the purpose of theory, knowledge is being actively
values and motivates their internalisation. constructed by the individual and
Without such a framework, the integration learning is an adoptive process based on
of values into the learning process remains the experiences of individual (Mayer,
a non-starter. Education for peace is, thus, 1992: Hendry, 1996, 1996). Therefore,
the ideal strategy for contextualsing and learning is not mere absorption of
operationalsing value education (p.1). knowledge and learner is no longer
While accepting the traditional approach controlled respondent to stimuli as in the
of integration of various peace related behaviourist approach (Jonassen, 1999:
values and concern in school curricula, Perkins, 1991a) but is considered as
it further adds, that, education for peace already a scientist (Solomon, 1994,
must be a concern that permeates the p. 16) who actively constructs learning
entire school life curriculum, co- while trying to make sense of the world
curriculum, classroom environment, through his own experiences, goals,
school management, teacher pupil curiosities and beliefs. Knowledge
relationship, teaching-learning according to constructivist epistemology
processes, and the entire range of school cannot be transferred intact from one
activities. Clearly the NCF 2005 is more individual to another and therefore,
vocal and direct towards the need of learning and teaching cannot be
promoting peace through education than synonymous: we can teach, even well,
the earlier curriculum reform attempts without having students learning. What
where the concept of peace was can be the better example of it than the
subsumed in value education and present school system in the country
therefore peace was considered one of where in spite of all teaching-learning at
24 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
integrating their experiences with school issue. Conscious efforts are made by the
knowledge rather than their ability to teacher under constructivist approach
reproduce external knowledge (p.13). It to cultivate non-threatening learning
motivates schools to provide environment (Watt and Bentley, 1987)
opportunities to students to question, that facilitates students knowledge
enquire, debate, reflect and arrive at construction process. Teachers in this
concepts to create new ideas (p.18). situation are required to display respect
These are the important steps of value and care for students learning and
clarification and conflict resolution students knowledge construction process
process also, which help in removing is facilitated by encouraging them to
apprehensions, mistrust and doubts discuss, explain and evaluate their ideas
about others and encourages living and procedures. The NCF 2005 provides
together. Active listening, critical opportunities for such learning
thinking, problem-solving and conflict experiences to learners right from the
resolution are the skills emphasised in pre-primary stage to higher secondary
the context of education for peace, which stage. It lays stress on problem-solving,
are also the thrust of constructivist way dramatisation and role-play, etc, which
of learning and promoted in NCF 2005. remain under explored strategies of
It strongly feels that schools must be teaching in the present system. It
marked by the values of equality, social recommends in order making the process
justice and respect for diversity, as well of learning participative, there is a need to
as of the dignity and rights of children shift from mere imparting of information to
(p.81). debate and discussion. This approach to
Expressing concern over the neglect learning will keep both the learner and the
of childs local context in the present teacher alive to social realities (p. 54).
school practices the NCF (2005)
recommends we emphasise the Triangular Relationship between
significance of conceptualising education NCF 2005, Constructivism and
or situating learning in the childs world, Pedagogy of Peace Education
and of making the boundary between the Education for peace is fundamentally
school and its natural and social dynamic, interdisciplinary, and
environment porous. This is not only multicultural in nature and aims at
because the local environment and childs developing knowledge, skills and
own experiences are the best entry points attitudes needed to achieve and sustain
into the study of disciplines of knowledge, global culture of peace. Promoting the
but more so because the aim of knowledge culture of peace calls for developing
is to connect with the world (p.30). skills among learners for active listening,
A central strategy for constructivism problem-solving, and conflict resolution.
is the creation and encouragement of These skills need to be developed early
collaborative learning environment, in learners and nurtured continuously.
which provides opportunities to learner The personal experiences of learners,
to develop, share, compare and therefore, have to be honoured and
understand multiple perspectives of an treated as a base for dialogue and new
Constructivism and the Pedagogy of Education for Peace 27
REFERENCES
BEDNAR, A.K., D. CUNNINGHAM, T.M. DUFFY, and J.D. PERRY. 1992. Theory into practice:
How do we link? In T.M. Duffy and D.H. Jonassen (Eds.) Constructivism and the
Technology of Instruction: A Conservation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Hillsdale.17-34.
B URNS, R.J. 1985. Teachers and peace education in Australia: whose task?
In C. Alger and J.Balazs (Eds.) Conflict and Crisis of International Order
(pp. 467-476). Centre for Peace Research Coordination at the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences, Budapest.
CARTER, C. 2002. Conflict resolution at school: building compassionate communities.
Second alternatives, 21(1) (Special Issue Peace Education for New Centaury), p. 3-24.
Constructivism and the Pedagogy of Education for Peace 29
Abstract
Religion today has become an easy outlet through which people vent their hatred
and thus become a source of violence ironically against its very essence of universal
love and peace. Since hatred and violence are rooted in greed, turn up in the most
insidious forms within the individual self, education has an important role in
inculcating the values of peace among the students while unlearning greed and
aggression. The presentation espouses the educational philosophy of Jiddu
Krishnamurtis and the Rishi Valley School, a project guided by his philosophy to
promote the culture of peace. In the wake of the growing problems brought with
the assertion of renewed identities founded on religion and also the various problems
resulting from human negligence, for example, the degrading eco-system, etc.
Krishnamurtis vision could be translated into reality of today.
on teachers, who exercise authority and Valley School where I have worked for
on students, who stand at the bottom of almost twenty-five years. In the course
this heavy superstructure. of this presentation I will focus on the
The need for continually re- issues of war and peace in the context of
examining the notion of peace is education. The aim of education at this
particularly crucial to the enterprise of point in human history, as I see it, is to
education today because the survival of establish a culture of peace in schools.
civilisation depends on good education. For me peace means more than the
Current scientific research predicts absence of overt violence; I look upon it
cataclysmic events following global as a living presence that demands
warming rising sea levels will gradually change and renewal of the human spirit.
inundate coastal cities, wipe out island The view that the education of the
states, displace millions of people. Social young is filtered through culture
scientists tell us that violent conflicts are dominates current thinking in
inevitable in such a scenario. Which education. Robin Alexander puts it this
country will provide refuge to the way
Maldives population if their island home drawing on the insights initiated by
drowns? Vygotsky and Bruner and consolidated by
The full impact of failing natural later cognitive and cultural psychologists,
ecosystems will be felt by the generations we have replaced the view of the
that we educate today; it is therefore only developing child as a lone scientist, who
right that we take measures to avert this learns by interacting with materials ... by
grim future with intelligence. Human one of learning as necessarily as a social
beings are products of culture as well as process, In this, significant others
nature. To avert tragedy and to live in parents, teachers, peers provide the
peace with each other and with nature, mediation or intervention which scaffolds
humanity will have to discover a new and takes forward the childs
balance within itself. The present understanding (Alexander 2006 p.15).
generation of educators needs to Jerome Bruner further maintains
cultivate a long vision, and to create a that educators emphasise the central
culture that supports nature instead of role for narrative, by which he means
further ravaging it. stories, songs, drama, fiction that give
Other questions relevant to this line cohesion to a culture, and which help
of thinking about peace help enlarge the individual students find an identity
framework for examining the concept. Are within that culture. Knowledge, he
war and peace opposites, and is peace says, is not simply thinking and the
merely the absence of conflict? Since result of intellectual activity and
violence, with roots in greed, turns up in experience, it is the internalising of tools
the most insidious forms, globally, locally, that are used within the childs culture
systemically, and within the individual (Bruner, 1996).
self, where does one begin to address the How one conceives of education, we
issue of peace? These are questions I have finally come to recognise, is a
have inherited from the founder of Rishi function of how one conceives of the
32 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
culture and its aims, professed and India, with its myriad groups
otherwise (Bruner 1996: ix-x). competing to assert their separate
Bruners separating out of what a identities, defies an educators
culture professes and what it allows in intellectual compass; and so the present
practice creates spaces for questions, top down formalistic approach that offers
analysis as well as the liberty to shape abstractions in the form of national
culture. Given the environmental crisis, heroes and modern development
education will have to create structures successes in competitive contexts that
that undo present attitudes to nature reward aggression. The official line that
and create a culture that recognises and India stands for unity in diversity may
honours human dependence on sound be a truth waiting to be born, if we educate
ecological systems. The future of our children to stand together in solidarity
humanity depends on teaching coming for purposes that serve universal
generations to listen and learn from interests while preserving differences.
