Rock Mech Rock Eng (2013) 46:341357
DOI 10.1007/s00603-012-0282-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site
Rock Mass for Grout Curtain Design
S. M. Sadeghiyeh M. Hashemi R. Ajalloeian
Received: 30 December 2010 / Accepted: 10 June 2012 / Published online: 18 July 2012
 Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract The focus of this study is the empirical
hydromechanical behaviour of the Ostur dam site rock
mass. The area surrounding the dam mostly consists of
diorite and andesite, with primary fractures and hydro-
thermal veins. The hydromechanical behaviour of the rocks
was determined using 500 water pressure tests at 5-m
intervals. The hydrothermal veins and 2,739 discontinuities
were studied and mapped along the dam axis. As a result, it
was possible to design an optimum grout curtain for the
dam axis. The empirical hydromechanical behaviour of the
rock was studied to determine water flow and grout pres-
surised flow during the field tests that were conducted on
two representative A-series grouting operation boreholes
(one borehole for each abutment). The secondary perme-
ability index (SPI), Lugeon value (LU), rock quality des-
ignation (RQD) and cement take (CT) values are presented
and compared in this article. It is concluded that perme-
ability and groutability are mostly controlled by the spec-
ifications and characteristics of the veins, especially in
shallow areas and lower depths. A procedure is proposed
based on a comparison of the trends in the RQDSPI and
LUCT, and it is suggested that the areas with diverging
trends require no treatment and that those with converging
trends require heavy treatment. Additional complementary
S. M. Sadeghiyeh  R. Ajalloeian
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science,
The University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
M. Hashemi (&)
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
The University of Isfahan, 81744-73441 Isfahan, Iran
e-mail: m.hashemi@eng.ui.ac.ir
studies that were conducted during the construction stage
have validated these results.
Keywords Hydromechanical behaviour  Hydrothermal
veins  Ostur dam  Water pressure test  Permeability 
Groutability
1 Introduction
The sealing of dam foundations and abutments is required
due to the geological conditions of rock masses (their
lithology, the strength of the rock, their hydrothermal veins
as primary discontinuities, their main joint sets as sec-
ondary discontinuities, the distribution of the discontinu-
ities, the quality and strength of the joint-filling material)
and their permeability conditions. The decision to install a
grout curtain depends largely on the results of water
pressure tests (WPTs), as introduced by Lugeon (Ewert
1997c).
The geological and permeability conditions of a rock
mass may be evaluated based on laboratory, field and office
studies.
The geological, engineering and geotechnical properties
of the rocks at the dam site were determined via laboratory
and field tests for a zoned section of the dam site.
The permeability conditions were then assessed based
on hydromechanical behaviour, and PQ diagrams were
derived from WPTs for 28 grouting operation boreholes.
Finally, groutability was evaluated based on charts that
indicated permeability [Lugeon value (LU), secondary
permeability index (SPI)], geological conditions [rock
quality designation (RQD)] and cement take (CT). In this
paper, an optimum grout curtain design is proposed based
on these charts and additional parameters.
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2 Details and Location of the Studied Dam
The focus of the study is the Ostur dam, which is a 135-m-
high, two-arch concrete dam that will be built across the
Ghezel Ozan River, located at 4820 1100 E and 37300 800 N.
The site is 6 km east of the village of Ostur and 39 km
northeast of the city of Mianeh in East Azarbaijan Province
in northwestern Iran. The dam will be the highest dam in
the province. The reservoir volume is estimated to be
approximately 700 million m3 and it will be used to gen-
erate hydropower, reduce the flow of sediment into the
Sefid Rud dam downstream and irrigate the lands of
Mianeh.
3 Geology of the Dam Site
A geological investigation of the dam site shows that the
rock formations along the dam axis (at the central dam site
and on the upstream side) consist mostly of intrusive/plu-
tonic diorite, but include some extrusive/volcanic andesite
(Fig. 1a). Mineralogically, andesite is similar to diorite but
features finer crystals. Andesite constitutes the main part of
the Karadj formation and is formed after the cooling of
dioritic magma, which was injected into the Karadj for-
mation (tuff). The rock mass also includes a 2.3-km by 0.7-
km batholith that crystallised during ascent and was then
transformed into a dioritic mass. The diorite is exposed at
the surface because of the erosion of the overlying rocks of
the Karadj formation (tuff).
The main characteristic of these rocks is the presence of
silicate-rich carbonate hydrothermal veins, which are a
major structural weakness of the diorite and andesite. The
calcite in the rocks is either massive or crystalline.
The rock mass surrounding the veins is partially
hydrothermally altered. The veins that intersect the diorite
have partially or completely altered the rock 23 m from
the discontinuities. Given the geology of the study area, the
fractures that are due to primary discontinuities, such as
faults and open joints, formed prior to hydrothermal
alteration may be conduits for the passage of hydrothermal
liquids, vapours and solutions. The discontinuity apertures
seem to have been sufficient for the passage of hydro-
thermal materials. Therefore, there is no flow of hydro-
thermal fluids through other discontinuities, and they are
unaltered due to their locations.
As previously mentioned, some of the veins are formed
along faults, such as the fault along the valley of the dam
site, which is left-lateral (sinistral) strikeslip with a nearly
vertical dip. There is no observed crushed zone along the
fault (Fig. 1b). Based on the faults and hydrothermal veins,
a general northsouth strike and a nearly vertical dip are
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S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.
observed in the study area. The faults are generally strike
slip and have resulted in little displacement.
Given the quality of the rocks at the dam site (diorite
and andesite), the major discontinuities of the rock mass
and the main sources of seepage are expected to be primary
fractures and hydrothermal veins. To examine this
hypothesis, the following methods are used:
The study of borehole logs
The identification of the locations of major
discontinuities
The inspection of core boxes to determine the types of
discontinuities and their characteristics.
These studies, together with the type of material that fills
the discontinuities, indicate that the fractures were present
before the veins were formed and that the fractures acted as
a conduit through which the hydrothermal solution could
enter the rock mass. Because of the wide spacing of these
discontinuities in the logs and core boxes, a low RQD value
was not observed.
Inspecting the core boxes indicated that the hydrother-
mal veins were the major discontinuities. To determine the
extent of the hydrothermal veins, the core boxes of the
grouting audit galleries and boreholes that were drilled
during the WPTs were examined. The RQD values along
the depth were also used to determine the intersections of
the veins and boreholes. These findings were validated
using field observations in various locations, including
surface outcrops and the horizontal access audits used for
the grouting process. These points were then intercon-
nected to determine the orientations of the veins. A cross-
section of the valley along the dam axis that shows the
veins is plotted in Fig. 1b. The cross-section was confirmed
by the increasing water take (in the WPTs) and the low
RQD at the intersections of the boreholes and veins.
4 Survey of the Joint Sets at the Dam Site
Generally, the dominant sets of joints have a large effect on
and play an important role in the groutability and perme-
ability of dam foundations.
Because of tectonic activity in the region, the dioritic
rock that forms most of the lithology along the dam axis
has been intersected by sets of joints and fractures. To
identify the joint sets and study changes in their trends, a
surface joint survey was conducted in the right and left
abutments of the dam axis using the scanline method.
In total, 2,739 discontinuities were surveyed: 1,440 in
the right abutment and 1,299 in the left abutment. After
statistical analyses, the lower hemisphere projections for
these discontinuities were drawn using the Dips software.
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass 343