nature, on models of growth that are Human societies can come together
ecologically sound, on repairing the to solve global problems of species
damage done by their forefathers to depletion, soil erosion, air and water
natural systems. In short, educators pollution, and rebuild their relationship
need to acknowledge that a radical to nature, if knowledge is united with
change is necessary and that attitudes values aimed at restoring ecosystems
will have to change, cultures liberated back to health and the task of education
from the violence they implicitly contain. then is not only to design curricula that
It is certain that with the onset of are Earth centred but also to teach
modernity, particular sub-cultures have students how to unlearn habits and
to accommodate tenets and norms worldviews born of greed and aggression.
beyond those that are an organic part of My plan is to investigate these
their own history. Universal principles, connected issues in two parts I will first
such as, respect for nature, equal rights describe an educational project in the
for men and women are examples of these interior of south India, guided by the
principles that culture groups are obliged philosophy of Jiddu Krishnamurti. The
to uphold. The pertinent questions in attempt here will be to illustrate the
this context remain: whose stories, manner in which one school has
whose songs and theatre shall we, in a promoted a culture of peace by applying
complex culture like Indias, teach? And the philosophy of its founder to address
what are the cultural practices and the complex issues of poverty and
values that need to be unlearned? And ecological degradation that face the local
how is this unlearning to be effected? population. The second section will
Given the vast religious, class and caste contain an exposition of Krishnamurtis
divides in this country, how we in India educational philosophy. I will present him
understand the word culture is neither as a deep ecologist who explored the
easily described and nor universally nature of intelligence and human
acknowledged. interactions based on this intelligence.
Religion, Education and Peace 33
scattered hills, on the edge of the Mysore herdsmen, descendants of the same
Plateau, he located the landscape where people, but also by rattling lorries and
he hoped to lay the foundations of the buses. A part of this road is paved. There
religio-scholastic atmosphere he had is a small row of peepal trees on either
not found in California. The place was side of the road, but the virgin forests on
dry scrubland prone to drought, even the hills are slowly disappearing; during
famine, inhabited by stonecutters, the summer months goatherds trim
shepherds and cattle farmers. these trees for their flock; local women
Sacred shrines built by these ancient have to walk long distances for fuel.
people stood scattered all over the valley. There are many bore wells belonging to
Under the shade of neem trees, four thin the school and the more prosperous
slabs of stone not more than a foot high landowners. The school and its urban
are arranged to form a rectangular space population now dominate the valley. The
that encloses mother goddess stones; the Valley telescopes time, modernity mingles
goddess is propitiated with blood with many layers of tradition. As we shall
sacrifice of cocks and, during prolonged see it represents in miniature the
droughts, with goats. layering of cultures, which is a hallmark
The goddess Gangamma has a larger of social development in the past.
whitewashed temple. The majestic neem D. D. Kosambi, that doyen of Indian
tree under which it stood was destroyed historians, more than fifty years ago
by a storm a few years ago and replaced observed that the telescoping of time, in
by a Durga seated on a lion. Her step- other words, the contemporaneous
well, so beautifully lined with dressed existence of many stages of human
stones, remains dry throughout the year. development from the past is a general
A classical temple to Krishna situated but unique feature of Indias history.
in the only traditional village Thettu gives According to Kosambi, India is a country
the valley a hint of classical antiquity. It of long survivals: People of the atomic
was not the temple, however, that drew age rub elbows with those of the
Krishnamurti to Thettu Valley, but a chalcolithic, he observed as he travelled
three-hundred-year-old Banyan tree, on the Deccan Queen in the early fifties
which dominated the stark scene and the from his home in Pune to the Tata
wooded hills that stood like sentinels at Institute of Fundamental Research in
the western end of the valley. The Bombay, (now Mumbai) and went on to
disjunction between the primeval Thettu prove that the ancient Buddhist caves
landscape from the urban vitality of a along the Western Ghats followed the
great university in the New World could migratory patterns set out by older
not have been more complete. generations of Neolithic tribesmen.
In the 70 years, since the land was The school established in 1931,
acquired for the school, the landscape consisted of English-speaking, fee-
has changed. The track that encircles paying students from Indias successful
the valley, where shepherds drove their middle classes. Gordon Pierce, the
flock of sheep and goat to distant forests, principal of Rishi Valley and founder of
is now broader. It is still used by the Public School Movement in India,
Religion, Education and Peace 35
enlisted Rishi Valley into the elitist body Guha, 1995). The classification of Indias
in the Fifties. Yet, from the very beginning population into omnivores, ecological
the Rishi Valley landscape lacked some systems people and ecological refugees
fundamental qualifications of Indian is based on the comparative
residential public schools. It is not consumption patterns and access to
located in the temperate zone, in hill resources of the urban and rural elite
stations made fashionable during the and the urban and rural poor. Nearly four
colonial period. Though standing at an fifths of the population of India are poor,
altitude of 2500 feet, it was an area in either ecological people, dependent on
Rayalseema, where drought turned the natures dwindling resources or
surroundings brown, the bald granite ecological refugees forced out of their own
rocks radiated the suns heat, and locality by the encroaching industrial
villagers walked with their cows through civilisation. The majority of our fee-paying
the school campus. Indias colonial past students and some of our teachers and
was nowhere present in the landscape administrators belonged to Gadgil and
Krishnamurti chose. And yet the Guhas first category of omnivores.
students who attended his school were The results of the urban-rural divide
products of several generations that had are best described in a recently published
benefited from the colonial presence. work by Guha
The consequences of educating India is in many ways an economic
students in an ivory tower oblivious to disaster zone; marked by high rate of
the worlds suffering remained with deforestation, species loss, land
Krishnamurti as the schools population degradation, and air and water pollution.
in due course increased to roughly five The consequences of this abuse have
hundred inhabitants, students born and been chiefly borne by the poor in the
bred in the urban centres of India and countryside peasants, tribals,
well-educated teachers from some of the fisherfolk, and pastoralists who have
best institutions in the country. seen their resources snatched away or
Krishnamurtis talks to students were depleted by powerful economic interests
filled with sharp portraits of village life (Guha, 2006, p. 232).
meant to challenge students. Have you Narpat Jodhas research in several
ever, he asked them, observed the poor dryland districts of the country adds
people, the peasants, the villagers, and another frame of reference to our view of
done something kinddone it surrounding village life. On the basis of
spontaneously, naturally, out of your comparative study of villages with vital
own heart, without waiting to be told common property holdings, he concludes
what to do? (LA, p. 29). that these shared resources support
If we were to educate students between 15-25 per cent of income of the
without regard to the poverty in the poorer farmers and shepherds in dry
Valley we were in danger of falling under region. He makes out a strong case for
the category of omnivores, as defined by governments to replenish Common
the ecological historians Madhav Gadgil Property Resources in the countryside,
and Ramachandra Guha (Gadgil and as they provide both food security and
36 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
aims of education are dictated by the students find an identity within that
idea of a knowledge society that caters culture.
to the knowledge-based economy India may have the worlds largest
towards which nations are racing. This illiterate population but the poor in India
is a business model of education where do not lack culture poets like Kabir,
knowledge as a commodity is to be Tukaram, Jayadeva and the great epics
traded. are not the exclusive preserve of the well
The late Management Guru Peter educated; they are sung by poor weavers
Drucker predicted more than a decade and itinerant bards; and the shadow
ago that in a future world order puppeteers of Andhra Pradesh reflect the
knowledge and information would be classical mural paintings at the
paramount. Both the conception of what Lepakshi temple.Jodha additionally
constitutes knowledge and the argues in favour of a critical role of
yardsticks by which knowledge and traditional knowledge systems in the
values are to be measured, will be placed management of forest resources, and the
at the disposal of business. harm produced by marginalisation of
The acquisition and distribution of traditional knowledge, and imposition of
formal knowledge will come to occupy the generalised solutions from above (Jodha,
place in the politics of the knowledge 1998).
society which acquisition and distribution Unfortunately, the pressures of
of property and income have occupied modernisation with its global vision and
in the two or three centuries which we its lumbering bureaucracies, its drive for
have come to call the Age of Capitalism universal standards in elementary
(Drucker, 1994). schools set to the drum beat of nationalist
Peter Drucker readily acknowledged ideologies stamp out local, more ancient
the dangers inherent in a future where cultures and, in the process, alienate
business interests forge the yardsticks students from their ecologically sound
of knowledge and its value. How difficult, wisdom, the complex patterns of
he admits, it will be for the knowledge protecting, sharing and conserving
society to give decent incomes and with natural resources developed over
them dignity and status to non- several hundred generations.
knowledge people... After all, he Jodhas point that peasant and
acknowledges, knowledge workers will shepherd communities are not rootless
amount to no more than a large minority people, but could have a vital role in the
of the workforce. (Ibid) unfolding scenario adds yet another
We, in India, need to pay particular dimension to our thinking about our
attention to Peter Druckers dismissive rural world, and helped structure the
remarks about non-knowledge people, direction of our work.
given that Indias impoverished villages Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
have a tradition steeped in culture, in is well-aware of problems in the
stories, songs, drama, fiction that, in countryside, the fact that income ratio
Jerome Bruners words, give cohesion to within the urban and rural India has
a culture, and that help individual risen from 1:2 at the time of
38 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
nucleus for a recovery of the traditional sees herself moving onward (and
commons, and the return of social upwards!) through the subject.
capital: a wise use of natural resources The Ladder guides the organisation
that is being lost to a competitive market of classrooms. It enables teachers to
economy. divide the class, not according to ability
The Rishi Valley Institute for groups but to different organisational
Educational Research, located on the principles: fully-teacher Supported,
Rishi Valley Campus, has created study Partly teacher -supported and peer-
materials suited to the educational needs supported groups are clubbed separately
of the village. A typical village school in irrespective of their ability. In an
India provides one teacher to cater to arrangement where older students and
students belonging to mixed ages and younger students are part of the same
ability groups. The method of teaching group, a great principle adopted by RIVER
is textbook-centred, with the teacher from J. Krishnamurti You are both the
dominating the classroom. Failures teacher and the taught, is translated
haunt these schools; most elementary into the classroom, but in different ways.
schools count the largest numbers in It is sometimes thought that the
their first grade. Ladder of Learning is a straightjacket into
These educational materials break which all content is inflexibly strapped.
down the learning process into a It has occasionally been described as a
sequence of concrete and manageable system of programmed learning. The
steps. This collection of cards in confusion that can be cleared away by
elementary mathematics, environmental reflecting on the relationship between
science and language are graded in ways grammatical structures and the use of
that students can easily identify and language; the rules of language do not
work through by themselves or with impede an individual from speaking
minimum help from the teacher; creatively. The Ladders constraints are
students are self-learners; teachers no more limiting than those imposed by
merely facilitators. Respect and tolerance grammatical rules on speech both
for other cultures and concern for the poets and ordinary human beings are
natural environment are values woven able to speak in sentences they have not
into the material. learnt before.
A graphic chart described as the Forty per cent of the spaces mapped
Ladder of Learning in at the centre of the on the Ladder are left free, for teachers
multi-grade programme. The Ladder, in to fill in with the help of local content:
conjunction with the cards, charts the songs, riddles, local myths and mothers
progress of a student through stages of tales. Puppetry and surveys of local flora
the learning process. It registers this and fauna are part of the enrichment
progression in a simple visual display routine followed by each school. Local
that gives the child a concrete sense of culture, in this way, finds its way into
progress. It is a visual metaphor that the classroom. The school doors remain
has proven to be a very effective open, and local potters donate their clay
motivating factor, as each student clearly elephants and horses to beautify school
42 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
distant parts, and many others planted Government of India, Rishi Valley
on hundred fifty acres of the bald hillside Education Centre has built a large gobar
where Lost Lake is located. Over a period gas plant in its dairy which serves
of twenty years this barren hillside is around 25 per cent of the schools cooking
now part scrubland and part dense needs. Solar heaters for hot water serve
forest. For the local village community several dormitories.
the hundred fifty acres hillside means
fodder for its animal population and fuel Krishnamurti, the Deep Ecologist
wood; the space is a kind of insurance Arne Naess the Norwegian philosopher
against long periods of drought. The who coined the term Deep Ecology,
campus that once consisted of dry lands distinguishes three types of Deep
and scrublands, now boasts of woodlands Ecologist in the following
and several wetlands. within deep ecology you have those
A survey of the flora on campus who specialise on a spiritual level, saying
revealed many hundred species of plants, you have to change the way you are
several of which have medicinal mentally, and others say no, all the
properties. Following the survey a problems in deep ecology are political more
flourishing Herbal Garden has been or less, you have to go into politics and
established on six acres of land. Under the third one just utters ah, wonderful
the care of an Ayurvedic specialist, it now nature, wonderful nature, wonderful
has two hundred species of local bushes nature. For Naess himself, . . . ecological
and trees that provide medicinal benefits science concerned with facts and logic
to the local population. There is a alone, cannot answer ethical questions
concerted effort to spread the plants and about how we should live. For this we
restore the fast-vanishing knowledge need ecological wisdom. Deep ecology
and faith in their healing properties to seeks to develop this by focussing on deep
nearby villages, especially among the experience, deep questioning and deep
women. commitment (Naess, 1997).
The Rishi Valley Dairy is engaging in Krishnamurti properly fits Naess
the task of breeding Ongole cattle, a first category of spiritual thinkers. The
domesticated breed famous for the load main thrust of his thought was to awaken
carrying capacity of the male. In the human beings from the obstinacy, a
current economic climate where description used by the well-known
breeding is almost entirely aimed at biologist Edward O. Wilson, in which they
increasing milk yields, the species is near are sunk. Human beings are adapted by
extinction in Andhra Pradesh. We are Darwinian natural selection, Wilson
concerned about the long-term explains, to short-term decisions and
implications of this practice for marginal focus on local concerns. Krishnamurtis
agriculture whose mainstay is the bull- analysis of the human condition took in
driven plough. this destructive side of human nature,
Mindful of the limited energy its incapacity to take a long view, and
resources in the country and taking consider the wider implications of its own
advantage of various subsidies from the actions. But Krishnamurti tempered this
44 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
recognition with a radiant sense of you talk, the way you behave, whether
human possibilities. you are hard, cruel, rough, patient
According to Wilson, if human (Krishnamurti, 1974, p. 76). The mirror
consumption patterns continue at reveals what one is, but problems take
present levels we will by 2100 need four hold when one begins to disapprove of
more planet Earths to sustain life as we what the mirror shows. The mirror says,
know it. And it is fairly well-established this is the fact; but you do not like the
that resource scarcity results in violence. fact. So, you want to alter it. You start
Krishnamurti addresses these issues in distorting it. (Krishnamurti, 1974, p. 76).
his philosophy of education. Attention is silently watching what the
The aim of education, according to mirror reveals, without the desire to
Krishnamurti, is to create good human change it. When this silent observation
beings with an awakened sense of comes into being there is freedom from
responsibility. The aim is not primarily anger, envy and the pettiness that clouds
to mould them into slots created by the mirror. Look, he says, not with your
society: professional success, a mind but with your eyes (Krishnamurti,
comfortable homes and a respectable 1974, p. 23).
family life. These he dismissed as being Over and over again, distinguishing
narrow, bourgeois and second-hand; as what is artificial or socially constructed
locked into the short-term vision and from what is natural, Krishnamurti
incapable of resolving the problems that directed students to nature and to the
we as a species face. Instead he thought senses. The senses are tools for
education should be dedicated to cleansing the mind: Just look at the
creating good human beings with a long stars, the clear sky, the birds, the shape
view. of the leaves. Watch the shadow. Watch
The three main components of the bird across the sky. By being with
Krishnamurtis concept of goodness are yourself, sitting quietly under a tree, you
freedom, intelligence and responsibility. begin to understand the workings of your
And all three are the outcome of the right own mind and that is as important as
kind of learning. Learning, for going to class (Krishnamurti, 1974, p. 47).