Fig. 1 a Geological plan of the Ostur dam site. b Geological cross-section of the dam axis showing a view of the hydrothermal veins, along with
their orientations

Five joint sets were identified in each abutment. Stere- The structural geology features of the dominant dis-
onets and contour diagrams are shown in Fig. 2 for the left continuities in the abutments of the Ostur dam are also
abutment and in Fig. 3 for the right abutment. listed in Table 1.

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344 S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.

Fig. 2 Stereographic pictures of left abutment joint sets Fig. 3 Stereographic pictures of right abutment joint sets

During the joint survey, other characteristics of each 5 Survey of Geotechnical Features
discontinuity were also determined and statistically ana-
lysed. These characteristics included spacing, persistence The behaviour of a rock mass is best understood when its
and roughness (Table 2). physical and mechanical properties are studied using a
variety of methods that can be used to cross-check the
results. However, what strategy is best depends on the
importance of the rock mass property and the reliability of
the method.
A separate, detailed investigation was conducted to
Table 1 Structural geology and location of dominant joint sets at the study the effect of four criteria: rock mass classification,
Ostur dam site permeability, descriptive geology and geophysical
Location of joint set Dip Dip direction Type of joint

Left abutment 86 304 JL1 Table 2 Characteristics of the dominant joint sets at the Ostur dam
site
86 175 JL2
56 062 JL3 Characteristic of joint set Left abutment Right abutment
80 233 JL4 Persistence (m) 310 310
30 310 JL5 Roughness Rough Rough
Right abutment 89 300 JR1 Aperture (mm) 24 36
88 352 JR2 Spacing (mm) 250500 300600
68 249 JR3 Infilling material Calcite and clay Calcite and clay
87 224 JR4 Ground water condition Dry Dry
30 330 JR5 Joint wall condition Planar Planar

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 Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass

Fig. 4 Cross-section of general geotechnical characteristics of the Ostur dam site the along grouting curtain
345