Krishnamurti, is both a positive faculty Unlearning the emotions of envy,
and a negating capability. Learning is greed, anger and ambition is the key that
positive because it teaches you about opens the mind to a wider and deeper
yourself and the world. It is a negating reality, away from its narrow, self-centred
capability because it allows the darker vision. Unlearning frees the mind from
impulses that guide human nature, greed its divisive actions, its tendency to look
and violence, to dissolve. at others in stereotypical images: You
Krishnamurtis response to a student are not a Russian or an American, you
who asks him, How can we know are not Hindu or a Muslim. You are apart
ourselves? helps highlights both aspects from these labels. You are the rest of
of this faculty. The first step in the mankind (Krishnamurti, 1987,72-73).
process, as he explains very simply, is to Krishnamurtis educational
observe as one might in a mirror the way philosophy sought to uncover the
Religion, Education and Peace 45
individuals relationship with society and behaviour that leads them to the right
through that with nature. He held that habitat at the right time. Shouldnt we
human beings, despite being modern, are find some residue of that instinct in
not really individuals in the truest sense human beings? On some level, it is wired
of that word; they are still driven by social into us to be around nature. We should
forces, by the worldview derived from not let that instinct disappear.
their elders, peers, society at large and Krishnamurti puts his faith in the
the times in which they live. These social human ability to free the mind from the
forces are motivated by fear, ambition, negative emotions of greed and violence,
and greed. Learning about the influences as a way of unlocking the shackles that
that direct ones life and shedding the bind individuals to self-interest.
emotions of fear, greed, envy and anger Krishnamurtis vision for humanity
through learning about them clears the resonates with thinkers both from Indias
way for compassion. ancient and more recent past.
So the moral truths that His almost nihilistic radicalism is
Krishnamurti sought came neither captured by the Buddhist Nagarjunas
packaged as true belief, nor as knowledge tribute to the Buddha in the last stanza
and theories, but were intrinsic to a of the Mulamadhyamakarika.
spontaneously-born sensitivity to life: I prostrate before the Gautama, who,
Fear shuts out the understanding of grounded in compassion, taught the true
life with all its extraordinary dharma in order to destroy all opinions (or
complications, with its struggles, its all points of view).
sorrows, its poverty, its riches and His great passion for nature with
beautythe beauty of the birds, and of Tagores idea of Indias civilisational
the sunset on the water. When you are values.
frightened, you are insensitive to all this Contemporary Western civilisation is
(Krishnamurti, 1963). Krishnamurti built of brick and wood. It is rooted in the
was convinced that our shortsighted city. But Indian civilisation has been
instincts can be overcome and the right distinctive in locating its sources of
kind of education can show us the way regeneration, material an intellectual, in
to reclaiming the Earth for future the forest, not the city, Indias best ideas
generations. have come where man was in communion
Edward Wilson recognises that our with trees and rivers and lakes, away from
species destructive instincts are unique; the crowds. The peace of the forest has
they are not shared by other species with helped the intellectual evolution of man.
whom we live on Earth. With The culture of the forest has fuelled the
Krishnamurti, Wilson also recognises culture of Indian society. The culture that
that science alone cannot solve the has arisen from the forest has been
problem human beings have created. But influenced by the diverse processes of
whereas Wilson invokes the lost instinct renewal of life that are always at play in
we share with the whole of life as the path the forest, varying from species to species,
to salvation Every species, right down from season to season, in sight and sound
to nematode worms, has pretty elaborate and smell. The unifying principle of life in
46 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
The education project at Rishi Valley educational vision can be translated into
demonstrates that Krishnamurti was a reality that is both relevant to our times
more than a visionary; that his and to the future.
REFERENCES
Abstract
At every stage and development of education, quality has always been a great
concern. The great Indian thinkers emphasised on developing inner potentials of
individuals. The NCF-2005 states that the curriculum must enable students to
find their voices, nurture their curiosity to do things, to ask questions and to
pursue investigations, sharing and integrating their experiences with school
knowledge rather than their ability to produce textual knowledge. ICT provides to
play an active role to the students necessary for quality learning. The web-based
teaching-learning practice is the art, craft and science of using network technologies.
It provides to the students a wide range of scopes for integrating varied learning
experiences and making learning a holistic one.
TABLE1
Multiple Intelligence and Internet as a tool for learning (Edwards, 1995)
TABLE 2
Internet Based Multiple Intelligence (MI) Activities (Sally Bergman, 1995)
TABLE 3
Worldwide Web MI Resources (David G. Lazear, 1996)
Gardner believed the potential impact of intelligences and are essential for
computer technology would not be felt understanding a given topic.
until the next century, 2013 to be exact Fourth step the Subject Samplers
(Howard Gardner, 1999). where teacher presents six to eight
Table 2 and 3 depicts how Internet captivating Web sites organised
could help teacher in preparing lesson around a main topic. Students
plans with an entirely different develop a sense of connection with
dimension. The promise of marrying the topic because they are asked
technology with the pedagogy is one that to respond to Web-based activities
can be realised today. The Internet based like to explore or compare
pedagogy gives a scope to the teacher to interpretations of pictures, data, or
incorporate flexibility to meet individual sounds and share (by posting
needs. online) experiences they have had.
Fifth step Web Quests help students
Steps to Incorporate WWW in the go beyond learning basic facts. It
Teaching-learning Process requires student to work in groups
Step one would be to collect with a challenging task, provides
multimedia Web sites. Generally access to an abundance of online
referred as Hot list containing resources and scaffolds.
bookmarked sites that are most Networked technologies add new
useful, interesting, and/or peculiar dimensions in organising learning
for a given topic and a variety of experiences:
learners.
Second step would be the collection Revealing the quality resources.
of online newsletters, desktop slide Preparing students for the work
presentations, and Hyper Studio environments of the future.
stacks that would focus on Networking at various levels like
providing links to a variety of among students, among faculty,
subject-related multimedia and among students, faculty, and
resources. All these can be grouped professionals beyond the University.
together in a Multimedia Scrapbook Thus, web-based teaching-learning
which is built around what the practice generally called as Webagogy is
individual learner defines as the art, craft, and science of using
meaningful and helpful. networked technologies. As it is rightly
Third step to target specific-learning pointed out by Boettcher (1997) Now
behaviours using online multimedia that the Worldwide Web is providing a
resources by posing questions that whole new context for teaching and
motivate students and generates learning, we have the need to return to
curiosity for learning. Treasure the core principles of teaching and
Hunt as designed by teacher where learning, and create a new model of
students are given a list of specific teaching and learning. Technology,
sites that hold information that applied in conjunction with pedagogical
appeal to several multiple concepts can create an effective student-
56 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
centred environment and enhance situation, while others will hesitate. Here
Learning outcomes. lies the important role to be played by
Carr (1997) agrees with Boettcher: the teacher to monitor, interpret and then
without appropriate pedagogy, use of to try to alleviate such situations. The
High capacity communication services teacher s role in Web-based teaching has
cannot provide significant Improvements already been identified as being very
in learning outcomes. In general, it is the different from the teacher s role in formal
pedagogy that provides for learning, not education, with words like facilitator,
the technology or the software alone. referring to the person who is online and
But there are various issues of web- interacting with the students in various
based learning which needs to be taken ways. It may be the same person who
care by the teacher like intellectual produces the materials. Also the on-line
property. Using educational tools teacher will need to arrange range of
appropriately and obtaining the activities in which they will engage
necessary permissions from its owners students, and a range of roles which they
would be essential. Another major will fulfill. In Web-based teaching the
problem would be of security should to teacher would be engaged in preparation
protect networked systems, login IDs and and organisation of the materials-based
passwords should be kept private and on same kind of assumptions about the
servers and scripts designed to learners as are done by the textbook
preventing hacking. Every individual writer.
learner on the net has a right to privacy In Web-based teaching the personal
which must be respected. dimension can be taken care by teacher
Pedagogy is primarily associated by way of discussion forums managed
with, formal school education. There are and facilitated by the teacher. Of course
significant differences between the two the Web also allows students to organise
terms pedagogy and wabogogy in terms their own networks for support and
of independence/dependence of the motivation without there being
learners, resources for learning, management by the teacher. This is how
motivation, and the role of the teacher. students learning can be made more
Context of learning is important, as meaningful and connected to real life
learning is context and situation-specific. experiences. Internet provides a wide
Web-based teaching provides a range of scope for integrating varied
materials-based educational experience, learning experiences and making
which means that although it can be a learning a holistic one. Teachers need
material-rich, and stimulating, learning to work out from the given topics in the
situation it can also be a socially poor textbook that could be easily dealt in the
and lonely, learning situation. (Kirshner manner shown above. All these
and Whitson, 1997). Hence learning resources developed by an individual
depends upon the will and the learning teacher could be shared in a web forum
style Gardner, 1985 preference of the for further refining the lesson plans.
learner. Some learners will undoubtedly According to Plato The purpose of
thrive in the new liberating learning education is to make the individual want
Reinventing the Paradigm of Teaching 57
REFERENCES
BEYER, B.K. 1985. Critical thinking: What is it? Social Education, 49. 270-276.
B O E T T C H E R , J. 1997) (Florida State University) Pedagogy and Learning
Strategies. Downloaded July1998 from the Web (<http://www.csus.edu/pedtech/
learning.html>).
CARR, J. 1997. The Future is Already Here. A National Strategy For Australian
Education and Training to Maximise Opportunities Offered by High Capacity
Communication Services. (<http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/Broadbnd/
Report.htm>)
CHECKLEY, KATHY. 1997. The First Seven and the Eighth: A Conversation with Howard
Gardner. Educational Leadership, Vol.55, No.1 <http://www.ascd.org/pubs/el/
sept97/gardnerc.html> <http://www.ascd.org/pubs/el/sept97/gardnerc.html>
COSTA, A.L. (Ed.) 1985. Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA.
DAVID, G. LAZEAR. 1992. Teaching for Multiple Intelligences IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation, Bloomington.
KAREN, GUTLOFF (ed.). 1996. Multiple Intelligences. NEA Professional Library, West
Haven, CT.
DAVID, LAZEAR . Seven Ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Teaching with Multiple
Intelligences.
EDWARDS, JACK. 1995. Multiple Intelligences and Technology. Information Resource
Network, Florida. <<http://www.firn.edu/~face/about/dec95/mult_int.html>>.
GARDNER, HOWARD. 1985. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice, 251.
________ 1999. The Disciplined Mind. Simon and Schuster, New York. P.52.
KIRSHNER, D. and J.A. WHITSON. 1997. Situated cognition: Social, Semiotic and
Psychological Perspectives. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. http://
35.8.171.42/aera/pubs/er/er98ndx.htm.
58 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
Abstract
The present world is witnessing a number of environmental crises, which are the
result of the unmindful exploitation of natural resources by human being. There is
an urgent need to create environmental awareness among all human beings to
conserve, protect and nurture our environmental resources. Consequently,
environmental education is included in school curriculum right from the very
beginning. The present study was conducted to study the environmental awareness
among higher secondary students of Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh. The findings
of the study indicated that environmental awareness has positive relationship
with scientific attitude among students and science students were found more
aware about their environment as compared to arts students.
From the table, it is evident that From the table, it is evident that
t-value is significant at 0.05 level of t-value is significant at 0.05 level of
significance. Therefore, it may be said significance. Therefore, it may be said
that the above two groups do differ that the above two groups do differ
significantly in their environmental significantly in their environmental
awareness. The mean score of students awareness. The mean score of students
whose parents income is in between having parents in government service is
above Rs. 7,000 is higher which shows higher which shows that they have more
that they have more environmental environmental awareness.
awareness. Therefore, the null hypothesis that
From the table, it is evident that course of study, parents income,
t-value is significant at 0.05 level of parents occupation have no effect on
significance. Therefore, it may be said environmental awareness of higher
that the above two groups do differ secondary students, are rejected at 0.05
significantly in their environmental level of significance.
(iii) Rs. 2,000 to below Rs. 4,500/ above Rs. 7,000
Rs. 2,000 to Below Rs. 4,500 101 232.53 24.96 2.58 0.05
Above Rs. 7,000 91 241.37 26.48
(2) Formal system of education should (4) It would be more beneficial and
also incorporate in its curriculum, effective if special programmes are
some elements of environmental launched to develop environmental
awareness programmes. This awareness among the students.
should be a compulsory part of the This is possible only through
curriculum. inclusion of special courses on
(3) With the help of various mass media environmental education in the
and modern means of schools.
communication the concept of (5) Value-oriented education in the
environmental and its protection light of environmental pollution and
should be published and environmental awareness should be
popularised viz. news paper, radio, provided.
TV, film, etc.
REFERENCES
Abstract
A University can obviously not fulfill its the universities to fulfill their destined
role if it is not aware of definite role. Since the teachers are probably
expectations of the society. This makes the most enlightened class of the
a study of expectations of stakeholders stakeholders, and are essential
of the University important for enabling ingredients in the functioning and
survey and enlist the problems of the and disinclined students. University
community and should be mobilised to should provide for the counselling of the
work for them. There should be some aspiring entrants to various classes and
forum for University-community faculties.
interaction. Students from every
department should be involved in some Examination
kind of compulsory social service and Conduct of examinations need to be
extension services. Parents should be decentralised and the departments
equally involved in the affairs of the need to be entrusted to conduct the
University. examinations for the courses and
programmes they run. The departments
Employment Generation should adopt a scientific and objective
It was opined by some respondents that way to evaluate the abilities and skills of
Higher Education should not be made a their students. Printing of question
pre-requisite for jobs. Other respondents papers should be done in proper manner
emphasised that the students should be and effort should be made for their safe
so educated that they definitely get a and secure upkeep. Printing should be
placement in the society and is given economic; question papers should look
recognition. Companies should be attractive and crisp. They should be well
invited by the university to give campus edited and moderated. For this, the
placements to the students. U-G and P-G, University should have its own printing
courses need to be developed according press and elated infrastructure.
to the requirements of the job market. Appointment of examiners should be
Others felt that University should gear done according to the declared policy of
itself to the advancement of knowledge the University and the whole system has
and not just for the production of to be very transparent and fair. The
employment. Generation of jobs university authorities should hold
should be the concern of vocational meetings twice a year to have proper
institutions. patterns of examinations, which should
be changed as per the requirement. The
Admission pattern could be like 100 to 60 questions
To avoid undue wastage of money and in 3 hrs. It could be a speed-cum-power
manpower, the whole admission process test. Some subjective questions should
of the University should be completed also be there to judge the knowledge,
within one month. It should be planned skills, language, expression and artistic
one year before. University should be and creative skills.
objective in admitting the students and Some respondents advocated for a
should not yield to political pressures. well-controlled and properly
Interview should be introduced administered centralised evaluation
somewhere in the admission process. In system. University administration should
order to maintain the quality of ensure secrecy, security and efficiency
education, some mechanism should be in the central evaluation of the answer
involved for filtering out the disinterested scripts. Whole process should be strictly
74 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
at subsidised rates. Every hostel room should keep pace with the technological
should have a computer and Internet advancements of the nation. While
connectivity. Fees submission, mark expanding the buildings or constructing
sheets, degrees all these facilities should new ones the aesthetics should be kept
be available in the hostel itself so that in mind. The infrastructure can be
the students do not have to run and divided into three parts as per the
waste time. Some outdoor and indoor requirements of U-G, P-G and research
activities should be there to make the students. There should be proper
youths more active and energetic. enlistment of all the instruments in
To avoid any misuse of hostels by various laboratories and it should be
unwanted elements and students available to everyone.
disinclined in studies, rooms should be Sports facility needs to be attended
allotted at the very day of admission on to. Minimum infrastructure should be
the basis of merit-cum-requirement. ascertained for each department, for
Within a week after the examination, example, Lecture hall, conference rooms,
hostlers should vacate the hostels. etc. There is a need for local and wide
Proper and professional management of area computer networking in the
the hostels will decrease half of the crime university. Hostels, departments,
and violence in the campus. It should be teachers residences, administrative
made compulsory for the students to offices, library and canteen all should be
complete hostel dues, before they are networked and connected with the server.
given the degrees. There needs to be a drastic scrutiny of
non- teaching employees because there
Residential Facility is too much overstaffing.
The procedure for allotment of teachers The university should keep pace with
residences should be open, fair and just. the revolution in Information Technology.