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properties. Seismic refraction, which is a non-destructive
geophysical exploration method, was used. The details of
this investigation are not included, and only the relevant
results are presented (Sadeghiyeh 2008). Following this
study, the dam site rock mass was divided into four zones
(Fig. 4):
1. Very good rock mass with high dynamic modulus and
low permeability
2. Good rock mass with an intermediate level of dynamic
modulus and permeability
3. Fair rock mass with low dynamic modulus and high
permeability
4. Poor rock mass with very low dynamic modulus and
very high permeability.
The results of the rock mass classification procedure
conducted using the RMR and Q-system methods are
presented in Table 3.
The poor rock zone (IV) extends various distances into
other zones, including the very good rock zone (I) (Fig. 4),
which could be due to the rock mass being divided into
four zones based on the combination of the four factors.
The extensions are locally altered parts of the surrounding
rock mass, mostly along the veins. Therefore, the exten-
sions are considered to be a poor rock zone (IV).
The results of the polar seismic exploration and the
analysis of the boreholes show the alteration of the rock
mass surrounding the hydrothermal veins. The degree of
alteration decreases below a depth of 6070 m, and the
quality of the veins improves in this depth range because of
increasing confining pressure, permanent tectonic stress
and consolidation stress during rock diagenesis. These
results are more evident in the lower parts of this valley,
where stress release has not yet occurred due to the con-
fining pressure acting on the rocks. These approximate
depths are identified using the investigation results at var-
ious points along the cross-section of the valley. The depths
are connected along the dam axis with a dashed line that
indicates the boundary between the altered and intact veins
(Fig. 4).
There are points in Fig. 4 at which the boundary
between the altered veins and the intact veins (the dashed
line) extends into a very good rock zone (I). This occurs
because the criteria for the division of the rock mass into
four zones (rock mass classification, permeability,
Table 3 Rock mass classification results at the Ostur dam site
Classification Left abutment Riverbed Right abutment
RMR 69.5 70 65.5
Q-system 8.5 8.1 6.8
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S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.
descriptive geology and geophysical properties) are dif-
ferent from the factors that are considered in drawing the
boundary (polar seismic exploration and borehole studies).
The shallow sediments at the dam site are Quaternary
alluvial sediments. These sediments play an important role
in increasing the permeability and instability of the rock
mass. The sediments are 50 m thick and exhibit a hetero-
geneous structure. Shallow sediments are normally
removed during the excavation of a dam foundation and the
construction of the dam, leaving the dam in direct contact
with the bedrock.
6 Assessment of Rock Mass Permeability
The data used in this study are mainly based on the 300
boreholes, which are divided into four series (AD) and
were drilled during the construction of a single-row grout
curtain. The B-series boreholes were drilled between the
A-series boreholes. Similarly, the later series are located
between the earlier ones.
The borehole logs were prepared for 28 A-series bore-
holes after the inspection of the core boxes. The other
required data, including information on the RQD, joint
surface weathering, the lithology and core recovery, were
also extracted during the preparation for the logging
process.
The WPTs were conducted at 500 intervals of 5 m in
length for the drilled boreholes using five-step water
pressure loading and unloading (Kutzner 1996; Ewert
1994, 1997d). This process generated five sets of water
pressure (P) and water discharge (Q) values, one for each
of the five steps. The data sets are presented as PQ dia-
grams for each interval.
Comparing the diagrams with typical diagrams that are
available in the literature (column A, Table 7) (Ewert
1985, 1994) made it possible to determine the empirical
hydromechanical behaviour of the discontinuities for all of
the intervals examined.
Rock mass permeability was also assessed in terms of
the LU and SPI values using the methodology presented in
Sect. 14, Table 7 and Eqs. 1 and 2.
The SPI is a function of the LU value (Eqs. 1, 2). RQD
and LU are the most common variables used to investi-
gate rock permeability. Therefore, of the four data sets
extracted from the WPTs (K, LU, SPI and RQD), the LU
and RQD values are studied the most extensively here.
Only two sets of data can be graphically presented in the
borehole logs, along with the depth values. Therefore, the
histograms with the RQD and LU values were drawn
perpendicular or oblique to the borehole axis along the
depth simultaneously for the 28 boreholes along the dam
axis (Fig. 5).
 Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass

Fig. 5 Ostur dam site axis cross-section showing A-series grouting curtain boreholes presenting Lugeon (right side) and RQD (left side) values against boreholes depth
347

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348 S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.

Laminar behaviour is also observed. If the pressure

Fig. 6 Percentage of various hydromechanical behaviours in rock
mass of the Ostur dam site
increases, the rate of water take will also increase under
laminar behaviour, which shows the elastic behaviour of
the rock when pressure is applied and there is steady water
flow along the joints. Washout behaviour is observed least
frequently at the dam site and occurs when the joints have
considerable opening or are interconnected and filled with
weak, quickly erodible material (Ewert 1997d).
The percentage of impermeable intervals in the right
abutment is higher than the percentage in the left abutment
because of the larger joint spacing in the right abutment.
The total percentage of washout and void-filling hydro-
mechanical behaviour observed in the right abutment is
lower than that observed in the left abutment because of the
larger joint aperture in the right abutment.