Priority needs to be given to the Publishing work of the university should
improvement and maintenance of the be done through its own state of art
residences. Quarters for Class IV modern technology based publishing
employees should have at least house and press. All the departments,
2-bedroom facility. Lastly, every year one units and beneficiaries of the university
flat should be built in the campus and need global networking, Information
every month at least 2-3 houses should Technology, Internet, intranet, and
be renovated and maintained. Every computers.
residence should be provided with a
garage facility. Every block of residences Vice Chancellor
should have a small park for children, a A Vice Chancellor should be an
library, canteen and a community room educationist and an academician, a
for ladies and children. person with a vision and a mission to give
a direction to the society. Vice Chancellor
Other Infrastructure Facilities should be bold and an intellectual person
As far as the infrastructure facilities and with good administrative qualities. He
services are concerned, university must be a person who is dedicated and
76 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
committed, one who believes in the Universitys records. Nature of his work
philosophy of simple living and high is administrative not academic.
thinking. He should be concerned with Registrar should be a person who can
the welfare of universitys teachers, advise the Vice Chancellor regarding the
students and employees and must make universitys traditions, culture, rules,
them realise that he is working for their laws, etc. He should be a person who is
benefit. permanent so that a sense of
Vice Chancellor should be belongingness is developed. The
respectable and work to create such respondents suggested that there should
congenial environment, where all be scheduling of activities of the
teachers and students can work freely university, elections should be reformed,
and comfortably. He must appreciate students should be made more
good work done by the teachers. accountable to organise certain
Resource generation is also an important activities, networking of teaching and
function of the Vice Chancellor and for non-teaching staff and accountability of
that he must have new projects, plans teachers, heads, non-teaching staff to
and programmes. In order that the Vice perform different activities.
Chancellor can perform the above
functions smoothly, it is important that Associated Colleges
the society and politicians take the The University should play the role of
appointment of the Vice Chancellor as a guide for its associated colleges and
the most serious matter. The incumbents the two should work as one community.
should be invited to make presentations The basic purpose of affiliation is that
of their vision for the university the colleges are to be fed by the university
concerned and his plans for the for all purposes not just for examination
improvement of the university. or degree purposes. Some respondents
held the view that in order to maintain
Administration
the quality of education, University
Members from different walks of life should only run post-graduate and
should be members of the governing body research programmes. The under-
of the university. There should be proper graduate courses should be either given
checks and balances in governance, to the colleges or any parallel university
administration and accounting. in the city may be established to affiliate
University administration is the area U-G. colleges.
where people respect and appreciate Since the university has associated
others and their growth. There should colleges in the city of Lucknow only, it
be proper utilisation of resources and would be better to have some governing
rules and University Act should be body empowered to check, supervise and
followed strictly. monitor the standard of under-graduate
Only the persons well-versed with the education in affiliated colleges. There
Universitys activities should be made the should be proper interaction and
members of Executive Council. The exchange of ideas between university
registrar is the custodian of the and college teachers. University should
Teachers Expectations from their University 77
academic place and the faculty must try autonomy is required to generate
to strengthen this aspect because knowledge and research work.
students will not be able to enter good Universities generally emphasise
vocations or jobs until their academic fundamental research, applied and
base is strong. Academic aspect should action research. Some longitudinal
supersede the vocational education in studies solving institutional problems
the university. need our attention. There is an absolute
The IIM model of pedagogy should be need to conduct theme-based
followed. The content should be researches. Possibility of open-ended
transformed into cases and case studies researches must always remain.
by the teacher and then presented in the University should arrange more funding
class. This will make the subject for research. Published research work
application-oriented. Prior to teaching, should constitute an important
the teacher should give a list of component of teachers evaluation.
recommended reading material as well Research is a part and parcel of the
as pre-planned case studies and university and there should be quality
handouts/ brief synopsis. Students research on new aspects. Teachers from
should be recommended books at the end different faculties need to collaborate in
of every topic. The teacher is responsible studies and researches of
for developing the reading material if it interdisciplinary nature.
is not available for any topic, chapter,
paper or subject. Teacher should also Collaborations
teach what is not available in the Interactions and collaborations are
textbook. Internal motivation has to be important for the growth of University.
aroused in the students. There should First the university must enter into inter-
be more and more tutorials to ensure university and intra-university
more interaction with teachers and the collaborations. Sciences and humanities
overall development of the students. should collaborate more. Related
Of the two functions, for example, disciplines like Sociology and social work
teaching and research the University of should collaborate more. Longitudinal
Lucknow should emphasise more on collaborations should also be done.
teaching. Curricula need to be revised Most respondents expected inter-
and updated. University should help to departmental collaborations. Collabora-
provide opportunity for both students tions of university with different research
and teachers to enrich from global and professional institutes are essential.
experiences and increased connectivity. University-college collaborations should
also be attempted. Every department
Research has a lot to learn from other departments
Research is the most important function in the same as well as other universities.
of the University. Research must Mutual exchange programmes should
contribute to the growth and take place in the departments covered
development of individual and body and by UGCs Special Assistance Program-
knowledge. It is believed that complete mes. Groups of the departments
80 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
teachers and other authorities with for professional courses or providing jobs
motivation and power. or be market driven. It was also felt by
Neither the respondents expressed some that there is an urgent need to
dissatisfaction over the old and transform the University by restricting
unrevised university curricula nor did the University to only PG studies and
they suggest upgradation of courses and research. The undergraduate courses
programmes in the light of recent should be totally confined to the affiliated
changes and researches and explosion colleges. However, many of the teachers
of knowledge triggered by the ICT conflicted on this view and said that the
revolution. Also the expectations University being located in technically
regarding innovative admission and educationally backward region
procedure, which may ensure the intake should cater to students from all
of willing and motivated students, were strata and must continue with
not touched upon. Teachers also did not undergraduate, postgraduate and
expect from University of Lucknow any research studies.
wholesome examination reform; rather a Reflections from the disturbing and
few respondents expected some indiscipline role of student leaders and
patchwork reforms. their supporters who are disinterested
students made some respondents feel
Conflicting Expectations that the elections for the unions of
Some conflicting ideas emerged in the teachers, students and employees
views of the teachers regarding some should be totally banned in the campus
aspects, for example, examination and whereas the others strongly rejected this
evaluation system in University. It was view saying that these associations and
felt by some teachers that semester unions are important for the welfare of
system of examination would be good and the different groups and are necessary
a continuous evaluation system should in a democratic setup.
be followed. Some questioned the
objectivity of this system. Another area Conclusion
where the conflict in the views of the This study on a typical north Indian
teachers came forward was that some residential University yielded twenty-
preferred objective types of questions in seven categories divided into ten broad
the examination but others were of the classes of teachers expectations from
opinion that true knowledge can be University of Lucknow. Implications of
judged only through subjective the results for the Universitys
questions. stakeholders are that the expectations
Some teachers held the view that have created the need for refinements in
there should be an employment and the University in the near future so that
market orientation of the courses taught the University becomes capable in
in the university. However, some others addressing to the positively changing
believed that University is meant only for conditions of the community,
academic and knowledge pursuit and not undercurrents of globalisation of
84 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
economy and technological revolution, University. The model developed for the
changes in the State and industrial University of Lucknow may prove useful
sector and changing characteristics and for other similar Indian Universities, with
size of the population served by the some modifications.
REFERENCES
JONES, JANES MYERS. 2002. University Image: Perceptions held by internal and external
stakeholders of East Tennessee State University. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 62 (11), p 3710-A.
SODHA, M.S. 2000. Education Plus. University News, 38 (20), pp 1-4.
The University of Lucknow Act, 1920
The University of Lucknow First Statutes, 1977.
The U.P. State Universities Act 1973. Eastern Book Company, Lucknow, p. 5
WOODARD, BLENDA ANN. 1978. An Analysis of the Expectations and Achievements of
the Virginia Community College System after its First Decade of Operations
1966-67. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38 (9). p. 5291-A.
VARMA, M. and M.S. SODHA. 2005. Audio Recordings of Open Conversations with Teachers
of University of Lucknow.
VARMA, M. and SODHA. 2005. Transcripts of Open Conversations with Teachers of University
of Lucknow.
VARMA, M. and RASHMI SONI. 2005. Higher Education beyond Academics, University
News, 43 (44), pp 8-14.
A Study of the Present Scenario of Early Childhood Education in Bhubaneswar 85
Abstract
done for each item of interview schedule Table 1: Availability of Equipment for
and observation schedule. For the Out-door play
questionnaire a descriptive analysis was
done. Equipments No. of ECE
Available centres
Major Findings Flying disc 3
20% of ECE centres currently Ball 8
running in Bhubaneswar fulfill the Skipping 1
NCERT norms, i.e. the catchment Cycle 2
area of ECE centres without Rope Ladder 1
transport facility is to 1 kms. and Slide 3
with transport facility is 1 to 8 kms. Sand pit 2
As precautionary measures, 90% of Water Play 1
ECE centres have school boundary. Bat 2
In 40% of ECE centres the Clay 1
classroom area for 30 children is Ring Ball 2
more than 35 sq.mts. The norm set See-Saw 1
by NCERT is 35 sq.mts. for a class Swing 1
of 30 children. Thus, out of 10 ECE
centres only 4 ones fulfilled the As in-door equipments, 50% of
norm. ECE centers provided building
All ECE centres have toilet, 70 % of blocks to children. Other materials
centres have veranda and only 10% available at these centers were as
have food storage and cooking per Table 2 given below.
facility in addition to classrooms. Table 2: Equipment for In-door play
80% of ECE centres display
childrens work on classroom walls Equipment No. of ECE
at childrens level. Available centres
Though 60% of centres provide Sand 1
aquaguard facility but mostly Paper 3
children use their own water bottle. Colour 1
All the ECE centres have Indian Beads 2
type toilet with regular water supply Clay 3
and 80% of them provide soap and Water 1
towel as sanitary facility to children. Building Block 5
Only 20% of ECE centres have out- Toys 1
door play area of 300 to 450 sqr.mts.
Puzzles 3
For outdoor play, 80% of ECE
Card Boards 1
centres provide ball to children
Picture with broken pieces 1
whereas other play materials are
Seriation 1
hardly found as shown in Table 1
Matching 1
given here.
A Study of the Present Scenario of Early Childhood Education in Bhubaneswar 91
Abstract
2000-4999 and 5000 and above are According to the 6 th All India
served within one kilometer. Table 1 Educational Survey (1999), 1,90,35,297
presents primary stage education facility scheduled castes children were enrolled
in habitations predominantly populated which was 19.62% of the total enrolment.
by Scheduled Castes in different This has gone up to 21.07% in the 7th
population slabs. AISES i.e. share of SC children has
increased by 1.45% in comparison to the
Enrolment of Scheduled Castes
Children at Primary Stage 6th Survey. Girls enrolment percentage
in scheduled castes children was
At primary stage 12,29,15,301 children 41.66% in the 6th survey which has gone
are enrolled, out of which 46.82% are up to 46.69%. Hence, in comparison to
girls and 53.18% are boys. There is a the 6 th Survey, SC girls enrolment
difference of 6.36% in the enrolment of percentage has increased by 5.03%.
girls and boys at national level. Rural and SC girls enrolment percentage has
urban areas have 46.73% and 47.10% increased by 6.06% and 1.38% in
girls enrolment respectively. Enrolment rural and urban areas respectively.
of scheduled castes children at primary
Table 2 compares the enrolment of
stage is 2,59,03,832, which constitutes
scheduled castes children in the 6th and
21.07 percentage of the total enrolment.
7th surveys.
Percentage of scheduled castes children
From Table 2 it is observed that SC
against total enrolment of rural area is
girls percentage has increased
22.42 where as this percentage in urban
significantly in rural, urban and overall
area is 16.87, which show that in rural
areas. In comparison to the 6th survey
area SC has bigger share as compared
to the urban area. In rural area, total the enrolment of scheduled castes
enrolment of scheduled castes children children has gone up by 36.08 in the 7th
is 2,08,74,716. In this enrolment, 46.53 survey. In rural and urban areas this
per cent are girls and 53.47 per cent growth has been 40.14% and 21.49%
boys. It shows that SC girls enrolment respectively.
percentage is almost same as overall girls Picture 1 depicts the increase of SC
percentage. This is an achievement of children enrolment percentage in total
the efforts made by central government, enrolment rural, urban and overall areas
state governments and various non- in the 7th Survey as compared to the 6th
government organisations working for Survey. It is to be noted that there is gain
the education of the scheduled castes of only 0.01% in urban area. This picture
children. In urban area, 50,29,116 shows a gain of 1.87% in rural area and
scheduled castes children are enrolled 1.45% is overall. Picture 2 depicts the
in which 47.35% are girls and 52.65% trend of share of scheduled castes
boys. It is observed that in urban area children. From this picture it is clear that
girls percentage of SC children is little in the Fourth Survey (1978), SC
bit higher than overall girls percentage percentage was only 14.73, which has
in urban area. Over all girls enrolment reached up to 21.07% in the Seventh
percentage of SC is 46.69. Survey (2002).
102 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
Pe r ce ntage of Sche d uled Cas te s Child r e n in Tre nd of Share of Sche duled Cas te s Children
Total En ro lm e nt at Pr im ary Stag e
in Total Enrolm ent at Prim ary Stage
25
22.42
21.07 25.00
20.55 19.62 21.07
20
16 .86 1 6.87
20.00
17.12
SC Percen tag e
19.62
Percentage
15 15.00
14.73
10 10.00
5.00
5
0.00
0
Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh
Rural Urb an Total
Survey Survey Survey Survey
Ar e a (1978) (1986) (1993) (2002)
6th Survey
7th Survey
Surveys Series1
Picture 1 Picture 2
REFERENCES
KAMBLEY, N.D. 1982. The Scheduled Castes. Ashish Publishing House. New Delhi.
Government of India. 1992. National Policy on Education-1986 (With modifications
undertaken in 1992). Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development, New Delhi.
104 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Within Habitation A 606 5056 14830 24013 15061 12781 1897 14678 74244
B 4625373 13891157 19931918 17028192 5892452 2578566 121129 2699695 64068787
C 94.25 92.23 83.58 64.45 43.96 22.66 8.28 18.51 42.50
D 95.22 92.77 84.45 66.00 45.06 24.48 9.24 22.79 68.05
Within a Distance of A 634 5389 17123 34424 30044 46003 16750 62753 150367
1 km.
B 4799068 14731967 22814530 23930416 11499982 8653193 979524 9632717 87408680
C 98.60 98.30 96.50 92.40 87.70 81.55 73.12 79.12 86.07
D 98.80 98.39 96.66 92.76 87.95 82.15 74.70 81.33 92.84
More Than 1 Km. A 9 93 621 2832 4215 10405 6158 16563 24333
B 58490 241323 787968 1869005 1575747 1879821 331682 2211503 6744036
C 1.40 1.70 3.50 7.60 12.30 18.45 26.88 20.88 13.93
D 1.20 1.61 3.34 7.24 12.05 17.85 25.30 18.67 7.16
Participation of Scheduled Castes Children at the Primary Stage in India
Total No. of 643 5482 17744 37256 34259 56408 22908 79316 174700
Habitations
Total Population 4857558 14973290 23602498 25799421 13075729 10533014 1311206 11844220 94152716
Note: A- Number of Habitations; B Total population; C- Percentage of Habitations served.
D-` Percentage of Population served
105
106 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
Table 2: Comparison of Scheduled Castes Enrolment in the 6th and 7th Surveys
Abstract
The paper pleads for a strong and a more pro-active role of the State in view of the
growth of the private schools especially in primary education sector. Most of the
private schools, as many of the findings confirm, mostly cater education for the
children of the wealthy families. In a developing country like India where illiteracy
rate and also the never-enrolled rate is relatively high, giving a free hand to private
players to deliver a primary public good like education will not portend well for
the country. Moreover, fulfillment of the much desired objective of universal
elementary education would remain a distant dream if the state withdraws itself
from its responsibility and allows the government school system to deteriorate
further till it dies a silent death.