7 A Hydromechanical Behaviour Model for Rock

Masses at Dam Sites 8 Analysis of Permeability Values of the Dam Site Rock
Mass
The PQ diagram types (hydromechanical behaviour) were
identified using the methodology from Sect. 6 (Table 7) A frequency analysis of the permeability values (selected
and were statistically analysed. Their frequencies are using the methodology presented in Sect. 6, Table 7) is
shown in Fig. 6 in the form of a histogram that includes the performed based on the classification proposed by Ewert
impermeable intervals. Based on the complete hydrome- (1985). The results are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 7.
chanical behaviour model for the Ostur dam site rock mass Based on earlier figures, it seems that the permeability
(Fig. 6), the following points emerge. of the left abutment generally decreases with depth, except
Of the behaviour of the entire dam site, 26.6 % was where boreholes cut the hydrothermal veins (Figs. 1, 5) and
turbulent, 18.2 % involved dilation, 10.4 % was filling the permeability level is low.
behaviour, 8.8 % involved washout and 6.5 % was In other words, the percentage of impermeable intervals
laminar. in the left abutment (73.7 %) is higher than in the right
The results of the WPTs conducted in the left abut- abutment and riverbed (Table 3; Fig. 6), due to the lower
ment indicate dilation to be the dominant behaviour. In density and thickness of the hydrothermal veins. A nearly
dilation, the pressure increases, causing the discharge to identical trend exists in the riverbed.
increase due to the elastic widening of the joints during In the right abutment, the degree of permeability also
the test. decreases with depth, except at the intersection of the
Generally, turbulent behaviour is most frequent at the boreholes and the hydrothermal veins. There are consid-
dam site, which shows either open rough joints with high erably fewer impermeable intervals in the right abutment
discharge (permeability) or tight joints with low discharge. than in the left abutment and the riverbed, whereas the low-
Under low permeability, no deformation occurs in the rock, to-extremely permeable intervals are more numerous in the
and the turbulent flow generates pressure loss and, there- right abutment than in the left abutment and the riverbed.
fore, low water absorption. These results are mostly a function of the higher density
The observed turbulent behaviour in the left abutment
and riverbed stems from the existence of tight, rough joints, Table 4 Permeability distribution of the dam site rock mass
but turbulent behaviour is mostly observed in the right
Permeability class Left bank Riverbed Right Total
abutment because of a high concentration of hydrothermal (%) (%) bank (%) (%)
veins.
The results of the WPTs in the riverbed indicate that Impermeable (03) 73.7 71.8 53.4 64.1
turbulent flow is the most frequent type of flow. As pre- Low permeable (310) 17.5 19.7 26.4 22.0
viously mentioned, turbulent behaviour is associated with Moderately permeable 7.3 7.0 11.5 9.2
tight, rough joints, which cause pressure loss and, thus, (1030)
changes the flow type from laminar to turbulent. Therefore, High permeable (3060) 0.7 1.4 6.9 3.7
the frequency of the laminar flow is very low at the abut- Extremely permeable 0.7 0.0 1.7 1.0
([60)
ments and riverbed at the dam site.

123
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass 349

Table 6 The variations of the various SPI classes at the Ostur dam
site
Location Percentage of various SPI classes
A B C D

Left abutment 54 38 8 0
Riverbed 67 23 10 0
Right abutment 44 36 19 1

Generally, the right abutment is more permeable than

the left abutment and the riverbed due to the presence of
several hydrothermal veins.
According to the SPI classification (Table 8) for the left
abutment, 54 % of the tests conducted indicate that the
Fig. 7 Permeability frequency distribution in various locations rock mass is A-class (requiring no treatment), 38 % indi-
cate that it is B-class (requiring local treatment) and 8 %
that it is C-class (requiring extensive treatment) (Foyo et al.
Table 5 Variations of permeability (Lugeon) versus depth at the 2005).
Ostur dam site
Location Depth under surface of rock (m)
10 Comparing Permeability, CT, SPI and RQD
020 2040 4060 [60 Total
in the Right and Left Abutment Boreholes
Left abutment \14 \4 \2.5 \2 \2
Riverbed \2 \2.5 \2.2 \2 \1 This research studies the empirical hydromechanical
Right abutment \70 \8 \4 \2 \4.4 behaviour of rock masses as influenced by two types of
fluids: water and grout. Therefore, the data from the
hydromechanical monitoring procedures for water (the
and thickness of the hydrothermal veins and their aperture RQD, SPI and LU values) and grout (pressure and take)
(Figs. 1, 5). should be compared for the A-series boreholes. Due to the
Moreover, 64.1 % of the permeability values are lower large quantity of data (500 intervals) and the difficulty of
than 3 LU, 22 % exhibit a permeability of 310 LU and presenting the data in a single figure, two representative
13.9 % exhibit permeability values greater than 10 LU boreholes (one for each abutment) were chosen from
(Fig. 7). The most frequently observed values for perme- Fig. 5, and the data for the boreholes were compared in a
ability are associated with shallow depths (those \20 m), single figure (Fig. 8). Because the grout pressure levels are
the intersections of hydrothermal veins or shallow veins. the same for the two boreholes, only RQD, SPI, LU and CT
The permeability value may decrease to 3 LU at greater were compared (Fig. 9).
depths (Table 5). The right borehole was drilled at the 916 m level in the
right abutment with a final depth of 87.6 m. The dominant
lithology is diorite intersected by two hydrothermal veins.
9 Analysis of SPI Values at the Dam Site The dip/dip direction values are 80/206 and 80/285
(Fig. 1).
The permeability level was calculated in terms of the SPI The borehole in the left abutment was drilled at the
(Sect. 15, Eq. 2), and the rock mass at the dam site was 1,015 m level. The final depth of this borehole is 65 m, and
classified (Foyo et al. 2005; Table 8). The frequency the lithology includes dioritic rocks. Two hydrothermal
variations of the SPI classes are presented in Table 6. veins intersect this borehole. The dip/dip direction values
The SPI values for the boreholes in the right abutment are 75/105 (at a depth of 15 m) and 55/230 (at a depth of
show that only 20 % of the tested intervals fall within the C 50 m).
([8 LU, treatment required) and D ([80 LU, extensive
treatment) classes. Forty-four percent of the tested intervals 10.1 Comparing Variations in RQD and LU
in the right abutment are impermeable and do not need to
be grouted. Approximately 36 % are in the B class and The RQD (rock mass quality; Sect. 16) index for the
require local treatment. right abutment borehole decreases from 96 (excellent;

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350
Fig. 8 Result obtained from the
typical boreholes (extracted
from Fig. 5) in both abutments
Palmstrom 2005) to 43 at a depth of 45 m depth or 55 at a
depth of 60 m (poor), due to the presence of two nearly
vertical hydrothermal veins that have been revealed from
recovered cores with a strike of 260285 at a depth of
4060 m (Fig. 1). The quality increases near the end of
the borehole (Fig. 5). Therefore, any joints are completely
closed.
As shown in Fig. 9, the permeability of the rock in this
part of the right abutment is low at the top of the borehole
(Ewert 1997a, b, c, d), increases to a high level (23.55 LU)
at 3540 m depth and then decreases towards the end of the
borehole.
The most frequently observed empirical hydromechan-
ical behaviour in the middle of the borehole and where the
hydrothermal veins intersect with the borehole is turbulent
behaviour. This finding may result from the densely
interconnected conduits with high permeability that are
filled with loose materials.
The correlation between the LU and RQD values is
mostly negative, except at intersections with veins.
The rock mass quality (RQD) value in the left abutment
borehole ranges from 90 (excellent) (Palmstrom 1995,
2005) to 48 (poor) at 5055 m depth, probably because the
hydrothermal veins continue to this depth.
123
S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.
Most of the borehole intervals are classified as imper-
meable (LU \3), except for those at 1015, 4550 and
5055 m.
The RQD and permeability values in the left abutment
borehole generally show a negative correlation between
LU and RQD, except for the intervals where hydrothermal
veins are present and where the observed behaviours are
due to the existence of void-filling types with thin veins
and washout types with thick veins.
Therefore, the permeability is higher in the right abut-
ment because of the greater number of veins. The high
permeability of this abutment is due to the presence of
hydrothermal veins and weathered zones that are filled with
loose, fine materials produced by the weathering of the
rock mass and veins.
10.2 Comparing SPI and RQD Variations
The SPI was calculated at 5-m intervals during the WPTs
(Foyo et al. 2005). The LU, RQD and CT values are pre-
sented in ascending order from left to right on the primary
(lower) horizontal axis in Fig. 9. The SPI values are shown
in descending order from left to right on the secondary
horizontal (upper) axis in the figure. The SPI is a direct
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass
Fig. 9 Comparison of the permeability (Lugeon), cement take (CT),
secondary permeability index (SPI) and rock quality designation
(RQD) charts for representative boreholes in the right (right side) and
left abutments (left side). The numbers next to the CT series indicate
function of the LU value. Therefore, one expects to observe
a similar trend in the relationship between the SPI and LU
series, whereas the opposite trends are actually visible in
the figure. This discrepancy can be explained as follows: as
the LU value increases (i.e. as the LU series marked by the
green line moves towards the right in the chart), the SPI
value also increases (the LU series marked by the black
line moves towards the left in the chart).
At the right abutment borehole (Fig. 9), the rock mass
shows a general trend in the RQD values: they are similar
to the SPI values. As the RQD increases, the SPI generally
decreases; the only exceptions are the figures for some
intervals between 30 and 70 m. This finding may be due to
the existence of joint spacing of less than 10 cm, which
would cause the RQD to decrease suddenly. In this range,
351
the values of CT. Also, the composite numberletter combinations
next to the Lugeon series include a number that represents the Lugeon
value and a letter that represents the empirical hydromechanical
behaviour type (the first letter of the first word)
the effect of the hydrothermal veins decreases as the depth
increases.
For most of the intervals, the SPI is class B and requires
local treatment; for a few of the intervals, the SPI is class C
and requires treatment.
The highest SPI values occur at depths of 3540 and
4550 m, where two hydrothermal veins create high per-
meability. The measured VP value is \2 km/s in the right
abutment near the hydrothermal veins (Figs. 1, 4), which
indicates that the rock mass is extremely altered, permeable
and weak. The permeability level improves towards the end
of the borehole, decreasing to 40 m. As the depth increases,
the hydrothermal vein and joint conditions improve.
There is a logical correlation between the RQD and SPI
variations in the left abutment, which is similar to the right
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abutment, except at the 4550 m interval due to the
intersection of the borehole with a fracture or hydrothermal
vein.
Based on the SPI classification, all of the intervals in the
left abutment borehole are in the B (requiring local treat-
ment) or A (no need for treatment) classes. The relatively
weak zones are mostly associated with shallow rocks and
altered hydrothermal veins, which do not exhibit crushed
zones or a reduction in the RQD due to the thinness of the
veins.
10.3 Comparing SPI and LU Variations
The results of the WPT (i.e. the Lugeon value) are com-
monly used in the hydrogeological investigation of grout
curtain design. The test indicates the permeability value
that represents the boundary limit for the grouting process.
It is commonly accepted that grout curtain depths should
not be greater than the reservoir depth (H) for q B 1.0 LU.
When it is economically justified, many designers accepted
that the permeability of grout curtains below the foundation
should be q B 1.0 LU, q B 2.0 LU in abutments and
q B 4.0 LU deep within the abutments (Milanovic 2004).
A permeability level of up to 7 LU is also acceptable at
greater depths; there, the water pressure gradient in the
reservoir is lower, and, thus, there is no need for grouting
(Houlsby 1977b).
The WPT results for the representative borehole in the
right abutment indicate that all of the intervals can be clas-
sified either as impermeable (LU \ 3) or as exhibiting low
permeability (10 [ LU [ 3), except at 3540 m, where the
maximum permeability is 23.55 LU, and at 4550 m, due to
hydrothermal veins. Thus, grouting is not required (no need
for treatment), whereas the majority of intervals are classi-
fied as B-class (requiring local treatment) and C-class
(requiring treatment) according to the SPI values.
The entire left abutment borehole is classified as
impermeable (LU \ 3) (i.e. there is no need for grouting),
except for the 4550 m interval due to the presence of
hydrothermal veins, whereas the SPI considers this section
to belong to class B (requiring local treatment).
The LU and SPI charts (Fig. 9) are generally correlated
because the SPI value is a direct function of the LU value.
Therefore, the permeability and the SPI are elevated in
zones where the recovered cores include altered hydro-
thermal veins. However, the SPI is a more conservative
indicator of grouting than the LU.
10.4 Comparing CT, SPI and LU Variations
In the representative borehole through the right abutment
(Fig. 9), high CT is generally observed in the intervals that
exhibit medium-to-high permeability and SPI. The CT
123
S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.
variations generally follow the LU trend; this is true except
in the case of the 6570 and 7075 m intervals, which
show dilation and laminar behaviours, respectively. The
former may be due to the grout pressures being higher than
the WPT pressure and to the relationship between the latter
and low CT, which is associated with narrow channels and
tight joints at this depth.
The high permeability and CT in the mid-depths of this
borehole can be attributed to the low strength and dis-
solvable cavities created by the hydrothermal veins in the
area.
The CT chart generally exhibits the opposite trend of
that shown in the RQD diagram for this borehole; this is
true, for instance, in the middle part of the borehole. Also,
the decrease in rock mass quality causes maximum
groutability.
At greater depths, less groutability is observed, despite
the hydrothermal veins. This result can be explained by the
improvement in the quality of the hydrothermal veins with
depth.
The CT chart for the borehole in the left abutment is
mostly consistent with the LU chart and is similar to that of
the right abutment, except for the 1015 m interval, where
the CT is extremely low, despite its permeability. This
finding may be a result of the low aperture of the open
joints and the high density of the tight joints. In this par-
ticular interval, void-filling behaviour is associated with the
loose-filling material created by the alteration of hydro-
thermal veins in tight joints.
In the 5560 m interval, the permeability level is low
due to the void-filling behaviour in WPT, whereas the
variation in the CT values is not consistent with the trend in
the LU values during this interval because the grouting
pressure is higher than the WPT pressure.
In this borehole, only the 4550 m interval shows a high
potential for groutability, and this interval may exhibit
issues with seepage in the future due to the presence of
hydrothermal veins in that area.
As Fig. 9 indicates, the diverging zones where the SPI
RQD distances from the CTLU charts indicate the exis-
tence of a rock mass with suitable conditions that requires
no treatment. However, the converging zones where the
SPIRQD charts approach the CTLU charts indicate the
existence of very weak rocks that will create a major
challenge and could be a source of seepage at the dam site.
11 Grout Curtain Design and Operation
Grouting is the usual method of sealing the permeable
foundation of a dam, and despite the use of alternative
technologies (e.g. diaphragms), many sites have charac-
teristics that favour conventional grouting (Ewert 1997c).
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass 353