A recent instance of a child being denied school system today has become more of
admission in one of the elite public an agency of social and class
schools in Delhi despite meeting the reproduction than the transmitters of
required percentage of mark has exposed knowledge and values. Cultural capital,
the myths associated with these schools. comparable to economic capital, is
The only reason that deprives the child transmitted by inheritance and invested
her otherwise deserved admission is her in order to be cultivated. And through
poor family and social background, the new type of private schools emerging,
which the school administration thinks the existing social and class divide tend
does not meet the eligibility criteria set to perpetuate further, creating a new
for these schools. There are such similar form of cultural capital exclusively for a
instances happening in these so-called few section of the population. This
elite public schools. It is in fact reproduction of social and class divide
paradoxical with the term public when is less a result of direct reproduction
these schools are in fact serving only a based on inherited wealth and incomes,
few section of the society. In fact, private and has more to do with the mediated
patterns, for example, access to well-paid What if the government remains a silent
employment. This would be true if we see spectator while at the same time allowing
the portrayal of private schools as its own system to wither? What are the
markers of excellence or merit and also consequences on the issue of equity if
the alleged higher market value of the the private schools overhaul the
persons with private schools background. government school system and what
Private schools have now almost should be the response from the state?
reached a proportion we can no longer The subsequent sections of the study
afford to ignore. They have grown up so would seek to understand some of these
rapidly to become a kind of substitute for, issues pertaining to private schools vis-
rather than supplement to government -vis government schools.
schools. This could be attributed to many
factors among which the deteriorating Tracing the Genesis of Private
condition of the government schooling Phenomenon
system and parental demand of a Childrens education in the beginning
differentiated kind of education are was a matter of family, the kinship group
important. However, the promotion and or the local community. In several
expansion of private sector may further countries, education became a task for
accentuate existing social divisions and religious institutions, and during the
reduce commitment towards quality nineteenth century only, the State made
improvement in government schools. education a public responsibility.
Further, what is significant as Vimala Education was until then private in the
Ramachnadran (2004) argues is that, sense that it did not belong to the State;
the growth of new private schools is it was decentralised and national
giving rise to a new trends of hierarchies curricula were very rare (Mallison, 1980).
of access, whereby paradoxically, the The private initiatives in education
democratisation of access to schools in India could be traced in the ancient
seems to be accompanied by a childs and medieval period in various forms
caste, community and gender in defining such as the Ashram schools, Gurukuls,
which school she or he attends. Andre Pathsalas and Madrasas which catered
Beteille also argues that the family education to small section of the society.
among middle class and upper middle In ancient India, almost all schooling was
class Indians is changing its orientation conducted by religious bodies or by
away from lineage, sub-caste and caste tutors employed on an individual basis
to schools, college and office they attend by families with sufficient means. In fact
to*. the view that government has responsible
Furthermore, the private for education of their citizens has been
phenomenon in school education has widely held only since the 19th century
also posed serious questions on the policy in Europe and since the early 20 th
implications on the part of the State. century in most other parts of the world
* Quoted in Anne Waldrop, The meaning of the Old School-Tie: Private Schools, Admission
Procedures and Class Segmentation in New Delhi, pp.203-27.
110 Journal of Indian Education August 2007
(Bray, 1998). Before that we had religious to mention that some of the schools are
institutions directly engaging in the established and even registered under
sphere of education. This is in the the commercial establishment and shops
process of secularisation that religious act (Panchamukhi, 1989). Even among
control over education and educational the private schools there is a broad
institutions was challenged and the classification of private schools as private
state became a public provider of aided and non-aided or self-financing
education. schools. The present study shall primary
However, the modern fee-paying focus on the private unaided schools
private schools in India owe their origin which are either formally recognised to
to the Woods Dispatch of 1854 (Tilak, transact educational business or not
1990) which made elaborate provisions necessarily recognised.
for grants-in-aid to private schools. It is pertinent here to mention that
Under the provisions of the Dispatch, the Constitution of India allows
educational institutions were allowed to establishment of private schools
run privately for profit. By this provision irrespective of whether they are or are
for grants-in-aid for the private schools not recognised and aided by the State
was not only able to reduce financial (Anuradha De, 2002). Article 30 of the
burden on the public treasury, but also Indian Constitution also clearly
could introduce elitist character into the mentions the Right of Minorities to
educational system providing education establish and administer educational
of the kind the upper classes desired for institutions. Private schools thus, have
their off-springs, without a large a legal and constitutional sanction to
expenditure by the government. This is establish and operate in India.
in fact a reflection of a capitalist ideology However, the major concern is the
where the role of the state is greatly pace of the growth of the private schools
reduced. The present system of private which if not checked could overthrow the
school unfortunately, is a continuation government schools. Placing such a
of this system. large stake as education on private
Defining private schools is also a sectors cannot be a good proposition.
painstaking exercise. There are various Moreover, in a country like India where
types of schools under the nomenclature the dropout rate and the never-enrolled
of private. The private schools are not a students is still high, the State has also
homogenous lot. There are different types to play a more pro-active role. It is in this
of private schools in the country but are context that the Constitution 93 rd
generally clubbed together and are Amendment, 1992 has placed a stronger
labeled as private schools. The private view of the State by making elementary
sector includes actors with varying education a Fundamental Right by
motivations, resources and the ranges inserting Article 21 (A) stating that, the
extend from voluntary organisations, State shall provide free and compulsory
missionary schools and schools founded education to all children of the age of 6
on philanthropic venture to clearly to 14 years in such as the State may by
commercials set ups. It is important here law determine.
Strengthening the role of State in School Education vis--vis the Private Initiative 111
travel the location where private schools Are Private Schools Really Better
are established. Implicit in it is that these than the Government Schools?
private schools are located far from the A true comparison between private
rural areas. Tilak and Sudarshan (2000) schools and the government schools is
study also reports similar findings. While crucial. In terms of infrastructure,
examining the trend in private enrolment teaching methods, pupils achievement
they report that nearly a half of the and teacher competence, the private
growth in enrolment in urban areas and schools are better than the government
a sixth of the growth in rural areas of schools. Many of the studies report the
India were accounted for by the private same. However, the PROBE Data differs
unaided schools between 1986 and 1993. in terms of teacher competency. It says
They also find biases favouring urban, that teaching skills for primary level
male and non-scheduled caste and children were not superior to those found
tribes. What explains these biases then? among the government school teachers.
The higher cost of sending children to However, these perceived advantages
private schools and in-affordability of the of private schools in education may be
parents could be one. The private attributed to many factors. The parents
institutions, according to Tilak (1990) and students cultural capital very much
practice exclusiveness through charging influence the client composition of the
high tuition fees and alarmingly large private schools. There are differences
capitation fees or donations and through between the students when they enroll
selection of children on the basis of in private and government schools
intellectual aptitude defined by the respectively. Those students opting for
parental and familial background. private schools have higher motivation
Another factor that explains the and more cultural capital and privileged
locational bias could be the parents choose these schools over the
concentration of more affluent parents government schools. The client
in urban than the rural areas and hence homogeneity of the private schools, its
the larger concentration of these schools consideration for profit which ensures
in these areas. managerial efficiency and the element of
Based on their findings, they monopoly rent which its products enjoy
conclude that private schools may due to its small share in the market are
aggravate the already existing the major factors which put private
inequalities along lines of gender and schools above the government schools in
caste. Looking at the considerable biases their comparison (Varghese, 1993).
in the clientele of private schools, However, Tilak (1990) gives a
Anuradha De et al. also conclude that scathing critique of the private schools,
private schools are more for boys, for terming the so-called of excellence of the
upper caste, and for urban areas than private schools as myth. He argues that
government schools, and also attending the quality of private schools is not
these schools has become a mark of necessarily superior. Not only are private
social privilege. schools inferior in quality, they also
Strengthening the role of State in School Education vis--vis the Private Initiative 113
Indian state will need to be much more Education Programmes (DPEP) schools
pro-active in reforming the public school that the presence of a good quality
system. At the same time, the quality of government school, which functions
schooling in the private sector could regularly, can indeed surmount many
improve of the state were to take a more obstacles of the prevalent social and
pro-active regulatory role. The Kothari economic barriers to schooling. As
Commission (1964-66) also stated that Vimala Ramachandran (2004) rightly
the growing educational needs of a says special strategies are also necessary
modernising society can only be met by to reach out elementary education to the
the State and it would be a mistake to people who not only belong to the most
show any over-dependence on private deprived sub-groups of scheduled castes
enterprises which is basically and tribes but are also the people with
uncertain. This concern also finds almost no voice in the society. This can
echoed in the overwhelming message be fulfilled only when there is a strong
emanating from the District Primary state, supplemented by the private players.
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