Fig. 10 Suggested design for a grouting curtain along the Ostur dam axis

123
354
The purposes of performing the grouting operation are
as follows:
To decrease seepage through the dam foundation
To decrease hydrostatic pressure downstream from the
dam foundation
To prevent the erosion and washout of the fine infillings
of the joints (Nonveiller 1989; United States Bureau of
Reclamation, USBR 1987).
Grout curtains constitute one of the most convenient
ways to reduce the permeability of dam foundations;
indeed, they can reduce permeability to \3 LU (Houlsby
1990). Moreover, the grout curtain is proved to reduce the
permeability to even less than 0.00001 m/s.
Geological conditions (such as lithology and orientation
and characteristics of discontinuities including hydrother-
mal veins and major joint sets) and dam height can also be
considered when proposing the optimum design for a grout
curtain.
Therefore, a grouted cut-off curtain was designed at a
depth of 67 m below the dam foundation level along the
dam axis. The curtain extends to the depth where the
minimum permeability (less than 3 LU) is observed
(Houlsby 1976). It also includes four series (AD) of sin-
gle-row boreholes with 6-m spacing (Fig. 10).
The chosen orientation of the grouting boreholes with
respect to the joints helps to optimise the penetration of the
grout and maximise the sealing of the joints. This goal is
achieved when the maximum number of joints is inter-
sected by the grouting boreholes. The grouting operation is
facilitated if the angle between the discontinuity plane and
the borehole axis is 3060 (Houlsby 1990).
Based on the dips and strikes of the joint sets (Sect. 4)
and their statistical analysis, presented as stereonets, the
optimum orientation for the grout curtain boreholes is
proposed. The optimum curtain dips 40 upstream and at
strikes of AZ 140 and AZ 150 at the right and left abut-
ments, respectively.
The lateral extension of the curtain at the abutments is
wing-shaped. The curtain extends into the abutments to the
intersection of the maximum groundwater and normal
reservoir water levels during the wet season.
The lateral extent of the curtain decreases as the ground
level increases. For instance, the curtain extends 120 and
40 m at ground elevations of 916 and 1,045 m, respec-
tively, in the right abutment.
The grouting operation included the excavation of five
galleries at each abutment. The grouting boreholes were
drilled inside the galleries. The grouting procedure was
conducted using the down-to-up method in intervals of 5 m
in length along the AD series. The boreholes were
checked to obtain an impervious curtain immediately after
the WPTs were conducted.
123
S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.
12 Conclusions
Based on the analysis of the water pressure tests (WPTs),
the results of the grouting process and the study of the
borehole cores, the following conclusions are drawn:
As shown by stratigraphical studies, the Ostur dam
site is located on a rock mass composed of intrusive
diorite and extrusive andesite in the Karadj formation
(tuff), with an Oligocene age. The intact diorite
exhibits very good physical and petrographical prop-
erties. The rock is compact, completely crystalline and
coarse grained. However, the rock has significantly
decreased in quality due to hydrothermal alteration
activities, joint sets and tectonic factors. Therefore,
the hydrothermal veins have become substantially
deformed and have reduced the elasticity of the rock,
and mechanical disintegration has less of an effect,
changing the permeability and groutability of the dam
site.
The locations of the hydrothermal veins were deter-
mined using field observations at various axis points
along the dam (i.e. surface outcrops and access audits).
The right abutment requires grouting because it exhib-
ited a higher concentration of veins than the left
abutment and dam foundation.
There are five joint sets at the dam site. The joint sets
persistence is largely more than 2 m. The joint sets are
mostly sub-vertical or vertical. Therefore, the bore-
holes used for the grout curtain should be diagonal (at
4050 dip) with azimuths of 140150 for optimum
grouting.
To determine the geotechnical conditions of the rock
mass based on four factors (i.e. rock mass classification,
permeability, descriptive geology and geophysical
properties measured using seismic refraction, a non-
destructive method of geophysical exploration), the
area is divided into four zones ranging from very good
(zone I, high dynamic modulus and low permeability)
to poor (zone IV, very low dynamic modulus and very
high permeability). The geotechnical studies show that
the quality of the veins increases until it reaches zone I
(very good rock mass) as the depth increases. There-
fore, the grout curtain must be extended into zone I for
the dam foundation and abutments.
The permeability study of the dam site indicates that
the right abutment is more permeable than the left
abutment and dam foundation due to its concentration
of veins. The dominant empirical hydromechanical
behaviour in the right abutment and dam foundation is
turbulent, as is verified by the high permeability
observed at the veins. This finding reiterates the need
for grouting in the right abutment.
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass
Considering the geological and hydrogeological condi-
tions of the dam site, a grout cut-off curtain has been
designed with a lateral extent of 120 and 100 m in the
right and left abutments, respectively. Based on the
geological conditions and the WPT results, the pro-
posed curtain extends to a depth of 67 m in the riverbed
and abutments.
Because this study monitors the empirical hydrome-
chanical behaviour of a rock mass to determine its
water and grout flow, the SPI, LU, RQD and CT values
for two typical A-series grouting boreholes (one
borehole for each abutment) are compared in a single
chart.
As expected, a negative correlation is observed between
the SPI/LU and RQD values, although there are
deviations associated with intervals that intersect with
veins or that are affected by the hydraulic opening of
the joint sets.
The CT values are mostly consistent with the LU trend,
except where dilation is the dominant hydromechanical
behaviour in the left abutment. The LU and CT values
exhibit somewhat opposing trends because more
pressure is used for grouting than for the WPTs. This
finding indicates that the proper pressure should be
used during the grout curtain operation in the left
abutment.
There is a general direct correlation between the LU
and SPI values. However, the latter is a more conser-
vative indicator than the former in predicting the need
for treatment. Based on the SPI values calculated for
the representative boreholes, the rock mass mostly
requires either local (B class) or extensive treatment
(C class), whereas the LU values indicate no need for
treatment in most of the dam site.
The comparisons between the SPI, LU, RQD and CT
values have been essential to this research. For the two
representative boreholes, the areas for which the SPI
RQD and CTLU charts converge or are very similar
may face seepage issues. Thus, these areas require the
use of heavy treatment methods such as grouting.
However, wherever the SPIRQD and CTLU charts
diverge, the rock mass has acceptable qualities and
requires no treatment.
To validate the results obtained, a new E-series (3 m
spacing) of boreholes was drilled between the D-series
(6 m spacing) boreholes in the area of convergence and
divergence. A WPT was conducted for the E-series
boreholes, and traces of grout were detected in the
diverging areas (those with better conditions). Almost all
of the joints were successfully filled with grout. The WPT
indicated that there had been a substantial reduction in
permeability (LU \ 1) in the diverging areas. Therefore,
there is no need for further grouting in the diverging areas
355
with the D-series boreholes. However, such findings
were not obtained for the converging areas (those with
worse conditions). This distinction between the different
areas indicated that a new F-series of boreholes (with
1.5 m spacing) should be used to ensure the desired
permeability and grouting performance.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the Mahab Ghods Consulting
Engineering Company and the Tablieh Construction Company, which
facilitated the site visit.
Appendix A
The water pressure test (WPT) (in which pressurised water
is injected into the borehole) is an effective field test of
rock mass permeability and is mostly conducted using the
Lugeon method. The water take (discharge) is measured
under increasing (loading) and decreasing (unloading)
pressure steps (amount of pressure changed) at proper time
intervals along the borehole.
Permeability (LU) and Hydromechanical Behaviour
The Lugeon (LU) value should be calculated for a selected
amount of pressure applied during the test and based on the
tangent slope of the PQ diagram (Ewert 1997a, b, c, d).
Nonveiller (1989) believes that the tangent slope of the
PQ diagram is a proper expression of the LU value at any
point on the diagram and may explain many complex cases.
According to Nonveiller (1989), the LU value may be
calculated as:
10Q
LU 1
Pe L
where:
LU Lugeon value
Q Water take (discharge), l/min
L Length of tested (injected) interval, m
Pe Effective pressure at the middle of the tested interval,
bar
The LU value is the volume of water (l) in a unit of time
(min) over a unit of length (m) for a tested interval at a
pressure of 10 bar (Nonveiller 1989; Houlsby 1990).
Following Houlsby (1977a, 1990), one can calculate the
LU values by dividing the discharge by the pressure (column
C, Table 7) for each step in the loading/unloading process
(the slope of the PQ diagram tangent is given by Eq. 1). The
rounded values are graphically presented in a bar chart (as in
column D of Table 7). The equivalent group is determined
based on the similarity between the prepared chart and the
standard chart (column D of Table 7).
123
356 S. M. Sadeghiyeh et al.

Table 7 Typical pattern for the determination of the hydromechanical behaviour and permeability (Shroff and Shah 1999; Kutzner 1985)

Finally, one value is chosen from the LU values that are where
calculated for each of the five steps. This value represents
SPI Secondary permeability index, l/s per m2 of the
the permeability of an interval that is 5 m in length based
borehole test surface
on the pattern in column E. The discharge value is
C Constant that depends on the fluid viscosity at 10 C
substituted into the LU and SPI equations (Eqs. 1, 2) and is
(equal to 1.49 9 10-10 for water)
chosen based on the behaviour type as indicated in a par-
Le Length of the tested borehole interval, m
ticular step or steps for the selected type.
r Borehole radius, m
The LU value may be expressed as a range, particularly
Q Water flow absorbed by a fissured rock mass, l
when fewer than five steps are used.
t Duration of the pressure applied in each step, s
H Total pressure expressed as a water column, m
Secondary Permeability Index (SPI)

Foyo et al. (2005) combined a modified form of the Lugeon Table 8 Rock mass classification based on the SPI and ground
treatment considerations (Foyo et al. 2005)
relation (Eq. 1) with the radial permeability of a rock mass.
They also included the borehole geometry (the radius) to Secondary permeability index, SPI (1/s m2)
propose a new equation that yields a value that is closer to 2.16 9 10-14 1.72 9 10-13 1.72 9 10-12
the permeability coefficient than that yielded by the Lu-
Rock mass Class A Class B Class C Class D
geon relation:
  Classification Excellent Goodfair Poor Very poor
Ln 2Lr e 1 Q Ground Needless Local Required Extensive
SPI C   2 treatment
2pLe Ht

123
Comparison of Permeability and Groutability of Ostur Dam Site Rock Mass
The SPI establishes a new permeability-based rock mass
classification (Table 8). Based on this classification, dif-
ferent considerations regarding ground treatment are pro-
posed (Foyo et al. 2005).
The proposed classification differs from classical geo-
mechanical classifications. Most critically, it does not
reflect the strength of the intact rock. Instead, the classifi-
cation defines the quality of the rock mass based on the
permeability of the discontinuities (Foyo et al. 2005).
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
The RQD was proposed by Deere (1968) as follows (Bie-
niawski 1989):
P foundations. Eng Geol 77:6982
Length of core pieces  10 cm
RQD  100: 3 Q J Eng Geol 9:303313
Total core run length
The International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
recommends that a core size of at least Nx in diameter
(54.7 mm) be drilled using double-tube core barrels.
Although the RQD is a simple and inexpensive index, it
cannot provide an adequate description of rock masses
because it disregards joint orientation, tightness and gouge
(infilling) material. Essentially, the RQD is a practical
parameter based on a measurement of the percentage of
good rock (core) interval of a borehole (Deere and
Deere 1988).
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